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TS.C.10.1 Without limiting warming to 1.5℃ global warming level, many key risks are projected to intensify rapidly in almost all regions of the world, causing damage to assets and infrastructure and losses to economic sectors and entailing high recovery and adaptation costs . Severe risks are more likely in developing regions that are already hotter and in regions and communities with a large portion of the workforce employed in highly exposed industries . In addition to market damage and disaster management costs, substantial costs of climate inaction are projected for human health .At higher levels of warming, climate impacts will pose risks to financial and insurance markets, especially if climate risks are incompletely internalised , with adverse implications for the stability of markets . While the overall economic consequences are clearly negative, opportunities may arise for a few economic sectors and regions, such as from longer growing seasons or reduced sea ice, primarily in northern latitudes . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
increased relative to the range reported in AR5, though there is low agreement and significant spread within and across methodology types , resulting in an inability to identify a best estimate or robust range . Under high warming and limited adaptation, the magnitude of decline in annual global GDP in 2100 relative to a non-global-warming scenario could exceed economic losses during the Great Recession in 2008- 2009 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Much smaller effects are estimated for less warming, lower vulnerability and more adaptation . Regional estimates of GDP damage vary . Severe risks are more likely in developing countries . For Africa, GDP damage is projected to be negative across models and approaches . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.10.4 Potential socioeconomic futures, in terms of population, economic development and orientation towards growth, vary widely and these drivers have a large influence on the economic costs of climate change . Higher growth scenarios along higher warming levels increase exposure to hazards and assets at risk, such as sea level rise for coastal regions, which will have large implications for economic activities, including shipping and ports . The high sensitivity of developing economies to climate impacts will pose increasing challenges to economic growth and performance, although projections depend as much or more on future socioeconomic development pathways and mitigation policies as on warming levels . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C. 10.5 Large non-market and non-economic losses are projected, especially at higher warming levels . This wide range of effects underscore the impact of climate change on welfare and the adverse effects on vulnerable populations . Including as many of these impacts in decision-making as possible, and as part of the social cost of carbon, will improve evaluation of the overall and distributional effects of climate mitigation and adaptation actions as well as in more comprehensively internalising climate impacts. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.11.2 Climate hazards cause multiple impacts, interacting to compound risks to food security, nutrition and human health . Compound risks to health and food systems are projected from simultaneous reductions in food production across crops, livestock and fisheries , heat-related loss of labour productivity in agriculture , increased heat-related mortality , contamination of seafood , malnutrition and flooding from sea level rise . Malnourished populations will increase through direct impacts on food production with cascading impacts on food prices and household incomes, reducing access to safe and nutritious food . Food safety will be undermined from increased food contamination for seafood with marine toxins from harmful algal blooms and chemical contaminants, worsening health risks . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.11.3 Compound hazards increasing with global warming include increased frequency of concurrent heatwaves and droughts , dangerous fire weather and floods , resulting in increased and more complex risks to agriculture, water resources, human health, mortality, livelihoods, settlements and infrastructure. Extreme weather events result in cascading and compounding risks that affect health and are expected to increase with warming . Compound climate hazards can overwhelm adaptive capacity and substantially increase damage ; for example, heat and drought are projected to substantially reduce agricultural production, and although irrigation can reduce this risk, its feasibility is limited by drought. {4.2.5, 6.2.5, 7.1.3, 7.1.4,7.2.2, 7.2.1, 7.2.2, 7.2.3, | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C. 11.4 Interacting climatic and non-climatic drivers when coupled with coastal development and urbanisation are projected to lead to losses for coastal ecosystems and their services under all scenarios in the near to mid-term . The compound impacts of warming, acidification and sea level rise are projected to lead to losses for coastal ecosystems . Fewer habitats, less biodiversity, lower coastal protection and decreased food and water security will result , reducing the habitability of some small islands . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C. 11.5 Observed human and economic losses have increased since AR5 for urban areas and human settlements arising from compound, cascading and systemic events . Urban areas and their infrastructure are susceptible to both compounding and cascading risks arising from interactions between severe weather from climate change and increasing urbanisation . Compound risks to key infrastructure in cities have increased from extreme weather . Losses become systemic when they affect entire systems and can even jump from one system to another . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C. 11.6 Interconnectedness and globalisation establish pathways for the transmission of climate-related risks across sectors and borders, through trade, finance, food and ecosystems . Flows of commodities and goods, as well as people, finance and innovation, can be driven or disrupted by distant climate change impacts on rural populations, transport networks and commodity speculation . For example, Europe faces climate risks from outside the area due to global supply chain positioning and shared resources . Climate risks in Europe also impact finance, food production and marine resources beyond Europe . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.11.8 Indigenous Peoples, traditional communities, small- holder farmers, urban poor, children and elderly in Amazonia are burdened by cascading impacts and risks from the compound effects of climate and land use change on forest fires in the region . Deforestation, fires and urbanisation have increased the exposure of Indigenous Peoples to respiratory problems, air pollution and diseases . Amazonian forest fires are transboundary and increase systemic losses of wild crops, infrastructure and livelihoods, requiring a landscape governance approach . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.12.1 Compared to AR5 and SR15, risks increase to high and very high levels at lower global warming levels for all five RFCs , and transition ranges are assigned with greater confidence. Transitions from high to very high risk emerge in all five RFCs, compared to just two RFCs in AR5 . As in previous assessments, levels of concern at a given level of warming remain higher for RFC1 than for other RFCs. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
confidence), but risk for RFC2 would have transitioned to a high risk at 1.5°C and RFC1 would be well into the transition to very high risk . Remaining below 2ºC warming would imply that risk for RFC3 through RFC5 would be transitioning to high, and risk for RFC1 and RFC2 would be transitioning to very high . By 2.5℃ warming, RFC1 will be at very high risk , and all other RFCs will have begun their transitions to very high risk, with medium confidence for RFC2, RFC3 and RFC4, and low confidence for RFC5. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.12.3 While the RFCs represent global risk levels for aggregated concerns about 'dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system', they represent a great diversity of risks, and in reality, there is not one single dangerous climate threshold across sectors and regions. RFC1, RFC2 and RFC5 include risks that are irreversible, such as species extinction, coral reef degradation, loss of cultural heritage or loss of a small island due to sea level rise. Once such risks materialise, the impacts would persist even if global temperatures subsequently declined to levels associated with lower levels of risk in an 'overshooting' scenario, for example where temperatures increase over 'well below 2℃ above pre-industrial' for multi-decadal time spans before decreasing . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
confidence). These phenomena exacerbate self-reinforcing feedbacks between emissions from high-carbon ecosystems and increasing global temperatures. Complex interactions of climate change, land use change, carbon dioxide fluxes and vegetation changes, combined with insect outbreaks and other disturbances, will regulate the future carbon balance of the biosphere, processes incompletely represented in current Earth system models. The exact timing and magnitude of climate-biosphere feedbacks and potential tipping points of carbon loss are characterised by large uncertainty, but studies of feedbacks indicate increased ecosystem carbon losses can cause large future temperature increases . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.13.3 Extinction of species is an irreversible impact of climate change whose risk increases sharply with rises in global temperature . Even the lowest estimates of species extinctions are 1000 times the natural background rates . Projected species extinctions at future global warming levels are consistent with projections from AR4, but assessed on many more species with much greater geographic coverage and a broader range of climate models, giving higher confidence. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.C.13.4 Solar radiation modification approaches have the potential to offset warming and ameliorate other climate hazards, but their potential to reduce risk or introduce novel risks to people and ecosystems is not well understood . SRM effects on climate hazards are highly dependent on deployment scenarios, and substantial residual climate change or overcompensating change would occur at regional scales and seasonal time scales . Due in part to limited research, there is low confidence in projected benefits or risks to crop yields, economies, human health or ecosystems. Large negative impacts are projected from rapid warming for a sudden and sustained termination of SRM in a high-CO2 scenario. SRM would not stop CO2 from increasing in the atmosphere or reduce resulting ocean acidification under continued anthropogenic emissions . There is high agreement in the literature that for addressing climate change risks SRM is, at best, a supplement to achieving sustained net zero or net negative CO2 emission levels globally. Co-evolution of SRM governance and research provides a chance for responsibly developing SRM technologies with broader public participation and political legitimacy, guarding against potential risks and harms relevant across a full range of scenarios. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
This section covers climate change adaptation and explains how our knowledge of it has progressed since AR5. The section begins with an explanation of overall progress on adaptation and the adaptation gaps and then discusses limits to adaptation. Maladaptation and the underlying evidence base are explained together with the strategies available to strengthen the biosphere that can help ecosystems function in a changing climate. Different adaptation options across water, food, nutrition and ecosystem-based adaptation and other nature-based solutions are also discussed and, in particular, the ways in which urban systems and infrastructure are coping with adaptation. Adaptation to sea level rise is specifically discussed given its global impact on coastal areas, while health, well-being, migration and conflict are also explained as these warrant additional important considerations. Justice and equity have a significant impact as well on how effective adaptation can be and are discussed as key issues that relate to decision-making processes on adaptation and the range of enablers that can support adaptation. Lastly, the focus shifts to system transitions and transformational adaptation that are needed to move climate change adaptation forward in a rapidly warming world. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.1.1 Responses have accelerated in both developed and developing regions since AR5, with some examples of regression . Growing adaptation knowledge in public and private sectors, increasing numbers of policy and legal frameworks and dedicated spending on adaptation are all clear indications that the availability of response options has expanded . However, observed adaptation in human systems across all sectors and regions is dominated by small incremental, reactive changes to usual practices often after extreme weather events, while evidence of transformative adaptation in human systems is limited . Droughts, pluvial, fluvial and coastal flooding are the most common hazards for which adaptation is being implemented, and many of these have physical, affordability and social limits . There is some evidence of global vulnerability reduction, particularly for flood risk and extreme heat. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.1.2 Current adaptation in natural and managed ecosystems includes earlier planting and changes in crop varieties, soil improvement and water management for livestock and crops, aquaculture, restoration of coastal and hydrological processes, introduction of heat- and drought-adapted genotypes into high- risk populations, increasing the size and connectivity of habitat patches, agroecological farming, agroforestry and managed relocations of high-risk species . These measures can increase the resilience, productivity and sustainability of both natural and food systems under climate change . Financial barriers limit the implementation of adaptation options in natural ecosystems, agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture and forestry as financial strategies are stochastically deployed. Investment in climate service provision has benefited the agricultural sector in many regions, with limited uptake of climate service information into decision- making frameworks . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.1.3 The ambition, scope and progress on adaptation have risen among governments at the local, national and international levels, along with businesses, communities and civil society, but many funding, knowledge and practice gaps remain for effective implementation, monitoring and evaluation . There are large gaps in risk management and risk transfer in low- income contexts, and even larger gaps in conflict-affected contexts . Adaptive capacity is highly uneven across and within regions . Current adaptation efforts are not expected to meet existing goals . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.1.4 Many cities and settlements have developed adaptation plans since AR5, but a limited number of these have been implemented so that urban adaptation gaps exist in all world regions and for all hazard types . Many plans focus on climate risk reduction, missing opportunities to advance co- benefits of climate mitigation and sustainable development and risking compounding inequality and reduced well-being . The largest adaptation gaps exist in projects that manage complex risks, for example in the food-energy-water-health nexus or the inter- relationships of air quality and climate risk . Most innovation in adaptation has occurred through advances in social and ecological infrastructures, including disaster risk management, social safety nets and green/blue infrastructure . However, most financial investment continues to be directed narrowly at large-scale hard engineering projects after climate events have caused harm . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
i. Networks of Protected Areas combined with zoning increase resilience. ii. Assisted migration and evolution might reduce extirpation and extinction. iii. Adaptation and mitigation increase space for nature and benefit society. iv. Ecosystem-based Adaptation and Nature-based Solutions . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
The size of the circle represents the number of people at risk per IPCC region and the colours show the timing of risk based on projected population change and sea level rise under SSP2-4.5. Darker colours indicate earlier in setting risks. The left side of the circles shows absolute projected population at risk and the right side the share of the population in percentage. . The figure is based on Table 6.6 which is an assessment of 21 urban adaptation mechanisms. Supplementary Material 6.3 provides a detailed analysis including definitions for each component of climate resilient development and the evidences. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
Climate and land use change result in cumulative impacts on traditional, semi-nomadic Sámi reindeer herding. Impacts cascade due to a lack of access to key ecosystems, lakes and rivers, thereby increasing costs and threatening traditional livelihoods, food security, cultural heritage, and mental health. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.1.5 Systemic barriers constrain the implementation of adaptation options in vulnerable sectors, regions and social groups . Key barriers are limited resources, lack of private-sector and citizen engagement, insufficient mobilisation of finance , lack of political leadership, limited research and/or slow and low uptake of adaptation science and a low sense of urgency. Most of the adaptation options to the key risks depend on limited water and land resources . Governance capacity, financial support and the legacy of past urban infrastructure investment constrain how cities and settlements are able to adapt . Critical urban capacity gaps include limited ability to identify social vulnerability and community strengths, the absence of integrated planning to protect communities, the lack of access to innovative funding arrangements and a limited capability to manage finance and commercial insurance . Prioritisation of options and transitions from incremental to transformational adaptation are limited due to vested interests, economic lock-ins, institutional path dependencies and prevalent practices, cultures, norms and belief systems. For example, Africa faces severe climate data constraints and inequities in research funding and leadership that reduce adaptive capacity -from 1990 to 2019 research on Africa received just 3.8% of climate-related research funding globally, and 78% of this funding for Africa went to European Union- and North America-based institutions and only 14.5% to African institutions. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.1.6 Insufficient financing is a key driver of adaptation gaps . Annual finance flows targeting adaptation for Africa, for example, are billions of US dollars less than the lowest adaptation cost estimates for near-term climate change . Finance has not targeted more vulnerable countries and communities. From 2014 to 2018 a greater amount of financial commitments to developing countries was in the form of debt rather than grants, and-excluding multilateral development banks-only 51% of commitments targeting adaptation were dispersed . Tracked private-sector finance for climate change action has grown substantially since 2015, but the proportion directed towards adaptation has remained small ; in 2018 contributions were 0.05% of total climate finance and 1% of adaptation finance. Globally, private-sector financing of adaptation has been limited, especially in developing countries . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.1.7 Closing the adaptation gap requires moving beyond short-term planning to develop long-term, concerted pathways and enabling conditions for ongoing adaptation to ensure timely and effective implementation . Inclusive, equitable and just adaptation pathways are critical for climate resilient development. Such pathways require consideration of SDGs, gender and Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge and practices. The success of adaptation will depend on our understanding of which adaptation options are feasible and effective in their local context . Long lead times for nature-based and infrastructure solutions or planned relocation will require implementation in the coming decade to reduce risks in time. To close the adaptation gap, | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.2 There is increasing evidence on limits to adaptation which result from the interaction of adaptation constraints and the speed of change . In some natural systems, hard limits have been reached and more will be reached beyond 1.5℃ . Surpassing such hard, evolutionary limits causes local species extinctions and displacements if suitable habitats exist . Otherwise, species' existence is at very high risk . In human, managed and natural systems, soft limits are already being experienced . Financial constraints are key determinants of adaptation limits in human and managed systems, particularly in low-income settings , while in natural systems key determinants for limits are inherent traits of the species or ecosystem . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.2.1 Adaptation limits can be differentiated into hard and soft limits. Soft limits are those for which no further adaptation options are feasible currently but might become available in the future. Hard limits are those for which existing adaptation options will cease to be effective and additional options are not possible. Hard limits will increasingly emerge at higher levels of warming . Adaptation limits are shaped by constraints that can or cannot be overcome by adaptation actions and by the speed with which climate impacts unfold. Evidence and signals of the thresholds at which constraints result in limits is still sparse and, in human systems, are expected to remain contested even with increasing knowledge . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.2.2 Limits to adaptation have been observed for terrestrial and aquatic species and ecosystems and for some human and managed systems in specific geographies such as small island states and mountain regions . Beginning at below 1.5ºC, autonomous and evolutionary adaptation responses by more terrestrial and aquatic species and ecosystems will face hard limits, resulting in species extinctions, loss of ecosystem integrity and a resulting loss of livelihoods . Examples of hard limits being exceeded include observed population losses and species extinctions and loss of whole ecosystems from certain locations . Large local population declines of wild species have already impacted human food sources and livelihoods . Soft limits are currently being experienced in particular by individuals, households, cities and settlements along the coast and by small-scale farmers . As sea levels rise and extreme events intensify, coastal communities face limits due to financial, institutional and socioeconomic constraints and a short timeline for adaptation implementation, reducing | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.2.3 Limits to adaptation will be reached in more systems, including, for example, coastal communities, water security, agricultural production and human health, as global warming increases . Hard limits beginning at 1.5°C are also projected for coastal communities reliant on nature-based coastal protection . Adaptation to address the risks of heat stress, heat mortality and reduced capacities for outdoor work for humans face soft and hard limits across regions that become significantly more severe at 1.5ºC and are particularly relevant for regions with warm climates . Beginning at 3ºC, hard limits are projected for water management measures, leading to decreased water quality and availability, negative impacts on health and well-being, economic losses in water and energy-dependent sectors and potential migration of communities . Soft and hard limits for agricultural production are related to water availability and the uptake and effectiveness of climate resilient crops, which are constrained by socioeconomic and political challenges . In terms of settlements, limits to adaptation are often most pronounced in smaller and rapidly growing towns and cities, including those without dedicated local government . At the same time, legacy infrastructure in large and mega cities, designed without taking climate change risk into account, constrains innovation, leading to stranded assets and with increasing numbers of people unable to avoid harm, including heat stress and flooding, without transformative adaptation . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.2.4 Across regions and sectors, the most significant determinants of soft limits are financial, governance, institutional and policy constraints . The ability of actors to address these socioeconomic constraints largely influences whether additional adaptation can be implemented and prevent soft limits from becoming hard limits. Global and regional evidence shows that climate impacts may limit the availability of financial resources, stunt national economic growth, result in higher levels of losses and damage and thereby increase financial constraints . Information, awareness and technological constraints are also high in multiple regions . For example, awareness of anthropogenic climate change ranges between 23% and 66% of people across 33 African countries, with low climate literacy limiting potential for transformative adaptation . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
change reduces capacity for adaptive responses and limits choices and opportunities for sustainable development. The ability of actors to overcome socioeconomic constraints determines whether additional adaptation can be implemented and prevent soft limits from becoming hard limits . Above 1.5ºC of warming, limits to adaptation are reported for human and natural systems, including coral reefs , regional water availability and outdoor labour and existing tourism-related activities. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.3.1 Maladaptation has been observed across many regions and systems and occurs for many reasons, including inade- quate knowledge and short-term, fragmented, single-sector and/or non-inclusive governance planning and implementa- tion . Policy decisions that ignore the risks of adverse effects can be maladaptive by worsening the impacts of and vulnerabilities to climate change . Examples include in coastal systems , urban areas , agriculture , forestry and human settlements . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
them of food and livelihoods and reinforces and entrenches existing inequalities . Rights-based approaches to adaptation, participatory methodologies and inclusion of local and Indigenous knowledge, combined with informed consent, deliver mechanisms to avoid these pitfalls . Adaptation solutions benefit from engagement with Indigenous and marginalised groups, solve past equity and justice issues and offer novel approaches . Indigenous knowledge is a powerful tool to assess interlinked ecosystem functions across terrestrial, marine and freshwater systems, bypassing siloed approaches and sectoral problems . Lastly, engagement with Indigenous knowledge and marginalised groups often offers an intergenerational context for adaptation solutions needed to avoid maladaptation . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.3.3 Reliance on hard protection against sea level rise can lead to development intensification, which compounds risk and locks in exposure of people and assets as socioeconomic and governance barriers and technical limits are reached. Avoiding maladaptive responses to sea level rise depends on immediate mitigation and application of adaptive planning that sets out near-term, low-regret actions while keeping open options to account for ongoing committed sea level rise . Such forward-looking adaptive pathway planning and iterative risk management can address the current path dependencies that lead to maladaptation and can enable timely adaptation alignment with long implementation lead times, as well as addressing uncertainty about rate and magnitude of local sea level rise, and ensuring that adaptation will be more effective . As sea level rise advances, only avoidance and relocation will eliminate coastal risks . Other measures only delay impacts for a time, increasing residual risk, perpetuating risk and creating ongoing legacy effects and inevitable property and ecosystem losses . While relocation may in the near term appear socially unacceptable, economically inefficient or technically infeasible, it may become the only feasible option as protection costs become unaffordable and technical limits are reached . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.4 Diverse, self-sustaining ecosystems with healthy bio- diversity provide multiple contributions to people that are essential for climate change adaptation and mitigation, thereby reducing risk and increasing societal resilience to future climate change . Better ecosystem protection and management is key to reduce the risks that climate change poses to biodiversity and ecosystem services and build resilience; it is also essential that climate change adaptation be integrated into the planning and implementation of conservation and environmental management if it is to be fully effective in future . Risks to ecosystems from climate change can be reduced by protection and restoration and also by a range of targeted actions to adapt conservation practice to climate change . Protected areas are key elements of adaptation but need to be planned and managed in ways that take account of climate change, including shifting species distri- butions and changes in biological communities and ecosystem structure. Adaptation to protect ecosystem health and integrity is essential to maintain ecosystem services, including for climate change mitigation and the prevention of greenhouse gas emissions. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.4.1 Ecosystem protection and restoration can build resil- ience of ecosystems and generate opportunities to restore eco- system services with substantial co-benefits and provision of ecosystem-based adaptation.7 Ecosystem-based adaptation includes protection and restoration of forests, grasslands, peatlands and other wetlands, blue carbon systems , and agroecological farming practices. In coastal systems, nature-based solutions, including ecosystem-based adaptation, can reduce impacts for human settlements until sea level rise results in habitat loss. High rates of warming and drought may severely threaten the success of nature-based solutions such as forest expansion or peatland restoration. Ecosystem-based adaptation is being increasingly advocated in coastal defence against storm surges, terrestrial flood regulation, reducing urban heat and restoring natural fire regimes. Nature-based solutions, including ecosystem-based adaptation, can therefore reduce risks for ecosystems and benefit people, provided they are planned and implemented in the right way and in the right place. For example, coastal wetlands and ecosystems can also be seriously damaged by coastal defences designed to protect | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.4.2 Increasing the resilience of biodiversity and ecosystem services to climate change includes minimising additional stresses or disturbances, reducing fragmentation, increasing natural habitat extent, connectivity and heterogeneity, maintaining taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity and redundancy and protecting small-scale refugia where microclimate conditions can allow species to persist . In some cases, specific management interventions may be possible to reduce risks to individual species or biological communities, including translocation or manipulating microclimate or site hydrology. Adaptation also includes actions to prevent the impacts of extreme events or aid the recovery of ecosystems following extreme events, such as wildfire, drought or marine heatwaves. In some cases, recovery of ecosystems from extreme events can be facilitated by removing other human pressures. Understanding the characteristics of vulnerable species can assist in early warning systems to minimise negative impacts and inform management intervention. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.4.4 Available adaptation options can reduce risks to ecosystems and the services they provide, but they cannot prevent all changes and should not be regarded as a substitute for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions . Ambitious and swift global mitigation offers more adaptation options and pathways to sustain ecosystems and their services . Even under current climate change, it is necessary to take account of climate change impacts, which are already occurring or are inevitable, in environmental management to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services , and this will become increasingly important at higher levels of warming. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.4.5 Ecosystem-based adaptation measures can reduce climatic risks to people, including from flood, drought, fire and overheating . Ecosystem-based adaptation approaches are increasingly being used as part of strategies to manage flood risk, at the coast in the face of rising sea levels and inland in the context of more extreme rainfall events . Flood-risk measures that work with nature by allowing flooding within coastal and wetland ecosystems and support sediment accretion can reduce costs and bring substantial co-benefits to ecosystems, liveability and livelihoods . In urban areas, trees and natural areas can lower temperatures by providing shade and cooling from evapotranspiration . Restoration of ecosystems in catchments can also support water supplies during periods of variable | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
water regimes that overcome social inequalities, provide disaster risk reduction and sustainable development . Restoring natural vegetation cover and wildfire regimes can reduce risks to people from catastrophic fires. Restoration of wetlands could support livelihoods and help sequester carbon , provided they are allowed accommodation space. Ecosystem-based adaptation approaches can be cost effective and provide a wide range of additional co-benefits in terms of ecosystem services and biodiversity protection and enhancement. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.4.6 Ecosystem-based adaptation and other nature-based solutions8 are themselves vulnerable to climate change impacts . Under higher emissions scenarios they will increasingly be under threat. Nature-based solutions cannot deliver the full range of benefits, unless they are based on functioning, resilient ecosystems and developed taking account of adaptation principles. There is a serious risk that high-carbon ecosystems will become sources of greenhouse gas emissions, which makes it increasingly difficult to halt anthropogenic climate change without prompt protection, restoration, adaptation and mitigation at a global scale. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.4.7 Potential benefits and avoidance of harm are maximised when nature-based solutions are deployed in the right places and with the right approaches for those areas, with inclusive governance . Taking account of interdisciplinary scientific information, Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge and practical expertise is essential to effective ecosystem-based adaptation . There is a large risk of maladaptation where this does not happen . For example, naturally treeless peatlands can be afforested if they are drained, but this leads to the loss of distinctive peatland species as well as high greenhouse gas emissions. It is important that nature-based solution approaches to climate change mitigation also take account of climate change adaptation if they are to remain effective. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.5 Various adaptation options in the water, agriculture and food sectors are feasible with several co-benefits , some of which are effective at reducing climate impacts . Adaptation responses reduce future climate risks at 1.5℃ warming, but effectiveness decreases above 2ºC . Resilience is strengthened by eco- system-based adaptation and sustainable resource management of terrestrial and aquatic species . Agricultural intensification strategies produce | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
Footnotes: 1 The term response is used here instead of adaptation because some responses, such as retreat, may or may not be considered to be adaptation. 2 Including sustainable forest management, forest conservation and restoration, reforestation and afforestation. 3 Migration, when voluntary, safe and orderly, allows reduction of risks to climatic and non-climatic stressors. 4 The Sustainable Development Goals are integrated and indivisible, and efforts to achieve any goal in isolation may trigger synergies or trade-offs with other SDGs. 5 Relevant in the near-term, at global scale and up to 1.5℃ of global warming. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
benefits but with trade-offs and negative socioeconomic and environmental effects . Competition, trade-offs and conflict between mitigation and adaptation priorities will in- crease with climate change impacts . Integrated, multi-sectoral, inclusive and systems-oriented solutions reinforce long-term resilience , along with supportive public policies . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.5.1 There are a range of options for water- and food-related adaptation in different sociocultural, economic and geographical contexts, with benefits across several dimensions across regions , including climate risk reduction . Frequently documented options include rainwater harvesting, soil moisture conservation, cultivar improvements, community-based adaptation, agricultural diversification, climate services and adaptive eco-management in fisheries . Roughly 25% of assessed water-related adaptations have co-benefits, while 33% of the assessed reported current or future maladaptive outcomes . There is limited evidence, medium agreement on the institutional feasibility or cost effectiveness of adaptation activities or their limits. Integration of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge increase their effectiveness . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.5.2 The projected future effectiveness of available adaptation for agriculture and food systems decreases with increasing warming . Currently known adaptation responses generally perform more effectively at 1.5℃ than at 2ºC or more, with increasing risks remaining after adaptation at higher warming levels . Irrigation expansion will face increasing limits due to water availability beyond 1.5℃ , with a potential doubling of regional risks to irrigation water availability between 2ºC and 4ºC . Negative risks even with adaptation will become greater beyond 2℃ warming in an increasing number of regions . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
multiple co-benefits ; trade-offs and benefits vary with socioecological context. Options such as ecosystem approaches to fisheries, agricultural diversification, agroforestry and other ecological practices support long-term productivity and ecosystem services such as pest control, soil health, pollination and buffering of temperature extremes , but potential and trade-offs vary by socioeconomic context, ecosystem zone, species combinations and institutional support . Ecosystem-based approaches support food security, nutrition and livelihoods when inclusive equitable governance processes are used . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.5.4 Sustainable resource management in response to distribution shifts of terrestrial and aquatic species under climate change is an effective adaptation option to reduce food and nutritional risk, conflict and loss of livelihood . Adaptation options exist to reduce the vulnerability of fisheries through better management, governance and socioeconomic dimensions to eliminate overexploitation and pollution . Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge can facilitate adaptation in small-scale fisheries, especially when combined with scientific knowledge and utilised in management regimes . Adaptive transboundary governance and ecosystem-based management, livelihood diversification, capacity development and improved knowledge-sharing will reduce conflict and promote the fair distribution of sustainably harvested wild products and revenues . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.5.5 Adaptation options that promote intensification of production have been widely adopted in agriculture for climate change adaptation, but with potential negative effects . Agricultural intensification addresses short-term food security and livelihood goals but has trade-offs in equity, biodiversity and ecosystem services . Irrigation is widely used and effective for yield stability, but with several negative outcomes, including water demand , groundwater depletion , alteration of local to regional climates , increasing soil salinity , widening inequalities and loss of rural smallholder livelihoods with weak governance . Conventional breeding assisted by genomics introduces | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.5.6 Integrated and systems-oriented solutions to alleviate competition and trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation will reinforce long-term resilience and equity in water and food systems . Large-scale land deals for climate mitigation have trade-offs with livelihoods, water and food security . Afforestation programmes without adequate safeguards adversely affect Indigenous Peoples' rights, land tenure and adaptive capacity . Some mitigation measures, such as carbon capture and storage, bio-energy and afforestation, have a high water footprint . Increased demand for aquaculture, animal and marine foods and energy products will intensify competition and potential conflict over land and water resources, particularly in low- and medium-income countries , with negative impacts on food security and deforestation . Integrated, systems-oriented solutions reduce competition and trade-offs and include inclusive governance, behavioural and technical responses . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.5.7 Integrated multi-sectoral strategies that address social inequities and social protection of low- income groups will increase the effectiveness of adaptation responses for water and food security . Multiple interacting factors help to ensure that adaptive communities have water and food security, including addressing poverty, social inequities, violent conflict, provision of social services such as water and sanitation, social safety nets and vital ecosystem services. Differentiated responses based on water and food security level and climate risk increase effectiveness, such as social protection programmes for extreme events, medium-term responses such as local food procurement for school meals, community seed banks or well construction to build adaptive capacity . Longer- term responses include strengthening ecosystem services, local and regional markets, enhanced capacity and reducing systemic gender, land tenure and other social inequalities as part of a rights-based approach . In the urban context, policies that account for social inclusion in governance and rights to green urban spaces will enhance urban agriculture's potential for food and water security and other ecosystem services. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.6 Cities and settlements are crucial for delivering urgent climate action. The concentration and interconnection of people, infrastructure and assets within and across cities and into rural areas drives the creation of risks and solutions at a global scale . Concentrated inequalities in risk are broken through prioritising affordable housing and upgrading of informal and precarious settlements, paying special attention to including marginalised groups and women . Such actions are most effective when deployed across grey/ physical infrastructure, nature-based solutions and social policy and between local and city-wide or national actions . City and local governments remain key actors facilitating climate change adaptation in cities and settlements. Community-based action is also critical. Multi-level governance opens an inclusive and accountable adaptation space across scales of decision-making, improving development processes through an understanding of social and economic systems, planning, experimentation and embedded solutions, including processes of social learning. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.6.1 Continuing rapid growth in urban populations and unmet needs for healthy, decent, affordable and sustainable housing and infrastructure represent a global opportunity to integrate inclusive adaptation strategies into development . The urban adaptation gap shows that for all world regions, current adaptation is unable to resolve risks from current climate change associated hazards. Moreover, an additional 2.5 billion people are projected to be living in urban areas by 2050, with up to 90% of this increase concentrated in the regions of Asia and Africa . Retrofitting, upgrading and redesigning existing urban places and infrastructure combined with planning and design for new urban infrastructure can utilise existing knowledge on social policy, nature-based solutions and grey/physical infrastructure to build inclusive processes of adaptation into everyday urban planning and development. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.6.3 Globally, urban adaptation gaps exist for all climate change-driven risks, although the limits to adaptation are unevenly distributed . Governance capacity, financial support and the legacy of past urban infrastructure investment constrain how cities and settlements can adapt to key climate risks . The gap between what can be adapted to and what has been adapted to is uneven; it is larger for the poorest 20% of populations than for the wealthiest 20%. The adaptation gap is also geographically uneven; it is highest in Africa . Limits to adaptation are often most pronounced in rapidly growing urban areas and smaller settlements, including those without dedicated local government. At the same time, legacy infrastructure in large and mega cities, designed without taking climate change risk into account, and past adaptation decisions constrain innovation, leading to stranded assets and with increasing numbers of people unable to avoid harm, including heat stress and flooding, without transformative adaptation . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.6.4 The greatest gaps between policy and action are in projects to integrate justice concerns into adaptation action, address complex interconnected risks where solutions lie outside as well as within a city, for example in the food-energy- water-health nexus, and resolve compound risks such as the relationships between air quality and climate risk . The most critical capacity gaps at the city and community levels that hinder adaptation include an ability to identify social vulnerability and community strengths and to plan in integrated ways to protect communities, alongside the ability to access innovative funding arrangements and manage finance and commercial insurance, as well as locally accountable decision-making with sufficient access to science, technology and local knowledge to support application of adaptation solutions at scale. As ecosystems provide important additional benefits to human well-being and coastal livelihoods, urban adaptation strategies can be developed for settlements and nearby ecosystems; combining these with engineering solutions can extend their lifetime under high rates of sea level rise . In Central and South America, the adoption of nature-based solutions and hybrid infrastructure are still emerging. Monitoring and evaluation frameworks that incorporate questions of justice, ecological health and multi-sector considerations can help to move away from more narrow, static, indicator-based approaches to adaptation. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.6.5 Key innovations in adaptation in social policy and nature-based solutions have not been matched by innovation in adaptation finance, which tends to favour established mechanisms, often led by grey/physical infrastructure at the national scale. Social policy innovations include social safety nets, inclusive approaches to disaster risk reduction and the integration of climate adaptation into education. Nature-based solutions include green and blue infrastructure in and around cities, including hinterlands, that increase water access and reduce hazards for cities and settlements, for example reforestation of hill-slope and coastal areas. In Europe, many urban innovations are pilot tested, but their up- scaling remains challenging. Where inclusive approaches to adaptation policy and action are supported, this can enable wider gains of more equitable urbanisation . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.6.6 Many urban adaptation plans focus narrowly on climate risk reduction and specific climate-associated risks, missing opportunities to advance co-benefits with climate mitigation and sustainable development . This narrow approach limits opportunity for urban and infrastructure adaptation to tackle the root causes of inequality and exclusion, especially among marginalised groups, including women. Urban adaptation measures have many opportunities to contribute to climate resilient development pathways . They can enhance social capital, livelihoods, human and ecological health and contribute to low-carbon futures. Urban planning, social policy and nature- based solutions bring great flexibility with co-benefits for climate mitigation and sustainable development. Participatory planning for infrastructure provision and risk management in informal, precarious and underserved neighbourhoods, the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, and communication and efforts to build local leadership especially among women and youth are examples of inclusive approaches with co-benefits for equity. Targeted development planning across the range of innovation and investment in social policy, nature-based solutions and grey/physical infrastructure can significantly increase the adaptive capacity of urban settlements and cities and their contribution to climate resilient development . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
SDGs. City and local action can complement-and at times go further than-national and international interventions . Adaptation policy that focuses on informality and sub-serviced or inadequately serviced neighbourhoods and supports inclusive urbanisation by considering the social and economic root causes of unequal vulnerability and exposure can contribute to the broader goals of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and reduce vulnerability to non-climatic risks, including pandemic risk . More comprehensive and clearly articulated global ambitions for city and community adaptation will contribute to inclusive urbanisation by addressing the root causes of social and economic inequalities that drive social exclusion and marginalisation, so that adaptation can directly support the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.7 The ability of societies and ecosystems to adapt to current coastal impacts to address present and future coastal risks under further acceleration of sea level rise depends on immediate and effective mitigation and adaptation actions that keep options open to further adapt . Adaptation pathways break adaptation planning into manageable steps based on near- term, low-regret actions and aligning adaptation choices with societal goals that account for changing risk, interests and values, uncertain futures and the long-term commitment to adapting to sea level rise . In charting adaptation pathways, reconciling divergent interests and values is a priority . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.7.1 As the scale and pace of sea level rise accelerates beyond 2050, long-term adjustments may in some locations be beyond the limits of current adaptation options and for some species and some locations could be an existential risk in the 21st century . Nature-based interventions, for example wetlands and salt marshes, can reduce impacts and costs while supporting biodiversity and livelihoods but have limits under high warming levels and rapid sea level rise . Ecological limits and socioeconomic, financial and governance barriers will be reached first and are determined by the type of coastline and city or settlement . Accommodation can reduce impacts on people and assets but can address only limited sea level rise. Considering the long term now will help to avoid maladaptive lock-in, to build capacity to act in a timely and pre-emptive manner and to reduce risks to ecosystems and people. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.7.2 Adaptation for coastal ecosystems requires space, networks and sediment to keep up with sea level rise . With higher warming, faster sea level rise and increasing human pressures due to coastal development, the ability to adapt decreases . Adaptation options, such as providing sufficient space for a coastal system to migrate inland, when combined with ambitious and urgent mitigation measures, can reduce impacts, but they depend on the type of coastline and patterns of coastal development . With rapid sea level rise, these options | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.7.3 A wide range of adaptation options exists for reducing the ongoing multi-faceted coastal risks in cities and settlements . A mix of infrastructure, nature-based, institutional and sociocultural interventions can best address the risks. The options include vulnerability-reducing measures, avoidance , hard and soft protection , accommodation , advance and staged, managed retreat interventions . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.7.5 Adaptation is costly, but the benefit-to-cost ratio is high for urbanised coastal areas with high concentrations of assets . Protection has a high benefit-cost ratio during the 21st century but can become unaffordable and insufficient to reduce coastal risk , reaching technical limits . Hard protection sets up lock-in of assets and people to risks and reaches limits by the end of the century or sooner, depending on the scenario, local sea level rise effects and community tolerance thresholds . Considering coastal retreat as part of the solution space could lower global adaptation costs but would result in large land losses and high levels of migration for South and Southeast Asia in particular and in relative terms, small island nations would suffer most . Solutions include disincentivising developments in high-risk areas and addressing existing social vulnerabilities now . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
vulnerability of those most at risk is more likely . Drawing on multiple knowledge systems helps in co-designing and co-producing more acceptable, effective and enduring responses. Reconciling divergent worldviews, values and interests can unlock the productive potential of conflict for transitioning towards pathways that foster climate resilient development, generate equitable adaptation outcomes and remove governance constraints . Shared understanding and locally appropriate responses are enabled by deliberate experimentation, innovation and social learning . External assistance and government support can enhance community capabilities to reduce coastal hazard risk . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.7.7 Experience in coastal cities and settlements highlights critical enablers for addressing coastal hazard risk compounded by sea level rise . These enablers include building and strengthening governance capacity and capabilities to tackle complex problems; taking a long-term perspective in making short- term decisions; enabling more effective coordination across scales, sectors and policy domains; reducing injustice, inequity and social vulnerability; and unlocking the productive potential of coastal conflict while strengthening local democracy . Flexible options enable responses to be adjusted as climate risk escalates and circumstances change, which may increase exposure . Legal and financial provisions can enable managed retreat from the most at-risk locations but require coordination, trust and legitimate decisions by and across policy domains and sectors that prioritise vulnerability, justice and equity . Inclusive, informed and meaningful deliberation and collaborative problem- solving depend on safe arenas for engagement by all stakeholders . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.8 With proactive, timely and effective adaptation, many risks for human health and well-being could be reduced and some potentially avoided . Building adaptive capacity through sustainable development and encouraging safe and orderly movements of people within and between states represent key adaptation responses to prevent climate-related involuntary migration . Reducing poverty, inequity and food and water insecurity and strengthening institutions in particular reduce the risk of conflict and supports climate resilient peace . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
A significant adaptation gap exists for human health and well-being and for responses to disaster risks . Most Nation- ally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement from low- and middle-income countries identify health as a priority concern . Effective governance institutions, arrangements, funding and mandates are key for adaptation to climate-related health risks . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.8.2 Continued investment in general health systems and in systems enhancing health protection is an effective adaptation strategy in the short to medium term . Although some mortality and morbidity from climate change are already unavoidable, targeted adaptation and mitigation actions can reduce risks and vulnerabilities . The burden of diseases could be reduced and resilience increased through health systems, generating awareness of climate change impacts on health , strengthening access to water and sanitation , integrating vector control management approaches , expanding existing early-warning monitoring systems , increasing vaccine development and coverage , improving the heat resistance of the built environment and building financial safety nets . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.8.3 Many adaptation measures that benefit health and well-being are found in other sectors . Such cross-sectoral solutions include improved air quality through renewable energy sources , active transport and sustainable food systems that lead to healthier diets . Heat Action Plans have strong potential to prevent mortality from extreme heat events and elevated temperature . Nature- based solutions reduce a variety of risks to both physical and mental health and well-being . For example, integrated agroecological food systems offer opportunities to improve dietary diversity while building climate-related local resilience to food insecurity , especially when combined with gender equity and social justice. Social policy-based adaptation, including education and the adaptation of health systems, offers considerable future scope. The greatest gaps between policy and action are in failures to manage adaptation of social infrastructure and failure to address complex interconnected risks for example in the food-energy-water-health nexus or the inter- relationships of air quality and climate risk . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
health systems are poorly resourced in general, and their capacity to respond to climate change is weak, with mental health support being particularly inadequate . The health sectors in some countries have focused on implementing incremental changes to policies and measures to respond to impacts . As the likelihood of dangerous risks to human health continues to increase, there is a greater need for transformational changes to health and other systems . This highlights an urgent and immediate need to address the wider interactions between environmental change, socioeconomic development and human health and well-being . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.8.5 Financial constraints are the most referenced barrier to health adaptation, and therefore scaling up financial investments remains a key international priority . Financial support for health adaptation is currently less than 0.5% of overall dispersed multilateral climate finance projects . This level of investment is insufficient to protect human health and health systems from most climate-sensitive health risks . Adaptation financing often does not reach places where the climate sensitivity of the health sector is greatest . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.8.6 Reducing future risks of involuntary migration and displacement due to climate change is possible by improving outcomes of existing migration patterns, addressing vulner- abilities that pose barriers to in situ adaptation and livelihood strategies and meeting existing migration agreements and development objectives . Properly support- ed and where levels of agency and assets are high, migration as an adaptation to climate change can reduce exposure and socioeconomic vulnerability . However, migration becomes a risk when climate hazards cause an individual, household or community to move involuntarily or with low agency . Inability to migrate in the face of climate hazards is also a potential risk to exposed populations . Broad-based institutional and cross-sectoral efforts to build adaptive capacity, including meeting the SDGs, reduce future risks of climate- related involuntary displacement and immobility , while policies such as the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Reg- ular Migration that are aimed at ensuring safe and orderly movements of people within and between states are potential components of climate resilient development pathways that can improve migration as an adaptation. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.8.7 Improving the feasibility of planned relocation and resettlement is a high priority for managing climate risks . Residents of small island states do not view relocation as an appropriate or desirable means of adapting to the impacts of climate change . Previous disaster- and development- related relocation has been expensive and contentious, posed multiple challenges for governments and amplified existing ones and generated new vulnerabilities for the people involved . In locations where permanent, government-assisted relocation becomes unavoidable, active involvement of local populations in planning and | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.8.8 Meeting SDGs supports adaptive capacity that in turn supports individuals, households and community manage climate risks and supports peace . By addressing vulner- ability, improving livelihoods and strengthening institutions, meeting the SDGs reduces the risks of armed conflict and violence . Formal institutional arrangements for natural resource management and environmental peacebuilding, conflict-sensitive adaptation and climate-sensitive peacebuilding and gender-sensitive approaches offer potential new avenues to build peace in conflict- prone regions vulnerable to climate change . However, there is currently insufficient evidence on their success and further monitoring and evaluation is required. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.9 Adaptation actions consistent with climate justice address near- and long-term risks through decision-making processes that attend to moral and legal principles of fairness, equity and responsibility including to historically marginalised communities and that distribute benefits, burdens and risks equitably . Concepts of justice, consent and rights-based deci- sion-making, together with societal measures of well-being, are increasingly used to legitimate adaptation actions and evaluate the impacts on individuals and ecosystems, diverse communities and across generations . Applying these principles as part of monitoring and evaluating the outcomes of adaptation, particularly during system transitions, provide a basis for ensuring that the distribution of benefits and costs are identified . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.9.2 Under an inequality scenario , the number of people living in extreme poverty could increase by more than 100 million . There is medium evidence and low agreement about the adaptation impacts of derivative- based insurance products. Insurance solutions are difficult for low- income groups to access . Formal insurance policies come with risks when implemented in a stand-alone manner, including risks of maladaptation . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
physical abilities . Therefore, participation of historically excluded groups, such as women, youth and marginalised communities , contributes to more equitable and socially just adaptation actions. Adaptation actions do not automatically have positive outcomes for gender equality. Understanding the positive and negative links of adaptation actions with gender equality goals is important to ensure that adaptive actions do not exacerbate existing gender-based and other social inequalities . Climate literacy varies across diverse communities, compounding vulnerability | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.9.4 Empowering marginalised communities in the co-pro- duction of policy at all scales of decision-making advances equi- table adaptation efforts and reduces the risks of maladaptation . Recognising Indigenous rights and local knowledge in the design and implementation of climate change responses contrib- utes to equitable adaptation outcomes . Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge play an important role in finding solu- tions and often creates critical linkages between cultures, policy frame- works, economic systems and natural resource management . Intergenerational approaches to future climate planning and policy will become increasingly important in relation to the manage- ment, use and valuation of social-ecological systems . Many regions benefit from the significant diversity of local knowledge and systems of production, informed by long-standing experience with natural variability, providing a rich foundation for adaptation actions ef- fective at local scales . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.9.5 Proactive partnerships of government with the community, private sector and national agencies to minimise negative social, environmental or economic impacts of economy- wide transitions are emerging, but their implementation is uneven . The greatest gains are achieved by prioritising investment to reduce climate risk for low-income and marginalised residents, particularly in informal settlements and rural communities . Some city and local governments invest directly in adaptation action and work in partnership with a range of agencies. Legislative frameworks will assist business and insurance sector investment in key infrastructure to drive adaptive action at scale for equitable outcomes . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.10. Various tools, measures and processes are available that can enable, accelerate and sustain adaptation implementation , in particular when anticipating climate change impacts, and empower inclusive decision-making and action when they are supported by adaptation finance and leadership across all sectors and groups in society . The actions and decisions taken today determine future impacts and play a critical role in expanding the solution space for future adaptation. Breaking adaptation down into manageable steps over time, while acknowledging potential long-term adaptation needs and options, can increase the prospect that effective adaptation plans will be actioned in timely and effective ways by stakeholders, sectors and institutions . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.10.1 Institutional frameworks, policies and plans that set out adaptation goals, define responsibilities and commitment devices, coordinate among actors and build adaptive capacity will facilitate sustained adaptation actions . Adaptation is considered in the climate policies of at least 170 countries. Opportunities exist to integrate adaptation into institutionalised decision cycles and during windows of opportunity . Appraisal of adaptation options for policy and implementation that considers the risks of adverse effects can help prevent maladaptive adaptation and take advantage of possible co-benefits . Instruments such as behavioural nudges, re-directing subsidies and taxes and the regulation of marketing and insurance schemes have proven useful to strengthening societal responses beyond governmental actors . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D. 10.2 Access to and mobilising adequate financial resources for vulnerable regions is an important catalysing factor for timely climate resilient development and climate risk management . Total tracked climate finance has increased from USD364 billion yr1 in 2010/2011 to USD579 billion in 2017/2018, with only 4-8% of this allocated to adaptation and more than 90% of adaptation finance coming from public sources. Developed-country climate finance leveraged for developing countries for mitigation and adaptation has shown an upward trend, but it has fallen short of the USD100 billion yr1 2020 target of the Copenhagen commitment, and less than 20% has been for adaptation. Estimated global and regional costs of adaptation vary widely due to differences in assumptions, methods and data; the majority of more recent estimates are higher than the figures presented in AR5. Median estimated costs for developing country adaptation from recent studies are USD127 and USD295 billion yr1 for 2030 and 2050 respectively. Examples of estimated regional adaptation include USD50 billion yr1 in Africa for 1.5℃ of warming in 2050, increasing to USD100-350 billion yr1 for 4ºC of global warming towards the end of the century. Increasing public and private finance flows by billions of dollars per year, increasing direct access to multilateral funds, strengthening project pipeline development and shifting finance from readiness activities to project implementation can enhance implementation of climate change adaptation and are fundamental to achieving climate justice for highly vulnerable countries, including small island states and African countries. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.10.3 Decision-support tools and decision-analytic methods are available and being applied for climate adaptation and climate risk management in different contexts . Integrated adaptation frameworks and decision-support tools that anticipate multi-dimensional risks and accommodate community values are more effective than those with a narrow focus on single risks . Approaches that integrate the adaptation needs of multiple sectors such as disaster management, account for different risk perceptions and integrate multiple knowledge systems are better suited to addressing key risks . Reliable climate services, monitoring and early warning systems are the most commonly used strategies for managing the key risks, complementing long-term investments in risk reduction . While these strategies are applicable to society as a whole, they need to be tailored to specific contexts in order to be adopted effectively. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
Many forms of climate adaptation are likely to be more effective, efficient and equitable when organised collectively and with multiple objectives. Using different assessment, modelling, monitoring and evaluation approaches can facilitate understanding of the societal implications of trade-offs. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.10.5 Forward-looking adaptive planning and iterative risk management can avoid path dependencies and maladaptation and ensure timely action . Approaches that break down adaptation into manageable steps over time and use pathway analyses to determine low-regret actions for the near-term and long- term options are a useful starting point for adaptation . Decision frameworks that consider multiple objectives, scenarios, time frames and strategies can avoid privileging some views over others and help multiple actors to identify resilient and equitable solutions to complex, deeply uncertain challenges and explicitly deal with trade-offs. Considering socioeconomic developments and climatic changes beyond 2100 is particularly relevant for long-lived investment decisions such as new harbours, airports, urban expansions and flood defences to avoid lock-ins . Monitoring climate change, socioeconomic developments and progress on implementation is critical for learning about adaptation success and maladaptation and to assess whether, when and what further actions are needed for informing iterative risk management . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.10.6 Enhancing climate change literacy on impacts and possible solutions is necessary to ensure widespread, sustained implementation of adaptation by state and non-state actors . Ways to enhance climate literacy and foster behavioural change include access to education and information, programmes involving the performing and visual arts, storytelling, training workshops, participatory three-dimensional modelling, climate services and community-based monitoring. The use of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge represents and codifies actual experiences and autonomous adaptations and facilitates awareness, clarifies risk perception and enhances the understanding and adoption of solutions. Narratives can effectively communicate climate information and link this to societal goals and the actions needed to achieve them . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.10.7 Political commitment and follow-through across all levels of government are important to accelerate the implementation of adequate and timely adaptation actions . Implementing actions often requires large upfront investments of human and financial resources and political capital by public, private and societal actors, while the benefits of these actions may only become visible in the mid to long term . Examples that can accelerate adaptation action include accountability and transparency mechanisms, monitoring and evaluation of adaptation progress, social movements, climate litigation, building the economic case for adaptation and increased adaptation finance . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.11 Deep-rooted transformational adaptation opens new options for adapting to the impacts and risks of climate change by changing the fundamental attributes of a system, including altered goals or values and addressing the root causes of vulnerability. AR6 focuses on five system transitions to a just and climate resilient future: societal, energy, land and ocean ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial. These transitions call for transformations in existing social and social-technological and environmental systems that include shifts in most aspects of society. Managing transition risk is a critical element of transforming society, increasingly acknowledging the importance of transparent, informed and inclusive decision-making and evaluation, including a role for Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.11.1 A sub-set of adaptation options has been implemented that cuts across sectors to enable sector-specific adaptation responses. These options, such as disaster risk management, climate services and risk sharing, increase the feasibility and effectiveness of other options by expanding the solution space available . For example, carefully designed and implemented disaster risk management and climate services can increase the feasibility and effectiveness of adaptation responses to improve agricultural practices, income diversification, urban and critical services and infrastructure planning . Risk insurance can be a feasible tool to adapt to transfer climate risks and support sustainable development . They can reduce both vulnerability and exposure, support post-disaster recovery and reduce financial burden on governments, households and business. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.11.2 Transformations for energy include the options of efficient water use and water management, infrastructure resilience and reliable power systems, including the use of intermittent renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind energy, with the use of storage . These options are not sufficient for the far-reaching transformations required in the energy sector, which tend to focus on technological transitions from a fossil-based to a renewable energy regime. A resilient power infrastructure is considered for energy generation, transmission and distribution systems. Distributed generation utilities, such as microgrids, are increasingly being considered, with growing evidence of their role in reducing vulnerability, especially within underserved populations . Infrastructure resilience and reliable power are particularly important in reducing risk in peri-urban and rural areas when they are supported by distributed generation of renewable energy by isolated systems . The option for a resilient power infrastructure is considered for all types of power generation sources and transmission and distribution systems. Efficient water use and water management especially in hydropower and combined cycle power plants in drought-prone areas have a high feasibility with multiple co-benefits (medium | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.11.3 Adaptation options that are feasible and effective to the 3.4 billion people living in rural areas around the world and who are especially vulnerable to climate change, include the provision of basic services, livelihood diversification and strengthening of food systems . The vulnerability of rural areas to climate risks increases due to the long distances to urban centres and the lack of or deficient critical infrastructure such as roads, electricity and water. Providing critical infrastructure, including through distributed generation power systems through renewable energy, has provided many co-benefits . Biodiversity management strategies have social co-benefits, including improved community health, recreational activities and ecotourism, which are co-produced by harnessing ecological and social capital to promote resilient ecosystems with high connectivity and functional diversity. Strengthening local and regional food systems through strategies such as collective trademarks, participatory guarantee systems and city-rural links build rural livelihoods, resilience and self- reliance . Livelihood diversification is a key coping and adaptive strategy to climatic and non-climatic risks. There is high evidence that diversifying livelihoods improves incomes and reduces socioeconomic vulnerability, but feasibility changes depending on livelihood type, opportunities and local context Key barriers to livelihood diversification include sociocultural and institutional barriers as well as inadequate resources and livelihood opportunities that hinder the full adaptive possibilities of existing livelihood diversification practices . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.11.4 Adaptation can require system-wide transformation of ways of knowing, acting and lesson-drawing to rebalance the relation between human and nature . Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, ecosystem-based adaptation and community-based adaptation are often found together in effective adaptation strategies and actions and together can generate transformative sustainable changes, but they need the resources, legal basis and an inclusive decision process to be most effective . Governance measures that transparently accommodate science and Indigenous knowledge can act as enablers of such co- production. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.D.11.5 Factors motivating transformative adaptation actions include risk perception, perceived efficacy, sociocultural norms and beliefs, previous experiences of impacts, levels of education and awareness . Risk responsibilities across the globe are unclear and unevenly defined . In the face of climate change, assigning risk responsibilities facilitates upgrading and supporting adaptation efforts . There are at least two contrasting approaches for pursuing deliberate transformation: one seeking rapid, system-wide change and the other a collection of incremental actions that together catalyse desired system changes . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.E.1 Climate resilient development implements greenhouse gas mitigation and adaptation options to support sustainable development. With accelerated warming and the intensification of cascading impacts and compounded risks above 1.5℃ warming, there is a sharply increasing demand for adaptation and climate resilient development linked to achieving SDGs and equity and balancing societal priorities. There is only limited opportunity to widen the remaining solution space and take advantage of many potentially effective, yet unimplemented, options for reducing society and ecosystem vulnerability . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.E.1.1 Prevailing development pathways do not advance climate resilient development . Societal choices in the near term will determine future pathways. There is no single pathway or climate that represents climate resilient development for all nations, actors or scales, as well as globally, and many solutions will emerge locally and regionally. Global trends including rising income inequality, urbanisation, migration, continued growth in greenhouse gas emissions, land use change, human displacement and reversals of long-term trends toward increased life expectancy run counter to the SDGs as well as efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to a changing climate. With progressive climate change, enabling conditions will diminish, and opportunities for successfully transitioning systems for both mitigation and adaptation will become more limited . Investments in economic recovery from COVID-19 offer opportunities to promote climate resilient development . | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.E.1.2 System transitions can enable climate resilient devel- opment when accompanied by appropriate enabling conditions and inclusive arenas of engagement . Five system transitions are considered: energy, industry, urban and infra- structure, land and ecosystems, and society. Advancing climate resilient development in specific contexts may necessitate simultaneous progress on all five transitions. Collectively, these system transitions can widen the solution space and accelerate and deepen the implementation of sustainable development, adaptation and mitigation actions by equipping actors and decision makers with more effective options . For example, urban ecological infrastructure linked to an appropriate land use mix, street connectivity, open and green spaces and job-housing proximity provides adaptation and mitigation benefits that can aid urban transformation . These system transitions are necessary precursors for more fundamental climate and sustainable-development transformations but can simultaneously be outcomes of transformative actions. Enhancing equity and agency are cross-cutting considerations for all five transitions. Such transitions can generate benefits across different sectors and regions, provided | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |
TS.E. 1.3 System transitions are highly feasible. For energy system transitions, there is medium confidence in the high feasibility of resilient infrastructure and efficient water use for power plants and high confidence in the synergies of this option with mitigation. For coastal ecosystem transitions, there is medium to high confidence that ecosystem conservation and biodiversity management are increasing adaptive and ecological capacity with socioeconomic co-benefits and positive synergies with carbon sequestration. However, opportunity costs can be a barrier. For land ecosystem transitions, there is high confidence in the role of agroforestry to increase ecological and adaptive capacity, once economic and cultural barriers and potential land use change trade-offs are overcome. There is high confidence in improved cropland management and its economic feasibility due to improved productivity. For efficient livestock systems, there is medium confidence in the high technological and ecological feasibility. | IPCC | Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability | IPCC Report | https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6/wg2/IPCC_AR6_WGII_FullReport.pdf |