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the system manager or our competitor may control
the cards so that we do not win.
The problem is that we cannot verify that the result is indeed
derived by a correct manner. If we can convince ourselves that
the result is derived from some seed(s) which is not under
anyone's control, then we never suspect anyone, and we only
lament our misfortunes. However, even if the system manager
does execute the correct algorithm using a seed under no
one's control, if we cannot verify it, then such random number
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")"
] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,200 |
neration is not said to provide transparency.
In this paper, we say transparent random numbers to mean
ones under the conditions:
(T1) The value of the random number is derived using some
pre-determined (public) function F ;
(T2) No one can control the value of the random number by
regulating the arguments (i.e. the seeds) of the function
F ;
(T3) Everyone can verify (T1) after the value of the random
number is shown.
From the condition (T2), the function F must be, at least, one-
way and must provid | [
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] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,201 |
e the property like collision-resistance.
Here, we suppose that two entities A,B determine the seeds
a, b, respectively, and that the random number α is defined as
α
def
= F (a, b). If some trusted entity T is provided, then we
have only to make T receive a, b from A,B keeping a secret
against B and b against A, and have only to make T compute
α as above and show (α, a, b) to A,B. Furthermore, make T
receive the commitments on a, b before showing α, and A or
B cannot object on the result i.e. the value | [
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",",
"two",
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"users",
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",",
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"they",
"do",
"not",
"know",
"which",
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"numbers",
"are",
"for",
"them",
",",
"our",
"scheme",
"registers",
"the",
"relationship",
"between",
"the",
"serial",
"number",
"and",
"the",
"addresses",
"of",
"the",
"part",
"##ic",
"-",
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",",
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"adds",
"the",
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"the",
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"the",
"has",
"##h",
"function",
".",
"Furthermore",
",",
"for",
"(",
"R",
"##1",
")",
",",
"we",
"add",
"seeds",
"chosen",
"by",
"users",
"and",
"service",
"systems",
",",
"besides",
"the",
"parameters",
"given",
"above",
",",
"that",
"is",
",",
"the",
"non",
"##ce",
",",
"the",
"serial",
"number",
"and",
"the",
"addresses",
"of",
"the",
"user",
"and",
"the",
"service",
"system",
".",
"D",
".",
"The",
"processes",
"of",
"the",
"proposed",
"scheme",
"The",
"proposed",
"random",
"number",
"generation",
"scheme",
"consists",
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"three",
"procedures",
"as",
"follows",
":",
"(",
"P",
"##1",
")",
"The",
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"registration",
"procedure",
";",
"(",
"P",
"##2",
")",
"The",
"service",
"system",
"re",
"##gis",
"##tra",
"##ion",
"procedure",
";",
"(",
"P",
"##3",
")",
"The",
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"procedure",
".",
"Any",
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"can",
"be",
"executed",
"repeatedly",
",",
"under",
"the",
"condition",
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"the",
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"registration",
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"the",
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"system",
"re",
"##gis",
"##tra",
"##ion",
"procedure",
"must",
"be",
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"least",
"once",
"before",
"the",
"lottery",
"procedure",
"is",
"executed",
".",
"The",
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"registration",
"procedure",
"The",
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"U",
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"his",
"address",
"a",
"and",
"a",
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"used",
"for",
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",",
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"the",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"."
] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,202 |
of α shown by T .
Based on such an idea, the random number generation scheme
[5] has been constructed. In [5], blockchain is used as a safe-
deposit for the commitments and other seeds. Since T must
be a trustee2, A or B cannot control the value of a (or b) so
that the result α is acceptable for A (or B). However, that
means that if A can collude with the server, then the random
number generation may run as A desires.
In this paper, we present a random number generation
scheme using blockchain so that we | [
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] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,203 |
can get transparent
random numbers without any trusted entities. In the proposed
scheme we describe in Section IV, two entities appear being
trusted, but transparent random number generation without
2In [5], T here is named 'the server'.
ISITA2018, Singapore, October 28-31, 2018
Copyright (C) 2018 by IEICE 169
any trustees can be constructed by implementing the scheme
using a public blockchain which adopts a 'Proof of Work'-type
consensus algorithm, and which enables a smart contract, like
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] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,204 |
[3].
This paper is organized as follows: In Section II, we review
the concept of blockchain, some terminologies on blockchain
and an example of blockchain which enables a smart contract.
In Section III, we review the random number generation
scheme by [5]. In Section IV, we show our proposed random
number generation scheme using blockchain. In Section V, we
give some discussion on the proposed scheme. Finally, Section
VI concludes this paper.
II. BLOCKCHAIN
Before describing the existing scheme[5] and | [
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] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,205 |
[3].
This paper is organized as follows: In Section II, we review
the concept of blockchain, some terminologies on blockchain
and an example of blockchain which enables a smart contract.
In Section III, we review the random number generation
scheme by [5]. In Section IV, we show our proposed random
number generation scheme using blockchain. In Section V, we
give some discussion on the proposed scheme. Finally, Section
VI concludes this paper.
II. BLOCKCHAIN
Before describing the existing scheme[5] and | [
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] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,206 |
our proposed
scheme, we review the concept of blockchain and some
associating terms on blockchain. After then, we give a brief
description on Ethereum[3].
A. The structure of blockchain
Blockchain is a technique to make a distributed ledger by
sharing data among computers interspersed over the world,
and it can realize cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin[4] and
Ethereum[3]. It has the following advantages[1]:
• It is quite hard to ruin or tamper with the stored data;
• It can provide a zero-downtime;
• It | [
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"##in",
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",",
"the",
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"re",
"##gis",
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"re",
"##gis",
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"##ion",
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",",
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"(",
"i",
".",
"e",
".",
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"N",
"random",
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"6",
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"##UR",
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"lot",
"##ter",
"##ies",
"not",
"so",
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"the",
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"entertainment",
"##s",
".",
"In",
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",",
"we",
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"a",
"transparent",
"random",
"n",
"##um",
"-",
"be",
"##r",
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"scheme",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"we",
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"get",
"transparent",
"random",
"numbers",
"without",
"any",
"trusted",
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".",
"However",
",",
"we",
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"on",
"the",
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"the",
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"##cal",
"##ability",
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".",
"Actually",
",",
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"non",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"##W",
",",
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"the",
"same",
"amount",
"of",
"time",
"to",
"get",
"a",
"new",
"random",
"number",
".",
"That",
"means",
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"may",
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"applicable",
"to",
"lot",
"##ter",
"##ies",
",",
"but",
"it",
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"hard",
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"apply",
"to",
"online",
"games",
"such",
"as",
"interactive",
"match",
"-",
"type",
"card",
"games",
".",
"We",
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"like",
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"make",
"the",
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"the",
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"our",
"future",
"work",
".",
"R",
"##EF",
"##ER",
"##EN",
"##CE",
"##S",
"[",
"1",
"]",
"A",
".",
"M",
".",
"Anton",
"##op",
"##ou",
"##los",
":",
"Master",
"##ing",
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"##co",
"##in",
",",
"Or",
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"##ly",
"&",
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".",
",",
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"[",
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"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"##ff",
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"/",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"/",
"j",
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"difficulty",
"[",
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"E",
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"##eum",
"Foundation",
":",
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"E",
"##ther",
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"/",
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"##here",
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"[",
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"Sato",
"##shi",
"Na",
"##ka",
"##moto",
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"##co",
"##in",
":",
"A",
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"-",
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".",
"I",
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",",
"Proceedings",
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"Ya",
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"##zaki",
",",
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".",
"A",
"##zu",
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".",
"Tanaka",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"-",
"Introduction",
"to",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cy",
","
] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,207 |
can provide transparency on the st | [
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"Ko",
"##dan",
"##sha",
",",
"(",
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"Japanese",
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",",
"2017",
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"##IT",
"##A",
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"173"
] | How to generate transparent random numbers using blockchain | 1,208 |
On Consensus in Public Blockchains
Wenbing Zhao
Cleveland State University
2121 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44115
+1 216 523 7480
[email protected]
Shunkun Yang
Beihang University
School of Reliability and Systems
Engineering
37 Xueyuan Rd, Beijing, 100191
[email protected]
Xiong Luo
University of Science and Technology
Beijing
Beijing Key Lab of
Knowledge Engr. for Materials Sci.
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we formulate the consensus problem and its
solut | [
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,209 |
On Consensus in Public Blockchains
Wenbing Zhao
Cleveland State University
2121 Euclid Ave.
Cleveland, OH 44115
+1 216 523 7480
[email protected]
Shunkun Yang
Beihang University
School of Reliability and Systems
Engineering
37 Xueyuan Rd, Beijing, 100191
[email protected]
Xiong Luo
University of Science and Technology
Beijing
Beijing Key Lab of
Knowledge Engr. for Materials Sci.
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we formulate the consensus problem and its
solut | [
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"]",
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",",
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,210 |
ions as seen in public blockchains and contrast them to those
of the traditional distributed consensus. The Proof of Work (PoW)
algorithm introduced in Bitcoin provides the first elegant and
practical solution for reaching distributed consensus in a large-
scale untrusted environment. Due to the enormous energy cost of
PoW, many alternative consensus algorithms have been proposed
for public blockchains aiming at drastically reducing the energy
consumption for reaching consensus. We examine four bloc | [
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".",
"The",
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"##in",
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"not",
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"never",
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"before",
".",
"The",
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"large",
"-",
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"##ust",
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"algorithm",
"[",
"10",
"]",
".",
"In",
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",",
"the",
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"structure",
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"the",
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"is",
"not",
"imposed",
",",
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",",
"no",
"member",
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"the",
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"its",
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"the",
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".",
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",",
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"into",
"a",
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"process",
",",
"where",
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"cases",
",",
"there",
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"a",
"single",
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",",
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"this",
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"i",
".",
"e",
".",
",",
"create",
"the",
"new",
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")",
".",
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"present",
",",
"in",
"which",
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",",
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"##us",
"##ly",
",",
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"way",
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"has",
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"done",
"in",
"optimistic",
"replication",
"[",
"11",
"-",
"16",
"]",
".",
"That",
"is",
",",
"Po",
"##W",
"consensus",
"does",
"not",
"guarantee",
"that",
"there",
"is",
"at",
"most",
"one",
"value",
"to",
"be",
"chosen",
"at",
"any",
"given",
"time",
".",
"However",
",",
"should",
"in",
"##con",
"##sist",
"##ency",
"occur",
",",
"it",
"will",
"be",
"resolved",
"eventually",
".",
"To",
"offer",
"a",
"fair",
"playing",
"ground",
"to",
"all",
"members",
"so",
"that",
"everyone",
"has",
"a",
"chance",
"to",
"win",
"the",
"lottery",
"and",
"no",
"one",
"can",
"cheat",
",",
"Po",
"##W",
"makes",
"everyone",
"solve",
"a",
"CPU",
"-",
"bound",
"puzzle",
",",
"and",
"the",
"first",
"one",
"who",
"solve",
"##s",
"the",
"puzzle",
"becomes",
"the",
"lottery",
"winner",
".",
"This",
"design",
"is",
"elegant",
"and",
"sound",
"in",
"security",
",",
"however",
",",
"it",
"leads",
"to",
"a",
"huge",
"cost",
"in",
"energy",
"consumption",
".",
"If",
"there",
"are",
"1",
",",
"000",
"members",
"(",
"referred",
"to",
"as",
"miners",
"in",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
")",
"competing",
"to",
"c",
"##ert",
"##ify",
"the",
"new",
"block",
",",
"then",
"99",
"##9",
"of",
"them",
"will",
"waste",
"their",
"com",
"##putation",
".",
"This",
"is",
"equivalent",
"to",
"0",
".",
"1"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,211 |
ions as seen in public blockchains and contrast them to those
of the traditional distributed consensus. The Proof of Work (PoW)
algorithm introduced in Bitcoin provides the first elegant and
practical solution for reaching distributed consensus in a large-
scale untrusted environment. Due to the enormous energy cost of
PoW, many alternative consensus algorithms have been proposed
for public blockchains aiming at drastically reducing the energy
consumption for reaching consensus. We examine four bloc | [
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"##in",
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"playing",
"ground",
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"all",
"members",
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"everyone",
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",",
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"##W",
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"-",
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",",
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"winner",
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"and",
"sound",
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",",
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",",
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"leads",
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"a",
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"cost",
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"energy",
"consumption",
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"block",
",",
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"equivalent",
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"0",
".",
"1"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,212 |
kchain
consensus algorithms, namely Proof of Work, Proof of Stake,
Proof of Space, and Proof of Elapsed Time, with respect to the
consensus model we have formulated and point out the challenges
of adopting them in public blockchains.
CCS Concepts
• Computing methodologies ➝ Distributed computing
methodologies ➝ Distributed algorithms
Keywords
Blockchain; distributed consensus; proof of work; proof of stake;
proof of stake;
1. INTRODUCTION
Distributed Consensus has been under intense stu | [
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"##cha",
"##ins",
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"##in",
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"##mission",
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"make",
"digital",
"or",
"hard",
"copies",
"of",
"all",
"or",
"part",
"of",
"this",
"work",
"for",
"personal",
"or",
"classroom",
"use",
"is",
"granted",
"without",
"fee",
"provided",
"that",
"copies",
"are",
"not",
"made",
"or",
"distributed",
"for",
"profit",
"or",
"commercial",
"advantage",
"and",
"that",
"copies",
"bear",
"this",
"notice",
"and",
"the",
"full",
"citation",
"on",
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"page",
".",
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"copy",
"otherwise",
",",
"or",
"re",
"##pu",
"##b",
"##lish",
",",
"to",
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",",
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"/",
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".",
"I",
"##C",
"##BC",
"##T",
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"19",
",",
"March",
"15",
"–",
"18",
",",
"2019",
",",
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",",
"H",
"##I",
",",
"USA",
".",
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"2019",
"AC",
"##M",
"1",
"-",
"58",
"##11",
"##3",
"-",
"000",
"-",
"0",
"/",
"00",
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"00",
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"/",
"/",
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".",
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"/",
"10",
".",
"114",
"##5",
"/",
"33",
"##20",
"##15",
"##4",
".",
"33",
"##20",
"##16",
"##2",
"1",
"c",
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"##ential",
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"private",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
",",
"whose",
"membership",
"is",
"tightly",
"controlled",
"by",
"one",
"or",
"few",
"institutions",
"and",
"the",
"scale",
"of",
"the",
"network",
"typically",
"is",
"much",
"smaller",
".",
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"concerns",
"and",
"requirements",
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"reaching",
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"in",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
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"##cha",
"##ins",
".",
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",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"algorithms",
",",
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"##of",
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"##of",
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"St",
"##ake",
",",
"Pro",
"##of",
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",",
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"##of",
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"El",
"##ap",
"##sed",
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":",
"(",
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")",
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"(",
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,213 |
kchain
consensus algorithms, namely Proof of Work, Proof of Stake,
Proof of Space, and Proof of Elapsed Time, with respect to the
consensus model we have formulated and point out the challenges
of adopting them in public blockchains.
CCS Concepts
• Computing methodologies ➝ Distributed computing
methodologies ➝ Distributed algorithms
Keywords
Blockchain; distributed consensus; proof of work; proof of stake;
proof of stake;
1. INTRODUCTION
Distributed Consensus has been under intense stu | [
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"To",
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",",
"several",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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",",
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"##of",
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",",
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"##of",
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"Unfortunately",
",",
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"well",
"documented",
",",
"and",
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"have",
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".",
"In",
"this",
"paper",
",",
"we",
"formula",
"##te",
"a",
"model",
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"this",
"type",
"of",
"large",
"-",
"scale",
"distributed",
"consensus",
"problem",
"as",
"we",
"have",
"learned",
"from",
"Po",
"##W",
"implemented",
"in",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
".",
"This",
"type",
"of",
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"##cha",
"##ins",
"is",
"often",
"referred",
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"public",
"or",
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"##less",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"and",
"minimum",
"Per",
"##mission",
"to",
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"copies",
"of",
"all",
"or",
"part",
"of",
"this",
"work",
"for",
"personal",
"or",
"classroom",
"use",
"is",
"granted",
"without",
"fee",
"provided",
"that",
"copies",
"are",
"not",
"made",
"or",
"distributed",
"for",
"profit",
"or",
"commercial",
"advantage",
"and",
"that",
"copies",
"bear",
"this",
"notice",
"and",
"the",
"full",
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".",
"To",
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"otherwise",
",",
"or",
"re",
"##pu",
"##b",
"##lish",
",",
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"red",
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",",
"requires",
"prior",
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"and",
"/",
"or",
"a",
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".",
"I",
"##C",
"##BC",
"##T",
"'",
"19",
",",
"March",
"15",
"–",
"18",
",",
"2019",
",",
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",",
"H",
"##I",
",",
"USA",
".",
"Copyright",
"2019",
"AC",
"##M",
"1",
"-",
"58",
"##11",
"##3",
"-",
"000",
"-",
"0",
"/",
"00",
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"00",
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"15",
".",
"00",
".",
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":",
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":",
"/",
"/",
"d",
"##x",
".",
"doi",
".",
"org",
"/",
"10",
".",
"114",
"##5",
"/",
"33",
"##20",
"##15",
"##4",
".",
"33",
"##20",
"##16",
"##2",
"1",
"c",
"##red",
"##ential",
".",
"This",
"is",
"in",
"contrast",
"to",
"private",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
",",
"whose",
"membership",
"is",
"tightly",
"controlled",
"by",
"one",
"or",
"few",
"institutions",
"and",
"the",
"scale",
"of",
"the",
"network",
"typically",
"is",
"much",
"smaller",
".",
"The",
"concerns",
"and",
"requirements",
"for",
"reaching",
"consensus",
"in",
"private",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"are",
"totally",
"different",
"from",
"those",
"for",
"public",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
".",
"Furthermore",
",",
"we",
"examine",
"four",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"consensus",
"algorithms",
",",
"namely",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
",",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"St",
"##ake",
",",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Space",
",",
"and",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"El",
"##ap",
"##sed",
"Time",
",",
"with",
"respect",
"to",
"the",
"consensus",
"model",
"we",
"have",
"formulated",
"and",
"point",
"out",
"the",
"challenges",
"of",
"adopting",
"them",
"in",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
".",
"2",
".",
"BA",
"##C",
"##K",
"##GR",
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"##UN",
"##D",
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"##AT",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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",",
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":",
"(",
"1",
")",
"distributed",
"systems",
",",
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"(",
"2",
")",
"computer",
"/",
"network",
"security",
".",
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"we",
"have",
"elaborate",
"##d",
"in",
"the",
"previous",
"section",
",",
"distributed",
"consensus",
"is",
"a",
"central",
"issue",
"in",
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"has",
"been",
"studied"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,214 |
dy since early
1980s [1]. Over the years, we have gained important insight on
issues related to distributed consensus as demonstrated in several
seminal works, including the Byzantine generals problem [2], the
FLP impossibility result for asynchronous distributed systems [3],
group communication systems [4-6], practical Byzantine fault
tolerance [7], and the Paxos consensus algorithm [8,9]. In essence,
a distributed consensus consists of two key steps: (1) a propose
step, where one or more members | [
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"for",
"many",
"years",
".",
"Yet",
",",
"there",
"lacked",
"a",
"practical",
"solution",
"for",
"reaching",
"consensus",
"in",
"large",
"-",
"scale",
"networks",
".",
"In",
"the",
"meantime",
",",
"the",
"security",
"community",
"has",
"been",
"exploring",
"ways",
"to",
"protect",
"shared",
"resources",
".",
"The",
"basic",
"idea",
"is",
"to",
"ask",
"whom",
"##ever",
"wishes",
"to",
"access",
"the",
"shared",
"resource",
"to",
"de",
"##dicate",
"a",
"non",
"-",
"trivial",
"amount",
"of",
"previous",
"resources",
"of",
"its",
"own",
"before",
"the",
"access",
"is",
"granted",
".",
"The",
"first",
"such",
"algorithm",
"is",
"the",
"Po",
"##W",
"proposed",
"by",
"D",
"##work",
"and",
"Na",
"##or",
"in",
"1992",
"to",
"reduce",
"email",
"spa",
"##ms",
"where",
"every",
"email",
"must",
"carry",
"the",
"solution",
"to",
"a",
"puzzle",
"that",
"is",
"hard",
"to",
"com",
"##pute",
"but",
"easy",
"to",
"verify",
"[",
"20",
"]",
".",
"Later",
"on",
",",
"similar",
"algorithms",
"have",
"also",
"been",
"proposed",
".",
"One",
"such",
"example",
"is",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Space",
"[",
"18",
"]",
".",
"The",
"integration",
"of",
"Pro",
"##of",
"-",
"of",
"-",
"*",
"line",
"of",
"research",
"for",
"the",
"purpose",
"of",
"reaching",
"distributed",
"consensus",
"is",
"in",
"fact",
"not",
"trivial",
",",
"as",
"we",
"will",
"elaborate",
"in",
"the",
"next",
"section",
".",
"Nevertheless",
",",
"it",
"is",
"exciting",
"to",
"see",
"the",
"integration",
"of",
"the",
"research",
"output",
"##s",
"from",
"two",
"very",
"different",
"research",
"communities",
".",
"3",
".",
"P",
"##U",
"##BL",
"##IC",
"B",
"##L",
"##OC",
"##K",
"##CH",
"##A",
"##IN",
"CO",
"##NS",
"##EN",
"##SU",
"##S",
"Public",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
"require",
"building",
"consensus",
"in",
"a",
"large",
"-",
"scale",
"un",
"##tr",
"##ust",
"##ed",
"network",
".",
"Traditional",
"distributed",
"consensus",
"approaches",
"are",
"not",
"appropriate",
"in",
"this",
"context",
"because",
"they",
"all",
"inevitably",
"impose",
"a",
"strict",
"logical",
"structure",
"on",
"the",
"members",
"of",
"the",
"system",
",",
"which",
"is",
"not",
"a",
"practical",
"requirement",
"for",
"public",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
".",
"Based",
"on",
"the",
"experiences",
"we",
"learned",
"from",
"Po",
"##W",
"-",
"based",
"consensus",
"in",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
",",
"we",
"formula",
"##te",
"the",
"requirements",
"for",
"reaching",
"consensus",
"in",
"public",
"block",
"##cha",
"##ins",
".",
"•",
"New",
"block",
"creation",
":",
"Typically",
",",
"there",
"is",
"only",
"a",
"single",
"member",
"that",
"could",
"manage",
"to",
"create",
"a",
"new",
"block",
".",
"•",
"New",
"block",
"ve",
"##rification",
"and",
"propagation",
":",
"The",
"new",
"block",
"can",
"be",
"efficiently",
"verified",
",",
"and",
"only",
"valid",
"new",
"blocks",
"are",
"prop",
"##aga",
"##ted",
"throughout",
"the",
"network",
".",
"•",
"Conflict",
"resolution",
":",
"In",
"the",
"rare",
"case",
"where",
"two",
"or",
"more",
"competing",
"blocks",
"are",
"proposed",
",",
"which",
"would",
"cause",
"the",
"fork",
"of",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"only",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"branches",
"will",
"eventually",
"be",
"selected",
"as",
"the",
"correct",
"chain",
".",
"The",
"first",
"requirement",
"is",
"necessary",
"because",
"members",
"independently",
"select",
"transactions",
"to",
"form",
"each",
"new",
"block",
".",
"If",
"there",
"are",
"two",
"or",
"more",
"members",
"that",
"could",
"form",
"new",
"blocks",
",",
"the",
"new",
"blocks",
"are",
"likely",
"to",
"be",
"different",
".",
"The",
"second",
"requirement",
"is",
"essential",
"to",
"ensure",
"the",
"integrity",
"and",
"via",
"##bility",
"of",
"operating",
"a",
"large",
"-",
"scale",
"network",
".",
"While",
"the",
"creation",
"of",
"a",
"new",
"block",
"can",
"be",
"expensive",
",",
"the",
"ve",
"##rification",
"of",
"the",
"new",
"block",
"must",
"be",
"efficient",
".",
"One",
"essential",
"requirement",
"for",
"ve",
"##rification",
"is",
"that",
"the",
"ve",
"##rification",
"must",
"be",
"non",
"-",
"interactive",
",",
"that",
"is",
",",
"a",
"member",
"who",
"wishes",
"to",
"verify",
"the",
"validity",
"of",
"the",
"new",
"block",
"must",
"not",
"have",
"to",
"explicitly",
"challenge",
"the"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,215 |
dy since early
1980s [1]. Over the years, we have gained important insight on
issues related to distributed consensus as demonstrated in several
seminal works, including the Byzantine generals problem [2], the
FLP impossibility result for asynchronous distributed systems [3],
group communication systems [4-6], practical Byzantine fault
tolerance [7], and the Paxos consensus algorithm [8,9]. In essence,
a distributed consensus consists of two key steps: (1) a propose
step, where one or more members | [
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"the"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,216 |
would propose a value for
consensus; and (2) a voting step, where members of the system
would choose a value for consensus. Note that only a value that
has been proposed by a member can be chosen to prevent trivial
solutions for the consensus problem.
Common to all traditional solutions to the problem of distributed
consensus is a logical structure of the membership where every
member in the system knows its logical position. Furthermore,
typically one of the members carries a (temporary) leade | [
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"##ins",
",",
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"e",
".",
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"##cha",
"##in",
".",
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"##in",
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":",
"•",
"Fresh",
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"Regardless",
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",",
"a",
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"de",
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"precious",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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".",
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"##ability",
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",",
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",",
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"transactions",
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".",
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"##s",
",",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"algorithms",
"with",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"consensus",
"as",
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"in",
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"##g",
".",
"1",
".",
"3",
".",
"1",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
"Two",
"major",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cies",
",",
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"##co",
"##in",
"and",
"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
"use",
"Po",
"##W",
"to",
"achieve",
"consensus",
"on",
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"block",
"creation",
".",
"The",
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"Po",
"##W",
"is",
"to",
"let",
"all",
"members",
"compete",
"to",
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"a",
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"-",
"bound",
"puzzle",
"and",
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"##ever",
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"the",
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"create",
"the",
"next",
"new",
"block",
",",
"which",
"is",
"later",
"verified",
"by",
"all",
"other",
"members",
".",
"This",
"is",
"sort",
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"like",
"winning",
"the",
"lottery",
"due",
"to",
"the",
"un",
"##p",
"##red",
"##ict",
"##ability",
"of",
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"design",
".",
"The",
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"in",
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"##co",
"##in",
"Po",
"##W",
"is",
"entirely",
"based",
"on",
"the",
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"##h",
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"the",
"block",
"header",
",",
"which",
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"possible",
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"use",
"application",
"-",
"specific",
"integrated",
"circuit",
"to",
"drastically",
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"solving",
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".",
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"this",
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",",
"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
"made",
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"both",
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"-",
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"-",
"bound",
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"##c",
"##lic",
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"materials",
"(",
"https",
":",
"/",
"/",
"g",
"##ith",
"##ub",
".",
"com",
"/",
"et",
"##here"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,217 |
would propose a value for
consensus; and (2) a voting step, where members of the system
would choose a value for consensus. Note that only a value that
has been proposed by a member can be chosen to prevent trivial
solutions for the consensus problem.
Common to all traditional solutions to the problem of distributed
consensus is a logical structure of the membership where every
member in the system knows its logical position. Furthermore,
typically one of the members carries a (temporary) leade | [
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"##cha",
"##ins",
",",
"the",
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"(",
"i",
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",",
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",",
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".",
"This",
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"##p",
"##red",
"##ict",
"##ability",
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"known",
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"the",
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",",
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",",
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"transactions",
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".",
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"##s",
",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"algorithms",
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"the",
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"public",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"consensus",
"as",
"illustrated",
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"Fi",
"##g",
".",
"1",
".",
"3",
".",
"1",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
"Two",
"major",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cies",
",",
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"##co",
"##in",
"and",
"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
"use",
"Po",
"##W",
"to",
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"on",
"new",
"block",
"creation",
".",
"The",
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"Po",
"##W",
"is",
"to",
"let",
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"members",
"compete",
"to",
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"a",
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"-",
"bound",
"puzzle",
"and",
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"block",
",",
"which",
"is",
"later",
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"by",
"all",
"other",
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".",
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"winning",
"the",
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"due",
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"the",
"un",
"##p",
"##red",
"##ict",
"##ability",
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".",
"The",
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"##co",
"##in",
"Po",
"##W",
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"header",
",",
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"-",
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",",
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"-",
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"(",
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":",
"/",
"/",
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"com",
"/",
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"##here"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,218 |
rship role
with additional responsibility, which is often referred to as the
primary. This primary bears the responsibility of proposing a
value, and it is initially designated based on the membership
logical formation, and later elected in case the previous primary is
suspected to have failed. We also note that which member is
eligible to be elected is also based on its logical position.
The release of Bitcoin in early 2009 not only disrupted the
financial sector as the first ever digital crypt | [
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"w",
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"/",
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"/",
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".",
"Re",
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"##ments",
"for",
"public",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
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"/",
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"/",
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"/",
"E",
"##tha",
"##sh",
"The",
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"the",
"fresh",
"##ness",
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"puzzle",
",",
"in",
"both",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"and",
"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
",",
"members",
"are",
"asked",
"to",
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"a",
"random",
"number",
"N",
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"the",
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"has",
"##h",
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",",
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"any",
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",",
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".",
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"##ability",
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"##putation",
"power",
",",
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"/",
"Mining",
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",",
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"##co",
"##in",
"every",
"360",
",",
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"##eum",
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"(",
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"4",
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"##co",
"##in",
",",
"conflict",
"resolution",
"is",
"done",
"as",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ono",
"##us",
"##ly",
".",
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"##W",
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",",
"sooner",
"or",
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"one",
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"(",
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")",
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",",
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".",
"In",
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",",
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",",
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".",
"V",
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"##W",
"is",
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"due",
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"the",
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"of",
"has",
"##h",
"-",
"based",
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".",
"Any",
"member",
"can",
"apply",
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"has",
"##h",
"on",
"the",
"block",
"header",
"to",
"see",
"if",
"the",
"has",
"##h",
"value",
"achieve",
"##s"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,219 |
rship role
with additional responsibility, which is often referred to as the
primary. This primary bears the responsibility of proposing a
value, and it is initially designated based on the membership
logical formation, and later elected in case the previous primary is
suspected to have failed. We also note that which member is
eligible to be elected is also based on its logical position.
The release of Bitcoin in early 2009 not only disrupted the
financial sector as the first ever digital crypt | [
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"##ther",
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"/",
"/",
"g",
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"##um",
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"w",
"##iki",
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"w",
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"Mining",
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"=",
"1",
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",",
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"##co",
"##in",
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"360",
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"##co",
"##in",
",",
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"is",
"done",
"as",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ono",
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",",
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"(",
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"to",
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"more",
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",",
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"In",
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",",
"E",
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"[",
"19",
"]",
",",
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".",
"V",
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"##W",
"is",
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"efficient",
"due",
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"has",
"##h",
"-",
"based",
"puzzle",
".",
"Any",
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"can",
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"has",
"##h",
"on",
"the",
"block",
"header",
"to",
"see",
"if",
"the",
"has",
"##h",
"value",
"achieve",
"##s"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,220 |
ocurrency, the
blockchain technology underlying Bitcoin offers a non-traditional
but practical way of achieving a probabilistic distributed
consensus in a very large-scale and untrusted network. Doing so
in such a scale has never been accomplished before.
The key to achieving a distributed consensus practically in a
large-scale untrusted network as in Bitcoin is the Proof of Work
(PoW) algorithm [10]. In this algorithm, the strict logical
structure on the membership is not imposed, in particula | [
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,221 |
ocurrency, the
blockchain technology underlying Bitcoin offers a non-traditional
but practical way of achieving a probabilistic distributed
consensus in a very large-scale and untrusted network. Doing so
in such a scale has never been accomplished before.
The key to achieving a distributed consensus practically in a
large-scale untrusted network as in Bitcoin is the Proof of Work
(PoW) algorithm [10]. In this algorithm, the strict logical
structure on the membership is not imposed, in particula | [
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"##ake",
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"##of",
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"-",
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"##ake",
"-",
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"##Q",
"##s",
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".",
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"##ins",
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"limited",
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"##ther",
"##eum",
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"##S",
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"##ake",
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"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
")",
"Other",
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",",
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",",
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"-",
"scale",
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"not",
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"##ync",
"##hr",
"##onized",
",",
"but",
"very",
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"delay",
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"/",
"or",
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"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zation",
"between",
"members",
"and",
"the",
"presence",
"of",
"as",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##ony",
"in",
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"would",
"inevitably",
"lead",
"to",
"two",
"or",
"more",
"members",
"all",
"think",
"they",
"should",
"be",
"the",
"propose",
"##rs",
"of",
"the",
"next",
"new",
"block",
".",
"Another",
"trade",
"##off",
"of",
"using",
"Po",
"##S",
"is",
"that",
"a",
"member",
"could",
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"two",
"or",
"more",
"branches",
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"due",
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"the",
"removal",
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"-",
"bound",
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"solving",
"requirement",
".",
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",",
"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
"Po",
"##S",
"designed",
"appropriate",
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"on",
"slash",
"##ing",
"the",
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"invested",
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"[",
"21",
"]",
".",
"3",
".",
"3",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Space",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
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"(",
"Po",
"##S",
"##p",
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"was",
"proposed",
"as",
"an",
"alternative",
"to",
"Po",
"##W",
"prior",
"to",
"the",
"creation",
"of",
"the",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
",",
"the",
"first",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,222 |
r, no
member is designated as the primary simply because of its logical
position in the membership. Instead, the distributed consensus
problem is converted into a lottery process, where in most cases,
there is only a single winner, and this winner gets to propose the
new value (i.e., create the new block of transactions). It could
occur that two or more winners are present, in which case, the
conflict is resolved asynchronously, in a way similar to what has
been done in optimistic replication [11- | [
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"Other"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,223 |
r, no
member is designated as the primary simply because of its logical
position in the membership. Instead, the distributed consensus
problem is converted into a lottery process, where in most cases,
there is only a single winner, and this winner gets to propose the
new value (i.e., create the new block of transactions). It could
occur that two or more winners are present, in which case, the
conflict is resolved asynchronously, in a way similar to what has
been done in optimistic replication [11- | [
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"asks",
"the",
"prove",
"##r",
"to",
"demonstrate",
"that",
"it",
"indeed",
"dedicated",
"sufficient",
"disk",
"space",
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"store",
"the",
"necessary",
"information",
"as",
"requested",
"by",
"the",
"ve",
"##ri",
"##fie",
"##r",
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"##r",
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".",
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"-",
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"is",
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"insufficient",
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"(",
"i",
".",
"e",
".",
",",
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",",
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",",
"disk",
",",
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")",
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"participate",
"in",
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".",
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"this",
"requirement",
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"##s",
"the",
"difficulty",
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"a",
"ma",
"##lic",
"##ious",
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",",
"it",
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"##W",
"happens",
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"a",
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"fit",
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"highly",
"likely",
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"member",
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"a",
"time",
"for",
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"block",
".",
"Other",
"Pro",
"##of",
"-",
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"-",
"*",
"algorithms",
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"this",
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",",
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"the",
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"Po",
"##S",
"##p",
"as",
"well",
"as",
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"##S",
".",
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"the",
"difficulty",
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"creating",
"a",
"new",
"block",
",",
"even",
"if",
"we",
"employ",
"Po",
"##S",
"##p",
"only",
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"##ity",
"stage",
",",
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"are",
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".",
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",",
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"fresh",
"##ness",
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"each",
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",",
"new",
"data",
"structures",
"must",
"be",
"deployed",
"at",
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".",
"How",
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"do",
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"is",
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".",
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",",
"ve",
"##rification",
"in",
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"##S",
"##p",
"is",
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"prove",
"##r",
"must",
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"challenge",
".",
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"scale",
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"the",
"public",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"networks",
",",
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"practical",
"either",
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".",
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"Pro",
"##of",
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"El",
"##ap",
"##sed",
"Time",
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"##of",
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"el",
"##ap",
"##sed",
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"Po",
"##ET",
")",
"is",
"based",
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"the",
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"execution",
"hardware",
"platform",
"offered",
"by",
"Intel",
".",
"Other"
] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,224 |
16]. That is, PoW
consensus does not guarantee that there is at most one value to be
chosen at any given time. However, should inconsistency occur, it
will be resolved eventually.
To offer a fair playing ground to all members so that everyone has
a chance to win the lottery and no one can cheat, PoW makes
everyone solve a CPU-bound puzzle, and the first one who solves
the puzzle becomes the lottery winner. This design is elegant and
sound in security, however, it leads to a huge cost in energy
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,225 |
16]. That is, PoW
consensus does not guarantee that there is at most one value to be
chosen at any given time. However, should inconsistency occur, it
will be resolved eventually.
To offer a fair playing ground to all members so that everyone has
a chance to win the lottery and no one can cheat, PoW makes
everyone solve a CPU-bound puzzle, and the first one who solves
the puzzle becomes the lottery winner. This design is elegant and
sound in security, however, it leads to a huge cost in energy
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consumption. If there are 1,000 members (referred to as miners in
Bitcoin) competing to certify the new block, then 999 of them will
waste their computation. This is equivalent to 0.1% energy
efficiency (or 99.9% waste) for reaching a consensus!
To address this issue, several alternative blockchain consensus
algorithms have been proposed, such as Proof of Stake [17], Proof
of Space [18], Proof of Activity [19], Proof of Elapsed Time,
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,227 |
consumption. If there are 1,000 members (referred to as miners in
Bitcoin) competing to certify the new block, then 999 of them will
waste their computation. This is equivalent to 0.1% energy
efficiency (or 99.9% waste) for reaching a consensus!
To address this issue, several alternative blockchain consensus
algorithms have been proposed, such as Proof of Stake [17], Proof
of Space [18], Proof of Activity [19], Proof of Elapsed Time,
Proof of Space Time, and Proof of Burn. Unfortunately, many of
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,228 |
these are not well documented, and some have no publicly
available implementation.
In this paper, we formulate a model for this type of large-scale
distributed consensus problem as we have learned from PoW
implemented in Bitcoin. This type of blockchains is often referred
to as public or permissionless blockchain because anyone could
join the network with sufficient equipment and minimum
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for
personal or classroom use is grant | [
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these are not well documented, and some have no publicly
available implementation.
In this paper, we formulate a model for this type of large-scale
distributed consensus problem as we have learned from PoW
implemented in Bitcoin. This type of blockchains is often referred
to as public or permissionless blockchain because anyone could
join the network with sufficient equipment and minimum
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for
personal or classroom use is grant | [
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ed without fee provided that copies are
not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that
copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy
otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists,
requires prior specific permission and/or a fee.
ICBCT'19, March 15–18, 2019, Hawaii, HI, USA.
Copyright 2019 ACM 1-58113-000-0/00/0010 …$15.00.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3320154.3320162
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] | On consensus in public blockchains | 1,231 |
Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System
Satoshi Nakamoto
[email protected]
www.bitcoin.org
Abstract. A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online
payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a
financial institution. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main
benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending.
We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer- | [
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"-",
"of",
"-",
"work",
"chain",
"as",
"proof",
"of",
"what",
"happened",
"while",
"they",
"were",
"gone",
".",
"1",
".",
"Introduction",
"Commerce",
"on",
"the",
"Internet",
"has",
"come",
"to",
"rely",
"almost",
"exclusively",
"on",
"financial",
"institutions",
"serving",
"as",
"trusted",
"third",
"parties",
"to",
"process",
"electronic",
"payments",
".",
"While",
"the",
"system",
"works",
"well",
"enough",
"for",
"most",
"transactions",
",",
"it",
"still",
"suffers",
"from",
"the",
"inherent",
"weaknesses",
"of",
"the",
"trust",
"based",
"model",
".",
"Complete",
"##ly",
"non",
"-",
"re",
"##versible",
"transactions",
"are",
"not",
"really",
"possible",
",",
"since",
"financial",
"institutions",
"cannot",
"avoid",
"media",
"##ting",
"disputes",
".",
"The",
"cost",
"of",
"media",
"##tion",
"increases",
"transaction",
"costs",
",",
"limiting",
"the",
"minimum",
"practical",
"transaction",
"size",
"and",
"cutting",
"off",
"the",
"possibility",
"for",
"small",
"casual",
"transactions",
",",
"and",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"broader",
"cost",
"in",
"the",
"loss",
"of",
"ability",
"to",
"make",
"non",
"-",
"re",
"##versible",
"payments",
"for",
"non",
"-",
"re",
"##versible",
"services",
".",
"With",
"the",
"possibility",
"of",
"reversal",
",",
"the",
"need",
"for",
"trust",
"spreads",
".",
"Merchant",
"##s",
"must",
"be",
"wary",
"of",
"their",
"customers",
",",
"has",
"##s",
"##ling",
"them",
"for",
"more",
"information",
"than",
"they",
"would",
"otherwise",
"need",
".",
"A",
"certain",
"percentage",
"of",
"fraud",
"is",
"accepted",
"as",
"un",
"##av",
"##oid",
"##able",
".",
"These",
"costs",
"and",
"payment",
"uncertain",
"##ties",
"can",
"be",
"avoided",
"in",
"person",
"by",
"using",
"physical",
"currency",
",",
"but",
"no",
"mechanism",
"exists",
"to",
"make",
"payments",
"over",
"a",
"communications",
"channel",
"without",
"a",
"trusted",
"party",
".",
"What",
"is",
"needed",
"is",
"an",
"electronic",
"payment",
"system",
"based",
"on",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##ographic",
"proof",
"instead",
"of",
"trust",
",",
"allowing",
"any",
"two",
"willing",
"parties",
"to",
"trans",
"##act",
"directly",
"with",
"each",
"other",
"without",
"the",
"need",
"for",
"a",
"trusted",
"third",
"party",
".",
"Trans"
] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,232 |
Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System
Satoshi Nakamoto
[email protected]
www.bitcoin.org
Abstract. A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online
payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a
financial institution. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main
benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending.
We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer- | [
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"Trans"
] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,233 |
to-peer network.
The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of
hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing
the proof-of-work. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of
events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As
long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to
attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers. The | [
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"##actions",
"that",
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"##ly",
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"mechanisms",
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".",
"In",
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",",
"we",
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"-",
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"-",
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"-",
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"##tam",
"##p",
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"We",
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"A",
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",",
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"The",
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"We",
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"To",
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",",
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"[",
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"##tam",
"##p",
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"Use",
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"[",
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"-",
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"##p",
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"the",
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",",
"obviously",
",",
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"get",
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"##h"
] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,234 |
to-peer network.
The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of
hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing
the proof-of-work. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of
events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As
long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to
attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers. The | [
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"would",
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",",
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"es",
"##crow",
"mechanisms",
"could",
"easily",
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"implemented",
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"protect",
"buyers",
".",
"In",
"this",
"paper",
",",
"we",
"propose",
"a",
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"the",
"double",
"-",
"spending",
"problem",
"using",
"a",
"peer",
"-",
"to",
"-",
"peer",
"distributed",
"times",
"##tam",
"##p",
"server",
"to",
"generate",
"computational",
"proof",
"of",
"the",
"ch",
"##ronological",
"order",
"of",
"transactions",
".",
"The",
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"is",
"secure",
"as",
"long",
"as",
"honest",
"nodes",
"collectively",
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"more",
"CPU",
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"co",
"##oper",
"##ating",
"group",
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"attacker",
"nodes",
".",
"1",
"2",
".",
"Trans",
"##actions",
"We",
"define",
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"electronic",
"coin",
"as",
"a",
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"signatures",
".",
"Each",
"owner",
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"the",
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"signing",
"a",
"has",
"##h",
"of",
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"and",
"the",
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"key",
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"the",
"next",
"owner",
"and",
"adding",
"these",
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"the",
"end",
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"the",
"coin",
".",
"A",
"pay",
"##ee",
"can",
"verify",
"the",
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"to",
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"the",
"chain",
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"ownership",
".",
"The",
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"is",
"the",
"pay",
"##ee",
"can",
"'",
"t",
"verify",
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"one",
"of",
"the",
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"did",
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"double",
"-",
"spend",
"the",
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".",
"A",
"common",
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"a",
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"central",
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",",
"or",
"mint",
",",
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".",
"After",
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",",
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",",
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"double",
"-",
"spent",
".",
"The",
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"with",
"this",
"solution",
"is",
"that",
"the",
"fate",
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"entire",
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"the",
"mint",
",",
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"having",
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"go",
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",",
"just",
"like",
"a",
"bank",
".",
"We",
"need",
"a",
"way",
"for",
"the",
"pay",
"##ee",
"to",
"know",
"that",
"the",
"previous",
"owners",
"did",
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".",
"For",
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",",
"the",
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",",
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"'",
"t",
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"double",
"-",
"spend",
".",
"The",
"only",
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"confirm",
"the",
"absence",
"of",
"a",
"transaction",
"is",
"to",
"be",
"aware",
"of",
"all",
"transactions",
".",
"In",
"the",
"mint",
"based",
"model",
",",
"the",
"mint",
"was",
"aware",
"of",
"all",
"transactions",
"and",
"decided",
"which",
"arrived",
"first",
".",
"To",
"accomplish",
"this",
"without",
"a",
"trusted",
"party",
",",
"transactions",
"must",
"be",
"publicly",
"announced",
"[",
"1",
"]",
",",
"and",
"we",
"need",
"a",
"system",
"for",
"participants",
"to",
"agree",
"on",
"a",
"single",
"history",
"of",
"the",
"order",
"in",
"which",
"they",
"were",
"received",
".",
"The",
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"##ee",
"needs",
"proof",
"that",
"at",
"the",
"time",
"of",
"each",
"transaction",
",",
"the",
"majority",
"of",
"nodes",
"agreed",
"it",
"was",
"the",
"first",
"received",
".",
"3",
".",
"Times",
"##tam",
"##p",
"Server",
"The",
"solution",
"we",
"propose",
"begins",
"with",
"a",
"times",
"##tam",
"##p",
"server",
".",
"A",
"times",
"##tam",
"##p",
"server",
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"taking",
"a",
"has",
"##h",
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"a",
"block",
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"be",
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"##tam",
"##ped",
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"publishing",
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"has",
"##h",
",",
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"as",
"in",
"a",
"newspaper",
"or",
"Use",
"##net",
"post",
"[",
"2",
"-",
"5",
"]",
".",
"The",
"times",
"##tam",
"##p",
"proves",
"that",
"the",
"data",
"must",
"have",
"existed",
"at",
"the",
"time",
",",
"obviously",
",",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"get",
"into",
"the",
"has",
"##h"
] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,235 |
network itself requires minimal structure. Messages are broadcast on a best effort
basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the longest
proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone.
1. Introduction
Commerce on the Internet has come to rely almost exclusively on financial institutions serving as
trusted third parties to process electronic payments. While the system works well enough for
most transactions, it still suffers from the inheren | [
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t weaknesses of the trust based model.
Completely non-reversible transactions are not really possible, since financial institutions cannot
avoid mediating disputes. The cost of mediation increases transaction costs, limiting the
minimum practical transaction size and cutting off the possibility for small casual transactions,
and there is a broader cost in the loss of ability to make non-reversible payments for non-
reversible services. With the possibility of reversa | [
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t weaknesses of the trust based model.
Completely non-reversible transactions are not really possible, since financial institutions cannot
avoid mediating disputes. The cost of mediation increases transaction costs, limiting the
minimum practical transaction size and cutting off the possibility for small casual transactions,
and there is a broader cost in the loss of ability to make non-reversible payments for non-
reversible services. With the possibility of reversa | [
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] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,238 |
l, the need for trust spreads. Merchants must
be wary of their customers, hassling them for more information than they would otherwise need.
A certain percentage of fraud is accepted as unavoidable. These costs and payment uncertainties
can be avoided in person by using physical currency, but no mechanism exists to make payments
over a communications channel without a trusted party.
What is needed is an electronic payment system based on cryptographic proof instead of trust,
allowing any two willi | [
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l, the need for trust spreads. Merchants must
be wary of their customers, hassling them for more information than they would otherwise need.
A certain percentage of fraud is accepted as unavoidable. These costs and payment uncertainties
can be avoided in person by using physical currency, but no mechanism exists to make payments
over a communications channel without a trusted party.
What is needed is an electronic payment system based on cryptographic proof instead of trust,
allowing any two willi | [
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] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,240 |
ng parties to transact directly with each other without the need for a trusted
third party. Transactions that are computationally impractical to reverse would protect sellers
from fraud, and routine escrow mechanisms could easily be implemented to protect buyers. In
this paper, we propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer distributed
timestamp server to generate computational proof of the chronological order of transactions. The
system is secure as long as honest | [
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".",
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".",
".",
".",
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".",
".",
".",
"Has",
"##h",
"##01",
"Has",
"##h",
"##2",
"Has",
"##h",
"##3",
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"##23",
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","
] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,241 |
nodes collectively control more CPU power than any
cooperating group of attacker nodes.
1
2. Transactions
We define an electronic coin as a chain of digital signatures. Each owner transfers the coin to the
next by digitally signing a hash of the previous transaction and the public key of the next owner
and adding these to the end of the coin. A payee can verify the signatures to verify the chain of
ownership.
The problem of course is the payee can't verify that one of the owners did no | [
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"but",
"privacy",
"can",
"still",
"be",
"maintained",
"by",
"breaking",
"the",
"flow",
"of",
"information",
"in",
"another",
"place",
":",
"by",
"keeping",
"public",
"keys",
"anonymous",
".",
"The",
"public",
"can",
"see",
"that",
"someone",
"is",
"sending",
"an",
"amount",
"to",
"someone",
"else",
",",
"but",
"without",
"information",
"linking",
"the",
"transaction",
"to",
"anyone",
".",
"This",
"is",
"similar",
"to",
"the",
"level",
"of",
"information",
"released",
"by",
"stock",
"exchanges",
",",
"where",
"the",
"time",
"and",
"size",
"of",
"individual",
"trades",
",",
"the",
"\"",
"tape",
"\"",
",",
"is",
"made",
"public",
",",
"but",
"without",
"telling",
"who",
"the",
"parties",
"were",
".",
"As",
"an",
"additional",
"fire",
"##wall",
",",
"a",
"new",
"key",
"pair",
"should",
"be",
"used",
"for",
"each",
"transaction",
"to",
"keep",
"them",
"from",
"being",
"linked",
"to",
"a",
"common",
"owner",
".",
"Some",
"linking",
"is",
"still",
"un",
"##av",
"##oid",
"##able",
"with",
"multi",
"-",
"input",
"transactions",
",",
"which",
"necessarily",
"reveal",
"that",
"their",
"inputs",
"were",
"owned",
"by",
"the",
"same",
"owner",
".",
"The",
"risk",
"is",
"that",
"if",
"the",
"owner",
"of",
"a",
"key",
"is",
"revealed",
",",
"linking",
"could",
"reveal",
"other",
"transactions",
"that",
"belonged",
"to",
"the",
"same",
"owner",
".",
"11",
".",
"Cal",
"##cula",
"##tions",
"We",
"consider",
"the",
"scenario",
"of",
"an",
"attacker",
"trying",
"to",
"generate",
"an",
"alternate",
"chain",
"faster",
"than",
"the",
"honest",
"chain",
".",
"Even",
"if",
"this",
"is",
"accomplished",
",",
"it",
"does",
"not",
"throw",
"the",
"system",
"open",
"to",
"arbitrary",
"changes",
",",
"such",
"as",
"creating",
"value",
"out",
"of",
"thin",
"air",
"or",
"taking",
"money",
"that",
"never",
"belonged",
"to",
"the",
"attacker",
".",
"No",
"##des",
"are",
"not",
"going",
"to",
"accept",
"an",
"invalid",
"transaction",
"as",
"payment",
",",
"and",
"honest",
"nodes",
"will",
"never",
"accept",
"a",
"block",
"containing",
"them",
".",
"An",
"attacker",
"can",
"only",
"try",
"to",
"change",
"one",
"of",
"his",
"own",
"transactions",
"to",
"take",
"back",
"money",
"he",
"recently",
"spent",
".",
"The",
"race",
"between",
"the",
"honest",
"chain",
"and",
"an",
"attacker",
"chain",
"can",
"be",
"characterized",
"as",
"a",
"Bin",
"##omi",
"##al",
"Random",
"Walk",
".",
"The",
"success",
"event",
"is",
"the",
"honest",
"chain",
"being",
"extended",
"by",
"one",
"block",
",",
"increasing",
"its",
"lead",
"by",
"+",
"1",
",",
"and",
"the",
"failure",
"event",
"is",
"the",
"attacker",
"'",
"s",
"chain",
"being",
"extended",
"by",
"one",
"block",
",",
"reducing",
"the",
"gap",
"by",
"-",
"1",
".",
"The",
"probability",
"of",
"an",
"attacker",
"catching",
"up",
"from",
"a",
"given",
"deficit",
"is",
"analogous",
"to",
"a",
"G",
"##amble",
"##r",
"'",
"s",
"R",
"##uin",
"problem",
".",
"Su",
"##pp",
"##ose",
"a",
"g",
"##amble",
"##r",
"with",
"unlimited",
"credit",
"starts",
"at",
"a",
"deficit",
"and",
"plays",
"potentially",
"an",
"infinite",
"number",
"of",
"trials",
"to",
"try",
"to",
"reach",
"break",
"##eve",
"##n",
".",
"We",
"can",
"calculate",
"the",
"probability",
"he",
"ever",
"reaches",
"break",
"##eve",
"##n",
",",
"or",
"that",
"an",
"attacker",
"ever",
"catches",
"up",
"with",
"the",
"honest",
"chain",
",",
"as",
"follows",
"[",
"8",
"]",
":",
"p",
"=",
"probability",
"an",
"honest",
"node",
"finds",
"the",
"next",
"block",
"q",
"=",
"probability",
"the",
"attacker",
"finds",
"the",
"next",
"block",
"q",
"##z",
"=",
"probability",
"the",
"attacker",
"will",
"ever",
"catch",
"up",
"from",
"z",
"blocks",
"behind",
"q",
"z",
"=",
"{",
"1",
"if",
"p",
"##≤",
"##q",
"##q",
"/",
"p",
"##z",
"if",
"p",
"##q",
"}",
"6",
"I",
"##dent",
"##ities",
"Trans",
"##actions",
"Trust",
"##ed",
"Third",
"Party",
"Counter",
"##par",
"##ty",
"Public",
"I",
"##dent",
"##ities",
"Trans",
"##actions",
"Public",
"New",
"P",
"##ri",
"##va",
"##cy",
"Model",
"Traditional",
"P",
"##ri",
"##va",
"##cy",
"Model",
"Given",
"our",
"assumption",
"that",
"p",
">",
"q",
",",
"the",
"probability",
"drops",
"ex",
"##po",
"##nent"
] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,242 |
t double-spend
the coin. A common solution is to introduce a trusted central authority, or mint, that checks every
transaction for double spending. After each transaction, the coin must be returned to the mint to
issue a new coin, and only coins issued directly from the mint are trusted not to be double-spent.
The problem with this solution is that the fate of the entire money system depends on the
company running the mint, with every transaction having to go through them, just like a | [
21323,
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bank.
We need a way for the payee to know that the previous owners did not sign any earlier
transactions. For our purposes, the earliest transaction is the one that counts, so we don't care
about later attempts to double-spend. The only way to confirm the absence of a transaction is to
be aware of all transactions. In the mint based model, the mint was aware of all transactions and
decided which arrived first. To accomplish this without a trusted party, transactions must be
publicly announc | [
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ed [1], and we need a system for participants to agree on a single history of the
order in which they were received. The payee needs proof that at the time of each transaction, the
majority of nodes agreed it was the first received.
3. Timestamp Server
The solution we propose begins with a timestamp server. A timestamp server works by taking a
hash of a block of items to be timestamped and widely publishing the hash, such as in a
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] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,245 |
ed [1], and we need a system for participants to agree on a single history of the
order in which they were received. The payee needs proof that at the time of each transaction, the
majority of nodes agreed it was the first received.
3. Timestamp Server
The solution we propose begins with a timestamp server. A timestamp server works by taking a
hash of a block of items to be timestamped and widely publishing the hash, such as in a
newspa | [
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] | Bitcoin A Peer toPeer Electronic Cash System | 1,246 |
Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Ci | [
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Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Ci | [
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tation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.DOI
Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic
Literature Review
CHARLES SHEN1, FENIOSKY PENA-MORA2
1Advanced ConsTruction and InfOrmation techNology (ACTION) Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA (e-mail:
[email protected])
2Center for Buildings, Infrastructure and Public Space, Columbia University, | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,249 |
tation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.DOI
Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic
Literature Review
CHARLES SHEN1, FENIOSKY PENA-MORA2
1Advanced ConsTruction and InfOrmation techNology (ACTION) Laboratory, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027 USA (e-mail:
[email protected])
2Center for Buildings, Infrastructure and Public Space, Columbia University, | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,250 |
New York, NY 10027 USA (e-mail: [email protected]
Corresponding author: Charles Shen (e-mail: [email protected]).
ABSTRACT Blockchain is considered one of the most disruptive technologies of our time. Numerous cities
around the world are launching blockchain initiatives as part of the overall efforts towards shaping the urban
future. However, the infancy stage of the blockchain industry leads to a severe gap between the knowledge
we have and the actions urban policy makers are taking. This p | [
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",",
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"through"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,251 |
New York, NY 10027 USA (e-mail: [email protected]
Corresponding author: Charles Shen (e-mail: [email protected]).
ABSTRACT Blockchain is considered one of the most disruptive technologies of our time. Numerous cities
around the world are launching blockchain initiatives as part of the overall efforts towards shaping the urban
future. However, the infancy stage of the blockchain industry leads to a severe gap between the knowledge
we have and the actions urban policy makers are taking. This p | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,252 |
aper is an effort to narrow this rift. We provide
a systematic literature review on concrete blockchain use cases proposed by the research community. At the
macro-level, we discuss and organize use cases from 159 selected papers into 9 sectors recognized as crucial
for sustainable and smart urban future. At the micro-level, we identify a component-based framework and
analyze the design and prototypes of blockchain systems studied in a subset of 71 papers. The high-level use
case review allows us to illust | [
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rate the relationship between them and the four pillars of urban sustainability:
social, economic, environmental and governmental. The system level analysis helps us highlight interesting
inconsistencies between well-known blockchain applicability decision rules and the approaches taken by
the literature. We also offer two classification methodologies for blockchain use cases and elaborate on how
they can be applied to stimulate cross-sector insights in the blockchain knowledge domain.
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"##OL"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,254 |
rate the relationship between them and the four pillars of urban sustainability:
social, economic, environmental and governmental. The system level analysis helps us highlight interesting
inconsistencies between well-known blockchain applicability decision rules and the approaches taken by
the literature. We also offer two classification methodologies for blockchain use cases and elaborate on how
they can be applied to stimulate cross-sector insights in the blockchain knowledge domain.
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,255 |
n, blockchain, computer networks, consensus, crypto token, distributed computing,
Ethereum, Hyperledger Fabric, systematic literature review, smart city, smart contract, system analysis and
design, peer-to-peer computing, urban sustainability, use case.
I. INTRODUCTION
C ITIES are facing tremendous pressures from challengesassociated with rapid urbanization. The United Nations
estimates that 4.2 billion or 55% of the worlds' population
lives in urban areas in 2018 and a 25 billion or 13% will
be added b | [
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"by",
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",",
"hence"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,256 |
n, blockchain, computer networks, consensus, crypto token, distributed computing,
Ethereum, Hyperledger Fabric, systematic literature review, smart city, smart contract, system analysis and
design, peer-to-peer computing, urban sustainability, use case.
I. INTRODUCTION
C ITIES are facing tremendous pressures from challengesassociated with rapid urbanization. The United Nations
estimates that 4.2 billion or 55% of the worlds' population
lives in urban areas in 2018 and a 25 billion or 13% will
be added b | [
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"##ther",
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,257 |
y 2050 [1]. City growth gives rise to not only
population explosion, but also severe issues such as traffic
congestion, pollution, non-renewable resource depletion, and
increasing social inequality [2]–[4]. These urban problems do
not respect borders of the nations or limits between industrial
domains [5]. Great responsibilities on solving them lie at the
city level, where conflicts regarding economic, social and
environmental development are often managed. Some even
say that "Mayors rule the world" [6].
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"the",
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"##ator",
".",
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",",
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"##oma",
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",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"##cha",
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"After",
"a",
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"(",
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".",
"g",
".",
",",
"6",
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"the",
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"##co",
"##in",
")",
"of"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,258 |
y 2050 [1]. City growth gives rise to not only
population explosion, but also severe issues such as traffic
congestion, pollution, non-renewable resource depletion, and
increasing social inequality [2]–[4]. These urban problems do
not respect borders of the nations or limits between industrial
domains [5]. Great responsibilities on solving them lie at the
city level, where conflicts regarding economic, social and
environmental development are often managed. Some even
say that "Mayors rule the world" [6].
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"of"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,259 |
For the past decades, numerous urban sustainability and
smart cities frameworks have been proposed [7]–[10]. They
provide tools to help urban policy makers make decisions,
take actions, and assess the cities' progress towards a more
sustainable future [11].
Recently, researchers started to advocate the notion of
"blockchain cities" [5] as the next wave in transforming the
urban context to meet the urbanization challenges. In this
regard, blockchain may be compared to a General Purpose
Technology [12] t | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,260 |
For the past decades, numerous urban sustainability and
smart cities frameworks have been proposed [7]–[10]. They
provide tools to help urban policy makers make decisions,
take actions, and assess the cities' progress towards a more
sustainable future [11].
Recently, researchers started to advocate the notion of
"blockchain cities" [5] as the next wave in transforming the
urban context to meet the urbanization challenges. In this
regard, blockchain may be compared to a General Purpose
Technology [12] t | [
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hat is "complementary to human and or-
ganizational capital and whose usage is shaped by political
choice and by the urban ecosystem of the citizens, technology
vendors and local authorities, depending on the city's needs
and habits" [10]. Many believe that blockchain is poised to
play an important role in the sustainable development of the
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,262 |
hat is "complementary to human and or-
ganizational capital and whose usage is shaped by political
choice and by the urban ecosystem of the citizens, technology
vendors and local authorities, depending on the city's needs
and habits" [10]. Many believe that blockchain is poised to
play an important role in the sustainable development of the
global economy [13], improving people's quality of life and
ultimately bringing fundamental changes to the world we live
[14]. A World Economic Forum report estimates | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,263 |
that 10% of
global GDP will be stored on blockchain technology by year
2027 [15].
Blockchain features a decentralized shared database
that provides transparency and immutability of transaction
records. Initially implemented by the well-known cryptocur-
rency Bitcoin [16], it later evolves to offer a trust-free plat-
form for execution of arbitrary business logic through many
alternative blockchain platforms, for instance, Ethereum [17]
VOLUME 4, 2016 1
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and conten | [
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"."
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,264 |
that 10% of
global GDP will be stored on blockchain technology by year
2027 [15].
Blockchain features a decentralized shared database
that provides transparency and immutability of transaction
records. Initially implemented by the well-known cryptocur-
rency Bitcoin [16], it later evolves to offer a trust-free plat-
form for execution of arbitrary business logic through many
alternative blockchain platforms, for instance, Ethereum [17]
VOLUME 4, 2016 1
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and conten | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,265 |
t mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,266 |
t mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
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"It",
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",",
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"therefore",
"eliminating",
"the",
"computational",
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".",
"But",
"the",
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"-",
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",",
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"may",
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"replaced",
"by",
"a",
"chain",
"reconstructed",
"from",
"the",
"genes",
"##is",
"block",
".",
"There",
"are",
"various",
"efforts",
"trying",
"to",
"address",
"these",
"short",
"##coming",
"##s",
".",
"For",
"example",
",",
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"##d",
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"valid",
"##ators",
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",",
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"these",
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"-",
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"behave",
"prop",
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"##UM",
"##E",
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",",
"2016",
"216",
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"35",
"##36",
"(",
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"2018",
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".",
"Translation",
"##s",
"and",
"content",
"mining",
"are",
"permitted",
"for",
"academic",
"research",
"only",
".",
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"permitted",
",",
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"##ation",
"/",
"red",
"##ist",
"##ri",
"##but",
"##ion",
"requires",
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"permission",
".",
"See",
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":",
"/",
"/",
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".",
"i",
"##ee",
"##e",
".",
"org",
"/",
"publications",
"_",
"standards",
"/",
"publications",
"/",
"rights",
"/",
"index",
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"html",
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".",
"This",
"article",
"has",
"been",
"accepted",
"for",
"publication",
"in",
"a",
"future",
"issue",
"of",
"this",
"journal",
",",
"but",
"has",
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"been",
"fully",
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"may",
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":",
"D",
"##O",
"##I",
"10",
".",
"110",
"##9",
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".",
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".",
"288",
"##0",
"##7",
"##44",
",",
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"Access",
"Shen",
"et",
"al",
".",
":",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"for",
"Cities",
"-",
"A",
"System",
"##atic",
"Literature",
"Review",
"er",
"##ly",
".",
"While",
"delegate",
"##d",
"proof",
"-",
"of",
"-",
"stake",
"is",
"more",
"re",
"##si",
"##lient",
"to",
"the",
"problems",
"with",
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"proof",
"-",
"of",
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"stake",
"mechanism",
",",
"it",
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"'",
"s",
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"##ization",
".",
"C",
".",
"F",
"##RO",
"##M",
"P",
"##ER",
"##MI",
"##SS",
"##ION",
"##LE",
"##SS",
"TO",
"P",
"##ER",
"##MI",
"##SS",
"##ION",
"##ED",
"In",
"the",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"model",
",",
"any",
"node",
"can",
"join",
"and",
"participate",
"in",
"the",
"peer",
"-",
"to",
"-",
"peer",
"network",
",",
"so",
"it",
"is",
"called",
"a",
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"##less",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"It",
"is",
"similar",
"to",
"the",
"Internet",
"model",
",",
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"virtually",
"any",
"node",
"can",
"connect",
"and",
"become",
"part",
"of"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,267 |
Systematic Literature Review
and Hyperledger Fabric [18]. These continuously evolving
blockchain technologies are increasingly considered a dis-
ruptive force to virtually every sector of the society [19]–[22].
Many cities around the world have reported blockchain-
related initiatives, such as those in Australia, China, Den-
mark, United Arab Emirates, Estonia, Georgia, Ghana, Hon-
duras, Malta, Russia, Sweden, Singapore, Spain, Switzer-
land, United Kingdom, Ukraine, United States (US) [23]–
[27]. Citi | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,268 |
Systematic Literature Review
and Hyperledger Fabric [18]. These continuously evolving
blockchain technologies are increasingly considered a dis-
ruptive force to virtually every sector of the society [19]–[22].
Many cities around the world have reported blockchain-
related initiatives, such as those in Australia, China, Den-
mark, United Arab Emirates, Estonia, Georgia, Ghana, Hon-
duras, Malta, Russia, Sweden, Singapore, Spain, Switzer-
land, United Kingdom, Ukraine, United States (US) [23]–
[27]. Citi | [
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",",
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",",
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"[",
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"number",
"of",
"nodes",
"[",
"20",
"]",
".",
"H",
"##yper",
"##ledge"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,269 |
es and states set up various goals and employ
many approaches in the race to lead the blockchain wave.
For example, Dubai is building a single software platform
through which city public sector can launch blockchain
projects, as part of the ambition to become paperless by
2020 [28]; in contrast, Illinois takes a more experimental ap-
proach, launching multiple separate blockchain pilots across
different industrial sectors including governance, education,
health-care and energy, each selecting their own bl | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,270 |
es and states set up various goals and employ
many approaches in the race to lead the blockchain wave.
For example, Dubai is building a single software platform
through which city public sector can launch blockchain
projects, as part of the ambition to become paperless by
2020 [28]; in contrast, Illinois takes a more experimental ap-
proach, launching multiple separate blockchain pilots across
different industrial sectors including governance, education,
health-care and energy, each selecting their own bl | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,271 |
ockchain
platform as appropriate [28]. Zug is developing itself to
be a "crypto valley" through establishing a crypto-friendly
business ecosystem [29]. New York City announced plans to
launch the Blockchain Resource Center as a hub for the city's
blockchain industry and to convene both government and
citizen stakeholders in developing a regulatory environment
that stimulates the overall blockchain industry [30].
Despite all the ongoing blockchain efforts, many also
believe that our current understanding | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,272 |
ockchain
platform as appropriate [28]. Zug is developing itself to
be a "crypto valley" through establishing a crypto-friendly
business ecosystem [29]. New York City announced plans to
launch the Blockchain Resource Center as a hub for the city's
blockchain industry and to convene both government and
citizen stakeholders in developing a regulatory environment
that stimulates the overall blockchain industry [30].
Despite all the ongoing blockchain efforts, many also
believe that our current understanding | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,273 |
of blockchain is pre-
mature and there is a lack of knowledge on where blockchain
technology can provide mentionable societal effects [31].
Sometimes the field is even described as "an innovative tech-
nology searching for use cases" because it is largely unknown
how blockchain could be incorporated to existing digital
services, processes and infrastructures [22]. In a testimony
to the US congress, US Department of Homeland Security's
Science and Technology Division Director Douglas Maughan
also pointed o | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,274 |
of blockchain is pre-
mature and there is a lack of knowledge on where blockchain
technology can provide mentionable societal effects [31].
Sometimes the field is even described as "an innovative tech-
nology searching for use cases" because it is largely unknown
how blockchain could be incorporated to existing digital
services, processes and infrastructures [22]. In a testimony
to the US congress, US Department of Homeland Security's
Science and Technology Division Director Douglas Maughan
also pointed o | [
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"What",
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"too",
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".",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"application",
"has",
"been"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,275 |
ut specific concerns in the blockchain space for
the asymmetries between knowledge and action [32]. Biased
use of the buzzword in fragmented or superficial ways will
lead to more confusion than clarity. Falling into the tendency
to believe that innovative technologies like blockchain can
automatically transform the ecosystem around us will actu-
ally hinder the achievement of the technology's real potential.
Under this mixed backdrop, this paper attempts to ad-
vance the understanding towards how blockch | [
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"[",
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"-",
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"\"",
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"\"",
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"\"",
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"\"",
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"4",
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"2018",
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".",
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"##s",
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"mining",
"are",
"permitted",
"for",
"academic",
"research",
"only",
".",
"Personal",
"use",
"is"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,276 |
ut specific concerns in the blockchain space for
the asymmetries between knowledge and action [32]. Biased
use of the buzzword in fragmented or superficial ways will
lead to more confusion than clarity. Falling into the tendency
to believe that innovative technologies like blockchain can
automatically transform the ecosystem around us will actu-
ally hinder the achievement of the technology's real potential.
Under this mixed backdrop, this paper attempts to ad-
vance the understanding towards how blockch | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,277 |
ain can fit in
the next level of urban development initiatives, by com-
bining foundational frameworks on sustainable and smart
cities with blockchain domain knowledge accumulated by
the research community. Through helping city policy makers,
industrial practitioners and all stakeholders better understand
blockchain use cases in cities, we hope to facilitate decision
makers in planning of blockchain strategy and drive actions
in the most pertinent industrial domains that contribute to
meet the urban growt | [
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h challenges. Our work also serves to
reinforce the notion that blockchain technology by itself will
not transform the city; instead the change requires a political
understanding of technologies, a process approach with focus
on all aspects of public values.
Our research employs a pragmatic methodology to pro-
vide a comprehensive literature review on the blockchain
use cases studied in academic journals and conference
proceedings. Given the enormous number of papers about
blockchain, we confine our work | [
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h challenges. Our work also serves to
reinforce the notion that blockchain technology by itself will
not transform the city; instead the change requires a political
understanding of technologies, a process approach with focus
on all aspects of public values.
Our research employs a pragmatic methodology to pro-
vide a comprehensive literature review on the blockchain
use cases studied in academic journals and conference
proceedings. Given the enormous number of papers about
blockchain, we confine our work | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,280 |
to the portion of papers
that focus on concrete use cases and with extensive system
coverage. Our main contributions are in the following areas:
• We provide an application-oriented use case review of
159 selected papers, and organize them based on a list
of 9 industrial sectors central to 16 major global urban
sustainability and smart city reference frameworks as
identified in [7]. Our review shows how blockchain-
enabled innovations are changing the urban systems and
the ramification of these changes | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,281 |
to the portion of papers
that focus on concrete use cases and with extensive system
coverage. Our main contributions are in the following areas:
• We provide an application-oriented use case review of
159 selected papers, and organize them based on a list
of 9 industrial sectors central to 16 major global urban
sustainability and smart city reference frameworks as
identified in [7]. Our review shows how blockchain-
enabled innovations are changing the urban systems and
the ramification of these changes | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,282 |
for different sectors
of the society. We also illustrate how our application-
oriented review can be used to evaluate the blockchain
application efforts for urban sustainability goals.
• We dive deeper into a subset of 71 papers to exam-
ine more details about their design and implementa-
tion choices. To facilitate the analysis, we propose
a component-based general analysis framework for
blockchain use cases that covers both the external and
internal factors of the blockchain system. We further
show tha | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,283 |
for different sectors
of the society. We also illustrate how our application-
oriented review can be used to evaluate the blockchain
application efforts for urban sustainability goals.
• We dive deeper into a subset of 71 papers to exam-
ine more details about their design and implementa-
tion choices. To facilitate the analysis, we propose
a component-based general analysis framework for
blockchain use cases that covers both the external and
internal factors of the blockchain system. We further
show tha | [
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t the component-based analysis can help iden-
tify gaps in actual blockchain use cases versus common
blockchain applicability criteria.
• We propose two classification methods for blockchain
use cases, one role-based and the other business model
based. We also demonstrate how these taxonomies can
provide insights for cross-sector blockchain application
design and analysis.
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ground knowledge on blockchain technology in Section II
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,285 |
t the component-based analysis can help iden-
tify gaps in actual blockchain use cases versus common
blockchain applicability criteria.
• We propose two classification methods for blockchain
use cases, one role-based and the other business model
based. We also demonstrate how these taxonomies can
provide insights for cross-sector blockchain application
design and analysis.
The structure of this paper is as follows: we present back-
ground knowledge on blockchain technology in Section II
and introduce ou | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,286 |
r research methodology in Section III. Sec-
tion IV provides related work. The next two sections, Sec-
tion V and Section VI contain our main application-oriented
review and components-based analysis of the blockchain
use cases, respectively. They are followed by Section VII
which conducts a further discussion on the analysis results.
Lastly, Section VIII concludes the paper, summarizes its
contributions and limitations, and suggests future work.
II. OVERVIEW OF BLOCKCHAIN
Table 1 lists three representat | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,287 |
r research methodology in Section III. Sec-
tion IV provides related work. The next two sections, Sec-
tion V and Section VI contain our main application-oriented
review and components-based analysis of the blockchain
use cases, respectively. They are followed by Section VII
which conducts a further discussion on the analysis results.
Lastly, Section VIII concludes the paper, summarizes its
contributions and limitations, and suggests future work.
II. OVERVIEW OF BLOCKCHAIN
Table 1 lists three representat | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,288 |
ive blockchain technologies and
their main characteristics, which will be elaborated below to
give an overview of the topic.
A. BITCOIN CRYPTO CURRENCY BLOCKCHAIN
The blockchain concept is known to originate from a paper
on Bitcoin [16] published in 2008 by someone in the name of
Satoshi Nakamoto. Bitcoin is a decentralized crypto currency
and remains the most important blockchain application today.
It is believed that the inventor created Bitcoin to offer an
alternative to the central-bank controlled mo | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,289 |
ive blockchain technologies and
their main characteristics, which will be elaborated below to
give an overview of the topic.
A. BITCOIN CRYPTO CURRENCY BLOCKCHAIN
The blockchain concept is known to originate from a paper
on Bitcoin [16] published in 2008 by someone in the name of
Satoshi Nakamoto. Bitcoin is a decentralized crypto currency
and remains the most important blockchain application today.
It is believed that the inventor created Bitcoin to offer an
alternative to the central-bank controlled mo | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,290 |
netary system,
which many people consider as a cause of the global eco-
nomic crisis around 2008.
2 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been f | [
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netary system,
which many people consider as a cause of the global eco-
nomic crisis around 2008.
2 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been f | [
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ully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
TABLE 1. Representative Blockchain Technologies
Blockchain Technologies Bitcoin [16] Ethereum [17] Hyperledger Fabric [18]
Distributed Consensus Proof-of-Work mechanism In transition from Proof-of-Work to
Proof-of-Stake mechanism
Byzantine Fault Tolerance and other mecha-
nisms
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",",
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",",
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"##lic"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,293 |
en critical to sustain
the crypto currency ecosystem
Ether native token critical to sustain the
decentralized computing platform
Native token not applicable, but application
level tokens are possible
Business Logic Support Very limited scripting Fully programmable smart contract Fully programmable smart contract
Participation Model Permissionless, anyone can join Permissionless, anyone can join Permissioned, only authorized party can join
A typical blockchain consists of a peer-to-peer network
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,294 |
en critical to sustain
the crypto currency ecosystem
Ether native token critical to sustain the
decentralized computing platform
Native token not applicable, but application
level tokens are possible
Business Logic Support Very limited scripting Fully programmable smart contract Fully programmable smart contract
Participation Model Permissionless, anyone can join Permissionless, anyone can join Permissioned, only authorized party can join
A typical blockchain consists of a peer-to-peer network
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,295 |
uter nodes that maintain a decentralized shared
database of records. In the original Bitcoin blockchain, the
records contain transfer transactions of Bitcoin crypto cur-
rency between participating parties. Each party in the trans-
action has a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) private key and
public key pair. The hash value of the public key is used as
the party's identity or transaction address. Transaction parties
sign the transactions using their private key, which could
later be verified by other parti | [
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block. Blocks can only be appended, not deleted.
The outcome is a shared database with an ever-growing list
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1) Proof-of-Work Distributed Consensus
Distributed consensus mechanism is critical for blockchain
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,298 |
ed block
(hereafter referring to as the official validator) is able to
change the state of the database shared by every other peer.
In order to secure this process, the power allocation has to be
associated with some cost and resources to prevent abuse.
The solution employed by the original Bitcoin blockchain
is called proof-of-work, in which nodes have to compete
by calculating a cryptographically sophisticated puzzle. The
characteristics of this puzzle ensures three properties: a node
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,299 |