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ainability? 4. How do we evaluate the blockchain applicability of the found use cases? 5. What appropriate taxonomies of blockchain applications can be derived to facilitate cross-sector use case analysis? Focus on an application oriented use case review under a sustainable and smart city context; propose component-based analysis framework and business model- based taxonomies for cross-sector use case analysis 8 VOLUME 4, 2016 2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,400
academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Revi
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,401
ew TABLE 3. Paper List for Application-oriented Use Case Review Sector List of Papers No. of Papers Governance and citizen engagement [5], [61]–[78] 19 Education, culture, science and innovation [79]–[102] 24 Well-being, health and safety [103]–[130] 28 Economy [131]–[150] 20 Transportation [151]–[172] 22 Energy [173]–[206] 34 Water and waste management [207] 1 Built environment [208]–[214] 7 Natural environment [215]–[218] 4 Total number of papers 159 actors to create public values by providing cond
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,402
ew TABLE 3. Paper List for Application-oriented Use Case Review Sector List of Papers No. of Papers Governance and citizen engagement [5], [61]–[78] 19 Education, culture, science and innovation [79]–[102] 24 Well-being, health and safety [103]–[130] 28 Economy [131]–[150] 20 Transportation [151]–[172] 22 Energy [173]–[206] 34 Water and waste management [207] 1 Built environment [208]–[214] 7 Natural environment [215]–[218] 4 Total number of papers 159 actors to create public values by providing cond
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,403
itions to motivate knowledge generation, exchange and innovation by citizens [229]. This way, the citizens themselves become the best regulators of cities [219]. Open data offers an example of strengthening collective intelligence of city stakeholders to derive innovations, even though at the same time govern- ments should carefully decide how and to which actors this data is opened up [230] and how to protect the confidentiality, privacy and intellectual property rights for data and model development [22
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,404
5]. The blockchain use cases in the surveyed papers tend to discuss solutions on the more progressive side of the digital governance spectrum. In particular, using innovative IT to transform existing processes and better serve citizens (the "smart administration" model) and collaborative urban governance (the "smart urban collaboration" model). 1) Innovative IT Transformation for Existing Processes Under this category, blockchain-based systems have been proposed to transform the government document sha
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,405
ring process. Between the government and the public, [61] de- scribes a system that stamps a government decision on the blockchain to keep an immutable and transparent record to be verified anytime in the future; between government and businesses, [62] designs a system for business to share information with government organizations in a way that helps business both ensure the confidentiality of the infor- mation and avoid liability; between government agencies themselves, [63] presents an inter-agency doc
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,406
ument sharing system, where the requesting agency first looks up a pre- constructed catalog to locate the destination agency and then conducts a direct document sharing exchange with it. The transaction is at the same time recorded on the blockchain for robust and secure access control. There are also blockchain systems targeting at transform- ing two of the most important government processes - one is voting, which forms the government, and the other is taxation, which finances the government. The goal
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,407
of an E- voting system is to achieve anonymity, privacy and trans- parency [64]. Anonymity ensures the non-traceability of the voter's vote. Privacy allows the transaction of the vote to stay hidden, and transparency ensures the public that the voting mechanism cannot not be tampered with. Design of blockchain systems for voting are found in a number of literatures [64]–[69]. Some also produced prototypes [70]– [72]. However, an issue with all these systems is that the authentication of voters at the per
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,408
of an E- voting system is to achieve anonymity, privacy and trans- parency [64]. Anonymity ensures the non-traceability of the voter's vote. Privacy allows the transaction of the vote to stay hidden, and transparency ensures the public that the voting mechanism cannot not be tampered with. Design of blockchain systems for voting are found in a number of literatures [64]–[69]. Some also produced prototypes [70]– [72]. However, an issue with all these systems is that the authentication of voters at the per
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,409
sonal level has to be ensured outside the blockchain. In the area of taxation, blockchain solutions enable tax authorities to have more control over the tax system. [73] describes a private blockchain that can be managed by the tax authority to monitor value-added-tax invoices and keep an immutable record on the taxable transactions, thus preventing tax revenue losses. The system in [74] tackles a different scenario by using the blockchain to track the dividend paid to stakeholders, in order to overcome
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,410
the problem of duplicated tax refund due to forged dividend payment claims. 2) Citizen-centric Collaborative Urban Governance While the urban collaboration perspective is the dominance of transformational ideas in literature on smart city gov- ernance [223], an inherent issue is that the e-governance models associated with smart city initiatives typically rely on Internet-based online tools which are increasingly monopo- lised by a few companies serving as de facto central author- ities [231]. Lack of t
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,411
ransparency and trust on a centralized network infrastructure could be a key factor that hinders the true realization of the citizen participatory governance model. Researchers believe that blockchain has the ability to re- decentralize the Internet [231], enable a decentralized deliv- ery model that allows rethinking complex systems in a more participatory manner [232], and become an important infras- tructure for e-government [233]. Blockchain helps build so- cietal trust with an intrinsic checks and b
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,412
ransparency and trust on a centralized network infrastructure could be a key factor that hinders the true realization of the citizen participatory governance model. Researchers believe that blockchain has the ability to re- decentralize the Internet [231], enable a decentralized deliv- ery model that allows rethinking complex systems in a more participatory manner [232], and become an important infras- tructure for e-government [233]. Blockchain helps build so- cietal trust with an intrinsic checks and b
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,413
alance systems and promotes a society of dignity, recognition, and respect [234] that could be fundamental to the most transformative collab- orative governance model. One project illustrating this vision is [5] which concen- trates on the area of urban policy making. The authors state that current urban codes such as policies, planning, regulations and standards are not up to meeting the ur- ban sustainability challenges due to their top-down delivery and implementation methods. Blockchain-based mechani
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,414
sm makes it possible to truly deliver and execute urban codes bottom-up. A blockchain system [5], [75]–[77] was proposed as a connecting mechanism to create the people's layer of the governance systems that connects urban technologies. In the case of policies and codes, citizens submit their urban needs to the blockchain, which will be prioritized by a blockchain consensus mechanism for the authorities to draft policies. These drafts will be ratified through the blockchain validation capabilities. Further
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,415
transform of these plans into physical forms (e.g., construction of infrastructure projects) can be approved via voting mechanisms on the blockchain as well. The plans and regulations can also be standardized for replicability and scalability purpose, using the same bottom- up approach for citizen participatory standardization. VOLUME 4, 2016 9 2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistrib
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
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ution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review Another related blockchain project shows a citizen- participatory decision suppo
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,417
rt framework under the health- care context [78]. It runs an agent-based simulation model on the blockchain, incorporating rules from expert stakeholders, open data and anonymized volunteer participants data. The project illustrates how such a framework can be helpful in an infectious disease spread scenario, through improving transparent and ethical management of individual data and promoting evidence-based collective decision making. B. EDUCATION, CULTURE, SCIENCE AND INNOVATION 1) Education and Learni
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,418
ng Activities Blockchain systems have been proposed to help maintain an immutable record of the educational process. There are pro- posals that record creative works or ideas to establish schol- arly reputation [79], create continuous log of the learner's activities across different learning organizations [80], enable global higher educational institutions to award course credits to students who completed courses [81], and allow issuance and revocation of educational certificates [82]. Education and other
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,419
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,420
records can be inputs to a general personal archive management system and used by companies and services for verification [85]. A related topic is recording of broader learning activities such as volunteer services. [83] describes a blockchain based system for life-long volunteering. Unlike other systems that focus on scheduling and allocation of tasks, it fosters an open volunteering marketplace supporting intelligent matchmak- ing, gamification, and goal-oriented personal development. Blockchain serve
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,421
records can be inputs to a general personal archive management system and used by companies and services for verification [85]. A related topic is recording of broader learning activities such as volunteer services. [83] describes a blockchain based system for life-long volunteering. Unlike other systems that focus on scheduling and allocation of tasks, it fosters an open volunteering marketplace supporting intelligent matchmak- ing, gamification, and goal-oriented personal development. Blockchain serve
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
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s to store the persistent digital footprints for volunteering activities, assessments and acquired quali- fications, and also gives data sovereignty to the volunteers themselves. [84] is another system that discusses using blockchain to record volunteer service time and activity information. 2) Science, Innovation and IP Protection Scientific researchers are also using blockchains to solve problems associated with the academic community. The use cases cover the whole life cycle from research methodology,
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,423
peer review, manuscript publishing to intellectual property protection. First, at the experimentation stage, to prevent experimental integrity from being damaged by negligence or intentional wrong-doings, [86] proposes a system to record research datasets and results to blockchain and release them when necessary, e.g., upon approval of multiple specified signatories, thus providing an audit trail of research data. [87] suggests using adaptable blockchain-based choreogra- phies for collaborative, reproduc
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,424
ible in silico experiments towards both Robust Accountable Reproducible Explained (RARE) research [235] and Findable Accessible Interoper- able Reusable (FAIR) results. Second, at paper authoring stage, [88] presents a blockchain platform that preserves and measures author contributions based on the edits that authors commit. Third, at the peer-review stage, blockchain system can also stimulate a timely and sustainable review process. As described in [89], a system can reward cryptocurrency to reviewers
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,425
ible in silico experiments towards both Robust Accountable Reproducible Explained (RARE) research [235] and Findable Accessible Interoper- able Reusable (FAIR) results. Second, at paper authoring stage, [88] presents a blockchain platform that preserves and measures author contributions based on the edits that authors commit. Third, at the peer-review stage, blockchain system can also stimulate a timely and sustainable review process. As described in [89], a system can reward cryptocurrency to reviewers
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,426
when a quality review is accepted by the editor. These rewarded currencies could later be used to pay for publishing the reviewer's own authored paper in journals, forming a closed loop incentive mechanism. Forth, at the publishing stage, [90] leverages prior work of semantic web technologies to allow authors to collaborate on an evolution- ary version of the research progress, which could be open for reviews or submitting to conferences or journals. This provides the possibility for a decentralized publi
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,427
shing system (in contrast to the existing system centered on major pub- lishers). By ensuring a single version of truth throughout the paper life cycle, the system can solve the trust issues among the different actors in the publishing ecosystem, including authors, reviewers, publishers and relevant personnels who use bibliometrics to evaluate performance. Last but not least, on intellectual properties, [91] reports a blockchain system that automatically creates a publicly verifiable timestamp for each su
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,428
bmitted manuscript, facilitating its origin time record protection. Use of blockchain for intellectual property protection extends to software as well. [92] and [93] present design of a software licensing validation system for publish- ers, enterprises and end users. Using ownership of crypto- tokens to represent software entitlement, the blockchain en- ables license validation, software updates, license transfers and related functions. [94] discusses a system for licensing of 3D printing models. It links
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
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the model to license data on the blockchain in order to secure the authenticity of printing data and prevent its unauthorized use. 3) Media, Culture and Entertainment Intellectual property protection for digital media is also a common blockchain application [95]. The system in [96] proposes to register self-embedding watermarking processed images on the blockchain in order to preserve transaction trails and content modification histories, and provide tamper detection for digital image management and dis
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,430
tribution. [97] reports a system for multi-media rights management, allow- ing the licensor to control permission of particular licensee to play the designated videos. Blockchain technology appli- cation transforms the roles of third party intermediaries in the media industry, making artists' careers more sustainable by improved overall transparency of the value chain [98]. But there are also cautions on the feasibility of blockchain in the copyright sphere [99]. [100] argues that using blockchain as a fi
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,431
tribution. [97] reports a system for multi-media rights management, allow- ing the licensor to control permission of particular licensee to play the designated videos. Blockchain technology appli- cation transforms the roles of third party intermediaries in the media industry, making artists' careers more sustainable by improved overall transparency of the value chain [98]. But there are also cautions on the feasibility of blockchain in the copyright sphere [99]. [100] argues that using blockchain as a fi
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,432
nancialisation tool through media rights enforcement is unlikely to empower artists but instead will curtail the critical potential of the digital as a mode of production and artistic expression. Examples for blockchain in cultural and entertainment area include [101] which implements a blockchain system that can securely manage transfer, re-selling, validation of concert event tickets to prevent ticket fraud, and [102], a decentralized lottery system to ensure fairness, transparency and privacy of the l
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,433
nancialisation tool through media rights enforcement is unlikely to empower artists but instead will curtail the critical potential of the digital as a mode of production and artistic expression. Examples for blockchain in cultural and entertainment area include [101] which implements a blockchain system that can securely manage transfer, re-selling, validation of concert event tickets to prevent ticket fraud, and [102], a decentralized lottery system to ensure fairness, transparency and privacy of the l
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,434
ottery process. 10 VOLUME 4, 2016 2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information:
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,435
DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review C. WELL-BEING, HEALTH AND SAFETY Healthcare is a prominent area where blockchain could found many use cases that help establish an infrastructure to ensure transparency of medical data, analytical methods, reproducibility of results and improved trust in translational medical value chain [60]. As such, they have the potential of significantly reducing the cost of developing new drugs, diagno
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,436
stic tools, and clinical regimes [236]. The following main categories of use cases are found in the research papers. 1) Clinical Trials and Medical Records Blockchain systems have been proposed to improve the clinical trials process, from keeping track of each steps, such as patient consent and any revision of the clinical trial protocol [103], [104], to managing complex clinical trial data and preventing them from unauthorized manipulation [105]. Many papers presented concepts and designs of systems th
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,437
at target at enabling secure, interoperable, and efficient access to medical records by patients, providers, and third parties. They place emphasis on access control challenges associated with sensitive data storage [106], preserving data privacy and integrity [107], storage and retrieval [108] and cross-domain medical image data sharing [109]. Blockchain prototypes of such systems have been reported both for general purpose medical records [110], [111] and for par- ticular medical areas such as oncology
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,438
at target at enabling secure, interoperable, and efficient access to medical records by patients, providers, and third parties. They place emphasis on access control challenges associated with sensitive data storage [106], preserving data privacy and integrity [107], storage and retrieval [108] and cross-domain medical image data sharing [109]. Blockchain prototypes of such systems have been reported both for general purpose medical records [110], [111] and for par- ticular medical areas such as oncology
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,439
patient care [112]. In addition, [113] presents a system specifically for medical data access control between cloud service providers. The effort in [114] ensures data access accuracy for public reference biomedical databases by providing query notary. Some proposed systems also include collecting medical data in mobile environment. The systems in [115] and [116] generate health record data from patient's smart devices and register them to the blockchain network for tamper- resiliency. The concept of app
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,440
patient care [112]. In addition, [113] presents a system specifically for medical data access control between cloud service providers. The effort in [114] ensures data access accuracy for public reference biomedical databases by providing query notary. Some proposed systems also include collecting medical data in mobile environment. The systems in [115] and [116] generate health record data from patient's smart devices and register them to the blockchain network for tamper- resiliency. The concept of app
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,441
lying blockchain in pervasive social network based healthcare is explored in [117]. 2) Drug and Food Supply Chain Medical supply chain may benefit from blockchain technol- ogy to help protect public health. Such systems can trace the origins of drugs by logging time series drug transaction data generated by IoT sensors to a blockchain to prevent counterfeits [118]. The recording of drug transactions among manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, pharmacies, hospitals, and consumers, can turn the drug suppl
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,442
lying blockchain in pervasive social network based healthcare is explored in [117]. 2) Drug and Food Supply Chain Medical supply chain may benefit from blockchain technol- ogy to help protect public health. Such systems can trace the origins of drugs by logging time series drug transaction data generated by IoT sensors to a blockchain to prevent counterfeits [118]. The recording of drug transactions among manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, pharmacies, hospitals, and consumers, can turn the drug suppl
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,443
y chain from regulat- ing (government audits) to surveillance (by every participants collaboratively) [119]. Another system [120] focuses more specifically on real-time tracking of all cannabis plants from their production to final destination in order to undermine their illegal markets. There are also systems that tackle the transport aspect of medical products. Medical products require specific qual- ity control and regulatory compliance such as assertion of temperature and humidity during the transpor
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,444
y chain from regulat- ing (government audits) to surveillance (by every participants collaboratively) [119]. Another system [120] focuses more specifically on real-time tracking of all cannabis plants from their production to final destination in order to undermine their illegal markets. There are also systems that tackle the transport aspect of medical products. Medical products require specific qual- ity control and regulatory compliance such as assertion of temperature and humidity during the transpor
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
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t process. [121] built a system using IoT sensors to collect those transport condition parameters and log the readings to a blockchain for public verifiability. Blockchain is also a hot topic for tracing of food and agricultural products [122], [123]. Researchers have focused on secure data storage scheme for blockchain-based agricultural product tracking systems [124], presented customized blockchain for agricul- tural resource supply chain [125], and discussed case study of blockchain agriculture and f
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,446
t process. [121] built a system using IoT sensors to collect those transport condition parameters and log the readings to a blockchain for public verifiability. Blockchain is also a hot topic for tracing of food and agricultural products [122], [123]. Researchers have focused on secure data storage scheme for blockchain-based agricultural product tracking systems [124], presented customized blockchain for agricul- tural resource supply chain [125], and discussed case study of blockchain agriculture and f
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,447
ood traceability in China [126]. 3) Insurance Improving the insurance sector is also what people be- lieve blockchain can be helpful. [127] discusses applying blockchain to the insurance life cycle, from seeking a quo- tation to binding a policy contract, to the claiming process, which could help reduce fraudulent insurance claims. Ex- perimental prototypes have been created to offer fine-grained insurance policy control [128]. There are specific subjects of insurance that received more attention. [129]
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,448
implemented a micro-insurance use case for managing and analyzing data in a pay-as-you-go car insurance, which allows drivers who rarely use cars to only pay insurance premium for particular trips they would like to travel. [130] built a blockchain-based prototype for cyber in- surance. The system aims to provide an automated, real-time, and immutable feedback loop among the involved parties, providing a secure distributed infrastructure for assessing cyber risks. D. ECONOMY While we do not consider pur
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,449
e cryptocurrency use cases in this paper, nor do we discuss Initial Coin Offerings [237], we list the following important areas we found in the surveyed literature that blockchain is affecting the broader economy domain. 1) Collaborative Business Processes and Service Exchanges Blockchain has great potential in business process manage- ment toward building a distributed, trustworthy infrastructure to promote inter-organizational processes [238]. [131] de- scribes a decentralized social manufacturing plat
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,450
form where prosumers publish service demands and the manufacturing community works to satisfy the demands. Similarly, [132] presents a case on collaborative fulfillment of industrial product design. Another system is discussed in [133] which provides a platform for software development and automatic payments, incorporating trusted Oracles for automatic soft- ware code verification. Blockchain facilitated collaboration can be performed not only by human, but also by autonomous agents
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,451
form where prosumers publish service demands and the manufacturing community works to satisfy the demands. Similarly, [132] presents a case on collaborative fulfillment of industrial product design. Another system is discussed in [133] which provides a platform for software development and automatic payments, incorporating trusted Oracles for automatic soft- ware code verification. Blockchain facilitated collaboration can be performed not only by human, but also by autonomous agents
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Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review
1,452
Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain-Enabled Vehicular Networks Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by ContractTheory in Blockchain-enabled Vehicular Networks Jiawen Kang, Zehui Xiong, Dusit Niyato, Fellow, IEEESchool of Computer Science and Engineering Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Email: {kavinkang, zexiong002, dniyato} @ ntu.edu.sg Dong In Kim, Fellow, IEEESchool of Information & Communication Engineering Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,453
Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain-Enabled Vehicular Networks Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by ContractTheory in Blockchain-enabled Vehicular Networks Jiawen Kang, Zehui Xiong, Dusit Niyato, Fellow, IEEESchool of Computer Science and Engineering Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Email: {kavinkang, zexiong002, dniyato} @ ntu.edu.sg Dong In Kim, Fellow, IEEESchool of Information & Communication Engineering Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
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Email: dikim @ skku.ac.kr Abstract β€” The burgeoning vehicular networks generate a hugeamount of sensing data. Data sharing among vehicles enables anumber of valuable vehicular applications to improve drivingsafety and enhance vehicular services. To ensure security andtraceability of data sharing, an efficient Delegated Proof-of-Stake(DPoS) consensus algorithm is utilized to establish Blockchain-Enabled VEhicular Networks (BEVENs). Miners in DPoS includeactive miners and standby miners. The active miners
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,455
Email: dikim @ skku.ac.kr Abstract β€” The burgeoning vehicular networks generate a hugeamount of sensing data. Data sharing among vehicles enables anumber of valuable vehicular applications to improve drivingsafety and enhance vehicular services. To ensure security andtraceability of data sharing, an efficient Delegated Proof-of-Stake(DPoS) consensus algorithm is utilized to establish Blockchain-Enabled VEhicular Networks (BEVENs). Miners in DPoS includeactive miners and standby miners. The active miners
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,456
are respon-sible for block generation and block verification. However, due tothe limited number of active miners in DPoS, the compromisedactive miners may collude with each other to generate maliciouslymanipulated results of block verification. To prevent the internalcollusion among the active miners, a newly generated blockcan be further verified and audited by the standby miners. Toincentivize the participation of the miners in block verification,we adopt the contract theory to model the interactions be
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,457
tweenactive miners and standby miners, where both block verificationsecurity and delay are taken into consideration. Numerical resultsdemonstrate the security and efficiency of our schemes for datasharing in BEVENs. Index Terms β€” Vehicular networks, blockchain, delegatedproof-of-stake, contract theory, security protection I. INTRODUCTION With the rapid development of wireless communication technologies, vehicular networks are evolved to be an indis- pensable platform with information interaction among veh
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,458
i- cles, road-side infrastructures and humans. Vehicles generate a huge amount and diverse types of data through advanced on- board devices. The vehicles share their data to improve driving safety and enhance vehicular services, which significantly facilitates the realization of the Intelligent Transportation Sys- tem [1], [2]. However, there exist critical security and privacy challenges for data sharing in vehicular networks. On the one hand, the vehicles may not be willing to upload data to road- side
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,459
i- cles, road-side infrastructures and humans. Vehicles generate a huge amount and diverse types of data through advanced on- board devices. The vehicles share their data to improve driving safety and enhance vehicular services, which significantly facilitates the realization of the Intelligent Transportation Sys- tem [1], [2]. However, there exist critical security and privacy challenges for data sharing in vehicular networks. On the one hand, the vehicles may not be willing to upload data to road- side
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,460
infrastructures with a centralized management architec- ture because of the concern on the single point of failure and personal data manipulation. On the other hand, although Peer- to-Peer (P2P) data sharing among the vehicles can solve the issues of the centralized management architecture, it is facing the problems of data access without authorization and security protection in a decentralized architecture. These challenges adversely affect the circulation of vehicle data and thus hinder the future devel
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,461
infrastructures with a centralized management architec- ture because of the concern on the single point of failure and personal data manipulation. On the other hand, although Peer- to-Peer (P2P) data sharing among the vehicles can solve the issues of the centralized management architecture, it is facing the problems of data access without authorization and security protection in a decentralized architecture. These challenges adversely affect the circulation of vehicle data and thus hinder the future devel
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,462
opment of vehicular networks [3]. Recently, integrating blockchain technology with vehicular networks has attracted increasing attention of researchers and developers because of decentralization, anonymity, and trust characteristics of blockchain. A secure, decentralized and trusted intelligent transport ecosystem is established by blockchain to solve vehicle data sharing problems [3], [4], [5]. Nevertheless, there exists an exorbitant cost to establish a blockchain in resource-limited vehicles using comp
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,463
opment of vehicular networks [3]. Recently, integrating blockchain technology with vehicular networks has attracted increasing attention of researchers and developers because of decentralization, anonymity, and trust characteristics of blockchain. A secure, decentralized and trusted intelligent transport ecosystem is established by blockchain to solve vehicle data sharing problems [3], [4], [5]. Nevertheless, there exists an exorbitant cost to establish a blockchain in resource-limited vehicles using comp
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,464
utation- intensive Proof-of-Work (PoW) or unfair stake-based PoS [1], [6]. Existing research attempts cannot neatly address the P2P vehicle data sharing problem in vehicular networks [7]. In this paper, we utilize the efficient Delegated Proof-of- Stake (DPoS) consensus scheme to develop a secure P2P data sharing system for vehicular networks. Previous study has demonstrated that the DPoS scheme is particularly suitable and practical for vehicular networks [4], which performs the consensus process on pre-
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,465
selected miners with moderate cost [8]. RoadSide Units (RSUs) as edge computing infrastructures, which are widely deployed over the road networks and easily reachable by vehicles, can be the miners because of having sufficient computation and storage resources [1], [9], [7], [10], [11]. These miners play significant roles in publicly auditing, verifying and storing vehicle data and data sharing records in Blockchain-Enabled VEhicular Networks (BEVENs). However, the BEVENs based on DPoS suffers from a pote
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,466
ntial attack named Block Verification Collusion: A minerdistributed along the road without sufficient security protection may be vulnerable to be directly compromised by attackers [1], [7]. The malicious miners may internally collude with each other to generate maliciously manipulated results in the block verification, even to launch double-spending attack, which is also challenging [6], [12]. Therefore, it is necessary to design an enhanced DPoS consensus scheme with secure block verification to defend a
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,467
ntial attack named Block Verification Collusion: A minerdistributed along the road without sufficient security protection may be vulnerable to be directly compromised by attackers [1], [7]. The malicious miners may internally collude with each other to generate maliciously manipulated results in the block verification, even to launch double-spending attack, which is also challenging [6], [12]. Therefore, it is necessary to design an enhanced DPoS consensus scheme with secure block verification to defend a
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,468
gainst the block verification collusion attack in BEVENs [6]. Note that the more participating miners can lead to the more secure block verification [13]. A miner group in DPoS includes active miners and standby miners, e.g., 21 active miners and 150 standby miners in Enterprise Operation System (EOS) [14]. For the secure block verification, blocks generated by active miners can be further verified and audited by standby miners to prevent the internal collusion among active miners [13]. Here, the active m
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,469
iners take turn to act as the block manager to generate and distribute unverified blocks. To incentivize the standby miners to participate in the block 978-1-5386-8088-9 / 19 / $31.00 Β© 2019 IEEE verification, we utilize contract theory to model interactions among the block manager and miners to prevent the collusion attacks. The block manager works as a contract designer. Meanwhile, the miners including active and standby miners are followers to finish block verification for obtaining a part of transac
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,470
tion fee according to verification contribution [13]. The main contributions of this work are summarized as follows. β€’ We propose to utilize the efficient DPoS consensusscheme to establish blockchain-enabled vehicular net- works for secure vehicle data sharing. β€’ We present a potential attack named block verificationcollusion attack in the DPoS consensus scheme, whereinthe active miners may collude with each other to generate maliciously manipulated block verification results. β€’ To defend against this att
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,471
ack, we utilize the contracttheory to incentivize the standby miners to participate in block verification for preventing the internal collusion among active miners. The rest of this paper is organized as follows. We introduce the system model and the enhanced DPoS consensus scheme with detailed steps for secure vehicle data sharing in Section II. An incentive mechanism for secure block verification using contract theory is proposed in Section III, followed by optimal contract designing in Section IV. We i
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,472
llustrate numerical results in Section V. Section VI concludes the paper. II. SYSTEM MODEL AND THE ENHANCED DPOS CONSENSUS SCHEME A. System Model and Adversary Model in BEVENs In BEVENs, there mainly exist three kinds of entities: data requesters, data providers and miners. Similar to the existing work [1], [9], [7], [10], some RSUs are selected to be active or standby miners. This is because that the RSUs deployed along roads can ensure that the vehicles are able to communicate with other vehicles and mi
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,473
llustrate numerical results in Section V. Section VI concludes the paper. II. SYSTEM MODEL AND THE ENHANCED DPOS CONSENSUS SCHEME A. System Model and Adversary Model in BEVENs In BEVENs, there mainly exist three kinds of entities: data requesters, data providers and miners. Similar to the existing work [1], [9], [7], [10], some RSUs are selected to be active or standby miners. This is because that the RSUs deployed along roads can ensure that the vehicles are able to communicate with other vehicles and mi
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,474
ners in a timely fashion. As shown in Fig. 1, vehicles equipped with on- board units and advanced communication devices can collect local data from sensing devices [15]. The vehicles act as data providers to share data with each other and obtain a reward from data requesters. Next, the data providers upload data sharing records as "transaction" to active miners, and the miners execute the consensus process of our enhanced DPoS consensus scheme. Finally, the vehicle's data sharing records are stored as blo
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,475
ners in a timely fashion. As shown in Fig. 1, vehicles equipped with on- board units and advanced communication devices can collect local data from sensing devices [15]. The vehicles act as data providers to share data with each other and obtain a reward from data requesters. Next, the data providers upload data sharing records as "transaction" to active miners, and the miners execute the consensus process of our enhanced DPoS consensus scheme. Finally, the vehicle's data sharing records are stored as blo
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,476
ck data and added into a blockchain, named vehicular blockchain, for achieving efficient proof ofpresence of the data sharing. In DPoS based BEVENs, some pre-selected RSUs working as miners may be distributed along the road without sufficient security protection, thus they are semi-trusted and are easy to be compromised by attackers [1], [7]. The attackers can launch the internal collusion attack that asks the compromised active miners to generate false verification result (i.e., maliciously manipulated r
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,477
esults) for a certain block. If more than one third of compromised active miners are colluded, a false Unverified block Record transmission Block propagationand verification √ Corrected verification result False verification result Contract items Standby miners Active miners Verificationresult feedback Designedcontract items Block n + 1 Block n + 2 Data sharing RSUs Data provider Data requestor Traditional miner group with only active miners Current blockmanager Secure Block Verification using Contract Th
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,478
eory Data sharingrecords √ Block verificaion collusionamong active miners Current blockmanager √ √ Miner group including active and standby miners Malicious activeminers Vehicles BlockheaderBlock manager i Block data 1Block data 2 Block manager s signature BlockheaderBlock manager i + 1 Block data 1Block data 2 Block manager s signature √ √ Feedback block verificationresult from standby miners Feedback block verificationresult from active miners Broadcast contractitems to miners Data sharingData provid
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,479
er Data requestor Vehicularblockchain Fig. 1: The enhanced DPoS consensus scheme for BEVENs. block verification result will be easy to occur due to the limited number of active miners in traditional DPoS consensus schemes [9], [13]. Thus these compromised miners may be able to affect new vehicle data sharing records stored in vehicular blockchain, which causes damage to the blockchain system [6], [13]. B. The Enhanced DPoS Scheme for Blockchain-enabled Ve-hicular Networks As depicted in Fig. 1, there are
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,480
mainly three parts in the enhanced DPoS consensus scheme for secure P2P vehicle data shari
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Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks
1,481
NoCo: An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains NoCo: An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains Akash Sarda1, Vijesh Ghandare2, Aditya Malu3 and Jibi Abraham4 Department of Computer and Information Technology, College of Engineering, Pune [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] . Abstract - In the last decade, there has been an exponential growth in the number of cryptocurrencies and th
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,482
NoCo: An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains NoCo: An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains Akash Sarda1, Vijesh Ghandare2, Aditya Malu3 and Jibi Abraham4 Department of Computer and Information Technology, College of Engineering, Pune [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] . Abstract - In the last decade, there has been an exponential growth in the number of cryptocurrencies and th
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
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e technology that underpins all the cryptocurrencies is the Blockchain. The blockchain serves as a decentralized, cryptographically signed ledger that enables payments in a trustless manner. While there are limitless applications of the blockchain, the problem that persists is the limited scaling of the blockchain. The bitcoin blockchain and the ethereum blockchain, are able to process only 7 transactions per second and 15 transactions per second respectively. All the participating mining nodes in the blo
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,484
e technology that underpins all the cryptocurrencies is the Blockchain. The blockchain serves as a decentralized, cryptographically signed ledger that enables payments in a trustless manner. While there are limitless applications of the blockchain, the problem that persists is the limited scaling of the blockchain. The bitcoin blockchain and the ethereum blockchain, are able to process only 7 transactions per second and 15 transactions per second respectively. All the participating mining nodes in the blo
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,485
ckchain network perform heavy computation and compete to mine a block, but only one of them succeeds and others waste their computation. In this paper, we propose a new node count based transaction propagation protocol for less competitive mining called as NoCo. NoCo distributes a transaction from a node to the nearby miners based on the node count between them and thereby decreasing the competition, and hence this is beneficial for the miners as well as for the networks scalability. The protocol tries to
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,486
ckchain network perform heavy computation and compete to mine a block, but only one of them succeeds and others waste their computation. In this paper, we propose a new node count based transaction propagation protocol for less competitive mining called as NoCo. NoCo distributes a transaction from a node to the nearby miners based on the node count between them and thereby decreasing the competition, and hence this is beneficial for the miners as well as for the networks scalability. The protocol tries to
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,487
parallelize the mining in the network. The protocol scales the transaction rates almost linearly. Index Termsβ€”Blockchain, Bitcoin, Ethereum, Cryptocurrency I. INTRODUCTION The emergence of cryptocurrency like Bitcoin [1] has given the world a model of a trustless, secure and a reliable way of transacting wealth. Bitcoin is the first decentralized cryptocur- rency which eliminates the need for an authority to regulate. The goal of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies is to devise a system such that
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,488
parallelize the mining in the network. The protocol scales the transaction rates almost linearly. Index Termsβ€”Blockchain, Bitcoin, Ethereum, Cryptocurrency I. INTRODUCTION The emergence of cryptocurrency like Bitcoin [1] has given the world a model of a trustless, secure and a reliable way of transacting wealth. Bitcoin is the first decentralized cryptocur- rency which eliminates the need for an authority to regulate. The goal of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies is to devise a system such that
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,489
there is no single authority controlling the network. Bitcoin, however happened to solve the problem of central- ization, as for Bitcoin transactions, there is no central authority needed to validate transactions and adding it to the ledger. Since, there is no central authority for this tasks, this is done by establishing a consensus among all the miners of the peer to peer network supporting Bitcoin. The global ledger of all the Bitcoin transactions is called blockchain [1] , which is the very h
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,490
there is no single authority controlling the network. Bitcoin, however happened to solve the problem of central- ization, as for Bitcoin transactions, there is no central authority needed to validate transactions and adding it to the ledger. Since, there is no central authority for this tasks, this is done by establishing a consensus among all the miners of the peer to peer network supporting Bitcoin. The global ledger of all the Bitcoin transactions is called blockchain [1] , which is the very h
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,491
eart of Bitcoin's decentralised ecosystem. A blockchain is a digitized, distributed and decentralized continuously growing list of records, called blocks, which are linked to each other using cryptographic hash pointers. In layman's terms, it is a ledger of all transactions since the start, with every participant in the cryptocurrency peer to peer network having a read and write access to it; since this ledger is distributed amongst all the peers of the peer to peer network, it's consistency is ma
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,492
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,493
intained by a consensus algorithm. The cryptocurrency networks, though being robust and se- cure still face latency in processing transactions. As compared to their rivals VISA and MasterCard, Bitcoin falls short at 7 transactions per sec [2]. For a wide acceptance of cryptocur- rencies this problem has to solved. This paper proposes an Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains, NoCo, in which the com- petition among miners for mining a transaction is restricted so as to sav
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,494
e the miners from wasting their computation and allowing them to mine other transactions while trying to par- allelize the mining in the system. The term open blockchains essentially means the blockchains which are not permissioned, i.e. everyone is free to get the blockchain, everyone is free to participate in it's mining. This research was conducted on the Ethereum blockchain, as it has a widespread support and as it allows efficient and rapid setups of private cryptocurrency networks. II. BLOC
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,495
e the miners from wasting their computation and allowing them to mine other transactions while trying to par- allelize the mining in the system. The term open blockchains essentially means the blockchains which are not permissioned, i.e. everyone is free to get the blockchain, everyone is free to participate in it's mining. This research was conducted on the Ethereum blockchain, as it has a widespread support and as it allows efficient and rapid setups of private cryptocurrency networks. II. BLOC
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,496
KCHAIN TERMINOLOGIES A. Blockchain Blockchain is a chain of blocks serving as a distributed, de- centralized and an immutable digital ledger for cryptocurrency transactions. Every block has some number of transactions and their metadata. Each block has to be mined by miner using its computational resources. As the block is mined, it is added to the chain of blocks. Each block is connected to previous block by hash pointer and transactions in a block are arranged in hierarchical order using Merke
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,497
KCHAIN TERMINOLOGIES A. Blockchain Blockchain is a chain of blocks serving as a distributed, de- centralized and an immutable digital ledger for cryptocurrency transactions. Every block has some number of transactions and their metadata. Each block has to be mined by miner using its computational resources. As the block is mined, it is added to the chain of blocks. Each block is connected to previous block by hash pointer and transactions in a block are arranged in hierarchical order using Merke
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
1,498
l Tree. This provides for efficient and secure verification of the transactions. As each block is connected to previous block by hash pointer it forms a hash chain which is unalterable. This makes blockchains inherently resistant to the tampering of the data. To maintain a distributed ledger, blockchain is managed by a peer to peer network which follows a protocol for validating new blocks. Each transaction in the public ledger is verified by consensus of a majority of the participants in the syst
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NoCo An Efficient Transaction Propagation Protocol for Open Blockchains
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