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esponding amount of computing power to
complete it; the next node to successfully solve the puzzle
is random; and a node's claim on finding the answer of
the puzzle can be easily verified by any other peer nodes.
One additional issue is, however, malicious nodes controlled
by an attacker could also be randomly selected as official
validator as long as they follow the same process. Once
chosen, a malicious node could still try to inject blocks
of false transaction records into the blockchain. Therefore,
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,300 |
esponding amount of computing power to
complete it; the next node to successfully solve the puzzle
is random; and a node's claim on finding the answer of
the puzzle can be easily verified by any other peer nodes.
One additional issue is, however, malicious nodes controlled
by an attacker could also be randomly selected as official
validator as long as they follow the same process. Once
chosen, a malicious node could still try to inject blocks
of false transaction records into the blockchain. Therefore,
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here is a follow-up implicit consensus step after a peer
node receives the block proposed by the official validator.
In this step, the peer nodes can verify the transactions in the
received new block, and if any anomaly is detected in it (such
as inconsistency of the linked hash values, or mismatched
transaction signature and identity), they can keep the prior
state of the blockchain without accepting the new block.
Otherwise if everything goes well, the node confirms the new
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blockchain. The likelihood
of a block being rejected diminishes exponentially with the
number of acceptance confirmations it receives from different
nodes. After a certain number (e.g., 6 in the case of Bitcoin)
of confirmations, the block is considered permanently com-
mitted to the blockchain.
2) Crypto Token Economics
In addition to using distributed consensus mechanism to
prevent nodes from misbehaving, the blockchain can also
use crypto token asset to proactively incentivize desired node
behavior. | [
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blockchain. The likelihood
of a block being rejected diminishes exponentially with the
number of acceptance confirmations it receives from different
nodes. After a certain number (e.g., 6 in the case of Bitcoin)
of confirmations, the block is considered permanently com-
mitted to the blockchain.
2) Crypto Token Economics
In addition to using distributed consensus mechanism to
prevent nodes from misbehaving, the blockchain can also
use crypto token asset to proactively incentivize desired node
behavior. | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,305 |
In particular, the official validator is rewarded some
crypto tokens for its efforts in validating and packaging the
new block of transactions whenever it introduces a valid
block that gets accepted into the blockchain. This rewarded
crypto token can be created (mined) when a new block is
inserted into the blockchain (the process is called crypto
token mining), or it can be paid by the initiators of the
transactions in the block as a service fee. If the official
validator tries to introduce a block with i | [
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In particular, the official validator is rewarded some
crypto tokens for its efforts in validating and packaging the
new block of transactions whenever it introduces a valid
block that gets accepted into the blockchain. This rewarded
crypto token can be created (mined) when a new block is
inserted into the blockchain (the process is called crypto
token mining), or it can be paid by the initiators of the
transactions in the block as a service fee. If the official
validator tries to introduce a block with i | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,307 |
nvalid transaction
information, however, that block could be rejected by peer
nodes from the blockchain. The official validator then lose
the crypto token rewards associated with that block.
In the Bitcoin blockchain, the corresponding crypto token
is Bitcoin. Bitcoin's value is established upon its utility as
a currency payment method and its expected appreciation
of the future values, leading to a liquidity market between
the crypto token and fiat currency. This essentially creates a
crypto token econo | [
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mic model around the Bitcoin.
B. FROM CRYPTO CURRENCY TO EVERYTHING
The notion of blockchain soon expands from crypto curren-
cies to general purpose business areas.
1) Ethereum and Smart Contracts
Ethereum [17] represents the next major leap after Bitcoin in
the blockchain space with its full support for smart contracts.
A contract is a fundamental piece of our market economy and
VOLUME 4, 2016 3
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Pers | [
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"["
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,309 |
mic model around the Bitcoin.
B. FROM CRYPTO CURRENCY TO EVERYTHING
The notion of blockchain soon expands from crypto curren-
cies to general purpose business areas.
1) Ethereum and Smart Contracts
Ethereum [17] represents the next major leap after Bitcoin in
the blockchain space with its full support for smart contracts.
A contract is a fundamental piece of our market economy and
VOLUME 4, 2016 3
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Pers | [
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"["
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,310 |
onal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
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ng both businesses and individuals.
The smart contract concept is originally proposed by Szabo
in 1994, who states that "The general objectives of smart
contract design are to satisfy common contractual condi-
tions, minimize exceptions both malicious and accidental,
and minimize the need for trusted intermediaries [33]". To
achieve these objectives, smart contract clauses expressing
business logic can be encoded in computer programs and
automatically executed with computer-based systems. The
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"quality",
"to",
"promote",
"a",
"greater",
"aware",
"-",
"ne",
"##ss",
"of",
"city",
"health"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,312 |
ine carries a primitive form of smart contracts
by implementing a simple transaction of accepting coins and
returning corresponding goods.
For generic smart contracts, the blockchain is arguably
a perfect infrastructure as it provides a transparent and
traceable platform that allows parties to perform trust-free
transactions with each other without intermediaries. In this
paradigm, smart contracts are computer programs written in
a language supported by the underlying blockchain platform.
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"-"
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ine carries a primitive form of smart contracts
by implementing a simple transaction of accepting coins and
returning corresponding goods.
For generic smart contracts, the blockchain is arguably
a perfect infrastructure as it provides a transparent and
traceable platform that allows parties to perform trust-free
transactions with each other without intermediaries. In this
paradigm, smart contracts are computer programs written in
a language supported by the underlying blockchain platform.
The programs ar | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,314 |
e automatically executed according to the
designated triggering conditions in the contracts. These con-
ditions can be outcomes of transactions or interactions with
other smart contracts. The conditions can also be triggered
by external events. Since there is no native way for smart
contracts to directly interact with external systems, Oracle
services act as the bridge to provide a single truth view of the
external system for smart contracts.
The critical characteristics of blockchain-based smart con-
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,315 |
acts compared with traditional contracts can be summa-
rized in three aspects. First, smart contracts running on a
blockchain are entirely managed by computer code and not
subject to control of any central entity. Second, the only way
to modify a deployed smart contract is to create a new one un-
der the consent of all involved parties. The old one cannot be
simply retracted. Third, it is cost-effective to establish multi-
party agreements requiring multiple conditions, resulting in
great flexibility.
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,316 |
acts compared with traditional contracts can be summa-
rized in three aspects. First, smart contracts running on a
blockchain are entirely managed by computer code and not
subject to control of any central entity. Second, the only way
to modify a deployed smart contract is to create a new one un-
der the consent of all involved parties. The old one cannot be
simply retracted. Third, it is cost-effective to establish multi-
party agreements requiring multiple conditions, resulting in
great flexibility.
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art contract can also be modeled as a state ma-
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Ethereum is the most well-known blockchain platform for
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".",
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"non",
"-",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
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",",
"only",
"certain",
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"may",
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"onto",
"the",
"block",
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",",
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"[",
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"[",
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",",
"n",
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"-",
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"[",
"81",
"]",
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"code",
"[",
"94",
"]",
".",
"For",
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"space",
",",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
",",
"medical",
"images",
"[",
"113",
"]",
",",
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"policy",
"document",
"[",
"61",
"]",
",",
"the",
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"is",
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"a",
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"##pt",
"##ographic",
"has",
"##h",
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"The",
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"factors",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"platform",
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".",
"For",
"the",
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"br",
"##evity",
",",
"we",
"will",
"not",
"explicitly",
"state",
"whether",
"the",
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"is",
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"in",
"full",
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"in",
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"##h",
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"in",
"our",
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"of",
"use",
"cases",
"for",
"the",
"rest",
"of",
"this",
"paper",
".",
"B",
".",
"WR",
"##IT",
"##ER",
"##S",
"In",
"our",
"analysis",
"framework",
",",
"the",
"writers",
"refer",
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"parties",
"who",
"can",
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"changes",
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"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
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"is",
"im",
"-",
"port",
"##ant",
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"the",
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"are",
"external",
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"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"use",
"case",
".",
"They",
"can",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"nodes",
"that",
"valid",
"##ate",
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",",
"reach",
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"-",
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"commit",
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"records",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"In",
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"words",
",",
"writers",
"submit",
"transactions",
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"could",
"update",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"database",
",",
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"it",
"is",
"up",
"to",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"'",
"s",
"internal",
"mechanisms",
"to",
"accept",
"those",
"updates",
".",
"The",
"records",
"that",
"writers",
"submit",
"to",
"the",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"describe",
"asset",
"attributes",
"."
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,318 |
n of the
code is through a virtual machine and costs "gas" fees paid
through its native Ether crypto token. The charge of gas
fees is to prevent the computer system from being abused
and entering dead loop. In contrast, the original Bitcoin
blockchain offers very limited scripting capability and is only
able to support rudimentary smart contracts, if at all. But
that could be intentional by the Bitcoin designers since it
is reasonable for a crypto currency application not to allow
arbitrary programmable m | [
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anipulation in order to mitigate
security risks.
2) Generic Crypto Token Systems
As smart contracts widely open up the spectrum of pos-
sible blockchain applications, the meaning of crypto to-
kens in blockchain also evolved from a digital currency to
representing any tradable asset, from fungible goods such
as movie tickets, loyalty points, company shares, to non-
fungible things such as software license. Use of these tokens
makes programming asset exchange possible and executing
the business logic easi | [
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anipulation in order to mitigate
security risks.
2) Generic Crypto Token Systems
As smart contracts widely open up the spectrum of pos-
sible blockchain applications, the meaning of crypto to-
kens in blockchain also evolved from a digital currency to
representing any tradable asset, from fungible goods such
as movie tickets, loyalty points, company shares, to non-
fungible things such as software license. Use of these tokens
makes programming asset exchange possible and executing
the business logic easi | [
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as Ethereum provide standard mechanisms to facilitate token
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tokens [36] for fungible and the ERC721 token [37] for non-
fungible and indivisible assets.
The expanded role of crypto tokens comes with appropri-
ate token economic models. The two common models are
utility and security. In the utility model, tokens provide utility
values. For example, the Ether token serves as the payment
method for transaction fe | [
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er. For that reason, blockchains such
as Ethereum provide standard mechanisms to facilitate token
issuance, distribution and exchange, including the ERC-20
tokens [36] for fungible and the ERC721 token [37] for non-
fungible and indivisible assets.
The expanded role of crypto tokens comes with appropri-
ate token economic models. The two common models are
utility and security. In the utility model, tokens provide utility
values. For example, the Ether token serves as the payment
method for transaction fe | [
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es on the Ethereum platform at the
infrastructure level, and Bitcoin tokens can be used as a
payment method for assets exchange at the application level.
In the security model, crypto tokens function like securities.
At the infrastructure level, they may entitle their holders
to the mining rights of the blockchain, or voting rights
on the directions of the platform development, or profits
sharing with the platform (e.g., from transaction fees). At
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"i",
"##ee",
"##e",
".",
"org",
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"standards",
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".",
"html",
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".",
"This",
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"has",
"been",
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"issue",
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",",
"but",
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"##atic",
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"[",
"146",
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".",
"2",
")",
"En",
"##c",
"##ry",
"##ption",
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"Content",
"P",
"##ri",
"##va",
"##cy",
"In",
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"use",
"cases",
",",
"contents",
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"##ry",
"##pted",
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"[",
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"]",
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"'",
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".",
"In",
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"[",
"165",
"]",
",",
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"'",
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,324 |
es on the Ethereum platform at the
infrastructure level, and Bitcoin tokens can be used as a
payment method for assets exchange at the application level.
In the security model, crypto tokens function like securities.
At the infrastructure level, they may entitle their holders
to the mining rights of the blockchain, or voting rights
on the directions of the platform development, or profits
sharing with the platform (e.g., from transaction fees). At
the application level, crypto tokens held in a decentraliz | [
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ed
autonomous organization can represent governance rights in
the organization.
Regardless of the utility or security model, the crypto
token's function as incentives is still carried over in many
blockchain applications. Besides providing infrastructure
level incentives to secure the network as in the original Bit-
coin blockchain, these incentives are also applied at the ap-
plication level, e.g., a use case promoting sustainability may
reward participants for their use of environmental friendly
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"It"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,326 |
ed
autonomous organization can represent governance rights in
the organization.
Regardless of the utility or security model, the crypto
token's function as incentives is still carried over in many
blockchain applications. Besides providing infrastructure
level incentives to secure the network as in the original Bit-
coin blockchain, these incentives are also applied at the ap-
plication level, e.g., a use case promoting sustainability may
reward participants for their use of environmental friendly
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,327 |
ortation methods.
3) Proof-of-Stake Distributed Consensus
In the distributed consensus space, there have been a lot of
developments addressing a common complaint about Bit-
coin's proof-of-work mechanism, specifically, it consumes
too much energy because of the intensive computational
requirements. A popular alternative proposed is called proof-
of-stake. It chooses the node to be the official validator based
on the proportional stake of the network value that each
node holds, and therefore eliminating t | [
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3) Proof-of-Stake Distributed Consensus
In the distributed consensus space, there have been a lot of
developments addressing a common complaint about Bit-
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too much energy because of the intensive computational
requirements. A popular alternative proposed is called proof-
of-stake. It chooses the node to be the official validator based
on the proportional stake of the network value that each
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he computational cost.
But the proof-of-stake mechanism has its own problems,
notably the "Nothing at stake" issue which in the event of
conflicts could prevent a blockchain from convergence and
result in forked chains; and the "Long-range attack" issue
where the longest fork of the chain may be replaced by a
chain reconstructed from the genesis block. There are various
efforts trying to address these shortcomings. For example, the
delegated proof-of-stake approach lets nodes elect delegate
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as designated validators for new blocks, and
these nodes can be out-voted if they do not behave prop-
4 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,331 |
as designated validators for new blocks, and
these nodes can be out-voted if they do not behave prop-
4 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not b | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,332 |
een fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
erly. While delegated proof-of-stake is more resilient to the
problems with the original proof-of-stake mechanism, it also
reduces the system's degree of decentralization.
C. FROM PERMISSIONLESS TO PERMISSIONED
In the Bitcoin blockchain model, any node can join and
participate in the peer-to-peer network, | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,333 |
een fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
erly. While delegated proof-of-stake is more resilient to the
problems with the original proof-of-stake mechanism, it also
reduces the system's degree of decentralization.
C. FROM PERMISSIONLESS TO PERMISSIONED
In the Bitcoin blockchain model, any node can join and
participate in the peer-to-peer network, | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,334 |
so it is called a
permissionless blockchain. It is similar to the Internet model,
where virtually any node can connect and become part of it.
The Ethereum blockchain also belongs to the permissionless
blockchain category. Afterwards, the blockchain community
introduced the permissioned blockchain model. The propo-
sition for a permissioned blockchain comes from a different
mentality and is more suitable for an industrial consortium
or enterprise environment. It enables participants to be au-
thorized befo | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,335 |
so it is called a
permissionless blockchain. It is similar to the Internet model,
where virtually any node can connect and become part of it.
The Ethereum blockchain also belongs to the permissionless
blockchain category. Afterwards, the blockchain community
introduced the permissioned blockchain model. The propo-
sition for a permissioned blockchain comes from a different
mentality and is more suitable for an industrial consortium
or enterprise environment. It enables participants to be au-
thorized befo | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,336 |
re they can join the network and be assigned
appropriate functional privileges in the network matching
their respective identities. If every participation and access
of the blockchain needs to be controlled, it is also called
a private blockchain. A permissioned blockchain contains a
logically centralized trusted identity management system that
issues cryptographic certificates to qualified participants, and
a distributed database under a decentralized administration,
providing improved transparency and a | [
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of the blockchain needs to be controlled, it is also called
a private blockchain. A permissioned blockchain contains a
logically centralized trusted identity management system that
issues cryptographic certificates to qualified participants, and
a distributed database under a decentralized administration,
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uditability across the
involved parties than in traditional distributed databases.
1) Byzantine Fault Tolerance Distributed Consensus
The consensus mechanism in permissionless blockchains are
usually competitive in nature. That is because the nodes in
those blockchains do not trust each other, and having them
put up some stake (e.g., computer power, economic cost) in
order to participate in the consensus outcome protects the
security of the network. In a permissioned blockchain, the
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with byzantine fault tolerance [38], which has the capability
to function successfully in the presence of certain number
of malicious or faulty nodes. In a typical practical byzantine
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and validators. Validators manage public key infrastructure
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to function successfully in the presence of certain number
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ents send their trans-
actions to a primary validator, which in turn broadcast the
information to other validators. Those validators process the
transaction and send response back to the original client. The
client collects at least one third of the same results from all
the validators to confirm the transaction. This mechanism
can achieve a much higher performance, a throughput in
the order of tens of thousands of transactions per second
compared to 7 transactions per second in the original Bitcoin
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,343 |
ents send their trans-
actions to a primary validator, which in turn broadcast the
information to other validators. Those validators process the
transaction and send response back to the original client. The
client collects at least one third of the same results from all
the validators to confirm the transaction. This mechanism
can achieve a much higher performance, a throughput in
the order of tens of thousands of transactions per second
compared to 7 transactions per second in the original Bitcoin
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,344 |
chain. Nevertheless, the scalability of state-machine
replication with practical byzantine fault tolerance has not
been proven [34], and it is typically suitable only for systems
with a relatively small number of nodes [20].
Hyperledger Fabric [18] is a well-known permissioned
blockchain and provides multiple algorithm options for the
consensus process, including byzantine fault tolerance algo-
rithms.
2) Smart Contracts
In terms of smart contracts, a permissioned blockchain may
also provide full smart | [
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"/",
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"/",
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".",
"This",
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"but",
"has",
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,345 |
chain. Nevertheless, the scalability of state-machine
replication with practical byzantine fault tolerance has not
been proven [34], and it is typically suitable only for systems
with a relatively small number of nodes [20].
Hyperledger Fabric [18] is a well-known permissioned
blockchain and provides multiple algorithm options for the
consensus process, including byzantine fault tolerance algo-
rithms.
2) Smart Contracts
In terms of smart contracts, a permissioned blockchain may
also provide full smart | [
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"/",
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"_",
"standards",
"/",
"publications",
"/",
"rights",
"/",
"index",
".",
"html",
"for",
"more",
"information",
".",
"This",
"article",
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"accepted",
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",",
"but",
"has",
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"fully",
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".",
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"may",
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",",
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"-",
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"V",
"-",
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"the",
"learning",
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"resource",
"planning",
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"as",
"solving",
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"entertainment",
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",",
"the",
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"V",
"-",
"G",
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
"E",
")",
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"-",
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,346 |
contract capabilities, such as the
Hyperledger Fabric blockchain or they may provide only
limited capabilities, such as the MultiChain platform [39].
3) Crypto Token Models
In permissionless blockchains, the crypto token models cre-
ate opportunities for economic alignment, shared interest,
and coordination between distributed and trustless individ-
uals [35]. Token holders on the blockchain naturally have
a vested interest in the success of the specific crypto token
and its underlying blockchain infras | [
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"[",
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",",
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"[",
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"]",
"also",
"states",
"that",
"\"",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"does",
"not",
"need",
"to",
"be"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,347 |
contract capabilities, such as the
Hyperledger Fabric blockchain or they may provide only
limited capabilities, such as the MultiChain platform [39].
3) Crypto Token Models
In permissionless blockchains, the crypto token models cre-
ate opportunities for economic alignment, shared interest,
and coordination between distributed and trustless individ-
uals [35]. Token holders on the blockchain naturally have
a vested interest in the success of the specific crypto token
and its underlying blockchain infras | [
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"initiatives",
"in",
"meeting",
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"for",
"a",
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"##s",
"-",
"t",
"##ru",
"##cture",
".",
"It",
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"out",
"that",
"earlier",
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"[",
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"]",
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"-",
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"##s",
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",",
"reasonably",
"on",
"economic",
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",",
"but",
"greatly",
"under",
"-",
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".",
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",",
"when",
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"considering",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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",",
"it",
"will",
"be",
"helpful",
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"incorporates",
"all",
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",",
"economic",
",",
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"g",
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")",
",",
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"-",
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".",
"B",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"[",
"19",
"]",
",",
"[",
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"]",
",",
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"]",
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"[",
"261",
"]",
".",
"They",
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"are",
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"##line",
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",",
"permission",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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".",
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"-",
"based",
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"avenue",
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"rules",
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"trees",
"have",
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".",
"Interest",
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",",
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"hard",
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"cases",
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"not",
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"fully",
"\"",
"qualified",
"\"",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"adoption",
"or",
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"be",
"inconsistent",
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"tree",
"rules",
".",
"Ex",
"##ample",
"1",
":",
"According",
"to",
"the",
"first",
"criteria",
"of",
"[",
"261",
"]",
",",
"if",
"the",
"answer",
"to",
"\"",
"Are",
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"trying",
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"remove",
"inter",
"##media",
"##ries",
"or",
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"##s",
"\"",
"is",
"no",
",",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"should",
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"In",
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"for",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"-",
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"-",
"v",
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"[",
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"]",
",",
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"share",
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".",
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"no",
"third",
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"##media",
"##ry",
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"and",
"it",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"use",
".",
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"reality",
",",
"this",
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"case",
"leverage",
"##s",
"the",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"'",
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"##mu",
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",",
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"##ries",
".",
"A",
"M",
"##c",
"##K",
"##ins",
"##ey",
"report",
"[",
"262",
"]",
"also",
"states",
"that",
"\"",
"Block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"does",
"not",
"need",
"to",
"be"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,348 |
tructure that supports its
utility or security value.
In contrast, permissioned blockchains have centralized
control on node participation. They generally do not need
the type of crypto tokens serving as incentives to sustain the
blockchain infrastructure, even though application-specific
tokens can still be applicable.
D. BLOCKCHAIN SECURITY
A peer-to-peer blockchain network entails important security
risks especially when it is permissionless where anyone
can join. Some of the most important vulnerabi | [
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"##cha",
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"with",
"appropriate",
"smart",
"contract"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,349 |
tructure that supports its
utility or security value.
In contrast, permissioned blockchains have centralized
control on node participation. They generally do not need
the type of crypto tokens serving as incentives to sustain the
blockchain infrastructure, even though application-specific
tokens can still be applicable.
D. BLOCKCHAIN SECURITY
A peer-to-peer blockchain network entails important security
risks especially when it is permissionless where anyone
can join. Some of the most important vulnerabi | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,350 |
lities of
blockchains are the following:
Double spending: in a Bitcoin type of crypto currency
payment network, a malicious party may attempt to pay the
same units of crypto currency simultaneously to two different
parties. This is called a double-spending attack. In general,
the network needs to make sure that once one of those
transactions is accepted, the other one will be rejected in
order to prevent double spending.
Sybil attack [40]: a malicious party could create many
nodes all under his own cont | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,351 |
rol to increase his chance
of being selected as the official validator and control the
blockchain. This problem is why resources are required to
participate in the validator selection and crypto token incen-
tives are offered to encourage proper behavior.
51% attack: an attacker could compromise the blockchain
by trying to obtain overwhelming resources. In the case of
proof-of-work, owning 51% of the computing power would
control more than half of the block validator opportunity and
also significantly im | [
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"(",
"when"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,352 |
prove the success possibility of other
attacks such as double spending. A sufficiently large network
deters the 51% attack by the enormous amount of resources
required to launch it.
Denial-of-Service attack: a malicious node could refuse
to add a valid transaction into the blockchain, essentially
denying service to the particular transaction party. This risk
is mitigated by blockchain's de-centralized network archi-
tecture. Since the transaction information is broadcast to all
nodes, it is hopeful that | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,353 |
at least some nodes will process it if
the transaction is valid.
VOLUME 4, 2016 5
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change p | [
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"-",
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"-",
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"-",
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"-",
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,354 |
at least some nodes will process it if
the transaction is valid.
VOLUME 4, 2016 5
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change p | [
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"Pay",
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"Other",
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
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"-",
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"-",
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,355 |
rior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
III. METHODOLOGY
A. BLOCKCHAIN USE CASE CATEGORIES UNDER
SUSTAINABLE AND SMART CITY CONTEXT
Due to the infancy stage of the technology, strategic planning
for blockchain applications in cities is still a largely un-
known field. Meanwhile, blockchain technology as a digital
innovation is conceptually related to the key information
and communica | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,356 |
rior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
III. METHODOLOGY
A. BLOCKCHAIN USE CASE CATEGORIES UNDER
SUSTAINABLE AND SMART CITY CONTEXT
Due to the infancy stage of the technology, strategic planning
for blockchain applications in cities is still a largely un-
known field. Meanwhile, blockchain technology as a digital
innovation is conceptually related to the key information
and communica | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,357 |
tions technologies underlying smart cities.
We therefore turn to the existing smart cities and its well-
known predecessor, sustainable cities framework as refer-
ences. Those frameworks have become the de facto goals
for cities around the world for decades, providing a plausible
anchor point for organizing our research on blockchain for
cities. Smart cities are commonly assessed based on prior
experiences on sustainability and quality of life, with a sig-
nificant addition of modern technological compone | [
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tions technologies underlying smart cities.
We therefore turn to the existing smart cities and its well-
known predecessor, sustainable cities framework as refer-
ences. Those frameworks have become the de facto goals
for cities around the world for decades, providing a plausible
anchor point for organizing our research on blockchain for
cities. Smart cities are commonly assessed based on prior
experiences on sustainability and quality of life, with a sig-
nificant addition of modern technological compone | [
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nts [41],
but there are important differences between sustainable and
smart city indicators [7].
In order to create a meaningful discussion of blockchain
for cities with both smartness and sustainability goals in
mind, we adopt the essential city sectors for sustainable
and smart cities identified by [7] as a result of its thorough
examination on 16 of the most well-established sets of as-
sessment frameworks, 8 on smart cities and 8 on sustainable
cities. These categories include "Governance and citizen | [
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",",
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",",
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"##in",
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"-",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"##ys",
"-",
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",",
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"-",
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",",
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"-",
"c",
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"-",
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"-",
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".",
"5",
")",
"To",
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"-",
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",",
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"methods",
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"##ifying",
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"-",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"-",
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",",
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
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",",
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"\"",
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"##m",
"-",
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"Records",
"\"",
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".",
"We",
"elaborate",
"##d",
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"tax",
"##ono",
"##mie",
"##s",
"compare",
"with",
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",",
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"-",
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"##cha",
"##in",
"use",
"case",
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".",
"B",
".",
"L",
"##IM",
"##IT",
"##AT",
"##ION",
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"The",
"contributions",
"of",
"this",
"paper",
"need",
"to",
"be",
"considered",
"in",
"light",
"of",
"its",
"limitations",
".",
"Due",
"to",
"the",
"enormous",
"amount",
"of",
"literature",
"on",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"we",
"have",
"to",
"con",
"##fine",
"our",
"scope",
"of",
"review",
"only",
"to",
"papers",
"focusing",
"on",
"concrete",
"use",
"cases",
",",
"with"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,360 |
nts [41],
but there are important differences between sustainable and
smart city indicators [7].
In order to create a meaningful discussion of blockchain
for cities with both smartness and sustainability goals in
mind, we adopt the essential city sectors for sustainable
and smart cities identified by [7] as a result of its thorough
examination on 16 of the most well-established sets of as-
sessment frameworks, 8 on smart cities and 8 on sustainable
cities. These categories include "Governance and citizen | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,361 |
engagement", "Education, culture, science and innovation",
"Well-being, health and safety", "Economy", "Transporta-
tion","Energy","Water and waste management", "Built en-
vironment", "Natural environment", and "Information and
Communications Technology (ICT)". The only exception
we made is the exclusion of the ICT sector, which is not
to undermine its importance, but is a trade-off from the
scope of this paper which focuses on blockchain technology
applications in urban sectors other than the digital te | [
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"block",
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")",
"2018",
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"_",
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"/",
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"/",
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",",
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".",
"R",
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"##EN",
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"##S",
"["
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,362 |
chnology
itself.
B. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
With the industrial sectors defined, we formulate the follow-
ing research questions for our review:
• What are the blockchain use cases studied by the re-
search community in the sectors central to smart and
sustainable cities?
• What could be a unified framework to examine those
use cases regardless of their sectors?
• How do we evaluate the impact of the use cases on urban
sustainability?
• How do we evaluate the blockchain applicability of the
found use case | [
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s?
• What appropriate taxonomies of blockchain applica-
tions can be derived to facilitate cross-sector use case
analysis?
To answer the above research questions, we refer to best
practices for a systematic review [42]–[44] and follow a
standard protocol for selecting literature to be included in the
review.
C. DATA SOURCES
The sources of search include both the main major-focused
databases ACM, ASCE, IEEE, e-Government Research Li-
brary (EGRLv13.5) [45] and multidisciplinary databases
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irect, Scopus, Springer, Web of Science,
Wiley. Since this particular study is interested in scientific
knowledge on the blockchain application for cities, we focus
on literature in academic journal and conference proceedings,
which helps to ensure quality [31], [43], [46].
D. SEARCH PROCESS
We posed search term hypothesis and conducted test search
to establish an overview of the topic as the foundation.
Initially we used a combination of keywords including
blockchain and city or urban, but found those s | [
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irect, Scopus, Springer, Web of Science,
Wiley. Since this particular study is interested in scientific
knowledge on the blockchain application for cities, we focus
on literature in academic journal and conference proceedings,
which helps to ensure quality [31], [43], [46].
D. SEARCH PROCESS
We posed search term hypothesis and conducted test search
to establish an overview of the topic as the foundation.
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blockchain and city or urban, but found those s | [
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earch terms
too limited. Blockchain application has been proposed on
virtually every aspects, many of them touching certain city
sectors but the papers do not necessarily state city or urban
explicitly. Therefore, we eventually settled on finding all
papers only with the term blockchain, as in most of the related
work [47]–[49]. This process results an initial number of
3827 papers. It is worth noting that this number is not much
different from the total number of papers a related work [31]
found back in | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,367 |
January 2017 from a similar list of sources,
even though we would expect a number much larger given
the highly intensified attention to this topic through 2017
and 2018. This could be caused by the fact that [31] used
both blockchain and the non-concatenated word block chain
as search terms. During our test search, we found that the
non-concatenated term could produce large number of false
positives, basically papers referring to block chain notions
in scientific fields very different from the blockchain | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,368 |
we are
concerned about. Even for a small number of papers where
they do refer to the blockchain of our discussion, they often
also include the concatenated version of the term blockchain
either in full paper body or cited references. So we choose
to use the blockchain term as with most of the other related
work.
E. SCREENING PROCESS
We then examined title, abstract and keywords, and when
unsure, the full text body of the retained papers to select
the ones that are relevant to our research questions. Give | [
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we are
concerned about. Even for a small number of papers where
they do refer to the blockchain of our discussion, they often
also include the concatenated version of the term blockchain
either in full paper body or cited references. So we choose
to use the blockchain term as with most of the other related
work.
E. SCREENING PROCESS
We then examined title, abstract and keywords, and when
unsure, the full text body of the retained papers to select
the ones that are relevant to our research questions. Give | [
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n
the huge number of papers in question, we have to properly
confine our scope and at the same time avoid sacrificing our
research goals. Our scope limit is defines as follows:
We select papers that present sufficient depth of system
design or prototype evaluations on concrete use cases in
the 9 sectors we articulated in Section III-A: "Governance
and citizen engagement", "Education, Culture, Science and
Innovation", "Well-being, health and safety", "Economy",
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anagement",
"Built environment", and "Natural environment". We explic-
itly excluded papers in the following categories: conceptual
discussions of blockchain and its trends, papers focusing
on aspects that are more generic and agnostic to sectors,
6 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publ | [
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6 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
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ications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
such as improving blockchain technology itself, ICT and
identity management, and other technical papers proposing
algorithms without an emphasis on explicit use ca | [
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ications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
such as improving blockchain technology itself, ICT and
identity management, and other technical papers proposing
algorithms without an emphasis on explicit use ca | [
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ses in
the sectors we identified. We also excluded cryptocurrency
related use cases as that has been the focus of most of
the prior reviews and also is more concerned at the central
government level. However, we do include cases that use
cryptocurrency payments as part of the mechanism if they fit
our other selection criteria. The above process leads to a total
number of 159 non-duplicated papers across all the 9 sectors
for our first part, application-oriented use case review. For
the second part of our | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,376 |
review which dives deeper into system
component analysis, we further nail down to a subset of
papers that provide more details concerning our component-
based framework. That process renders 71 of the 159 papers
across 8 of the 9 sectors.
IV. RELATED WORK
Reviews of blockchain research in the recent years show that
the majority of scholarly work has focused on improvements
and challenges of current protocols, primarily for cryptocur-
rencies in general and for Bitcoin in particular [14], [47],
[50], [51] | [
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review which dives deeper into system
component analysis, we further nail down to a subset of
papers that provide more details concerning our component-
based framework. That process renders 71 of the 159 papers
across 8 of the 9 sectors.
IV. RELATED WORK
Reviews of blockchain research in the recent years show that
the majority of scholarly work has focused on improvements
and challenges of current protocols, primarily for cryptocur-
rencies in general and for Bitcoin in particular [14], [47],
[50], [51] | [
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. Little is on research that delves into purported
disruptive potential of blockchain [52]. While research on
some areas especially cryptocurrencies and payments are
well developed, comprehensive understanding regarding ap-
plication and use cases is generally missing [31].
Table 2 compares our work with the related systematic
literature review work we found. In addition to a more
updated list of papers examined, the focus of our work differs
from all of them. Our work explicitly excluded pure cryp-
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,379 |
rrency systems and instead investigates general purpose
blockchain use cases, while [47], [48], [51] are all primarily
focused on Bitcoin and cryptocurrency literature. [53] is not
a general purpose blockchain use case review but partic-
ularly discussing the impact of blockchain characteristics
on service systems. [49] is a bibliometric study reporting
the number of blockchain papers in the surveyed set in
four categories: Internet of Things (IoT), Smart Contracts,
E-governance, and Others, with brief ex | [
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planation on each
category. Lastly, [31] proposes a conceptual framework for
blockchain research adapted from recognized social media
research agenda. It features an intersection of activities be-
tween user and blockchain developers at different levels of
analysis, and serves to stimulate multidisciplinary research
approaches on blockchain. The component-based framework
proposed and followed in this paper, however, takes on a very
different perspective that geared toward cross-sector analysis
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design and implementations.
There are much more related work that center on specific
domains with various levels of depth and may or may not
adopt a systematic literature review approach, for instance,
on finance and cryptocurrencies [54]–[56], governance [24],
education [57], energy [58], IoT [59], healthcare [60]. Our
work differs from them in that we stress a use case study
across all sectors in the smart and sustainable city context,
and apply the proposed component-based analysis to drive
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tor insights. To the authors' knowledge, we are the
first to provide a systematic blockchain use case review with
this methodology.
V. APPLICATION-ORIENTED USE CASE REVIEW BY
SECTORS
The 159 papers selected for our application-oriented review
in all sectors are shown in Table 3. Even though one use
case could involve aspects from multiple sectors, we place
each use case into only one primary sector to facilitate
the discussion. We will then relate use cases from various
different sectors in later section | [
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s.
A. GOVERNANCE AND CITIZEN ENGAGEMENT
Digital governance contributes to the crucial sustainable de-
velopment agenda [219], [220], for example, in reducing
corruption, lowering administrative costs, insuring document
integrity, connecting donors and disadvantaged groups like
refugees and displaced people [221], [222].
To look at how blockchain as a digital technology is likely
to have a significant impact on city governance, it is helpful
to start with the four ideal-typical conceptualizations of smar | [
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t
city governance identified by [223]. They include: (1) gov-
ernment of a smart city, (2) smart decision-making, (3) smart
administration and (4) smart urban collaboration. These four
models represent an increasing level of progressiveness from
more conservative to more radical. The "governance of a
smart city" model concerns about setting up the right policy
choice and effectively implementing the initiatives under the
traditional governmental structures. It is the most basic and
common model. The "smar | [
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t decision-making" model entails
restructuring of the decision-making process. An example
of this model is urban decision-making leveraging big-data
collected from IoT sensor networks. This model involves a
certain level of transformation in the process but not at the
government organization itself. The "smart administration"
model requires using sophisticated Information Technology
(IT) to interconnect information, processes, institutions, and
physical infrastructure to better serve citizens and com-
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ities [224]. It thus leads to re-structuring of existing
government organization to integrate traditional functions of
government and business [225]. Lastly, the "smart urban col-
laboration" model is the most transformative which requires
transformation at both internal and external of the govern-
ment organizations. It emphasizes truly citizen-centric opera-
tions and services based on collaboration across departments
and communities [226], a technology-enabled community-
based model of governance [227] | [
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and a pro-active, open-
minded governance structure where all actors work together
to maximize the urban sustainability and minimizes negative
externalities [228].
It is important to note that active engagement of citi-
zens and stakeholders in collaborative urban governance is
hardly political in nature [223]. That is because collaborative
urban governance taps into the intelligence of all urban
VOLUME 4, 2016 7
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic res | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,388 |
earch only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
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earch only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,390 |
Related Work on Systematic Literature Review for Blockchain
Paper Cutoff
Time
Keyword Sources Unscreened
papers
Papers
Selected
% of Non-
Bitcoin
Questions Comments
[51] 2015
(esti-
mated)
cryptocurrency,
cryptocurren-
cies, crypto
AND currency,
crypto AND
currencies and
Bitcoin
ABI/Inform,
ACM, AIS
eLibrary,
IEEE, Certain
IS conferences
and IS journals
54 42 Mostly
Bitcoin
1. Which methods, concepts, ideas and
approaches of cryptocurrencies have
been researched in scientific literature?
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Related Work on Systematic Literature Review for Blockchain
Paper Cutoff
Time
Keyword Sources Unscreened
papers
Papers
Selected
% of Non-
Bitcoin
Questions Comments
[51] 2015
(esti-
mated)
cryptocurrency,
cryptocurren-
cies, crypto
AND currency,
crypto AND
currencies and
Bitcoin
ABI/Inform,
ACM, AIS
eLibrary,
IEEE, Certain
IS conferences
and IS journals
54 42 Mostly
Bitcoin
1. Which methods, concepts, ideas and
approaches of cryptocurrencies have
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h IS research areas can be linked
to cryptocurrency research and what are
future research topics for cryptocurrency
related IS research?
Focus on Bitcoin and
crytpo currency
[47] 2016/5 blockchain IEEE Xplore,
ACM Digital
Library,
Springer,
ScienceDirect,
Ebsco, PLOS
One
121 41 80%
Bitcoin
1. What research topics have been
addressed in current research on
Blockchain?
2. What applications have been
developed with and for Blockchain
technology?
3. What are the current research gaps in
Blockchain researc | [
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h IS research areas can be linked
to cryptocurrency research and what are
future research topics for cryptocurrency
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[47] 2016/5 blockchain IEEE Xplore,
ACM Digital
Library,
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ScienceDirect,
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One
121 41 80%
Bitcoin
1. What research topics have been
addressed in current research on
Blockchain?
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technology?
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Blockchain researc | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,394 |
h?
4. What are the future research directions
for Blockchain?
Focus primarily on
Bitcoin and its techni-
cal aspects especially
security and privacy
[48] 2016/12 blockchain Springer, PRL
and Google
Scholar
Not Avail-
able
54
English,
216
Chinese
83% on
Bitcoin
and cryp-
tocurrency
What are the research subjects (finan-
cial, credit, accounting, and others) and
research methods (qualitative vs. quanti-
tative) and future directions blockchain
related papers?
Focus on Bitcoin and
cryptocurrency
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,395 |
2017 blockchain,
block chain,
peer-to-peer
database,
immutable
database,
consensus
database,
consensus
protocol,
distributed
ledger
Google Scholar Only the
first 50
search
results
of each
search are
analyzed
31 Not avail-
able
What are the characteristics of
blockchain technology and its impact on
service systems?
Focus on identifying
blockchain character-
istics on trust and
decentralization, and
their impact on ser-
vice systems.
[31] 2017/01 blockchain,
block chain
Web of
Science, IEEE
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,396 |
IS
Electronic
Library,
ScienceDirect,
and SSRN
3792 69 Mostly
non-
Bitcoin
What is the current state of knowledge
regarding blockchain, and how can it
purposefully be advanced?
Focus on a general
blockchain literature
review; propose
a blockchain
framework adapted
from well recognized
social media research
agenda to stimulate
multidisciplinary
research approaches
[49] 2017 blockchain IEEE Xplore,
Springer Link,
ScienceDirect,
the YMCA,
Google Scholar
Not avail-
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,397 |
Por-
tuguese
papers)
60% non-
Bitcoin
blockchain
and 40%
Bitcoin
1. What is the evolution over the
years in the number of publications on
blockchain?
2. What are the main features of research
analyzed in research on blockchain?
3. What are the application areas of
blockchain technology?
4. What are the limitations in current
research in blockchain research?
5. What are the future trends and chal-
lenges to search for blockchain?
Focus on reporting
the number of
documents in four
categories: IoT,
Smart | [
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1604,
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,398 |
Contracts,
E-governance, and
Others, with brief
discussion on each.
This
paper
2018/6 blockchain ACM, ASCE,
IEEEXplore,
EGRL, JSTOR,
ScienceDirect,
Scopus,
Springer, Web
of Science,
Wiley.
3827 159 & 71 Mostly
non-
Bitcoin
1. What are the blockchain use cases
studied by the research community in the
sectors central to smart and sustainable
cities?
2. What could be a unified framework
to examine those use cases regardless of
their sector?
3. How do we evaluate the impact of the
use cases on urban sust | [
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