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ot be possible for a single party to prevent the flow of transactions into the network, nor influence the order of transactions in the eventual network consensus. A fair consensus algorithm ensures that if a user can submit a transaction to the network at all, then the transaction will be received by the network and the order in which it was received will be a fair ordering. Hashgraph uniquely ensures that the actual order transactions are received by the network will be reflected in the consensus or
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,000
ot be possible for a single party to prevent the flow of transactions into the network, nor influence the order of transactions in the eventual network consensus. A fair consensus algorithm ensures that if a user can submit a transaction to the network at all, then the transaction will be received by the network and the order in which it was received will be a fair ordering. Hashgraph uniquely ensures that the actual order transactions are received by the network will be reflected in the consensus or
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,001
der. In other words, hashgraph ensures both Fair Access and Fair Ordering. Formal proofs of the aBFT and fairness properties for the hashgraph consensus algorithm have been available for public review since June 2016. Furthermore, the hashgraph algorithm was validated as aBFT by a math proof checked by computer using the Coq system in October 2018.2 6H E D E R A H A S H G R A P H C O U N C I L 3 . G O V E R N A N C E - The Hedera network will be governed by a council of up to 39 leading globa
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,002
der. In other words, hashgraph ensures both Fair Access and Fair Ordering. Formal proofs of the aBFT and fairness properties for the hashgraph consensus algorithm have been available for public review since June 2016. Furthermore, the hashgraph algorithm was validated as aBFT by a math proof checked by computer using the Coq system in October 2018.2 6H E D E R A H A S H G R A P H C O U N C I L 3 . G O V E R N A N C E - The Hedera network will be governed by a council of up to 39 leading globa
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,003
l enterprises. Hedera Council members will bring needed experience in process and business expertise that has been absent in previous public ledger platforms. Council membership is designed (i) to reflect a range of industries and geographies, (ii) to have highly respected brands and trusted market positions, and (iii) to encompass competing perspectives. The terms of governance ensure that no single Council member will have control, and no small group of members will have undue influence over the
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,004
l enterprises. Hedera Council members will bring needed experience in process and business expertise that has been absent in previous public ledger platforms. Council membership is designed (i) to reflect a range of industries and geographies, (ii) to have highly respected brands and trusted market positions, and (iii) to encompass competing perspectives. The terms of governance ensure that no single Council member will have control, and no small group of members will have undue influence over the
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,005
body as a whole. 4 . S TA B I L I T Y - Hedera relies on both technical and legal controls to ensure the stability of the platform. Hedera technical controls enable two capabilities. i) First, the hashgraph technology ensures that software clients validate the pedigree of the Hedera hashgraph ledger prior to use through a shared state mechanism. It isn't possible for a network node to fork the official version of the Hedera hashgraph platform, make changes, and then have those changes accepted
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,006
body as a whole. 4 . S TA B I L I T Y - Hedera relies on both technical and legal controls to ensure the stability of the platform. Hedera technical controls enable two capabilities. i) First, the hashgraph technology ensures that software clients validate the pedigree of the Hedera hashgraph ledger prior to use through a shared state mechanism. It isn't possible for a network node to fork the official version of the Hedera hashgraph platform, make changes, and then have those changes accepted
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,007
as valid. If the original hashgraph platform and the copy are changed independently, software clients using the Hedera platform will know which is the valid version and which is not. ii) Second, the hashgraph technology makes it possible for the Hedera Council to specify the software changes to be made to network nodes, precisely when those changes are to be adopted, and to confirm that they have been adopted. When the Hedera Council releases a software update, network nodes will have their softwa
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,008
as valid. If the original hashgraph platform and the copy are changed independently, software clients using the Hedera platform will know which is the valid version and which is not. ii) Second, the hashgraph technology makes it possible for the Hedera Council to specify the software changes to be made to network nodes, precisely when those changes are to be adopted, and to confirm that they have been adopted. When the Hedera Council releases a software update, network nodes will have their softwa
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,009
re automatically updated at exactly the same moment. Any node with invalid software (i.e., one that didn't install the software update) will no longer be able to modify the ledger or have the world accept their version of the ledger as legitimate. Hedera legal controls ensure the platform will not fork into a competing platform and cryptocurrency. iii) The Hedera codebase will be governed by the Hedera Governing Council, and will be released for public review with Version 1.0, expected to be relea
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,010
re automatically updated at exactly the same moment. Any node with invalid software (i.e., one that didn't install the software update) will no longer be able to modify the ledger or have the world accept their version of the ledger as legitimate. Hedera legal controls ensure the platform will not fork into a competing platform and cryptocurrency. iii) The Hedera codebase will be governed by the Hedera Governing Council, and will be released for public review with Version 1.0, expected to be relea
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,011
sed in 2020. It will not be open source, but anyone will be able to read the source code, recompile it, and verify that it is correct. No license will be required to use the Hedera platform. No license will be required to write software that uses the services of the Hedera platform. No license will be required to build smart contracts on top of the Hedera platform. Applications built upon the Hedera platform can be open source or proprietary. They do not require any license or any approval from Hed
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,012
sed in 2020. It will not be open source, but anyone will be able to read the source code, recompile it, and verify that it is correct. No license will be required to use the Hedera platform. No license will be required to write software that uses the services of the Hedera platform. No license will be required to build smart contracts on top of the Hedera platform. Applications built upon the Hedera platform can be open source or proprietary. They do not require any license or any approval from Hed
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,013
era. Hedera will make the code publicly available for anyone to review it (at Version 1.0), while ensuring stability by using hashgraph software patents defensively to prevent forks. In this way, Hedera will provide a transparent codebase that will provide the stability that markets demand 7H E D E R A H A S H G R A P H C O U N C I L for mainstream adoption of a public ledger. The combination of technical and legal controls provide the governing body with the mechanisms needed to enable meanin
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,014
era. Hedera will make the code publicly available for anyone to review it (at Version 1.0), while ensuring stability by using hashgraph software patents defensively to prevent forks. In this way, Hedera will provide a transparent codebase that will provide the stability that markets demand 7H E D E R A H A S H G R A P H C O U N C I L for mainstream adoption of a public ledger. The combination of technical and legal controls provide the governing body with the mechanisms needed to enable meanin
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,015
gful governance, and to bring the stability that we think is required for broad-based adoption. 5 . R E G U L AT O R Y C O M P L I A N C E – The Hedera technical framework includes controlled mutability of the network state and the potential to request or attach additional data to transactions, such as identity certificates. These features enable future functionality such as the erasure of personal data and other uploaded files and opt-in verified identity mechanisms – all optional and within the
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,016
gful governance, and to bring the stability that we think is required for broad-based adoption. 5 . R E G U L AT O R Y C O M P L I A N C E – The Hedera technical framework includes controlled mutability of the network state and the potential to request or attach additional data to transactions, such as identity certificates. These features enable future functionality such as the erasure of personal data and other uploaded files and opt-in verified identity mechanisms – all optional and within the
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,017
control of the end users. We intend to work with regulators and encourage development of such tools to allow enterprises to fulfill their consumer protection and regulatory compliance obligations. 1 Swirlds, Inc. is a Delaware corporation that holds the patent titles to the hashgraph consensus algorithm. Swirlds is a permanent member of the Hedera Governing Council. 2 See Appendix 3 for a full definition of the hashgraph algorithm, including proofs of aBFT. Also see https://www.hedera.com/blog/c
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,018
control of the end users. We intend to work with regulators and encourage development of such tools to allow enterprises to fulfill their consumer protection and regulatory compliance obligations. 1 Swirlds, Inc. is a Delaware corporation that holds the patent titles to the hashgraph consensus algorithm. Swirlds is a permanent member of the Hedera Governing Council. 2 See Appendix 3 for a full definition of the hashgraph algorithm, including proofs of aBFT. Also see https://www.hedera.com/blog/c
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,019
oq- proof-completed-by-carnegie-mellon-professor-confirms-hashgraph-consensus-algorithm-is-asynchronous-byzantine-fault-tolerant for access to the formalized aBFT proof. 8 Part 1 An introduction to Hedera Hashgraph I N T R O D U C T I O N 9I N T R O D U C T I O N The hashgraph data structure and consensus algorithm provides a new platform for distributed consensus. This introduction gives an overview of how hashgraph works, and some of its properties. The goal of a distributed consensus algo
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,020
oq- proof-completed-by-carnegie-mellon-professor-confirms-hashgraph-consensus-algorithm-is-asynchronous-byzantine-fault-tolerant for access to the formalized aBFT proof. 8 Part 1 An introduction to Hedera Hashgraph I N T R O D U C T I O N 9I N T R O D U C T I O N The hashgraph data structure and consensus algorithm provides a new platform for distributed consensus. This introduction gives an overview of how hashgraph works, and some of its properties. The goal of a distributed consensus algo
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,021
rithm is to allow a community of users to come to an agreement on the order in which some of the users generated transactions, when no single member is trusted by everyone. In this way, it is a system for generating trust, when individuals do not already trust each other. Hashgraph achieves this in a fundamentally new way. A blockchain is like a tree that is continuously pruned as it grows – this pruning is necessary to keep the branches of blocks from growing out of control and to ensure the ledg
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,022
rithm is to allow a community of users to come to an agreement on the order in which some of the users generated transactions, when no single member is trusted by everyone. In this way, it is a system for generating trust, when individuals do not already trust each other. Hashgraph achieves this in a fundamentally new way. A blockchain is like a tree that is continuously pruned as it grows – this pruning is necessary to keep the branches of blocks from growing out of control and to ensure the ledg
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,023
er consists of just one chain of blocks. In hashgraph, rather than pruning new growth, such growth is woven back into the body of the ledger. 1 0I N T R O D U C T I O N In both blockchain and hashgraph ledgers, any user can create a transaction, which will eventually be put into a container (the "block") and will then spread throughout the distributed network. In blockchain, those "blocks" of containers are intended to form a single, long chain. If two blocks are created at the same time, the n
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,024
er consists of just one chain of blocks. In hashgraph, rather than pruning new growth, such growth is woven back into the body of the ledger. 1 0I N T R O D U C T I O N In both blockchain and hashgraph ledgers, any user can create a transaction, which will eventually be put into a container (the "block") and will then spread throughout the distributed network. In blockchain, those "blocks" of containers are intended to form a single, long chain. If two blocks are created at the same time, the n
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,025
etwork nodes will eventually choose one chain to continue and discard the other one, lest the blockchain "fork" into two different chains. It is like a growing tree that is constantly having all but one of its branches chopped off. In hashgraph, every container of transactions is incorporated into the ledger — none are discarded — so it is more efficient than blockchains. All the branches continue to exist forever, and are woven together into a single whole. Furthermore, blockchain fails if the n
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,026
etwork nodes will eventually choose one chain to continue and discard the other one, lest the blockchain "fork" into two different chains. It is like a growing tree that is constantly having all but one of its branches chopped off. In hashgraph, every container of transactions is incorporated into the ledger — none are discarded — so it is more efficient than blockchains. All the branches continue to exist forever, and are woven together into a single whole. Furthermore, blockchain fails if the n
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,027
ew containers arrive too quickly, because new branches sprout faster than they can be pruned. That is why blockchain needs proof-of-work or some other mechanism to artificially slow down the growth. In hashgraph, though, nothing is thrown away. There is no harm in the hashgraph data structure growing quickly. Every member can create transactions and containers whenever they want. Finally, because the hashgraph does not require pruning of would-be "forks" (as every container of transactions is inc
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,028
ew containers arrive too quickly, because new branches sprout faster than they can be pruned. That is why blockchain needs proof-of-work or some other mechanism to artificially slow down the growth. In hashgraph, though, nothing is thrown away. There is no harm in the hashgraph data structure growing quickly. Every member can create transactions and containers whenever they want. Finally, because the hashgraph does not require pruning of would-be "forks" (as every container of transactions is inc
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,029
orporated into the ledger), hashgraph allows more powerful mathematical guarantees, such as Byzantine agreement and fairness. Distributed databases such as Paxos are Byzantine, but do not guarantee fairness in the ordering of transactions. Blockchain is neither Byzantine nor fair. The hashgraph algorithm accomplishes being fair, fast, Byzantine, ACID compliant, efficient, inexpensive, timestamped, and DoS resistant. 1 1P E R F O R M A N C E Performance C O S T A hashgraph distributed ledger is
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,030
orporated into the ledger), hashgraph allows more powerful mathematical guarantees, such as Byzantine agreement and fairness. Distributed databases such as Paxos are Byzantine, but do not guarantee fairness in the ordering of transactions. Blockchain is neither Byzantine nor fair. The hashgraph algorithm accomplishes being fair, fast, Byzantine, ACID compliant, efficient, inexpensive, timestamped, and DoS resistant. 1 1P E R F O R M A N C E Performance C O S T A hashgraph distributed ledger is
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,031
inexpensive to operate compared to blockchain distributed ledgers, as it avoids energy-intensive proof-of-work. Individuals and organizations who want to run hashgraph nodes will not need to purchase expensive custom mining rigs. Instead, they will be able to run hashgraph nodes via readily available hardware that is less expensive than such specialized mining rigs. E F F I C I E N C Y The hashgraph is 100% efficient, as that term is used in the blockchain community. In blockchain, work is sometim
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,032
inexpensive to operate compared to blockchain distributed ledgers, as it avoids energy-intensive proof-of-work. Individuals and organizations who want to run hashgraph nodes will not need to purchase expensive custom mining rigs. Instead, they will be able to run hashgraph nodes via readily available hardware that is less expensive than such specialized mining rigs. E F F I C I E N C Y The hashgraph is 100% efficient, as that term is used in the blockchain community. In blockchain, work is sometim
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,033
es wasted mining a block that later is considered stale and is discarded by the network of nodes. In hashgraph, the equivalent of a "block" of transactions never becomes stale. Hashgraph is also efficient in its use of bandwidth. Whatever the amount of bandwidth required to inform all the nodes of a given transaction (even without achieving consensus on a timestamp for that transaction), hashgraph adds only a very small overhead of additional bandwidth to achieve a consensus timestamp and put the tr
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,034
es wasted mining a block that later is considered stale and is discarded by the network of nodes. In hashgraph, the equivalent of a "block" of transactions never becomes stale. Hashgraph is also efficient in its use of bandwidth. Whatever the amount of bandwidth required to inform all the nodes of a given transaction (even without achieving consensus on a timestamp for that transaction), hashgraph adds only a very small overhead of additional bandwidth to achieve a consensus timestamp and put the tr
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,035
ansactions into order. Additionally, the hashgraph voting algorithm does not require any additional messages be sent in order for nodes to vote on validating transactions (or those votes to be counted) beyond those messages by which the network nodes learned of the transaction itself. T H R O U G H P U T The hashgraph is fast. It is limited only by the bandwidth. If each network node has enough bandwidth to download and upload a given number of transactions per second, the network as a whole can hand
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,036
ansactions into order. Additionally, the hashgraph voting algorithm does not require any additional messages be sent in order for nodes to vote on validating transactions (or those votes to be counted) beyond those messages by which the network nodes learned of the transaction itself. T H R O U G H P U T The hashgraph is fast. It is limited only by the bandwidth. If each network node has enough bandwidth to download and upload a given number of transactions per second, the network as a whole can hand
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,037
le close to that many transactions per second. Even a fast home internet connection could enable a hashgraph node to be fast enough to handle transaction volume equal to that of the entire global VISA card network. 1 2P E R F O R M A N C E T H E F O L L O W I N G C H A R T S G I V E P E R F O R M A N C E R E S U LT S F O R H A S H G R A P H T E C H N O L O G Y U N D E R T E S T C O N D I T I O N S . The charts on the previous pages show the results of tests performed using hashgraph no
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,038
le close to that many transactions per second. Even a fast home internet connection could enable a hashgraph node to be fast enough to handle transaction volume equal to that of the entire global VISA card network. 1 2P E R F O R M A N C E T H E F O L L O W I N G C H A R T S G I V E P E R F O R M A N C E R E S U LT S F O R H A S H G R A P H T E C H N O L O G Y U N D E R T E S T C O N D I T I O N S . The charts on the previous pages show the results of tests performed using hashgraph no
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,039
des hosted by Amazon AWS m4.4xlarge instances. Figure 1 shows performance for a single region (Virginia), Figure 2 shows results for two regions 2,000 miles apart on opposite sides of the continental United States (Virginia and Oregon), and Figure 3 shows results for 8 regions (Virginia, Oregon, Canada, Sao Paulo, Australia, Seoul, Tokyo, and Frankfurt). Each line on the chart is for a different number of instances (computers), which is shown to the right of the line. In every case, the instances w
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,040
des hosted by Amazon AWS m4.4xlarge instances. Figure 1 shows performance for a single region (Virginia), Figure 2 shows results for two regions 2,000 miles apart on opposite sides of the continental United States (Virginia and Oregon), and Figure 3 shows results for 8 regions (Virginia, Oregon, Canada, Sao Paulo, Australia, Seoul, Tokyo, and Frankfurt). Each line on the chart is for a different number of instances (computers), which is shown to the right of the line. In every case, the instances w
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,041
ere distributed evenly across the number of regions being used. The horizontal axis is the number of 100-byte transactions per second for which the ledger achieved consensus. In these experiments, this throughput ranges from less than 50,000 tps up to almost 500,000 tps. On most of the lines, the second dot from the left is 10,000 tps. The vertical axis is the average number of seconds from when a node first creates a transaction until it knows the exact consensus order and consensus timestamp for i
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,042
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,043
t. This isn't just a time to a first confirmation — it is the time until a 100% certain finality is reached. In all of the experiments, this latency was under 11 seconds. Various experiments had latencies down to less than 0.04 seconds. In the graphs, there are clear tradeoffs between throughput, latency, number of computers, and geographic distribution. For 32 computers running at 50,000 transactions per second, consensus finality is reached in 3 seconds when the network is spread across 8 regions
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,044
t. This isn't just a time to a first confirmation — it is the time until a 100% certain finality is reached. In all of the experiments, this latency was under 11 seconds. Various experiments had latencies down to less than 0.04 seconds. In the graphs, there are clear tradeoffs between throughput, latency, number of computers, and geographic distribution. For 32 computers running at 50,000 transactions per second, consensus finality is reached in 3 seconds when the network is spread across 8 regions
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,045
spanning the globe. When the network stretches only 2,000 miles across the U.S., this drops to 1.5 seconds. In a single region, it drops to 0.75 seconds. If it is desired to keep the latency under the 7 seconds required by credit cards, while still achieving 200,000 transactions per second, it is possible to use 32 computers in eight regions, or use 64 computers in two regions, or use 128 computers in one region. It is important to note that these tests are purely for achieving consensus on transac
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,046
spanning the globe. When the network stretches only 2,000 miles across the U.S., this drops to 1.5 seconds. In a single region, it drops to 0.75 seconds. If it is desired to keep the latency under the 7 seconds required by credit cards, while still achieving 200,000 transactions per second, it is possible to use 32 computers in eight regions, or use 64 computers in two regions, or use 128 computers in one region. It is important to note that these tests are purely for achieving consensus on transac
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,047
tion order and timestamps. They do not include the time to process transactions. For example, if every transaction is digitally signed, then these results suggest that a great deal of processing power might be needed to verify hundreds of thousands of digital signatures per second. It is possible that GPU implementations could be helpful. In addition, if a transaction is a request to store a large file, then bandwidth limitations would slow down the network's ability to process that transaction. Ne
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,048
tion order and timestamps. They do not include the time to process transactions. For example, if every transaction is digitally signed, then these results suggest that a great deal of processing power might be needed to verify hundreds of thousands of digital signatures per second. It is possible that GPU implementations could be helpful. In addition, if a transaction is a request to store a large file, then bandwidth limitations would slow down the network's ability to process that transaction. Ne
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,049
twork pricing for file storage transactions will be structured to make it relatively expensive to store large files on the ledger, which should disincentivize any efforts to slow down the network in this way. 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 500,000400,000300,000200,000100,00050,000 150,000 250,000 350,000 450,000 64 computers 32 computers 16 computers 8 computers 4 computers 2 computers 128 computers 400,000 tps Figure 1 Hashgraph Latency vs Throughput 1 region, m4.4xlarge La te nc y (s ec
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,050
twork pricing for file storage transactions will be structured to make it relatively expensive to store large files on the ledger, which should disincentivize any efforts to slow down the network in this way. 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 500,000400,000300,000200,000100,00050,000 150,000 250,000 350,000 450,000 64 computers 32 computers 16 computers 8 computers 4 computers 2 computers 128 computers 400,000 tps Figure 1 Hashgraph Latency vs Throughput 1 region, m4.4xlarge La te nc y (s ec
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,051
on ds ) Throughput (100-byte transactions per second) 1 3P E R F O R M A N C E 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 500,000400,000300,000200,000100,00050,000 150,000 250,000 350,000 450,000 Figure 2 Hashgraph Latency vs Throughput 2 regions, m4.4xlarge La te nc y (s ec on ds ) Throughput (100-byte transactions per second) 64 computers 32 computers 16 computers 8 computers 4 computers 128 computers 1 4P E R F O R M A N C E 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 500,000400,000300,000200,000100,00050,000 150,0
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,052
on ds ) Throughput (100-byte transactions per second) 1 3P E R F O R M A N C E 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 500,000400,000300,000200,000100,00050,000 150,000 250,000 350,000 450,000 Figure 2 Hashgraph Latency vs Throughput 2 regions, m4.4xlarge La te nc y (s ec on ds ) Throughput (100-byte transactions per second) 64 computers 32 computers 16 computers 8 computers 4 computers 128 computers 1 4P E R F O R M A N C E 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 0 500,000400,000300,000200,000100,00050,000 150,0
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,053
00 250,000 350,000 450,000 Figure 3 Hashgraph Latency vs Throughput 8 regions, m4.4xlarge Throughput (100-byte transactions per second) La te nc y (s ec on ds ) 64 computers 32 computers 16 computers 8 computers 1 5P E R F O R M A N C E 1 6 S TAT E E F F I C I E N C Y Once a network transaction occurs, within seconds all nodes in the network will know where that transaction should be placed in a history of transactions with 100% certainty. More importantly, every node will know that e
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,054
00 250,000 350,000 450,000 Figure 3 Hashgraph Latency vs Throughput 8 regions, m4.4xlarge Throughput (100-byte transactions per second) La te nc y (s ec on ds ) 64 computers 32 computers 16 computers 8 computers 1 5P E R F O R M A N C E 1 6 S TAT E E F F I C I E N C Y Once a network transaction occurs, within seconds all nodes in the network will know where that transaction should be placed in a history of transactions with 100% certainty. More importantly, every node will know that e
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,055
very other node knows this. At that point, the network can just incorporate the effects of the transaction and, unless needed for future audit or compliance, discard the transaction data. So, in a minimal cryptocurrency system, each node would only need to store the current balance of each network account that is not empty. The nodes would not need to remember the full history of the transactions that resulted in those balances all the way back to "genesis." P E R F O R M A N C E 1 7S E C U R I T
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,056
very other node knows this. At that point, the network can just incorporate the effects of the transaction and, unless needed for future audit or compliance, discard the transaction data. So, in a minimal cryptocurrency system, each node would only need to store the current balance of each network account that is not empty. The nodes would not need to remember the full history of the transactions that resulted in those balances all the way back to "genesis." P E R F O R M A N C E 1 7S E C U R I T
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,057
Y Security C R Y P T O G R A P H Y All Hedera network communications are encrypted with TLS 1.2, all transactions are digitally signed, and the hashgraph is constructed using cryptographic hashes. All the algorithms and key sizes were chosen to be compliant with the CNSA Suite security standard. This is the standard required for protecting U.S. government Top Secret information. It specifies using AES-256, RSA 3072, SHA-384, and ECDSA and ECDH with p-384, along with ephemeral keys for perfect forwar
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,058
Y Security C R Y P T O G R A P H Y All Hedera network communications are encrypted with TLS 1.2, all transactions are digitally signed, and the hashgraph is constructed using cryptographic hashes. All the algorithms and key sizes were chosen to be compliant with the CNSA Suite security standard. This is the standard required for protecting U.S. government Top Secret information. It specifies using AES-256, RSA 3072, SHA-384, and ECDSA and ECDH with p-384, along with ephemeral keys for perfect forwar
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,059
d secrecy. A S Y N C H R O N O U S B Y Z A N T I N E FA U LT T O L E R A N C E The hashgraph algorithm is asynchronous Byzantine Fault Tolerant (aBFT). This is a technical term meaning that no single node (or small group of nodes) can prevent the network from reaching consensus, nor can they change the consensus once it has been reached. Each Hedera network node will eventually reach a point where it "knows" for sure that the network has reached consensus. Blockchain platforms do not have a guar
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,060
d secrecy. A S Y N C H R O N O U S B Y Z A N T I N E FA U LT T O L E R A N C E The hashgraph algorithm is asynchronous Byzantine Fault Tolerant (aBFT). This is a technical term meaning that no single node (or small group of nodes) can prevent the network from reaching consensus, nor can they change the consensus once it has been reached. Each Hedera network node will eventually reach a point where it "knows" for sure that the network has reached consensus. Blockchain platforms do not have a guar
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,061
antee of Byzantine agreement, because a node never reaches certainty that agreement has been achieved. Rather there is just a probability that increases over time. Blockchain is also non-Byzantine because it does not automatically deal with network partitions — i.e., if a group of miners is isolated from the rest of the internet, multiple chains ("forks") could grow that conflict with each other on the order of transactions. It is worth noting that the term "Byzantine Fault Tolerant" (BFT) is someti
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,062
antee of Byzantine agreement, because a node never reaches certainty that agreement has been achieved. Rather there is just a probability that increases over time. Blockchain is also non-Byzantine because it does not automatically deal with network partitions — i.e., if a group of miners is isolated from the rest of the internet, multiple chains ("forks") could grow that conflict with each other on the order of transactions. It is worth noting that the term "Byzantine Fault Tolerant" (BFT) is someti
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,063
mes used in a weaker sense of resistance to malicious behavior by other consensus algorithms. We use it in its original, stronger sense in that even if we assume (1) some attackers will collude to stop or skew consensus and (2) that some attackers could even control the internet itself (with some limits) and slow or prevent the delivery of messages, the network will eventually reach consensus and every node eventually knows consensus has been reached. Hashgraph is Byzantine, even by this stronger def
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,064
mes used in a weaker sense of resistance to malicious behavior by other consensus algorithms. We use it in its original, stronger sense in that even if we assume (1) some attackers will collude to stop or skew consensus and (2) that some attackers could even control the internet itself (with some limits) and slow or prevent the delivery of messages, the network will eventually reach consensus and every node eventually knows consensus has been reached. Hashgraph is Byzantine, even by this stronger def
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,065
inition. So long as attackers have less than 1/3 of the total stake of hbars, they will be unable to stop consensus or even skew transaction timestamps or consensus order. There are different degrees of BFT, depending on the assumptions made about the network and transmission of messages. The strongest form of BFT is asynchronous BFT — meaning that the network can achieve consensus even if malicious actors are able to control the network and delete or slow down messages of their choosing. The only
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,066
inition. So long as attackers have less than 1/3 of the total stake of hbars, they will be unable to stop consensus or even skew transaction timestamps or consensus order. There are different degrees of BFT, depending on the assumptions made about the network and transmission of messages. The strongest form of BFT is asynchronous BFT — meaning that the network can achieve consensus even if malicious actors are able to control the network and delete or slow down messages of their choosing. The only
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,067
assumptions made are that more than 2/3 are following the protocol correctly, and that if messages are repeatedly sent from one node to another over the internet, eventually one will get through, and then eventually another will, and so on. Some systems are partially asynchronous, which are secure only if the attackers do not have too much power and do not manipulate the timing of messages too much. For instance, a partially asynchronous system could prove Byzantine under the assumption that messages
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,068
assumptions made are that more than 2/3 are following the protocol correctly, and that if messages are repeatedly sent from one node to another over the internet, eventually one will get through, and then eventually another will, and so on. Some systems are partially asynchronous, which are secure only if the attackers do not have too much power and do not manipulate the timing of messages too much. For instance, a partially asynchronous system could prove Byzantine under the assumption that messages
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,069
get passed over the internet in ten seconds. However, this assumption ignores the reality of botnets, Distributed Denial of Service attacks, and malicious firewalls. A full technical report describing the hashgraph data structure and algorithm, including mathematical proofs that Hashgraph is asynchronous BFT, is included in the Appendix. 1 8 A C I D C O M P L I A N C E The hashgraph is ACID compliant. ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a database term, and applies to the ha
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,070
get passed over the internet in ten seconds. However, this assumption ignores the reality of botnets, Distributed Denial of Service attacks, and malicious firewalls. A full technical report describing the hashgraph data structure and algorithm, including mathematical proofs that Hashgraph is asynchronous BFT, is included in the Appendix. 1 8 A C I D C O M P L I A N C E The hashgraph is ACID compliant. ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a database term, and applies to the ha
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,071
shgraph when it is used as a distributed database. A network of nodes use it to reach a consensus on the order in which transactions occurred. After reaching consensus, each node feeds those transactions to that node's local copy of the database, sending each one in the consensus order. If the local database has all the standard properties of a database (ACID), then the network as a whole can be said to have a single, distributed database with those same properties. In blockchain, there is never a mo
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,072
shgraph when it is used as a distributed database. A network of nodes use it to reach a consensus on the order in which transactions occurred. After reaching consensus, each node feeds those transactions to that node's local copy of the database, sending each one in the consensus order. If the local database has all the standard properties of a database (ACID), then the network as a whole can be said to have a single, distributed database with those same properties. In blockchain, there is never a mo
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,073
ment when you know that consensus has been reached, so it would not be ACID compliant D I S T R I B U T E D D E N I A L O F S E R V I C E AT TA C K R E S I L I E N C E One form of Denial of Service (DoS) attack occurs when an attacker is able to flood an honest node on a network with meaningless messages, preventing that node from performing other (valid) duties and roles. A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) uses public services or devices to unwittingly amplify that DoS attack — making them
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,074
ment when you know that consensus has been reached, so it would not be ACID compliant D I S T R I B U T E D D E N I A L O F S E R V I C E AT TA C K R E S I L I E N C E One form of Denial of Service (DoS) attack occurs when an attacker is able to flood an honest node on a network with meaningless messages, preventing that node from performing other (valid) duties and roles. A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) uses public services or devices to unwittingly amplify that DoS attack — making them
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,075
an even greater threat. In a DLT network, a DDoS attack could target the nodes that contribute to the definition of consensus and, potentially, prevent that consensus from being established. The hashgraph is DDoS resilient as it empowers no single node or small number of nodes with special rights or responsibilities in establishing consensus. Both Bitcoin and hashgraph are distributed in a way that resists DDoS attacks. An attacker might flood one node or miner with packets of data to temporarily di
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,076
an even greater threat. In a DLT network, a DDoS attack could target the nodes that contribute to the definition of consensus and, potentially, prevent that consensus from being established. The hashgraph is DDoS resilient as it empowers no single node or small number of nodes with special rights or responsibilities in establishing consensus. Both Bitcoin and hashgraph are distributed in a way that resists DDoS attacks. An attacker might flood one node or miner with packets of data to temporarily di
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,077
sconnect it from the internet. But the network as a whole will continue to operate normally. An attack on the system as a whole would require flooding a large fraction of the nodes with packets, which is more difficult. There have been a number of proposed alternatives to blockchain based on "leaders" or "round robin" models. These have been proposed to avoid the proof-of-work costs of Bitcoin, but they have the drawback of being sensitive to DDoS attacks. If the attacker attacks the current leader n
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,078
sconnect it from the internet. But the network as a whole will continue to operate normally. An attack on the system as a whole would require flooding a large fraction of the nodes with packets, which is more difficult. There have been a number of proposed alternatives to blockchain based on "leaders" or "round robin" models. These have been proposed to avoid the proof-of-work costs of Bitcoin, but they have the drawback of being sensitive to DDoS attacks. If the attacker attacks the current leader n
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,079
ode, and switches to attacking the new leader as soon as one is chosen, then the attacker can freeze the entire system while still attacking only one node at a time. Hashgraph avoids this problem, while still avoiding the energy requirements of proof-of-work. . S E C U R I T Y 1 9FA I R N E S S Fairness Hashgraph is fair because there is no leader node or miner given special permissions for determining the consensus timestamp assigned to a transaction. Instead, the consensus timestamps for transa
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,080
ode, and switches to attacking the new leader as soon as one is chosen, then the attacker can freeze the entire system while still attacking only one node at a time. Hashgraph avoids this problem, while still avoiding the energy requirements of proof-of-work. . S E C U R I T Y 1 9FA I R N E S S Fairness Hashgraph is fair because there is no leader node or miner given special permissions for determining the consensus timestamp assigned to a transaction. Instead, the consensus timestamps for transa
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,081
ctions are calculated via an automated voting process in the algorithm through which the nodes collectively and democratically establish the consensus. We can distinguish between three aspects of fairness. FA I R A C C E S S Hashgraph is fundamentally fair because no individual node can stop a transaction from entering the system, or even delay it very much. If one or a few malicious nodes attempt to prevent a given transaction from being delivered to the rest of the network and so be added into co
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,082
ctions are calculated via an automated voting process in the algorithm through which the nodes collectively and democratically establish the consensus. We can distinguish between three aspects of fairness. FA I R A C C E S S Hashgraph is fundamentally fair because no individual node can stop a transaction from entering the system, or even delay it very much. If one or a few malicious nodes attempt to prevent a given transaction from being delivered to the rest of the network and so be added into co
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,083
nsensus, the random nature of the hashgraph gossip protocol through which nodes communicate messages to each other will ensure that the transaction flows around that blockage. FA I R T I M E S TA M P S Hashgraph gives each transaction a consensus timestamp that is based on when the majority of the network nodes received that transaction. This consensus timestamp is fair, because it is not possible for a malicious node to corrupt it and make it differ by very much from that time. Every transaction i
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,084
nsensus, the random nature of the hashgraph gossip protocol through which nodes communicate messages to each other will ensure that the transaction flows around that blockage. FA I R T I M E S TA M P S Hashgraph gives each transaction a consensus timestamp that is based on when the majority of the network nodes received that transaction. This consensus timestamp is fair, because it is not possible for a malicious node to corrupt it and make it differ by very much from that time. Every transaction i
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,085
s assigned a consensus time, which is the median of the times at which each node says it first received it. Received here refers to the time that a given node was first passed the transaction from another node through gossip. This is part of the consensus, and so has all the guarantees of being Byzantine. If more than two- thirds of participating nodes are honest and have reliable clocks on their computer, then the timestamp itself will be honest and reliable, because it is generated by an honest and
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,086
s assigned a consensus time, which is the median of the times at which each node says it first received it. Received here refers to the time that a given node was first passed the transaction from another node through gossip. This is part of the consensus, and so has all the guarantees of being Byzantine. If more than two- thirds of participating nodes are honest and have reliable clocks on their computer, then the timestamp itself will be honest and reliable, because it is generated by an honest and
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,087
reliable node or falls between two times that were generated by honest and reliable nodes. Because hashgraph takes the median of all these times, the consensus timestamp is robust. Even if a few of the clocks are a bit off, or even if a few of the nodes maliciously give times that are far off, the consensus timestamp is not significantly impacted. This consensus timestamping is useful for things such as a legal obligation to perform some action by a particular time. There will be a consensus on wheth
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,088
reliable node or falls between two times that were generated by honest and reliable nodes. Because hashgraph takes the median of all these times, the consensus timestamp is robust. Even if a few of the clocks are a bit off, or even if a few of the nodes maliciously give times that are far off, the consensus timestamp is not significantly impacted. This consensus timestamping is useful for things such as a legal obligation to perform some action by a particular time. There will be a consensus on wheth
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,089
er an event happened by a deadline, and the timestamp is resistant to manipulation by an attacker. In blockchain, each block contains a timestamp, but it reflects only a single clock: the one on the computer of the miner who mined that block. FA I R T R A N S A C T I O N O R D E R Transactions are put into order according to their timestamps. Because the timestamps assigned to individual transactions are fair, so is the resulting order. This is critically important for some use cases. For example,
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,090
er an event happened by a deadline, and the timestamp is resistant to manipulation by an attacker. In blockchain, each block contains a timestamp, but it reflects only a single clock: the one on the computer of the miner who mined that block. FA I R T R A N S A C T I O N O R D E R Transactions are put into order according to their timestamps. Because the timestamps assigned to individual transactions are fair, so is the resulting order. This is critically important for some use cases. For example,
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,091
imagine a stock market, where Alice and Bob both try to buy the last available share of a stock at the same moment for the same price. In blockchain, a miner might put both of those transactions in a single block and have complete freedom to choose in what order they occur. Or the miner might choose to only include Alice's transaction, and delay Bob's to a future block. In hashgraph, there is no way for an individual node to unduly affect the consensus order of those transactions. The best Alice can
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,092
imagine a stock market, where Alice and Bob both try to buy the last available share of a stock at the same moment for the same price. In blockchain, a miner might put both of those transactions in a single block and have complete freedom to choose in what order they occur. Or the miner might choose to only include Alice's transaction, and delay Bob's to a future block. In hashgraph, there is no way for an individual node to unduly affect the consensus order of those transactions. The best Alice can
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,093
do is to invest in a better internet connection so that her transaction reaches everyone before Bob's. That's the fair way to compete. 2 0G O V E R N A N C E Governance A governance model for a public ledger will define the rules and policies that control the evolution of the node software, issuance of coins, and the reward model that incentivizes network participants. There are multiple stakeholders whose interests and motivations must be balanced: network node operators, developers building app
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,094
do is to invest in a better internet connection so that her transaction reaches everyone before Bob's. That's the fair way to compete. 2 0G O V E R N A N C E Governance A governance model for a public ledger will define the rules and policies that control the evolution of the node software, issuance of coins, and the reward model that incentivizes network participants. There are multiple stakeholders whose interests and motivations must be balanced: network node operators, developers building app
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,095
lications on the platform, businesses relying on those applications, end-users of those applications, and relevant regulatory bodies. The Hedera Governing Council is a limited liability company that will have up to 39 members, all to be well-known enterprises from diverse industries and geographies. Hedera's licensing and governance model protects network users by eliminating the risk of forks, guaranteeing the integrity of the codebase, and providing open access to review the underlying software cod
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,096
lications on the platform, businesses relying on those applications, end-users of those applications, and relevant regulatory bodies. The Hedera Governing Council is a limited liability company that will have up to 39 members, all to be well-known enterprises from diverse industries and geographies. Hedera's licensing and governance model protects network users by eliminating the risk of forks, guaranteeing the integrity of the codebase, and providing open access to review the underlying software cod
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,097
e. Under the governance model, all Governing Members will have equal voting rights and each Governing Member (with the exception of Swirlds) will serve a limited term, ensuring that no single Governing Member or group of Governing Members has centralized control. The Hedera network has a model of permissioned governance with a phased plan for permissionless or open consensus. Governance is permissioned in that governance decisions are made by the members of the Hedera Governing Council. The Counci
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Hedera Whitepaper
1,098
e. Under the governance model, all Governing Members will have equal voting rights and each Governing Member (with the exception of Swirlds) will serve a limited term, ensuring that no single Governing Member or group of Governing Members has centralized control. The Hedera network has a model of permissioned governance with a phased plan for permissionless or open consensus. Governance is permissioned in that governance decisions are made by the members of the Hedera Governing Council. The Counci
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Hedera Whitepaper
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