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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
900
r, but with a different probability. The probability to be selected as a verifier depends on how much he or she has devoted to the system. That is, the more one contributes to the system, the higher probability he or she has to be selected as a verifier. The mechanism to evaluate the amount of devotion is the so-called proof-of-work. Practically speaking, each participant keeps computing hash values of the header of a block. And the first one who finds a small enough hash value will be regarded as the ver
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
901
ifier for the current block. B. Double Spending However, there is a potential hazard that the verifier is an attacker. Attackers might modify the transaction record and benefit themselves. In [1], Satoshi referred to this kind of situation as double spending in which the verifier spends the same money twice, which is definitely not allowed to happen in a trusted system. The original double spending scenario in [1] considers the possibility that some attackers in Bitcoin system build their own blockchai
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
902
ifier for the current block. B. Double Spending However, there is a potential hazard that the verifier is an attacker. Attackers might modify the transaction record and benefit themselves. In [1], Satoshi referred to this kind of situation as double spending in which the verifier spends the same money twice, which is definitely not allowed to happen in a trusted system. The original double spending scenario in [1] considers the possibility that some attackers in Bitcoin system build their own blockchai
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
903
n instead of mining on the main chain. The attackers build a private blockchain that is longer than the public chain. Thus, other participants in the system will adopt the longer one, which in this case is the attackers' ar X iv :1 80 7. 02 93 3v 1 [ cs .C R ] 9 J ul 2 01 8 private blockchain. The attackers produce some fake trans- actions in its private blockchain, usually by removing the records of their spendings so as to spend that money again in the future. Once these fake transac
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
904
n instead of mining on the main chain. The attackers build a private blockchain that is longer than the public chain. Thus, other participants in the system will adopt the longer one, which in this case is the attackers' ar X iv :1 80 7. 02 93 3v 1 [ cs .C R ] 9 J ul 2 01 8 private blockchain. The attackers produce some fake trans- actions in its private blockchain, usually by removing the records of their spendings so as to spend that money again in the future. Once these fake transac
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
905
tions such as a double spending one, merge into the main blockchain, the trust of the system will break down. C. High-order Markov Chain Raftery [9] proposed the Mixture Transition Distribution model (MTD) in 1985 which models the high-order Markov chain with a lag coefficient. Later, Berchtold and Raftery [10] generalized the idea into multi-matrix MTD, infinite- lag MTD, spatial MTD, etc., which can be used in various applications. In 2005, Ching et.al. [11] [12] relaxed the constraints in MTD model a
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
906
tions such as a double spending one, merge into the main blockchain, the trust of the system will break down. C. High-order Markov Chain Raftery [9] proposed the Mixture Transition Distribution model (MTD) in 1985 which models the high-order Markov chain with a lag coefficient. Later, Berchtold and Raftery [10] generalized the idea into multi-matrix MTD, infinite- lag MTD, spatial MTD, etc., which can be used in various applications. In 2005, Ching et.al. [11] [12] relaxed the constraints in MTD model a
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
907
nd yielded a more general results. Recently, Li and Ng [13] used probability tensor to model the high-order Markov chain, and found some sufficient conditions for the existence and uniqueness of stationary distribution. However, these previous works are not quite the same as what we focus here. They generalized the Markov property into high-order Markov chain, which conditions on more than one past states, and emphasized on the stationary distribution or asymptotic behaviors of a single state. Here, we n
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
908
nd yielded a more general results. Recently, Li and Ng [13] used probability tensor to model the high-order Markov chain, and found some sufficient conditions for the existence and uniqueness of stationary distribution. However, these previous works are not quite the same as what we focus here. They generalized the Markov property into high-order Markov chain, which conditions on more than one past states, and emphasized on the stationary distribution or asymptotic behaviors of a single state. Here, we n
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
909
ot only utilize the high-order Markov property but also obtain the stationary distribution or asymptotic behaviors of a sequence of states. In other words, the event we care about is a period of time or state, not a single snapshot. In personalized difficulty adjustment PoW system, what we concern is the double spending events in the scenario of consecutive winning by the same party. This paper presents the model to minimize the likelihood of spending the same coin twice and its corresponding results in
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
910
Gcoin [14][15]. II. MODEL We use a general stochastic process to model the PoW system and construct the personalized difficulty adjustment PoW system step by step. We start from the traditional PoW system in Section II-A, then we introduce the concept of personalized difficulty adjustment in Section II-B and give an example of difficulty function in Section II-C. A. Traditional PoW system First, note that the system is basically a discrete system. Namely, the system is composed of a sequence of blocks
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
911
Gcoin [14][15]. II. MODEL We use a general stochastic process to model the PoW system and construct the personalized difficulty adjustment PoW system step by step. We start from the traditional PoW system in Section II-A, then we introduce the concept of personalized difficulty adjustment in Section II-B and give an example of difficulty function in Section II-C. A. Traditional PoW system First, note that the system is basically a discrete system. Namely, the system is composed of a sequence of blocks
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
912
, and it's sufficient for us to use the index of each box to order the configurations in the system. In the following construction, we use the small letter b to denote the order index of the block we are at. Next, there are n participants in the system competing for solving hash values. Each of them intrinsically has his own computing power, denoted as Ci(b), where i refers to the index of the participant and b is the block index. Besides the computing power, there is a time-varying parameter record- in
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
913
g the difficulty of the system. We denote the difficulty for competing block b as D(b), with computing power {Ci(b)} and difficulty {D(b)}. It is sufficient to model the traditional PoW system with a two-tuple stochastic process as follows. Definition 1 (traditional PoW system). A traditional PoW system is a 2-tuple Btrad. = ({Ci(b) : i = 1, ..., n; b ∈ N}, {D(b) : b ∈ N}), where Ci(b) is the computing power of player i and D(b) is the difficulty of the system at the bth block respectively. At block b
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
914
, participant i has computing power Ci(b) and is assigned with difficulty D(b). Each of the participants then keeps computing hash function until one of them finds a valid hash value. The probability of participant i to win at block b is proportional to Ci(b) D(b) ∼ Ci(b). This observation is formally stated in Theorem 1 and is proved in Appendix A. B. Personalized Difficulty Adjustment (PDA) PoW System To simplify the problem, we assume all the nodes in PoW networks have the same computing power. A P
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
915
DA PoW system modifies the dynamic parameter of itself according to the recent outcomes in the system. For example, in this system [Figure 1], the difficulty index of each player will be configured according to the past winners in recent blocks. Suppose player A wins 4 blocks in the past 6 blocks, then his difficulty will be higher than player B who only wins 1 block in that period. Intuitively, we can think of the scenario as a dynamic stochastic process in which the transition mechanism will depend on a
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
916
DA PoW system modifies the dynamic parameter of itself according to the recent outcomes in the system. For example, in this system [Figure 1], the difficulty index of each player will be configured according to the past winners in recent blocks. Suppose player A wins 4 blocks in the past 6 blocks, then his difficulty will be higher than player B who only wins 1 block in that period. Intuitively, we can think of the scenario as a dynamic stochastic process in which the transition mechanism will depend on a
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
917
period of
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Personalized Difficulty Adjustment for Countering the Double Spending Attack in P
918
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2934092, IEEE Access VOLUME XX, 2017 1 Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000. Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
919
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2934092, IEEE Access VOLUME XX, 2017 1 Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000. Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
920
017.Doi Number Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain System Based on Residual Number System HAOJUAN MEI1, ZHEN GAO2, ZHAOHUI GUO1, Ming ZHAO3 and JINSHENG YANG1 1School of Microelectronics, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China 2School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China 3Beijing National Research Center For Information Science And Technology, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China Corresponding author: ZHEN GAO([email protected]) This work
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
921
was supported by Tianjin Natural Science Foundation, entitled "Research on the design and optimization for storage mechanism in Blockchain system based on redundant residual number system". ABSTRACT Huge storage volume is one of the main bottlenecks for the development of blockchain, so how to release the burden by optimizing the storage mechanism has become an important problem. Most of the current solutions would modify the architecture of blockchain, which weakens the characteristics of the decentrali
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
922
was supported by Tianjin Natural Science Foundation, entitled "Research on the design and optimization for storage mechanism in Blockchain system based on redundant residual number system". ABSTRACT Huge storage volume is one of the main bottlenecks for the development of blockchain, so how to release the burden by optimizing the storage mechanism has become an important problem. Most of the current solutions would modify the architecture of blockchain, which weakens the characteristics of the decentrali
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
923
zation, such as cloud storage. In this paper, a storage optimization mechanism based on residual number system is proposed to reduce the storage volume on each node. In addition, the recovery procedure of CRT-II (The new Chinese Remainder Theorem) is used to detect garbled data from devil nodes, which enable the proposed storage mechanism with strong fault tolerance capability. Both theoretical analysis and simulation results prove the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed scheme. INDEX TERMS Bloc
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
924
zation, such as cloud storage. In this paper, a storage optimization mechanism based on residual number system is proposed to reduce the storage volume on each node. In addition, the recovery procedure of CRT-II (The new Chinese Remainder Theorem) is used to detect garbled data from devil nodes, which enable the proposed storage mechanism with strong fault tolerance capability. Both theoretical analysis and simulation results prove the effectiveness and reliability of the proposed scheme. INDEX TERMS Bloc
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
925
kchain, storage optimization, residue number system, CRT II; I. INTRODUCTION Since the emergence of Bitcoin in 2008, blockchain technology has come into people's vision and attracted great attention [1]. In a narrow sense, blockchain is a kind of time-series data blocks, which are connected to form a chain structure, and cryptography algorithm is applied to ensure that the distributed ledger cannot be falsified and forged [2]. Broadly speaking, blockchain is a new distributed infrastructure and computing
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
926
kchain, storage optimization, residue number system, CRT II; I. INTRODUCTION Since the emergence of Bitcoin in 2008, blockchain technology has come into people's vision and attracted great attention [1]. In a narrow sense, blockchain is a kind of time-series data blocks, which are connected to form a chain structure, and cryptography algorithm is applied to ensure that the distributed ledger cannot be falsified and forged [2]. Broadly speaking, blockchain is a new distributed infrastructure and computing
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
927
paradigm that uses blockchain structure to verify and store data, and consensus and cryptography algorithm is applied for data updating and secure access, respectively. The blockchain technology has the characteristics of decentralization, anonymity, and suitability [3]. It has been widely concerned and applied in the fields of finance [4]-[5], medical [6]-[8], education [9]-[10] and food traceability [11]-[13]. Currently, one of the biggest problems in the blockchain is the huge storage volume on each
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
928
node. By the end of 2018, the data stored in Ethereum was over 110 GB, and that stored in Bitcoin was over 190 GB [14]. Such a storage burden has become a key bottleneck that restricts the development of blockchain. Researchers have proposed some solutions to this problem. In [15], DaYu Jia from Northeast University proposed a scalable storage mechanism of blockchain, in which a data replica allocation strategy [16] was proposed by using a distributed storage method [17]. In the storage mechanism, a com
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
929
plete blockchain was divided into several parts and distributed in the system. As shown in Figure 1, there are three roles for the nodes (user node, storage node, and verification node) and two kinds of chains (Position Chain and Proof of Reliability Chain, or P Chain and POR chain for short). Each node can have two or three identities at the same time. The P chain is stored on the user node and is used to record the address of the data on the storage node. The POR chain is stored on the verification node
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
930
and is used to record the reliability evaluation of each storage node. When storing data, the new block is first encrypted and the number of copies is calculated according to the timeliness of the block. Then appropriate storage nodes are chosen to store the copies of the block according to the reliability information provided by the verification node. Finally, the location information of the storage node is returned to the user node and saved in the P chain. When reading data, the storage node location
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
931
and is used to record the reliability evaluation of each storage node. When storing data, the new block is first encrypted and the number of copies is calculated according to the timeliness of the block. Then appropriate storage nodes are chosen to store the copies of the block according to the reliability information provided by the verification node. Finally, the location information of the storage node is returned to the user node and saved in the P chain. When reading data, the storage node location
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
932
to the target block is first obtained from the P chain. Then the storage node returns the saved data to the user node and finally, the original data is obtained after decryption. Although this storage mechanism reduces the blockchain storage volume to a certain extent, it causes most of the data to be stored in mailto:[email protected] This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. This article has been acce
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
933
to the target block is first obtained from the P chain. Then the storage node returns the saved data to the user node and finally, the original data is obtained after decryption. Although this storage mechanism reduces the blockchain storage volume to a certain extent, it causes most of the data to be stored in mailto:[email protected] This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. This article has been acce
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
934
pted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2934092, IEEE Access VOLUME XX, 2017 9 some nodes, which weakens the decentralization characteristic of blockchain. The mini-blockchain (MBC) [18] was designed by J.D. Bruce as an improvement to the original blockchain. The MBC consists of 3 components: account tree, transaction tree and proof chain. The main innovation was t
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
935
he "account tree", which is basically a balance sheet storing the balance of every account. In this design, only the most recent transactions and the current account tree are stored. The MBC is thus much more scalable than the original blockchain since the MBC only grows when new accounts are created. Obviously, the traceability of earlier transactions is lost. FIGURE 1. The storage mechanism of blockchain In this paper, a storage optimization mechanism for public blockchain is proposed based on the res
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
936
he "account tree", which is basically a balance sheet storing the balance of every account. In this design, only the most recent transactions and the current account tree are stored. The MBC is thus much more scalable than the original blockchain since the MBC only grows when new accounts are created. Obviously, the traceability of earlier transactions is lost. FIGURE 1. The storage mechanism of blockchain In this paper, a storage optimization mechanism for public blockchain is proposed based on the res
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
937
idual number system. In the proposed mechanism, the storage volume on each node is greatly compressed by only storing the remainder of each account to a modulus, and the updating of the account information on each node is performed independently. In addition, by combining the recovery property of CRT-II and two reliable remainders, a local partial redundant residual number system is constructed to detect garbled data from devil nodes. The structure of this paper is as follows. In Section II, relevant the
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
938
idual number system. In the proposed mechanism, the storage volume on each node is greatly compressed by only storing the remainder of each account to a modulus, and the updating of the account information on each node is performed independently. In addition, by combining the recovery property of CRT-II and two reliable remainders, a local partial redundant residual number system is constructed to detect garbled data from devil nodes. The structure of this paper is as follows. In Section II, relevant the
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
939
ories are introduced briefly, including the structure of blockchain, consensus algorithms, storage methods and workflows, as well as the residue number system and redundant residue number system. In Section III, the proposed storage optimization mechanism is introduced, including the storage mechanism, workflow of the blockchain system based on the new storage mechanism, and the hybrid fault tolerance scheme based on CRT II and Raft. In Section IV, a case study is provided to further clarify the basic ide
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
940
a of the proposed storage scheme, and the complexity and overhead of the fault tolerance operation are also analyzed. Finally, the paper is concluded in Section V. II. RELEVANT THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE In this section, we will introduce the background knowledge of blockchain, and the basic concepts of RNS and RRNS. A. BLOCKCHAIN The framework of blockchain is shown in Figure 2. Generally, blockchain can be divided into six layers: data layer, network layer, consensus layer, smart contract layer, incentive
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
941
a of the proposed storage scheme, and the complexity and overhead of the fault tolerance operation are also analyzed. Finally, the paper is concluded in Section V. II. RELEVANT THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE In this section, we will introduce the background knowledge of blockchain, and the basic concepts of RNS and RRNS. A. BLOCKCHAIN The framework of blockchain is shown in Figure 2. Generally, blockchain can be divided into six layers: data layer, network layer, consensus layer, smart contract layer, incentive
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
942
layer and application layer. Data layer encapsulates the chain structure of the underlying data blocks, the related asymmetric public-private key data encryption and timestamp technologies; Network layer includes distributed networking mechanism, data dissemination mechanism, data validation mechanism and P2P (Peer to Peer) networking technologies; Consensus layer mainly encapsulates all kinds of consensus algorithms that can be used to choose the node for generating the new block; Incentive layer mainly
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
943
is responsible for the distribution mechanism of economic incentives, and usually appears in the public chain; Contract layer is composed of all kinds of scripts, algorithms and intelligent contracts and is the basis of blockchain programmability; Application layer defines various application scenarios and provides programmable interfaces to users to customize, initiate and execute contracts. The proposed scheme is mainly related to the data layer, network layer and consensus layer. FIGURE 2. Framework o
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
944
is responsible for the distribution mechanism of economic incentives, and usually appears in the public chain; Contract layer is composed of all kinds of scripts, algorithms and intelligent contracts and is the basis of blockchain programmability; Application layer defines various application scenarios and provides programmable interfaces to users to customize, initiate and execute contracts. The proposed scheme is mainly related to the data layer, network layer and consensus layer. FIGURE 2. Framework o
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
945
f blockchain 1) Consensus Algorithm In a distributed system, some nodes may become unreliable unintentionally (damaged nodes) or intentionally (devil nodes). The consensus algorithm is used to ensure the consistency of data in the distributed system even there are unreliable nodes in the network. Two commonly used consensus algorithms are introduced in this subsection. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses
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Storage Mechanism Optimization in Blockchain
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/by/4.0/. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully ed
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Whitepaper Nathan Marley edited this page on Aug 23, 2018 Β· 11 revisions Dash: A Payments-Focused Cryptocurrency Evan Duffield - [email protected] Daniel Diaz - [email protected] Abstract. A cryptocurrency based on Bitcoin, the work of Satoshi Nakamoto, with various improvements such as a two-tier incentivized network, known as the masternode network. Included are other improvements such as PrivateSend, for increasing fungibility, and InstantSend, which allows instant transaction confirmation without a central
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Dash Whitepaper
948
Whitepaper Nathan Marley edited this page on Aug 23, 2018 Β· 11 revisions Dash: A Payments-Focused Cryptocurrency Evan Duffield - [email protected] Daniel Diaz - [email protected] Abstract. A cryptocurrency based on Bitcoin, the work of Satoshi Nakamoto, with various improvements such as a two-tier incentivized network, known as the masternode network. Included are other improvements such as PrivateSend, for increasing fungibility, and InstantSend, which allows instant transaction confirmation without a central
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Dash Whitepaper
949
ized authority. 1 Introduction Bitcoin [1] is a cryptocurrency that has emerged as a popular medium of exchange and is the first digital currency that has attracted a substantial number of users [2]. Since its inception in 2009, Bitcoin has been rapidly growing in mainstream adoption and merchant usage [3]. A main issue with the acceptance of Bitcoin in point-of-sale (POS) situations is the time required to wait for the network to confirm the transaction made is valid. Some payment processors have create
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Dash Whitepaper
950
ized authority. 1 Introduction Bitcoin [1] is a cryptocurrency that has emerged as a popular medium of exchange and is the first digital currency that has attracted a substantial number of users [2]. Since its inception in 2009, Bitcoin has been rapidly growing in mainstream adoption and merchant usage [3]. A main issue with the acceptance of Bitcoin in point-of-sale (POS) situations is the time required to wait for the network to confirm the transaction made is valid. Some payment processors have create
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Dash Whitepaper
951
d methods to allow vendors to take zero-confirmation transactions, but these solutions utilize a trusted counterparty to mediate the transaction outside of the protocol. Bitcoin provides pseudonymous transactions in a public ledger, with a one-to-one relationship between sender and receiver. This provides a permanent record of all transactions that have ever taken place on the network [5]. Bitcoin is widely known in academic circles to provide a low level of privacy, although with this limitation many pe
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Dash Whitepaper
952
d methods to allow vendors to take zero-confirmation transactions, but these solutions utilize a trusted counterparty to mediate the transaction outside of the protocol. Bitcoin provides pseudonymous transactions in a public ledger, with a one-to-one relationship between sender and receiver. This provides a permanent record of all transactions that have ever taken place on the network [5]. Bitcoin is widely known in academic circles to provide a low level of privacy, although with this limitation many pe
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Dash Whitepaper
953
ople still entrust their financial history to its blockchain. Dash is the first cryptocurrency based on the work of Satoshi Nakamoto with built-in privacy functions. In this paper we propose a series of improvements to Bitcoin resulting in a decentralized, strongly anonymous cryptocurrency, with tamper-proof instant transactions and a secondary peer-to-peer (P2P) network incentivized to provide services to the Dash Network. 2 Masternode Network Full nodes are servers running on a P2P network that allow
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Dash Whitepaper
954
ople still entrust their financial history to its blockchain. Dash is the first cryptocurrency based on the work of Satoshi Nakamoto with built-in privacy functions. In this paper we propose a series of improvements to Bitcoin resulting in a decentralized, strongly anonymous cryptocurrency, with tamper-proof instant transactions and a secondary peer-to-peer (P2P) network incentivized to provide services to the Dash Network. 2 Masternode Network Full nodes are servers running on a P2P network that allow
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Dash Whitepaper
955
peers to use them to receive updates about the events on the network. These nodes utilize significant amounts of traffic and other resources that incur a substantial cost. As a result, a steady decrease in the amount of these nodes has been observed for some time on the Bitcoin network [7] and as a result, block propagation times have been upwards of 40 seconds [14]. Many solutions have been proposed such as a new reward scheme by Microsoft Research [4] and the Bitnodes incentive program [6]. Figure 1: B
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Dash Whitepaper
956
peers to use them to receive updates about the events on the network. These nodes utilize significant amounts of traffic and other resources that incur a substantial cost. As a result, a steady decrease in the amount of these nodes has been observed for some time on the Bitcoin network [7] and as a result, block propagation times have been upwards of 40 seconds [14]. Many solutions have been proposed such as a new reward scheme by Microsoft Research [4] and the Bitnodes incentive program [6]. Figure 1: B
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Dash Whitepaper
957
itcoin Full nodes in the spring of 2014 Figure 1: Bitcoin Full nodes in the spring of 2014 These nodes are very important to the health of the network. They provide clients with the ability to synchronize and facilitate quick propagation of messages throughout the network. We propose adding a secondary network, known as the Dash masternode network. These nodes will have high availability and provide a required level of service to the network in order to take part in the Masternode Reward Program. 2.1 M
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Dash Whitepaper
958
itcoin Full nodes in the spring of 2014 Figure 1: Bitcoin Full nodes in the spring of 2014 These nodes are very important to the health of the network. They provide clients with the ability to synchronize and facilitate quick propagation of messages throughout the network. We propose adding a secondary network, known as the Dash masternode network. These nodes will have high availability and provide a required level of service to the network in order to take part in the Masternode Reward Program. 2.1 M
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Dash Whitepaper
959
asternode Reward Program - Cost and Payments Much of the reason for the decrease of full nodes on the Bitcoin network is the lack of incentive to run one. Over time, the cost of running a full node increases as the network gets used more, creating more bandwidth and costing the operator more money. As the cost rises, operators consolidate their services to be cheaper to run, or run a light client which does not help the network at all. Masternodes are full nodes, just like in the Bitcoin network, except
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Dash Whitepaper
960
asternode Reward Program - Cost and Payments Much of the reason for the decrease of full nodes on the Bitcoin network is the lack of incentive to run one. Over time, the cost of running a full node increases as the network gets used more, creating more bandwidth and costing the operator more money. As the cost rises, operators consolidate their services to be cheaper to run, or run a light client which does not help the network at all. Masternodes are full nodes, just like in the Bitcoin network, except
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Dash Whitepaper
961
they must provide a level of service to the network and have a bond of collateral to participate. The collateral is never forfeit and is safe while the masternode is operating. This permits masternode operators to provide a service to the network, earn payment for their services and reduce the volatility of the currency. To run a masternode, the operator must demonstrate control over 1,000 DASH. When active, masternodes provide services to clients on the network, and in return receive regular payment fro
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Dash Whitepaper
962
m the block reward. Like miners, masternodes are all paid from the block reward, 45% of which is dedicated to this program. Due to the fact that the masternode rewards program is a fixed percentage and the masternode network nodes are fluctuating, expected masternode rewards will vary according to the current total count of active masternodes. Payments for a standard day for running a masternode can be calculated by using the following formula: (n/t)* rba Where: n is the number of masternodes an operat
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Dash Whitepaper
963
m the block reward. Like miners, masternodes are all paid from the block reward, 45% of which is dedicated to this program. Due to the fact that the masternode rewards program is a fixed percentage and the masternode network nodes are fluctuating, expected masternode rewards will vary according to the current total count of active masternodes. Payments for a standard day for running a masternode can be calculated by using the following formula: (n/t)* rba Where: n is the number of masternodes an operat
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Dash Whitepaper
964
or controls t is the total number of masternodes r is the current block reward (presently averaging about 3.3 DASH) b is blocks in an average day. For the Dash network this usually is 576. a is the average masternode payment (45% of the average block reward) The cost associated with running a masternode creates a hard and soft limit of active nodes on the network. Currently with 8.2 million DASH in circulation, only 8,200 nodes could possibly be running on the network. The soft limit is imposed by the pr
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Dash Whitepaper
965
or controls t is the total number of masternodes r is the current block reward (presently averaging about 3.3 DASH) b is blocks in an average day. For the Dash network this usually is 576. a is the average masternode payment (45% of the average block reward) The cost associated with running a masternode creates a hard and soft limit of active nodes on the network. Currently with 8.2 million DASH in circulation, only 8,200 nodes could possibly be running on the network. The soft limit is imposed by the pr
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Dash Whitepaper
966
ice it costs to acquire a node and the limited liquidity on exchanges due to usage of Dash as a currency and not merely an investment. 2.2 Deterministic Ordering A special deterministic algorithm is used to create a pseudo-random ordering of the masternodes. By using the hash from the proof-of-work for each block, security of this functionality will be provided by the mining network. Pseudocode, for selecting a masternode: For(mastenode in masternodes){ current_score = masternode.CalculateScore();
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Dash Whitepaper
967
ice it costs to acquire a node and the limited liquidity on exchanges due to usage of Dash as a currency and not merely an investment. 2.2 Deterministic Ordering A special deterministic algorithm is used to create a pseudo-random ordering of the masternodes. By using the hash from the proof-of-work for each block, security of this functionality will be provided by the mining network. Pseudocode, for selecting a masternode: For(mastenode in masternodes){ current_score = masternode.CalculateScore();
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Dash Whitepaper
968
if(current_score > best_score){ best_score = current_score; winning_node = masternode; } } CMasterNode::CalculateScore(){ pow_hash = GetProofOfWorkHash(nBlockHeight); // get the hash of this block pow_hash_hash = Hash(pow_hash); //hash the POW hash to increase the entropy difference = abs(pow_hash_hash - masternode_vin); return difference; } The example code can be extended further to provide rankings of masternodes also, a β€œsecond”, β€œthird”, β€œfourth” masternode in
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Dash Whitepaper
969
if(current_score > best_score){ best_score = current_score; winning_node = masternode; } } CMasterNode::CalculateScore(){ pow_hash = GetProofOfWorkHash(nBlockHeight); // get the hash of this block pow_hash_hash = Hash(pow_hash); //hash the POW hash to increase the entropy difference = abs(pow_hash_hash - masternode_vin); return difference; } The example code can be extended further to provide rankings of masternodes also, a β€œsecond”, β€œthird”, β€œfourth” masternode in
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Dash Whitepaper
970
the list to be selected. 2.3 Trustless Quorums Currently the Dash network has ~4,800 active masternodes [8]. By requiring 1,000DASH collateral to become an active masternode, we create a system in which no one can control the entire network of masternodes. For example, if someone wanted to control 50% of the masternode network, they would have to buy 4,800,000 DASH from the open market. This would raise the price substantially and it would become impossible to acquire the needed DASH. With the addition
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Dash Whitepaper
971
the list to be selected. 2.3 Trustless Quorums Currently the Dash network has ~4,800 active masternodes [8]. By requiring 1,000DASH collateral to become an active masternode, we create a system in which no one can control the entire network of masternodes. For example, if someone wanted to control 50% of the masternode network, they would have to buy 4,800,000 DASH from the open market. This would raise the price substantially and it would become impossible to acquire the needed DASH. With the addition
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Dash Whitepaper
972
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Dash Whitepaper
973
1 Dr. Leemon Baird, Mance Harmon, and Paul Madsen The trust layer of the internet Hedera: A Public Hashgraph Network & Governing Council W H I T E PA P E R V. 2 . 1 L A S T U P D AT E D A U G U S T 1 5 , 2 0 2 0 S U B J E C T T O F U R T H E R R E V I E W & U P D AT E 2W H I T E PA P E R Vision To build a trusted, secure, and empowered digital future for all. Mission We are dedicated to building a trusted and secure online world that empowers you. Where you can work, play, buy
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Hedera Whitepaper
974
1 Dr. Leemon Baird, Mance Harmon, and Paul Madsen The trust layer of the internet Hedera: A Public Hashgraph Network & Governing Council W H I T E PA P E R V. 2 . 1 L A S T U P D AT E D A U G U S T 1 5 , 2 0 2 0 S U B J E C T T O F U R T H E R R E V I E W & U P D AT E 2W H I T E PA P E R Vision To build a trusted, secure, and empowered digital future for all. Mission We are dedicated to building a trusted and secure online world that empowers you. Where you can work, play, buy
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Hedera Whitepaper
975
, sell, create, and engage socially. Where you have safety and privacy in your digital communities. Where you are confident when interacting with others. Where this digital future is available to all. Hello future. Β© 2018-2020 Hedera Hashgraph, LLC. All rights reserved. 3E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y Executive Summary Distributed ledger technologies (DLT) have the potential to disrupt and transform existing markets in multiple industries. However, in our opinion there are five fundamental
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Hedera Whitepaper
976
, sell, create, and engage socially. Where you have safety and privacy in your digital communities. Where you are confident when interacting with others. Where this digital future is available to all. Hello future. Β© 2018-2020 Hedera Hashgraph, LLC. All rights reserved. 3E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y Executive Summary Distributed ledger technologies (DLT) have the potential to disrupt and transform existing markets in multiple industries. However, in our opinion there are five fundamental
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Hedera Whitepaper
977
obstacles to overcome before distributed ledgers can be widely accepted and adopted by enterprises. In this paper we will examine these obstacles and discuss why Hedera Hashgraph is well-suited to support a vast array of applications and become the world's first mass-adopted public distributed ledger. 1 . P E R F O R M A N C E - The most compelling use cases for DLT require hundreds of thousands of transactions per second, and many require consensus latency measured in seconds. These performance m
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Hedera Whitepaper
978
obstacles to overcome before distributed ledgers can be widely accepted and adopted by enterprises. In this paper we will examine these obstacles and discuss why Hedera Hashgraph is well-suited to support a vast array of applications and become the world's first mass-adopted public distributed ledger. 1 . P E R F O R M A N C E - The most compelling use cases for DLT require hundreds of thousands of transactions per second, and many require consensus latency measured in seconds. These performance m
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Hedera Whitepaper
979
etrics are orders of magnitude beyond what current public DLT platforms can achieve. 2 . S E C U R I T Y - If public DLT platforms are to facilitate the transfer of trillions of dollars of value, they will be targeted by hackers, and so will need the strongest possible network security. Having the strongest possible security starts with the consensus algorithm itself, with its security properties formally proven mathematically. Security vulnerabilities and attack vectors shouldn't be mitigated; th
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Hedera Whitepaper
980
etrics are orders of magnitude beyond what current public DLT platforms can achieve. 2 . S E C U R I T Y - If public DLT platforms are to facilitate the transfer of trillions of dollars of value, they will be targeted by hackers, and so will need the strongest possible network security. Having the strongest possible security starts with the consensus algorithm itself, with its security properties formally proven mathematically. Security vulnerabilities and attack vectors shouldn't be mitigated; th
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Hedera Whitepaper
981
ey should be eliminated entirely. To improve performance metrics, some public DLT platforms are making compromises with regard to decentralization, and in so doing are potentially compromising security. 3 . G O V E R N A N C E - A general-purpose public ledger should be governed by representatives from a broad range of market and geographic sectors, each with world-class expertise. Those responsible for network governance need technical expertise so they can competently manage the platform's under
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Hedera Whitepaper
982
ey should be eliminated entirely. To improve performance metrics, some public DLT platforms are making compromises with regard to decentralization, and in so doing are potentially compromising security. 3 . G O V E R N A N C E - A general-purpose public ledger should be governed by representatives from a broad range of market and geographic sectors, each with world-class expertise. Those responsible for network governance need technical expertise so they can competently manage the platform's under
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Hedera Whitepaper
983
lying software. They need business and economics expertise so they can manage business operations of the organization and its cryptocurrency. They need legal expertise to help navigate the evolving regulatory environment. In other words, the network should be governed by a decentralized group of globally recognized industry leaders, representative of every market in the world. 4 . STABILITY - Without technical and legal mechanisms to enforce the decisions of the governing body, public DLT platforms
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Hedera Whitepaper
984
lying software. They need business and economics expertise so they can manage business operations of the organization and its cryptocurrency. They need legal expertise to help navigate the evolving regulatory environment. In other words, the network should be governed by a decentralized group of globally recognized industry leaders, representative of every market in the world. 4 . STABILITY - Without technical and legal mechanisms to enforce the decisions of the governing body, public DLT platforms
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Hedera Whitepaper
985
are at risk of devolving into chaos. Strong security and mature governance will enable a stable platform — one that engenders the necessary trust and confidence among those that would build commercial or sensitive applications on it. 5 . R E G U L AT O R Y C O M P L I A N C E - We expect that governments will continue to extend policy objectives to users, enterprises, and developers utilizing public ledgers and associated cryptocurrencies and tokens. We consider that a public distributed ledger
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Hedera Whitepaper
986
are at risk of devolving into chaos. Strong security and mature governance will enable a stable platform — one that engenders the necessary trust and confidence among those that would build commercial or sensitive applications on it. 5 . R E G U L AT O R Y C O M P L I A N C E - We expect that governments will continue to extend policy objectives to users, enterprises, and developers utilizing public ledgers and associated cryptocurrencies and tokens. We consider that a public distributed ledger
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Hedera Whitepaper
987
must be capable of providing necessary tools for all members of its ecosystem to comply with applicable laws and regulations, such as the European Union's General Data Privacy Regulations (GDPR), and enable appropriate identity management to conduct sanctions screening and facilitate Know Your Customer (KYC) and Anti Money Laundering (AML) checks. 4E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y What is required to move the DLT industry forward and enable it to realize its full potential? A platform that provi
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Hedera Whitepaper
988
must be capable of providing necessary tools for all members of its ecosystem to comply with applicable laws and regulations, such as the European Union's General Data Privacy Regulations (GDPR), and enable appropriate identity management to conduct sanctions screening and facilitate Know Your Customer (KYC) and Anti Money Laundering (AML) checks. 4E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y What is required to move the DLT industry forward and enable it to realize its full potential? A platform that provi
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Hedera Whitepaper
989
des a combination of high performance, strong security, effective governance, technical and legal controls to ensure the platform's stability, and tools to enable regulatory compliance. Only then do we think mainstream markets will trust a DLT platform enough to adopt it. 5H E D E R A H A S H G R A P H C O U N C I L Introducing Hedera  — a public hashgraph network and governing body designed to address the needs of mainstream markets. The Hedera network will be governed by a council of leadi
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Hedera Whitepaper
990
des a combination of high performance, strong security, effective governance, technical and legal controls to ensure the platform's stability, and tools to enable regulatory compliance. Only then do we think mainstream markets will trust a DLT platform enough to adopt it. 5H E D E R A H A S H G R A P H C O U N C I L Introducing Hedera  — a public hashgraph network and governing body designed to address the needs of mainstream markets. The Hedera network will be governed by a council of leadi
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Hedera Whitepaper
991
ng global enterprises, across multiple industries and geographies. Its vision is a cyberspace that is trusted and secure, without the need for centralized parties with inordinate influence. Its licensing and governance model protects users by eliminating the risk of forking, protecting the integrity of the codebase, and providing open access to review the underlying software code. Platform governance will be decentralized through the Hedera Governing Council, which will have a term- limited, rotating
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Hedera Whitepaper
992
ng global enterprises, across multiple industries and geographies. Its vision is a cyberspace that is trusted and secure, without the need for centralized parties with inordinate influence. Its licensing and governance model protects users by eliminating the risk of forking, protecting the integrity of the codebase, and providing open access to review the underlying software code. Platform governance will be decentralized through the Hedera Governing Council, which will have a term- limited, rotating
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Hedera Whitepaper
993
set of governing members that each have equal voting rights over key decisions relating to the platform.1 The Hedera network is a distributed ledger platform that resolves the factors that constrain adoption of public DLT by the mainstream. 1 . P E R F O R M A N C E - The platform is built on the hashgraph distributed consensus algorithm, invented by Dr. Leemon Baird. The hashgraph consensus algorithm provides near-perfect efficiency in bandwidth usage and consequently can process hundreds of th
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Hedera Whitepaper
994
set of governing members that each have equal voting rights over key decisions relating to the platform.1 The Hedera network is a distributed ledger platform that resolves the factors that constrain adoption of public DLT by the mainstream. 1 . P E R F O R M A N C E - The platform is built on the hashgraph distributed consensus algorithm, invented by Dr. Leemon Baird. The hashgraph consensus algorithm provides near-perfect efficiency in bandwidth usage and consequently can process hundreds of th
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Hedera Whitepaper
995
ousands of transactions per second in a single shard (a fully connected, peer-to-peer mesh of nodes in a network). Initially, we anticipate that the Hedera network will be able to process 10,000 cryptocurrency transactions per second. Consensus latency is measured in seconds, not minutes, hours, or days. 2 . S E C U R I T Y - Hashgraph achieves the gold standard for security in the field of distributed consensus: asynchronous Byzantine Fault Tolerance (aBFT). Other platforms that use coordinators
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Hedera Whitepaper
996
ousands of transactions per second in a single shard (a fully connected, peer-to-peer mesh of nodes in a network). Initially, we anticipate that the Hedera network will be able to process 10,000 cryptocurrency transactions per second. Consensus latency is measured in seconds, not minutes, hours, or days. 2 . S E C U R I T Y - Hashgraph achieves the gold standard for security in the field of distributed consensus: asynchronous Byzantine Fault Tolerance (aBFT). Other platforms that use coordinators
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Hedera Whitepaper
997
, leaders, or communication timeouts to improve performance tend to be vulnerable to Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks. Hashgraph is resilient to these types of attacks against the consensus algorithm because there is no such leader. Achieving this level of security at scale is a fundamental advance in the field of distributed systems. Many applications require that the consensus order of transactions match the actual order in which the transactions are received by the network. It should n
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Hedera Whitepaper
998
, leaders, or communication timeouts to improve performance tend to be vulnerable to Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks. Hashgraph is resilient to these types of attacks against the consensus algorithm because there is no such leader. Achieving this level of security at scale is a fundamental advance in the field of distributed systems. Many applications require that the consensus order of transactions match the actual order in which the transactions are received by the network. It should n
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Hedera Whitepaper
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