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A [job] where there are [many workers] [willing to work] a [large amount of time] (high supply) competing for a [job] that [few require] (low demand) will result in a [low wage] for that job. This is because [competition between workers] drives down the [wage]. An example of this would be jobs such as [dish-washing] or [customer service]. [Competition amongst workers] tends to drive down wages due to the [expendable nature] of the worker in relation to his or her particular job. A [job] where there are [few able or willing workers] (low supply), but a [large need] for the positions (high demand), will result in [high wages] for that job. This is because [competition between employers] for employees will drive up the [wage]. Examples of this would include jobs that require [highly developed skills], [rare abilities], or a [high level of risk]. [Competition amongst employers] tends to drive up wages due to the [nature] of the job, since there is a [relative shortage] of workers for the particular position. [Professional] and [labor organizations] may limit the [supply of workers] which results in [higher demand] and greater [incomes] for members. Members may also receive higher wages through [collective bargaining], [political influence], or [corruption].	A job where there are many workers willing to work a large amount of time (high supply) competing for a job that few require (low demand) will result in a low wage for that job. This is because competition between workers drives down the wage. An example of this would be jobs such as dish-washing or customer service. Competition amongst workers tends to drive down wages due to the expendable nature of the worker in relation to his or her particular job. A job where there are few able or willing workers (low supply), but a large need for the positions (high demand), will result in high wages for that job. This is because competition between employers for employees will drive up the wage. Examples of this would include jobs that require highly developed skills, rare abilities, or a high level of risk. Competition amongst employers tends to drive up wages due to the nature of the job, since there is a relative shortage of workers for the particular position. Professional and labor organizations may limit the supply of workers which results in higher demand and greater incomes for members. Members may also receive higher wages through collective bargaining, political influence, or corruption.
[Harvard] operates several [arts], [cultural], and [scientific] [museums]. The [Harvard Art Museums] comprises three museums. The [Arthur M. Sackler Museum] includes collections of [ancient], [Asian], [Islamic] and later [Indian art], the [Busch-Reisinger Museum], formerly the [Germanic Museum], covers [central] and [northern European art], and the [Fogg Museum of Art], covers [Western art] from the [Middle Ages] to the [present] emphasizing [Italian early Renaissance], [British pre-Raphaelite], and [19th-century French art]. The [Harvard Museum of Natural History] includes the [Harvard Mineralogical Museum], [Harvard University Herbaria] featuring the [Blaschka Glass Flowers exhibit], and the [Museum of Comparative Zoology]. Other museums include the [Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts], designed by [Le Corbusier], housing the [film archive], the [Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology], specializing in the [cultural history] and [civilizations] of the [Western Hemisphere], and the [Semitic Museum] featuring artifacts from excavations in the [Middle East].	Harvard operates several arts, cultural, and scientific museums. The Harvard Art Museums comprises three museums. The Arthur M. Sackler Museum includes collections of ancient, Asian, Islamic and later Indian art, the Busch-Reisinger Museum, formerly the Germanic Museum, covers central and northern European art, and the Fogg Museum of Art, covers Western art from the Middle Ages to the present emphasizing Italian early Renaissance, British pre-Raphaelite, and 19th-century French art. The Harvard Museum of Natural History includes the Harvard Mineralogical Museum, Harvard University Herbaria featuring the Blaschka Glass Flowers exhibit, and the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Other museums include the Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, designed by Le Corbusier, housing the film archive, the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, specializing in the cultural history and civilizations of the Western Hemisphere, and the Semitic Museum featuring artifacts from excavations in the Middle East.
But bounding the [computation time] above by some [concrete function] [f(n)] often yields [complexity classes] that depend on the chosen [machine model]. For instance, the [language] {[xx] \| [x] is any [binary string]} can be solved in [linear time] on a [multi-tape Turing machine], but necessarily requires [quadratic time] in the [model] of [single-tape Turing machines]. If we allow [polynomial variations] in [running time], [Cobham-Edmonds thesis] states that "the [time complexities] in any [two reasonable and general models] of [computation] are [polynomially related]" ([Goldreich] 2008, [Chapter 1.2]). This forms the basis for the [complexity class P], which is the set of [decision problems] solvable by a [deterministic Turing machine] within [polynomial time]. The corresponding set of [function problems] is [FP].	But bounding the computation time above by some concrete function f(n) often yields complexity classes that depend on the chosen machine model. For instance, the language {xx \| x is any binary string} can be solved in linear time on a multi-tape Turing machine, but necessarily requires quadratic time in the model of single-tape Turing machines. If we allow polynomial variations in running time, Cobham-Edmonds thesis states that "the time complexities in any two reasonable and general models of computation are polynomially related" (Goldreich 2008, Chapter 1.2). This forms the basis for the complexity class P, which is the set of decision problems solvable by a deterministic Turing machine within polynomial time. The corresponding set of function problems is FP.
Luther came to understand [justification] as entirely the work of [God]. This [teaching] by Luther was clearly expressed in his [1525 publication] On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by [Desiderius Erasmus] ([1524]). Luther based his position on [predestination] on [St. Paul]'s [epistle] to the [Ephesians] [2:8–10]. Against the teaching of his day that the [righteous acts] of [believers] are performed in [cooperation] with [God], Luther wrote that [Christians] receive such [righteousness] entirely from [outside themselves]; that righteousness not only comes from [Christ] but actually is the righteousness of [Christ], [imputed] to Christians (rather than infused into them) through [faith]. "That is why [faith alone] makes someone just and fulfills the [law]," he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the [Holy Spirit] through the [merits] of [Christ]." [Faith], for Luther, was a [gift] from [God]; the [experience] of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His [entry] into [Paradise], no less, was a [discovery] about "the righteousness of [God]" – a [discovery] that "the [just person]" of whom the [Bible] speaks (as in [Romans] [1:17]) lives by [faith]. He explained his concept of "justification" in the [Smalcald Articles].	Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. This teaching by Luther was clearly expressed in his 1525 publication On the Bondage of the Will, which was written in response to On Free Will by Desiderius Erasmus (1524). Luther based his position on predestination on St. Paul's epistle to the Ephesians 2:8–10. Against the teaching of his day that the righteous acts of believers are performed in cooperation with God, Luther wrote that Christians receive such righteousness entirely from outside themselves; that righteousness not only comes from Christ but actually is the righteousness of Christ, imputed to Christians (rather than infused into them) through faith. "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law," he wrote. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ." Faith, for Luther, was a gift from God; the experience of being justified by faith was "as though I had been born again." His entry into Paradise, no less, was a discovery about "the righteousness of God" – a discovery that "the just person" of whom the Bible speaks (as in Romans 1:17) lives by faith. He explained his concept of "justification" in the Smalcald Articles:
The [Panthers offense], which led the [NFL] in [scoring] (500 points), was loaded with [talent], boasting six [Pro Bowl selections]. Pro Bowl [quarterback] [Cam Newton] had one of his [best seasons], throwing for [3,837 yards] and rushing for [636], while recording a [career-high] and [league-leading] [45 total touchdowns] (35 passing, 10 rushing), a [career-low] [10 interceptions], and a [career-best] [quarterback rating] of [99.4]. Newton's leading [receivers] were [tight end] [Greg Olsen], who caught a [career-high] [77 passes] for [1,104 yards] and [seven touchdowns], and [wide receiver] [Ted Ginn, Jr.], who caught [44 passes] for [739 yards] and [10 touchdowns]; Ginn also rushed for [60 yards] and returned [27 punts] for [277 yards]. Other key receivers included [veteran] [Jerricho Cotchery] ([39 receptions] for [485 yards]), [rookie] [Devin Funchess] ([31 receptions] for [473 yards] and [five touchdowns]), and [second-year receiver] [Corey Brown] ([31 receptions] for [447 yards]). The Panthers [backfield] featured Pro Bowl [running back] [Jonathan Stewart], who led the team with [989 rushing yards] and [six touchdowns] in [13 games], along with Pro Bowl [fullback] [Mike Tolbert], who rushed for [256 yards] and caught [18 passes] for another [154 yards]. Carolina's [offensive line] also featured two Pro Bowl selections: [center] [Ryan Kalil] and [guard] [Trai Turner].	The Panthers offense, which led the NFL in scoring (500 points), was loaded with talent, boasting six Pro Bowl selections. Pro Bowl quarterback Cam Newton had one of his best seasons, throwing for 3,837 yards and rushing for 636, while recording a career-high and league-leading 45 total touchdowns (35 passing, 10 rushing), a career-low 10 interceptions, and a career-best quarterback rating of 99.4. Newton's leading receivers were tight end Greg Olsen, who caught a career-high 77 passes for 1,104 yards and seven touchdowns, and wide receiver Ted Ginn, Jr., who caught 44 passes for 739 yards and 10 touchdowns; Ginn also rushed for 60 yards and returned 27 punts for 277 yards. Other key receivers included veteran Jerricho Cotchery (39 receptions for 485 yards), rookie Devin Funchess (31 receptions for 473 yards and five touchdowns), and second-year receiver Corey Brown (31 receptions for 447 yards). The Panthers backfield featured Pro Bowl running back Jonathan Stewart, who led the team with 989 rushing yards and six touchdowns in 13 games, along with Pro Bowl fullback Mike Tolbert, who rushed for 256 yards and caught 18 passes for another 154 yards. Carolina's offensive line also featured two Pro Bowl selections: center Ryan Kalil and guard Trai Turner.
Many of the farms in the Western Cape province in South Africa still bear French names. [Many families], [today] [mostly] [Afrikaans-speaking], have [surnames] indicating their [French Huguenot ancestry]. Examples include: [Blignaut], [Cilliers], [de Klerk] (Le Clercq), [de Villiers], [du Plessis], [Du Preez] (Des Pres), [du Randt] (Durand), [du Toit], [Duvenhage](Du Vinage), [Franck], [Fouche], [Fourie] (Fleurit), [Gervais], [Giliomee] (Guilliaume), [Gous]/[Gouws] (Gauch), [Hugo], [Jordaan] (Jourdan), [Joubert], [Kriek], [Labuschagne] (la Buscagne), [le Roux], [Lombard], [Malan], [Malherbe], [Marais], [Maree], [Minnaar] (Mesnard), [Nel] (Nell),[Naude'], [Nortje] (Nortier), [Pienaar] (Pinard), [Retief] (Retif), [Rossouw] (Rousseau), [Taljaard] (Taillard), [TerBlanche], [Theron], [Viljoen] (Villion) and [Visagie] (Visage). The [wine industry] in [South Africa] owes a [significant debt] to the [Huguenots], some of whom had [vineyards] in [France], or were [brandy distillers], and used their [skills] in their [new home].	Many of the farms in the Western Cape province in South Africa still bear French names. Many families, today mostly Afrikaans-speaking, have surnames indicating their French Huguenot ancestry. Examples include: Blignaut, Cilliers, de Klerk (Le Clercq), de Villiers, du Plessis, Du Preez (Des Pres), du Randt (Durand), du Toit, Duvenhage(Du Vinage), Franck, Fouche, Fourie (Fleurit), Gervais, Giliomee (Guilliaume), Gous/Gouws (Gauch), Hugo, Jordaan (Jourdan), Joubert, Kriek, Labuschagne (la Buscagne), le Roux, Lombard, Malan, Malherbe, Marais, Maree, Minnaar (Mesnard), Nel (Nell),Naude', Nortje (Nortier), Pienaar (Pinard), Retief (Retif), Rossouw (Rousseau), Taljaard (Taillard), TerBlanche, Theron, Viljoen (Villion) and Visagie (Visage). The wine industry in South Africa owes a significant debt to the Huguenots, some of whom had vineyards in France, or were brandy distillers, and used their skills in their new home.
Some theories developed in the 1970s established possible avenues through which [inequality] may have a [positive effect] on [economic development]. According to a [1955 review], [savings] by the [wealthy], if these increase with [inequality], were thought to [offset] reduced consumer demand. A [2013 report] on [Nigeria] suggests that [growth] has [risen] with [increased income inequality]. Some theories [popular] from the [1950s] to [2011] [incorrectly stated] that [inequality] had a [positive effect] on [economic development]. [Analyses] based on [comparing yearly equality figures] to [yearly growth rates] were [misleading] because it takes [several years] for [effects] to [manifest] as [changes] to [economic growth]. [IMF economists] found a [strong association] between [lower levels] of [inequality] in [developing countries] and [sustained periods] of [economic growth]. [Developing countries] with [high inequality] have ["succeeded in initiating growth"] at [high rates] for a [few years] but ["longer growth spells"] are [robustly associated] with [more equality] in the [income distribution].	Some theories developed in the 1970s established possible avenues through which inequality may have a positive effect on economic development. According to a 1955 review, savings by the wealthy, if these increase with inequality, were thought to offset reduced consumer demand. A 2013 report on Nigeria suggests that growth has risen with increased income inequality. Some theories popular from the 1950s to 2011 incorrectly stated that inequality had a positive effect on economic development. Analyses based on comparing yearly equality figures to yearly growth rates were misleading because it takes several years for effects to manifest as changes to economic growth. IMF economists found a strong association between lower levels of inequality in developing countries and sustained periods of economic growth. Developing countries with high inequality have "succeeded in initiating growth at high rates for a few years" but "longer growth spells are robustly associated with more equality in the income distribution."
Women remained segregated at [Radcliffe], though more and more took [Harvard classes]. Nonetheless, [Harvard]'s [undergraduate population] remained predominantly male, with about [four men attending Harvard College for every woman studying at Radcliffe]. Following the [merger] of Harvard and Radcliffe admissions in [1977], the [proportion of female undergraduates] steadily increased, [mirroring] a [trend] throughout [higher education] in the [United States]. Harvard's [graduate schools], which had accepted females and other groups in [greater numbers] even before the college, also became more [diverse] in the [post-World War II period].	Women remained segregated at Radcliffe, though more and more took Harvard classes. Nonetheless, Harvard's undergraduate population remained predominantly male, with about four men attending Harvard College for every woman studying at Radcliffe. Following the merger of Harvard and Radcliffe admissions in 1977, the proportion of female undergraduates steadily increased, mirroring a trend throughout higher education in the United States. Harvard's graduate schools, which had accepted females and other groups in greater numbers even before the college, also became more diverse in the post-World War II period.
The [United Methodist Church] teaches that [pornography] is "about [violence], [degradation], [exploitation], and [coercion]" and "deplores all forms of [commercialization], [abuse], and [exploitation] of [sex]." The [Sexual Ethics Task Force] of The [United Methodist Church] states that "Research shows [pornography] is not an 'innocent activity.' It is [harmful] and is generally [addictive]. [Persons] who are addicted to [pornography] are [physiologically altered], as is their [perspective], [relationships] with [parishioners] and [family], and their [perceptions] of [girls] and [women]."	The United Methodist Church teaches that pornography is "about violence, degradation, exploitation, and coercion" and "deplores all forms of commercialization, abuse, and exploitation of sex." The Sexual Ethics Task Force of The United Methodist Church states that "Research shows it pornography is not an 'innocent activity.' It is harmful and is generally addictive. Persons who are addicted to pornography are physiologically altered, as is their perspective, relationships with parishioners and family, and their perceptions of girls and women."
During that year, [Tesla] worked in [Pittsburgh], helping to create an [alternating current system] to power the city's [streetcars]. He found the time there [frustrating] because of [conflicts] between him and the other [Westinghouse engineers] over how [best] to implement [AC power]. Between them, they settled on a [60-cycle AC current system] Tesla proposed (to match the [working frequency] of Tesla's [motor]), although they soon found that, since Tesla's [induction motor] could only run at a [constant speed], it would not work for [street cars]. They ended up using a [DC traction motor] instead.	During that year, Tesla worked in Pittsburgh, helping to create an alternating current system to power the city's streetcars. He found the time there frustrating because of conflicts between him and the other Westinghouse engineers over how best to implement AC power. Between them, they settled on a 60-cycle AC current system Tesla proposed (to match the working frequency of Tesla's motor), although they soon found that, since Tesla's induction motor could only run at a constant speed, it would not work for street cars. They ended up using a DC traction motor instead.
The [following table] gives the [largest known primes] of the [mentioned types]. Some of these primes have been found using [distributed computing]. In [2009], the [Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search] project was awarded a [US$100,000 prize] for first discovering a prime with at least [10 million digits]. The [Electronic Frontier Foundation] also offers [US$150,000] and [US$250,000] for primes with at least [100 million digits] and [1 billion digits], respectively. Some of the [largest primes] not known to have any [particular form] (that is, no simple formula such as that of Mersenne primes) have been found by taking a piece of [semi-random binary data], converting it to a number n, multiplying it by [256k] for some positive integer k, and searching for possible primes within the interval [256kn + 1], [256k(n + 1) − 1].[citation needed]	The following table gives the largest known primes of the mentioned types. Some of these primes have been found using distributed computing. In 2009, the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search project was awarded a US$100,000 prize for first discovering a prime with at least 10 million digits. The Electronic Frontier Foundation also offers $150,000 and $250,000 for primes with at least 100 million digits and 1 billion digits, respectively. Some of the largest primes not known to have any particular form (that is, no simple formula such as that of Mersenne primes) have been found by taking a piece of semi-random binary data, converting it to a number n, multiplying it by 256k for some positive integer k, and searching for possible primes within the interval 256kn + 1, 256k(n + 1) − 1.citation needed
When [B cells] and [T cells] are [activated] and begin to [replicate], some of their offspring become [long-lived memory cells]. Throughout the [lifetime] of an [animal], these memory cells remember each specific [pathogen] encountered and can mount a [strong response] if the pathogen is detected again. This is "[adaptive]" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an [adaptation] to [infection] with that pathogen and prepares the [immune system] for [future challenges]. [Immunological memory] can be in the form of either [passive] [short-term memory] or [active long-term memory].	When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. This is "adaptive" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.
The [University of Chicago] is governed by a [board of trustees]. The [Board of Trustees] oversees the [long-term development] and [plans] of the university and manages [fundraising efforts], and is composed of [50 members] including the [university President]. Directly beneath the [President] are the [Provost], [fourteen Vice Presidents] (including the [Chief Financial Officer], [Chief Investment Officer], and [Dean of Students] of the university), the [Directors] of [Argonne National Laboratory] and [Fermilab], the [Secretary] of the university, and the [Student Ombudsperson]. As of [August 2009update], the [Chairman] of the [Board of Trustees] is [Andrew Alper], and the [President] of the university is [Robert Zimmer]. In [December 2013] it was announced that the [Director] of [Argonne National Laboratory], [Eric Isaacs], would become [Provost]. [Isaacs] was replaced as [Provost] in [March 2016] by [Daniel Diermeier].	The University of Chicago is governed by a board of trustees. The Board of Trustees oversees the long-term development and plans of the university and manages fundraising efforts, and is composed of 50 members including the university President. Directly beneath the President are the Provost, fourteen Vice Presidents (including the Chief Financial Officer, Chief Investment Officer, and Dean of Students of the university), the Directors of Argonne National Laboratory and Fermilab, the Secretary of the university, and the Student Ombudsperson. As of August 2009update, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees is Andrew Alper, and the President of the university is Robert Zimmer. In December 2013 it was announced that the Director of Argonne National Laboratory, Eric Isaacs, would become Provost. Isaacs was replaced as Provost in March 2016 by Daniel Diermeier.
[Kublai Khan] promoted [commercial], [scientific], and [cultural growth]. He supported the [merchants] of the [Silk Road trade network] by [protecting] the [Mongol postal system], [constructing infrastructure], [providing loans], [financed trade caravans], and [encouraging] the [circulation] of [paper banknotes] (鈔, Chao). [Pax Mongolica], [Mongol peace], [enabled] the [spread] of [technologies], [commodities], and [culture] between [China] and the [West]. Kublai expanded the [Grand Canal] from [southern China] to [Daidu] in the [north]. [Mongol rule] was [cosmopolitan] under [Kublai Khan]. He [welcomed] [foreign visitors] to his [court], such as the [Venetian merchant Marco Polo], who wrote the [most influential] [European account] of [Yuan China]. [Marco Polo's travels] would later [inspire] many [others] like [Christopher Columbus] to [chart a passage] to the [Far East] in [search] of its [legendary wealth].	Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting the Mongol postal system, constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper banknotes (鈔, Chao). Pax Mongolica, Mongol peace, enabled the spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart a passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth.
In [September 1760], and before any [hostilities] erupted, [Governor Vaudreuil] negotiated from [Montreal] a [capitulation] with [General Amherst]. [Amherst] granted [Vaudreuil]'s request that any [French residents] who chose to remain in the [colony] would be given [freedom] to continue [worshiping] in their [Roman Catholic tradition], [continued ownership] of their [property], and the [right] to remain [undisturbed] in their [homes]. The [British] provided [medical treatment] for the [sick] and [wounded] [French soldiers] and [French regular troops] were returned to [France] aboard [British ships] with an [agreement] that they were not to serve again in the [present war].	In September 1760, and before any hostilities erupted, Governor Vaudreuil negotiated from Montreal a capitulation with General Amherst. Amherst granted Vaudreuil's request that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would be given freedom to continue worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, continued ownership of their property, and the right to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the sick and wounded French soldiers and French regular troops were returned to France aboard British ships with an agreement that they were not to serve again in the present war.
The [University of Chicago] ([UChicago], [Chicago], or [U of C]) is a [private research university] in [Chicago]. The university, [established] in [1890], consists of [The College], [various graduate programs], [interdisciplinary committees], [four academic research divisions], and [seven professional schools]. Beyond the [arts and sciences], [Chicago] is also well known for its [professional schools], which include the [Pritzker School of Medicine], the [University of Chicago Booth School of Business], the [Law School], the [School of Social Service Administration], the [Harris School of Public Policy Studies], the [Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies], and the [Divinity School]. The university currently [enrolls] approximately [5,000 students] in [the College] and around [15,000 students] overall.	The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or U of C) is a private research university in Chicago. The university, established in 1890, consists of The College, various graduate programs, interdisciplinary committees organized into four academic research divisions and seven professional schools. Beyond the arts and sciences, Chicago is also well known for its professional schools, which include the Pritzker School of Medicine, the University of Chicago Booth School of Business, the Law School, the School of Social Service Administration, the Harris School of Public Policy Studies, the Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies and the Divinity School. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,000 students in the College and around 15,000 students overall.
The [plague theory] was first significantly challenged by the work of [British bacteriologist] [J. F. D. Shrewsbury] in [1970], who noted that the reported rates of [mortality] in [rural areas] during the [14th-century pandemic] were inconsistent with the modern [bubonic plague], leading him to conclude that [contemporary accounts] were [exaggerations]. In [1984] [zoologist] [Graham Twigg] produced the first major work to challenge the [bubonic plague theory] directly, and his doubts about the [identity] of the [Black Death] have been taken up by a number of authors, including [Samuel K. Cohn, Jr.] ([2002]), [David Herlihy] ([1997]), and [Susan Scott] and [Christopher Duncan] ([2001]).	The plague theory was first significantly challenged by the work of British bacteriologist J. F. D. Shrewsbury in 1970, who noted that the reported rates of mortality in rural areas during the 14th-century pandemic were inconsistent with the modern bubonic plague, leading him to conclude that contemporary accounts were exaggerations. In 1984 zoologist Graham Twigg produced the first major work to challenge the bubonic plague theory directly, and his doubts about the identity of the Black Death have been taken up by a number of authors, including Samuel K. Cohn, Jr. (2002), David Herlihy (1997), and Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan (2001).
Other evidence of the [Walloons] and [Huguenots] in [Canterbury] includes a [block] of [houses] in [Turnagain Lane], where [weavers'] [windows] [survive] on the [top floor], as many [Huguenots] worked as [weavers]. The [Weavers], a [half-timbered house] by the [river], was the [site] of a [weaving school] from the [late 16th century] to about [1830]. (It has been [adapted] as a [restaurant]—see [illustration] above. The house [derives] its [name] from a [weaving school] which was [moved] there in the [last years] of the [19th century], [reviving] an [earlier use].) [Others] [refugees] [practised] the [variety] of [occupations] necessary to [sustain] the [community] as [distinct] from the [indigenous population]. Such [economic separation] was the [condition] of the [refugees'] [initial acceptance] in the [City]. They also [settled] [elsewhere] in [Kent], particularly [Sandwich], [Faversham] and [Maidstone]—[towns] in which there used to be [refugee churches].	Other evidence of the Walloons and Huguenots in Canterbury includes a block of houses in Turnagain Lane, where weavers' windows survive on the top floor, as many Huguenots worked as weavers. The Weavers, a half-timbered house by the river, was the site of a weaving school from the late 16th century to about 1830. (It has been adapted as a restaurant—see illustration above. The house derives its name from a weaving school which was moved there in the last years of the 19th century, reviving an earlier use.) Others refugees practised the variety of occupations necessary to sustain the community as distinct from the indigenous population. Such economic separation was the condition of the refugees' initial acceptance in the City. They also settled elsewhere in Kent, particularly Sandwich, Faversham and Maidstone—towns in which there used to be refugee churches.
Generally speaking, while all [member states] recognise that [EU law] takes [primacy] over [national law] where this [agreed] in the [Treaties], they do not accept that the [Court of Justice] has the [final say] on [foundational constitutional questions] affecting [democracy] and [human rights]. In the [United Kingdom], the [basic principle] is that [Parliament], as the [sovereign expression] of [democratic legitimacy], can [decide] whether it wishes to [expressly legislate] against [EU law]. This, however, would only happen in the case of an [express wish] of the [people] to [withdraw] from the EU. It was held in R ([Factortame Ltd]) v Secretary of State for Transport that "whatever [limitation] of its [sovereignty] [Parliament] accepted when it enacted the [European Communities Act 1972] was [entirely voluntary]" and so "it has always been [clear]" that [UK courts] have a [duty] "to override any [rule] of [national law] found to be in [conflict] with any [directly enforceable rule] of [Community law]." More recently the [UK Supreme Court] noted that in R ([HS2 Action Alliance Ltd]) v Secretary of State for Transport, although the UK [constitution] is [uncodified], there could be "fundamental principles" of [common law], and [Parliament] "did not either [contemplate] or [authorise] the [abrogation] of those [principles] when it enacted the [European Communities Act 1972]." The view of the [German Constitutional Court] from the [Solange I and Solange II decisions] is that if the EU does not comply with its [basic constitutional rights] and [principles] (particularly [democracy], the [rule of law] and the [social state principles]) then it cannot [override] [German law]. However, as the [nicknames] of the judgments go, "[so long as]" the EU works towards the [democratisation] of its [institutions], and has a [framework] that protects [fundamental human rights], it would not [review] EU [legislation] for compatibility with [German constitutional principles]. Most other [member states] have [expressed] similar [reservations]. This suggests the EU's [legitimacy] rests on the [ultimate authority] of [member states], its [factual commitment] to [human rights], and the [democratic will] of the [people].	Generally speaking, while all member states recognise that EU law takes primacy over national law where this agreed in the Treaties, they do not accept that the Court of Justice has the final say on foundational constitutional questions affecting democracy and human rights. In the United Kingdom, the basic principle is that Parliament, as the sovereign expression of democratic legitimacy, can decide whether it wishes to expressly legislate against EU law. This, however, would only happen in the case of an express wish of the people to withdraw from the EU. It was held in R (Factortame Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport that "whatever limitation of its sovereignty Parliament accepted when it enacted the European Communities Act 1972 was entirely voluntary" and so "it has always been clear" that UK courts have a duty "to override any rule of national law found to be in conflict with any directly enforceable rule of Community law." More recently the UK Supreme Court noted that in R (HS2 Action Alliance Ltd) v Secretary of State for Transport, although the UK constitution is uncodified, there could be "fundamental principles" of common law, and Parliament "did not either contemplate or authorise the abrogation" of those principles when it enacted the European Communities Act 1972. The view of the German Constitutional Court from the Solange I and Solange II decisions is that if the EU does not comply with its basic constitutional rights and principles (particularly democracy, the rule of law and the social state principles) then it cannot override German law. However, as the nicknames of the judgments go, "so long as" the EU works towards the democratisation of its institutions, and has a framework that protects fundamental human rights, it would not review EU legislation for compatibility with German constitutional principles. Most other member states have expressed similar reservations. This suggests the EU's legitimacy rests on the ultimate authority of member states, its factual commitment to human rights, and the democratic will of the people.
A [Pharmacy Technician] in the [UK] is considered a [health care professional] and often does not work under the [direct supervision] of a [pharmacist] (if employed in a [hospital pharmacy]) but instead is [supervised] and [managed] by [other senior pharmacy technicians]. In the [UK] the [role] of a [PhT] has [grown] and [responsibility] has been [passed on] to them to [manage] the [pharmacy department] and [specialised areas] in [pharmacy practice] allowing [pharmacists] the [time] to [specialise] in their [expert field] as [medication consultants] [spending more time] [working with patients] and [in research]. A [pharmacy technician] [once qualified] has to [register] as a [professional] on the [General Pharmaceutical Council] ([GPhC]) [register]. The [GPhC] is the [governing body] for [pharmacy health care professionals] and this is who [regulates] the [practice] of [pharmacists] and [pharmacy technicians].	A Pharmacy Technician in the UK is considered a health care professional and often does not work under the direct supervision of a pharmacist (if employed in a hospital pharmacy) but instead is supervised and managed by other senior pharmacy technicians. In the UK the role of a PhT has grown and responsibility has been passed on to them to manage the pharmacy department and specialised areas in pharmacy practice allowing pharmacists the time to specialise in their expert field as medication consultants spending more time working with patients and in research. A pharmacy technician once qualified has to register as a professional on the General Pharmaceutical Council (GPhC) register. The GPhC is the governing body for pharmacy health care professionals and this is who regulates the practice of pharmacists and pharmacy technicians.
Sports programming is also provided on some weekend afternoons at any time from [12:00 to 6:00 p.m.] Eastern Time ([9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.] Pacific) and, during [college football season], during [prime time] on [Saturday nights] as part of the [Saturday Night Football package]. Due to the [erratic] and (outside of [college football season]) [highly inconsistent scheduling] of sports programming on weekend afternoons since [ESPN] took over responsibilities for [ABC's sports division] in [2006], ABC carries the [ESPN Sports Saturday block] on [Saturday late afternoons] (featuring various [ESPN-produced documentaries]), and on [Sundays] either [encores] of [primetime reality series], [cancelled series] being [burned off] that had no room on the [primetime schedule], occasional [theatrical films] which were acquired by the network in the early to mid-2000s that no longer have a [primetime slot] to air in or more recently, [figure skating] and [gymnastics specials] supplied by [Disson Skating], when no [sports telecasts] are scheduled, usually airing between [4:00 and 6:00 p.m.] Eastern and Pacific Time. During the [summer], ABC airs [ESPN-produced highlight compilation programs] for [The Open Championship golf] and [The Wimbledon tennis tournaments] to provide some presence for both events on American broadcast television. ABC also carries various [X Games] weekend events not broadcast by ESPN. ABC airs [NBA games] on [Sundays], normally starting in January as "[NBA Sunday Showcase]" during the [regular season], and shows [Christmas Day games], regularly between [2–7 PM ET], and [NBA playoff games] during the weekends, and exclusive rights to the [NBA Finals].	Sports programming is also provided on some weekend afternoons at any time from 12:00 to 6:00 p.m. Eastern Time (9:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. Pacific) and, during college football season, during prime time on Saturday nights as part of the Saturday Night Football package. Due to the erratic and (outside of college football season) highly inconsistent scheduling of sports programming on weekend afternoons since ESPN took over responsibilities for ABC's sports division in 2006, ABC carries the ESPN Sports Saturday block on Saturday late afternoons (featuring various ESPN-produced documentaries), and on Sundays either encores of primetime reality series, cancelled series being burned off that had no room on the primetime schedule, occasional theatrical films which were acquired by the network in the early to mid-2000s that no longer have a primetime slot to air in or more recently, figure skating and gymnastics specials supplied by Disson Skating, when no sports telecasts are scheduled, usually airing between 4:00 and 6:00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific Time. During the summer, ABC airs ESPN-produced highlight compilation programs for The Open Championship golf and The Wimbledon tennis tournaments to provide some presence for both events on American broadcast television. ABC also carries various X Games weekend events not broadcast by ESPN. ABC airs NBA games on Sundays, normally starting in January as "NBA Sunday Showcase" during the regular season, and shows Christmas Day games, regularly between 2–7 PM ET, and NBA playoff games during the weekends, and exclusive rights to the NBA Finals.
On April 30, 2000, as a result of a [carriage dispute] with ABC, [Time Warner Cable] removed ABC [owned-and-operated stations] from the [cable provider's systems] in four [markets] ([WABC-TV] in [New York City], [KABC-TV] in [Los Angeles], [KTRK] in [Houston] and [WTVD] in [Raleigh-Durham]). The [network] had earlier reached an [eleventh-hour deal] to renew its [carriage agreement] with the provider on December 31, 1999. ABC filed an [emergency petition] to the [Federal Communications Commission] on May 1 to force [TWC] to restore the affected stations; the [FCC] ruled in favor of ABC, ordering [Time Warner Cable] to restore the stations, doing so on the [afternoon] of May 2. ABC ended the [2000–01 season] as the [most-watched network], ahead of [NBC].	On April 30, 2000, as a result of a carriage dispute with ABC, Time Warner Cable removed ABC owned-and-operated stations from the cable provider's systems in four markets (WABC-TV in New York City, KABC-TV in Los Angeles, KTRK in Houston and WTVD in Raleigh-Durham). The network had earlier reached an eleventh-hour deal to renew its carriage agreement with the provider on December 31, 1999. ABC filed an emergency petition to the Federal Communications Commission on May 1 to force TWC to restore the affected stations; the FCC ruled in favor of ABC, ordering Time Warner Cable to restore the stations, doing so on the afternoon of May 2. ABC ended the 2000–01 season as the most-watched network, ahead of NBC.
In [June 1978], [Arledge] created the [newsmagazine] [20/20]; after its [first episode] received [harshly negative reviews], the program – which debuted as a [summer series], before becoming a [year-round program] in [1979] – was immediately [revamped] to feature a mix of [in-depth stories] and [interviews], with [Hugh Downs] appointed as its [anchor] (later paired alongside his former [Today colleague Barbara Walters]). In [February 1979], [ABC] sold its [recording division] to [MCA Inc.] for [$20 million]; the [label] was [discontinued] by [March 5] of that year, and all of its [300 employees] were [laid off] (the [rights] to the works of [ABC Records] and all of [MCA's other labels] have since been acquired by [Universal Music Group]).	In June 1978, Arledge created the newsmagazine 20/20; after its first episode received harshly negative reviews, the program – which debuted as a summer series, before becoming a year-round program in 1979 – was immediately revamped to feature a mix of in-depth stories and interviews, with Hugh Downs appointed as its anchor (later paired alongside his former Today colleague Barbara Walters). In February 1979, ABC sold its recording division to MCA Inc. for $20 million; the label was discontinued by March 5 of that year, and all of its 300 employees were laid off (the rights to the works of ABC Records and all of MCA's other labels have since been acquired by Universal Music Group).
[Since 1999], [Big Finish Productions] has released several different series of [Doctor Who audios] on [CD]. The [earliest] of these featured the [Fifth], [Sixth] and [Seventh Doctors], with [Paul McGann's Eight Doctor] joining the line in [2001]. [Tom Baker's Fourth Doctor] began appearing for [Big Finish] in [2012]. Along with the [main range], [adventures] of the [First], [Second] and [Third Doctors] have been produced in both [limited cast] and [full cast] formats, as well as [audiobooks]. The [2013 series Destiny of the Doctor], produced as part of the series' [50th Anniversary celebrations], marked the [first time] [Big Finish] created [stories] (in this case [audiobooks]) featuring the [Doctors] from the [revived show].	Since 1999, Big Finish Productions has released several different series of Doctor Who audios on CD. The earliest of these featured the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Doctors, with Paul McGann's Eight Doctor joining the line in 2001. Tom Baker's Fourth Doctor began appearing for Big Finish in 2012. Along with the main range, adventures of the First, Second and Third Doctors have been produced in both limited cast and full cast formats, as well as audiobooks. The 2013 series Destiny of the Doctor, produced as part of the series' 50th Anniversary celebrations, marked the first time Big Finish created stories (in this case audiobooks) featuring the Doctors from the revived show.
[Genghis Khan] united the [Mongol] and [Turkic] tribes of the [steppes] and became [Great Khan] in [1206]. He and his successors expanded the [Mongol empire] across [Asia]. Under the reign of [Genghis' third son], [Ögedei Khan], the [Mongols] destroyed the weakened [Jin dynasty] in [1234], conquering most of northern [China]. [Ögedei] offered his nephew [Kublai] a position in [Xingzhou], [Hebei]. [Kublai] was unable to read [Chinese] but had several [Han Chinese teachers] attached to him since his early years by his mother [Sorghaghtani]. He sought the counsel of [Chinese Buddhist] and [Confucian advisers]. [Möngke Khan] succeeded [Ögedei's son], [Güyük], as [Great Khan] in [1251]. He granted his brother [Kublai] control over [Mongol held territories] in [China]. [Kublai] built schools for [Confucian scholars], issued [paper money], revived [Chinese rituals], and endorsed policies that stimulated [agricultural] and [commercial growth]. He adopted as his capital city [Kaiping] in [Inner Mongolia], later renamed [Shangdu].	Genghis Khan united the Mongol and Turkic tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China. Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han Chinese teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu.
Plants have two main immune responses—the [hypersensitive response], in which infected cells [seal themselves off] and undergo [programmed cell death], and [systemic acquired resistance], where infected cells [release signals] warning the rest of the plant of a [pathogen's presence]. [Chloroplasts] stimulate both responses by [purposely damaging] their [photosynthetic system], producing [reactive oxygen species]. [High levels] of reactive oxygen species will cause the hypersensitive response. The reactive oxygen species also [directly kill] any [pathogens] within the cell. [Lower levels] of reactive oxygen species initiate systemic acquired resistance, triggering [defense-molecule production] in the rest of the plant.	Plants have two main immune responses—the hypersensitive response, in which infected cells seal themselves off and undergo programmed cell death, and systemic acquired resistance, where infected cells release signals warning the rest of the plant of a pathogen's presence. Chloroplasts stimulate both responses by purposely damaging their photosynthetic system, producing reactive oxygen species. High levels of reactive oxygen species will cause the hypersensitive response. The reactive oxygen species also directly kill any pathogens within the cell. Lower levels of reactive oxygen species initiate systemic acquired resistance, triggering defense-molecule production in the rest of the plant.
Kenya won several medals during the Beijing Olympics, [six gold], [four silver] and [four bronze], making it Africa's most successful nation in the [2008 Olympics]. [New athletes] gained attention, such as [Pamela Jelimo], the [women's 800m gold medalist] who went ahead to win the [IAAF Golden League jackpot], and [Samuel Wanjiru] who won the [men's marathon]. [Retired Olympic and Commonwealth Games champion] [Kipchoge Keino] helped usher in [Kenya's ongoing distance dynasty] in the 1970s and was followed by [Commonwealth Champion Henry Rono]'s spectacular string of [world record performances]. [Lately], there has been [controversy] in [Kenyan athletics circles], with the [defection] of a number of Kenyan athletes to represent other countries, chiefly [Bahrain] and [Qatar]. The [Kenyan Ministry of Sports] has tried to stop the [defections], but they have continued anyway, with [Bernard Lagat] the latest, choosing to represent the [United States]. Most of these [defections] occur because of [economic] or [financial factors]. Some [elite Kenyan runners] who cannot qualify for their country's strong national team find it easier to qualify by running for other countries. [citation needed]	Kenya won several medals during the Beijing Olympics, six gold, four silver and four bronze, making it Africa's most successful nation in the 2008 Olympics. New athletes gained attention, such as Pamela Jelimo, the women's 800m gold medalist who went ahead to win the IAAF Golden League jackpot, and Samuel Wanjiru who won the men's marathon. Retired Olympic and Commonwealth Games champion Kipchoge Keino helped usher in Kenya's ongoing distance dynasty in the 1970s and was followed by Commonwealth Champion Henry Rono's spectacular string of world record performances. Lately, there has been controversy in Kenyan athletics circles, with the defection of a number of Kenyan athletes to represent other countries, chiefly Bahrain and Qatar. The Kenyan Ministry of Sports has tried to stop the defections, but they have continued anyway, with Bernard Lagat the latest, choosing to represent the United States. Most of these defections occur because of economic or financial factors. Some elite Kenyan runners who cannot qualify for their country's strong national team find it easier to qualify by running for other countries.citation needed
In 1959, [Walt Disney Productions], having improved its financial situation, had purchased [ABC's shares] in the [Disneyland theme park] for $7.5 million and initiated discussions to renew [ABC's television contract] for [Walt Disney Presents], which was due to expire in 1961. Walt Disney was approached by [NBC] to produce [color broadcasts] of his anthology series (which would be renamed [Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color]). [Goldenson] said [ABC] could not counter the offer, because the network did not have the [technical] and [financial resources] to carry the program in the [format]. As a result, [ABC] and [Disney's first television collaboration] ended in 1961 (the network would resume its relationship with [Disney] in 1985, when the anthology series returned to the network for a [three-season run] as the [Disney Sunday Movie] until it lost the rights to [NBC] again in 1988; the [Disney anthology series] would return to [ABC] in 1996, following the company's purchase of the future [Capital Cities/ABC], as [The Wonderful World of Disney]).	In 1959, Walt Disney Productions, having improved its financial situation, had purchased ABC's shares in the Disneyland theme park for $7.5 million and initiated discussions to renew ABC's television contract for Walt Disney Presents, which was due to expire in 1961. Walt Disney was approached by NBC to produce color broadcasts of his anthology series (which would be renamed Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color). Goldenson said ABC could not counter the offer, because the network did not have the technical and financial resources to carry the program in the format. As a result, ABC and Disney's first television collaboration ended in 1961 (the network would resume its relationship with Disney in 1985, when the anthology series returned to the network for a three-season run as the Disney Sunday Movie until it lost the rights to NBC again in 1988; the Disney anthology series would return to ABC in 1996, following the company's purchase of the future Capital Cities/ABC, as The Wonderful World of Disney).
Genghis Khan [realised] that he needed [people] who could [govern cities] and [states] [conquered] by him. He also [realised] that such [administrators] could not be found among his [Mongol people] because they were [nomads] and thus had no [experience governing cities]. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a [Khitan prince], Chu'Tsai, who worked for the [Jin] and had been [captured] by the Mongol army after the Jin dynasty was [defeated]. Jin had [captured power] by [displacing] [Khitan]. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a [lineal descendant] of Khitan [rulers], that he had [avenged] Chu'Tsai's [forefathers]. Chu'Tsai responded that his [father] served the Jin dynasty [honestly] and so did he; also he did not consider his own [father] his [enemy], so the [question] of [revenge] did not [apply]. This [reply] [impressed] Genghis Khan. Chu'Tsai [administered] parts of the Mongol Empire and became a [confidant] of the [successive] Mongol Khans.	Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin dynasty was defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin dynasty honestly and so did he; also he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. This reply impressed Genghis Khan. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.
There are three major types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. [The rock cycle] is [an important concept] in geology which [illustrates] [the relationships] between these [three types] of rock, and [magma]. When a rock [crystallizes] from [melt] ([magma] and/or [lava]), it is an [igneous rock]. This rock can be [weathered] and [eroded], and then [redeposited] and [lithified] into a [sedimentary rock], or be [turned] into a [metamorphic rock] due to [heat] and [pressure] that [change] [the mineral content] of the rock which gives it [a characteristic fabric]. The [sedimentary rock] can then be [subsequently turned] into a [metamorphic rock] due to [heat] and [pressure] and is then [weathered], [eroded], [deposited], and [lithified], ultimately becoming a [sedimentary rock]. [Sedimentary rock] may also be [re-eroded] and [redeposited], and [metamorphic rock] may also undergo [additional metamorphism]. All three types of rocks may be [re-melted]; when this happens, [a new magma] is formed, from which an [igneous rock] may once again [crystallize].	There are three major types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between these three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt (magma and/or lava), it is an igneous rock. This rock can be weathered and eroded, and then redeposited and lithified into a sedimentary rock, or be turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure that change the mineral content of the rock which gives it a characteristic fabric. The sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism. All three types of rocks may be re-melted; when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize.
The [fucoxanthin dinophyte lineages] lost their original [red algal derived chloroplast], and replaced it with a new chloroplast derived from a [haptophyte endosymbiont]. [Karlodinium] and [Karenia] probably took up different [heterokontophytes]. Because the [haptophyte chloroplast] has [four membranes], [tertiary endosymbiosis] would be expected to create a [six membraned chloroplast], adding the haptophyte's [cell membrane] and the dinophyte's [phagosomal vacuole]. However, the haptophyte was [heavily reduced], stripped of a few [membranes] and its [nucleus], leaving only its [chloroplast] (with its original [double membrane]), and possibly one or two [additional membranes] around it.	The fucoxanthin dinophyte lineages (including Karlodinium and Karenia) lost their original red algal derived chloroplast, and replaced it with a new chloroplast derived from a haptophyte endosymbiont. Karlodinium and Karenia probably took up different heterokontophytes. Because the haptophyte chloroplast has four membranes, tertiary endosymbiosis would be expected to create a six membraned chloroplast, adding the haptophyte's cell membrane and the dinophyte's phagosomal vacuole. However, the haptophyte was heavily reduced, stripped of a few membranes and its nucleus, leaving only its chloroplast (with its original double membrane), and possibly one or two additional membranes around it.
The investors showed [little interest] in Tesla's ideas for [new types] of [motors] and [electrical transmission equipment] and also seemed to think it was better to develop an [electrical utility] than invent new systems. They eventually forced Tesla out leaving him [penniless]. He even lost [control] of the [patents] he had generated since he had [assigned] them to the company in [lieu of stock]. He had to work at various [electrical repair jobs] and even as a [ditch digger] for $2 per day. Tesla considered the winter of 1886/1887 as a time of ["terrible headaches and bitter tears"]. During this time, he [questioned] the [value] of his [education].	The investors showed little interest in Tesla's ideas for new types of motors and electrical transmission equipment and also seemed to think it was better to develop an electrical utility than invent new systems. They eventually forced Tesla out leaving him penniless. He even lost control of the patents he had generated since he had assigned them to the company in lieu of stock. He had to work at various electrical repair jobs and even as a ditch digger for $2 per day. Tesla considered the winter of 1886/1887 as a time of "terrible headaches and bitter tears." During this time, he questioned the value of his education.
Throughout the history of [education] the most common form of [school discipline] was [corporal punishment]. While a [child] was in [school], a [teacher] was expected to act as a [substitute parent], with all the [normal forms] of [parental discipline] open to them.	Throughout the history of education the most common form of school discipline was corporal punishment. While a child was in school, a teacher was expected to act as a substitute parent, with all the normal forms of parental discipline open to them.
The [internal cavity] forms: [a mouth] that can usually be [closed] by [muscles]; a [pharynx] ("throat"); [a wider area] in the center that acts as [a stomach]; and [a system] of [internal canals]. These branch through the [mesoglea] to [the most active parts] of the [animal]: [the mouth] and [pharynx]; [the roots] of [the tentacles], if [present]; [all along] [the underside] of each [comb row]; and [four branches] round [the sensory complex] at [the far end] from [the mouth] – [two] of these [four branches] terminate in [anal pores]. [The inner surface] of [the cavity] is [lined] with [an epithelium], [the gastrodermis]. [The mouth] and [pharynx] have [both cilia] and [well-developed muscles]. In [other parts] of [the canal system], [the gastrodermis] is [different] on [the sides nearest] to and [furthest] from [the organ] that it [supplies]. [The nearer side] is [composed] of [tall nutritive cells] that store [nutrients] in [vacuoles] (internal compartments), [germ cells] that produce [eggs] or [sperm], and [photocytes] that produce [bioluminescence]. [The side furthest] from [the organ] is [covered] with [ciliated cells] that [circulate water] through [the canals], [punctuated] by [ciliary rosettes], [pores] that are [surrounded] by [double whorls] of [cilia] and [connect] to [the mesoglea].	The internal cavity forms: a mouth that can usually be closed by muscles; a pharynx ("throat"); a wider area in the center that acts as a stomach; and a system of internal canals. These branch through the mesoglea to the most active parts of the animal: the mouth and pharynx; the roots of the tentacles, if present; all along the underside of each comb row; and four branches round the sensory complex at the far end from the mouth – two of these four branches terminate in anal pores. The inner surface of the cavity is lined with an epithelium, the gastrodermis. The mouth and pharynx have both cilia and well-developed muscles. In other parts of the canal system, the gastrodermis is different on the sides nearest to and furthest from the organ that it supplies. The nearer side is composed of tall nutritive cells that store nutrients in vacuoles (internal compartments), germ cells that produce eggs or sperm, and photocytes that produce bioluminescence. The side furthest from the organ is covered with ciliated cells that circulate water through the canals, punctuated by ciliary rosettes, pores that are surrounded by double whorls of cilia and connect to the mesoglea.
In the [Sandgate area], to the east of the [city] and beside the [river], resided the [close-knit community] of [keelmen] and their [families]. They were so called because they worked on the [keels], [boats] that were used to transfer [coal] from the [river banks] to the waiting [colliers], for [export] to [London] and [elsewhere]. In the [1630s] about [7,000] out of [20,000] [inhabitants] of [Newcastle] died of [plague], [more than one-third] of the [population]. Specifically within the year [1636], it is [roughly estimated] with [evidence] held by the [Society of Antiquaries] that [47%] of the [then population] of [Newcastle] died from the [epidemic]; this may also have been the [most devastating loss] in any [British City] in this period.	In the Sandgate area, to the east of the city and beside the river, resided the close-knit community of keelmen and their families. They were so called because they worked on the keels, boats that were used to transfer coal from the river banks to the waiting colliers, for export to London and elsewhere. In the 1630s about 7,000 out of 20,000 inhabitants of Newcastle died of plague, more than one-third of the population. Specifically within the year 1636, it is roughly estimated with evidence held by the Society of Antiquaries that 47% of the then population of Newcastle died from the epidemic; this may also have been the most devastating loss in any British City in this period.
The crisis had a major impact on [international relations] and created a [rift] within [NATO]. Some [European nations] and [Japan] sought to [disassociate themselves] from [United States] [foreign policy] in the [Middle East] to avoid being [targeted] by the [boycott]. [Arab oil producers] linked any [future policy changes] to [peace] between the [belligerents]. To address this, the [Nixon Administration] began [multilateral negotiations] with the [combatants]. They arranged for [Israel] to [pull back] from the [Sinai Peninsula] and the [Golan Heights]. By [January 18, 1974], [US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger] had negotiated an [Israeli troop withdrawal] from parts of the [Sinai Peninsula]. The [promise] of a [negotiated settlement] between [Israel] and [Syria] was enough to convince [Arab oil producers] to [lift] the [embargo] in [March 1974].	The crisis had a major impact on international relations and created a rift within NATO. Some European nations and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from United States foreign policy in the Middle East to avoid being targeted by the boycott. Arab oil producers linked any future policy changes to peace between the belligerents. To address this, the Nixon Administration began multilateral negotiations with the combatants. They arranged for Israel to pull back from the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. By January 18, 1974, US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai Peninsula. The promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was enough to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974.
Various [princes] of the [Holy Land] arrived in [Limassol] at the same time, in particular [Guy de Lusignan]. All declared their support for [Richard] provided that he support [Guy] against his rival [Conrad of Montferrat]. The local [barons] abandoned [Isaac], who considered making [peace] with [Richard], joining him on the [crusade], and offering his [daughter] in marriage to the person named by [Richard]. But [Isaac] changed his [mind] and tried to [escape]. [Richard] then proceeded to [conquer] the whole island, his [troops] being led by [Guy de Lusignan]. [Isaac] surrendered and was [confined] with [silver chains], because [Richard] had promised that he would not place him in [irons]. By 1 June, [Richard] had conquered the whole island. His [exploit] was well [publicized] and contributed to his [reputation]; he also derived significant [financial gains] from the [conquest] of the island. [Richard] left for [Acre] on 5 June, with his [allies]. Before his [departure], he named two of his [Norman generals], [Richard de Camville] and [Robert de Thornham], as [governors] of [Cyprus].	Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular Guy de Lusignan. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival Conrad of Montferrat. The local barons abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the crusade, and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard. But Isaac changed his mind and tried to escape. Richard then proceeded to conquer the whole island, his troops being led by Guy de Lusignan. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains, because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. By 1 June, Richard had conquered the whole island. His exploit was well publicized and contributed to his reputation; he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island. Richard left for Acre on 5 June, with his allies. Before his departure, he named two of his Norman generals, Richard de Camville and Robert de Thornham, as governors of Cyprus.
On [1 July 1851], [writs] were issued for the [election] of the [first Victorian Legislative Council], and the [absolute independence] of [Victoria] from [New South Wales] was [established] [proclaiming] a [new Colony of Victoria]. [Days later], still in [1851] gold was [discovered] near [Ballarat], and subsequently at [Bendigo]. [Later discoveries] occurred at many [sites] across [Victoria]. This [triggered] one of the [largest gold rushes] the [world] has ever seen. The [colony] grew [rapidly] in both [population] and [economic power]. In [ten years] the [population] of [Victoria] increased [sevenfold] from [76,000] to [540,000]. All sorts of [gold records] were [produced] including the "[richest shallow alluvial goldfield in the world]" and the [largest gold nugget]. [Victoria] produced in the [decade 1851–1860] [20 million ounces] of gold, [one third] of the [world's output].	On 1 July 1851, writs were issued for the election of the first Victorian Legislative Council, and the absolute independence of Victoria from New South Wales was established proclaiming a new Colony of Victoria. Days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at many sites across Victoria. This triggered one of the largest gold rushes the world has ever seen. The colony grew rapidly in both population and economic power. In ten years the population of Victoria increased sevenfold from 76,000 to 540,000. All sorts of gold records were produced including the "richest shallow alluvial goldfield in the world" and the largest gold nugget. Victoria produced in the decade 1851–1860 20 million ounces of gold, one third of the world's outputcitation needed.
Extension causes the [rock units] as a whole to become [longer] and [thinner]. This is primarily accomplished through [normal faulting] and through the [ductile stretching] and [thinning]. [Normal faults] drop rock units that are [higher] below those that are [lower]. This typically results in [younger units] being placed below [older units]. [Stretching] of units can result in their [thinning]; in fact, there is a [location] within the [Maria Fold and Thrust Belt] in which the entire [sedimentary sequence] of the [Grand Canyon] can be seen over a [length] of [less than a meter]. Rocks at the [depth] to be [ductilely stretched] are often also [metamorphosed]. These [stretched rocks] can also [pinch] into [lenses], known as [boudins], after the [French word] for "sausage", because of their [visual similarity].	Extension causes the rock units as a whole to become longer and thinner. This is primarily accomplished through normal faulting and through the ductile stretching and thinning. Normal faults drop rock units that are higher below those that are lower. This typically results in younger units being placed below older units. Stretching of units can result in their thinning; in fact, there is a location within the Maria Fold and Thrust Belt in which the entire sedimentary sequence of the Grand Canyon can be seen over a length of less than a meter. Rocks at the depth to be ductilely stretched are often also metamorphosed. These stretched rocks can also pinch into lenses, known as boudins, after the French word for "sausage", because of their visual similarity.
[Singlet oxygen] is a name given to several [higher-energy species] of [molecular O 2] in which all the [electron spins] are [paired]. It is much more [reactive] towards [common organic molecules] than is [molecular oxygen] [per se]. In nature, [singlet oxygen] is commonly formed from [water] during [photosynthesis], using the [energy] of [sunlight]. It is also produced in the [troposphere] by the [photolysis] of [ozone] by [light] of [short wavelength], and by the [immune system] as a source of [active oxygen]. [Carotenoids] in [photosynthetic organisms] (and possibly also in [animals]) play a [major role] in [absorbing energy] from [singlet oxygen] and [converting it] to the [unexcited ground state] before it can cause [harm] to [tissues].	Singlet oxygen is a name given to several higher-energy species of molecular O 2 in which all the electron spins are paired. It is much more reactive towards common organic molecules than is molecular oxygen per se. In nature, singlet oxygen is commonly formed from water during photosynthesis, using the energy of sunlight. It is also produced in the troposphere by the photolysis of ozone by light of short wavelength, and by the immune system as a source of active oxygen. Carotenoids in photosynthetic organisms (and possibly also in animals) play a major role in absorbing energy from singlet oxygen and converting it to the unexcited ground state before it can cause harm to tissues.
Like [sponges] and [cnidarians], [ctenophores] have [two main layers] of [cells] that sandwich a [middle layer] of [jelly-like material], which is called the [mesoglea] in [cnidarians] and [ctenophores]; [more complex animals] have [three main cell layers] and [no intermediate jelly-like layer]. Hence [ctenophores] and [cnidarians] have traditionally been labelled [diploblastic], along with [sponges]. [Both] [ctenophores] and [cnidarians] have a type of [muscle] that, in [more complex animals], arises from the [middle cell layer], and as a result some [recent text books] classify [ctenophores] as [triploblastic], while [others] still regard them as [diploblastic].	Like sponges and cnidarians, ctenophores have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the mesoglea in cnidarians and ctenophores; more complex animals have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence ctenophores and cnidarians have traditionally been labelled diploblastic, along with sponges. Both ctenophores and cnidarians have a type of muscle that, in more complex animals, arises from the middle cell layer, and as a result some recent text books classify ctenophores as triploblastic, while others still regard them as diploblastic.
When [Yesün Temür] died in [Shangdu] in 1328, [Tugh Temür] was recalled to [Khanbaliq] by the [Qipchaq commander El Temür]. He was installed as the [emperor] ([Emperor Wenzong]) in Khanbaliq, while [Yesün Temür]'s son [Ragibagh] succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of [Yesün Temür]'s favorite retainer [Dawlat Shah]. Gaining support from [princes] and [officers] in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based [Tugh Temür] eventually won the civil war against [Ragibagh] known as the [War of the Two Capitals]. Afterwards, [Tugh Temür] abdicated in favour of his brother [Kusala], who was backed by [Chagatai Khan Eljigidey], and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, [Kusala] suddenly died only four days after a banquet with [Tugh Temür]. He was supposedly killed with poison by [El Temür], and [Tugh Temür] then remounted the throne. [Tugh Temür] also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as [Golden Horde] and [Ilkhanate] to be accepted as the [suzerain] of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official [El Temür] during his latter three-year reign. [El Temür] purged pro-[Kusala] officials and brought power to [warlords], whose [despotic rule] clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.	When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother Kusala, who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey, and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
A few [galleries] were redesigned in the [1990s] including the [Indian], [Japanese], [Chinese], [iron work], the [main glass galleries] and the [main silverware gallery] which was further enhanced in [2002] when some of the [Victorian decoration] was recreated. This included two of the ten columns having their [ceramic decoration] replaced and the elaborate [painted designs] restored on the [ceiling]. As part of the [2006 renovation] the [mosaic floors] in the [sculpture gallery] were restored—most of the [Victorian floors] were covered in [linoleum] after the [Second World War]. After the success of the [British Galleries], opened in [2001], it was decided to embark on a [major redesign] of all the [galleries] in the [museum]; this is known as "FuturePlan", and was created in [consultation] with the [exhibition designers] and [masterplanners Metaphor]. The [plan] is expected to take about [ten years] and was started in [2002]. To date several [galleries] have been redesigned, notably, in [2002]: the [main Silver Gallery], [Contemporary]; in [2003]: [Photography], the [main entrance], The [Painting Galleries]; in [2004]: the [tunnel] to the [subway] leading to [South Kensington tube station], New [signage] throughout the [museum], [architecture], [V&A and RIBA reading rooms] and [stores], [metalware], [Members' Room], [contemporary glass], the [Gilbert Bayes sculpture gallery]; in [2005]: [portrait miniatures], [prints and drawings], [displays] in [Room 117], the [garden], [sacred silver] and [stained glass]; in [2006]: [Central Hall Shop], [Islamic Middle East], the new [café], [sculpture galleries]. Several [designers] and [architects] have been involved in this work. [Eva Jiřičná] designed the enhancements to the [main entrance] and [rotunda], the new [shop], the [tunnel] and the [sculpture galleries]. [Gareth Hoskins] was responsible for [contemporary] and [architecture], [Softroom], [Islamic Middle East] and the [Members' Room], [McInnes Usher McKnight Architects (MUMA)] were responsible for the new [Cafe] and designed the new [Medieval and Renaissance galleries] which opened in [2009].	A few galleries were redesigned in the 1990s including the Indian, Japanese, Chinese, iron work, the main glass galleries and the main silverware gallery which was further enhanced in 2002 when some of the Victorian decoration was recreated. This included two of the ten columns having their ceramic decoration replaced and the elaborate painted designs restored on the ceiling. As part of the 2006 renovation the mosaic floors in the sculpture gallery were restored—most of the Victorian floors were covered in linoleum after the Second World War. After the success of the British Galleries, opened in 2001, it was decided to embark on a major redesign of all the galleries in the museum; this is known as "FuturePlan", and was created in consultation with the exhibition designers and masterplanners Metaphor. The plan is expected to take about ten years and was started in 2002. To date several galleries have been redesigned, notably, in 2002: the main Silver Gallery, Contemporary; in 2003: Photography, the main entrance, The Painting Galleries; in 2004: the tunnel to the subway leading to South Kensington tube station, New signage throughout the museum, architecture, V&A and RIBA reading rooms and stores, metalware, Members' Room, contemporary glass, the Gilbert Bayes sculpture gallery; in 2005: portrait miniatures, prints and drawings, displays in Room 117, the garden, sacred silver and stained glass; in 2006: Central Hall Shop, Islamic Middle East, the new café, sculpture galleries. Several designers and architects have been involved in this work. Eva Jiřičná designed the enhancements to the main entrance and rotunda, the new shop, the tunnel and the sculpture galleries. Gareth Hoskins was responsible for contemporary and architecture, Softroom, Islamic Middle East and the Members' Room, McInnes Usher McKnight Architects (MUMA) were responsible for the new Cafe and designed the new Medieval and Renaissance galleries which opened in 2009.
The popular neighborhood known as the [Tower District] is centered around the historic [Tower Theatre], which is included on the [National List of Historic Places]. The theater was built in [1939] and is at [Olive and Wishon Avenues] in the heart of the [Tower District]. (The name of the theater refers to a well-known landmark [water tower], which is actually in another nearby area). The [Tower District] neighborhood is just north of [downtown Fresno] proper, and one-half mile south of [Fresno City College]. Although the neighborhood was known as a [residential area] prior, the early [commercial establishments] of the [Tower District] began with [small shops] and [services] that flocked to the area shortly after [World War II]. The character of [small local businesses] largely remains today. To some extent, the businesses of the [Tower District] were developed due to the proximity of the original [Fresno Normal School], (later renamed [California State University at Fresno]). In [1916] the college moved to what is now the site of [Fresno City College] one-half mile north of the [Tower District].	The popular neighborhood known as the Tower District is centered around the historic Tower Theatre, which is included on the National List of Historic Places. The theater was built in 1939 and is at Olive and Wishon Avenues in the heart of the Tower District. (The name of the theater refers to a well-known landmark water tower, which is actually in another nearby area). The Tower District neighborhood is just north of downtown Fresno proper, and one-half mile south of Fresno City College. Although the neighborhood was known as a residential area prior, the early commercial establishments of the Tower District began with small shops and services that flocked to the area shortly after World War II. The character of small local businesses largely remains today. To some extent, the businesses of the Tower District were developed due to the proximity of the original Fresno Normal School, (later renamed California State University at Fresno). In 1916 the college moved to what is now the site of Fresno City College one-half mile north of the Tower District.
The [Musical Instruments gallery] closed 25 February 2010, a decision which was [highly controversial]. An [online petition] of over [5,100 names] on the [Parliamentary website] led to [Chris Smith] asking [Parliament] about the [future] of the [collection]. The [answer], from [Bryan Davies] was that the [museum] intended to [preserve] and [care] for the [collection] and keep it [available] to the [public], with [items] being [redistributed] to the [British Galleries], the [Medieval & Renaissance Galleries], and the [planned new galleries] for [Furniture] and [Europe 1600–1800], and that the [Horniman Museum] and [other institutions] were [possible candidates] for [loans] of [material] to ensure that the [instruments] remained [publicly viewable]. The [Horniman] went on to [host] a [joint exhibition] with the [V&A] of [musical instruments], and has the [loan] of [35 instruments] from the [museum].	The Musical Instruments gallery closed 25 February 2010, a decision which was highly controversial. An online petition of over 5,100 names on the Parliamentary website led to Chris Smith asking Parliament about the future of the collection. The answer, from Bryan Davies was that the museum intended to preserve and care for the collection and keep it available to the public, with items being redistributed to the British Galleries, the Medieval & Renaissance Galleries, and the planned new galleries for Furniture and Europe 1600–1800, and that the Horniman Museum and other institutions were possible candidates for loans of material to ensure that the instruments remained publicly viewable. The Horniman went on to host a joint exhibition with the V&A of musical instruments, and has the loan of 35 instruments from the museum.
Harvard's athletic rivalry with Yale is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax each fall in the annual football meeting, which dates back to 1875 and is usually called simply "The Game". [Harvard's football team] is no longer one of the country's best as it often was a century ago during football's early days (it won the Rose Bowl in 1920), both [it and Yale] have influenced [the way the game is played]. In 1903, Harvard Stadium introduced a new era into football with the first-ever permanent reinforced concrete stadium of its kind in the country. The stadium's structure actually played a role in the [evolution of the college game]. Seeking to reduce [the alarming number of deaths and serious injuries in the sport], [Walter Camp] (former captain of the Yale football team), suggested widening the field to open up the game. But the stadium was too narrow to accommodate [a wider playing surface]. So, other steps had to be taken. Camp would instead support [revolutionary new rules] for the 1906 season. These included [legalizing the forward pass], [perhaps the most significant rule change] in the sport's history.	Harvard's athletic rivalry with Yale is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax each fall in the annual football meeting, which dates back to 1875 and is usually called simply "The Game". While Harvard's football team is no longer one of the country's best as it often was a century ago during football's early days (it won the Rose Bowl in 1920), both it and Yale have influenced the way the game is played. In 1903, Harvard Stadium introduced a new era into football with the first-ever permanent reinforced concrete stadium of its kind in the country. The stadium's structure actually played a role in the evolution of the college game. Seeking to reduce the alarming number of deaths and serious injuries in the sport, Walter Camp (former captain of the Yale football team), suggested widening the field to open up the game. But the stadium was too narrow to accommodate a wider playing surface. So, other steps had to be taken. Camp would instead support revolutionary new rules for the 1906 season. These included legalizing the forward pass, perhaps the most significant rule change in the sport's history.
[Möngke Khan] commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The [Mongol force] that invaded southern China was [far greater] than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without a [successor]. [Kublai] returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his [brother], [Ariq Böke], was challenging his [claim] to the [throne]. [Kublai] convened a [kurultai] in [Kaiping] that elected him [Great Khan]. A [rival kurultai] in [Mongolia] proclaimed [Ariq Böke] [Great Khan], beginning a [civil war]. [Kublai] depended on the [cooperation] of his [Chinese subjects] to ensure that his [army] received [ample resources]. He bolstered his [popularity] among his [subjects] by modeling his [government] on the [bureaucracy] of traditional [Chinese dynasties] and adopting the [Chinese era name] of [Zhongtong]. [Ariq Böke] was [hampered] by [inadequate supplies] and [surrendered] in 1264. All of the [three western khanates] ([Golden Horde], [Chagatai Khanate], and [Ilkhanate]) became [functionally autonomous], although only the [Ilkhans] truly recognized [Kublai] as [Great Khan]. [Civil strife] had [permanently divided] the [Mongol Empire].	Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without a successor. Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke, was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on the bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates (Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate) became functionally autonomous, although only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire.
The [earliest known movie] featuring some [exterior scenes] filmed in the [city] is [On the Night of the Fire] (1939), though by and large the action is [studio-bound]. Later came [The Clouded Yellow] (1951) and [Payroll] (1961), both of which feature more [extensive scenes] filmed in the [city]. The [1971 film Get Carter] was [shot on location] in and around [Newcastle] and offers an opportunity to see what [Newcastle] looked like in the [1960s] and [early 1970s]. The [city] was also [backdrop] to another [gangster film], the [1988 film noir thriller Stormy Monday], [directed by Mike Figgis] and [starring] [Tommy Lee Jones], [Melanie Griffith], [Sting] and [Sean Bean].	The earliest known movie featuring some exterior scenes filmed in the city is On the Night of the Fire (1939), though by and large the action is studio-bound. Later came The Clouded Yellow (1951) and Payroll (1961), both of which feature more extensive scenes filmed in the city. The 1971 film Get Carter was shot on location in and around Newcastle and offers an opportunity to see what Newcastle looked like in the 1960s and early 1970s. The city was also backdrop to another gangster film, the 1988 film noir thriller Stormy Monday, directed by Mike Figgis and starring Tommy Lee Jones, Melanie Griffith, Sting and Sean Bean.
[Kenya]'s inclusion among the beneficiaries of the [US Government]'s [African Growth and Opportunity Act] (AGOA) has given a boost to [manufacturing] in recent years. Since AGOA took effect in 2000, [Kenya]'s [clothing sales] to the [United States] increased from [US$44 million] to [US$270 million] (2006).[citation needed] Other [initiatives] to [strengthen manufacturing] have been the [new government]'s [favourable tax measures], including the [removal of duty] on [capital equipment] and [other raw materials].[citation needed]	Kenya's inclusion among the beneficiaries of the US Government's African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) has given a boost to manufacturing in recent years. Since AGOA took effect in 2000, Kenya's clothing sales to the United States increased from US$44 million to US$270 million (2006).citation needed Other initiatives to strengthen manufacturing have been the new government's favourable tax measures, including the removal of duty on capital equipment and other raw materials.citation needed
Within the [genitourinary] and [gastrointestinal tracts], [commensal flora] serve as [biological barriers] by [competing] with [pathogenic bacteria] for [food] and [space] and, in some cases, by [changing] the [conditions] in their [environment], such as [pH] or [available iron]. This reduces the [probability] that [pathogens] will reach [sufficient numbers] to [cause illness]. However, since most [antibiotics] [non-specifically target bacteria] and do not affect [fungi], [oral antibiotics] can lead to an "overgrowth" of [fungi] and cause [conditions] such as [a vaginal candidiasis] (a [yeast infection]). There is [good evidence] that [re-introduction] of [probiotic flora], such as [pure cultures] of the [lactobacilli] [normally found] in [unpasteurized yogurt], helps [restore] a [healthy balance] of [microbial populations] in [intestinal infections] in [children] and [encouraging preliminary data] in [studies] on [bacterial gastroenteritis], [inflammatory bowel diseases], [urinary tract infection] and [post-surgical infections].	Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, commensal flora serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, by changing the conditions in their environment, such as pH or available iron. This reduces the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness. However, since most antibiotics non-specifically target bacteria and do not affect fungi, oral antibiotics can lead to an "overgrowth" of fungi and cause conditions such as a vaginal candidiasis (a yeast infection). There is good evidence that re-introduction of probiotic flora, such as pure cultures of the lactobacilli normally found in unpasteurized yogurt, helps restore a healthy balance of microbial populations in intestinal infections in children and encouraging preliminary data in studies on bacterial gastroenteritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, urinary tract infection and post-surgical infections.
[Islamism], also known as [Political Islam] ([Arabic]: إسلام سياسي‎ [islām siyāsī]), is an [Islamic revival movement] often characterized by [moral conservatism], [literalism], and the attempt "to implement Islamic values in all spheres of life." [Islamism] favors the [reordering of government and society] in accordance with the [Shari'a]. The different [Islamist movements] have been described as "oscillating between two poles": at one end is a strategy of [Islamization of society] through [state power] seized by [revolution] or [invasion]; at the other "reformist" pole [Islamists] work to [Islamize society] gradually "from the bottom up". The movements have "arguably altered the [Middle East] more than any trend since the modern states gained [independence]", [redefining] "politics and even [borders]" according to one [journalist] ([Robin Wright]).	Islamism, also known as Political Islam (Arabic: إسلام سياسي‎ islām siyāsī), is an Islamic revival movement often characterized by moral conservatism, literalism, and the attempt "to implement Islamic values in all spheres of life." Islamism favors the reordering of government and society in accordance with the Shari'a. The different Islamist movements have been described as "oscillating between two poles": at one end is a strategy of Islamization of society through state power seized by revolution or invasion; at the other "reformist" pole Islamists work to Islamize society gradually "from the bottom up". The movements have "arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders" according to one journalist (Robin Wright).
While [Qutb]'s ideas became [increasingly radical] during his [imprisonment] [prior to] his [execution] in [1966], the [leadership] of the [Brotherhood], led by [Hasan al-Hudaybi], remained [moderate] and interested in [political negotiation] and [activism]. [Fringe] or [splinter movements] inspired by the [final writings] of [Qutb] in the [mid-1960s] (particularly the [manifesto] [Milestones], a.k.a. [Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq]) did, however, [develop] and they pursued a [more radical direction]. By the [1970s], the [Brotherhood] had [renounced violence] as a [means] of achieving its [goals].	While Qutb's ideas became increasingly radical during his imprisonment prior to his execution in 1966, the leadership of the Brotherhood, led by Hasan al-Hudaybi, remained moderate and interested in political negotiation and activism. Fringe or splinter movements inspired by the final writings of Qutb in the mid-1960s (particularly the manifesto Milestones, a.k.a. Ma'alim fi-l-Tariq) did, however, develop and they pursued a more radical direction. By the 1970s, the Brotherhood had renounced violence as a means of achieving its goals.
In its focus on the [Caliphate], the party takes a different view of [Muslim history] than some other [Islamists] such as [Muhammad Qutb]. [HT] sees Islam's pivotal turning point as occurring not with the death of [Ali], or one of the other four rightly guided [Caliphs] in the [7th century], but with the abolition of the [Ottoman Caliphate] in [1924]. This is believed to have ended the [true Islamic system], something for which it blames "the [disbelieving (Kafir) colonial powers]" working through [Turkish modernist] [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk].	In its focus on the Caliphate, the party takes a different view of Muslim history than some other Islamists such as Muhammad Qutb. HT sees Islam's pivotal turning point as occurring not with the death of Ali, or one of the other four rightly guided Caliphs in the 7th century, but with the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924. This is believed to have ended the true Islamic system, something for which it blames "the disbelieving (Kafir) colonial powers" working through Turkish modernist Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
[Twelve actors] have headlined the series as the Doctor. The [transition] from one actor to another is [written into the plot] of the show, as well as the [differing approach] to the role that each brings, under the [concept of regeneration] into a new incarnation. The show's [premise] is that this is a [life process] of [Time Lords] through which the [character of the Doctor] takes on a new body and, to some extent, new [personality], which occurs after [sustaining an injury] which would be fatal to most other species. Each actor's [portrayal] differs, but they are all intended to be [aspects of the same character] and form part of the same [storyline]. The [time-travelling nature] of the plot means that, on occasion, [different Doctors] have met each other. [Peter Capaldi] took on the role after [Matt Smith]'s exit in the 2013 Christmas special "The Time of the Doctor".	Twelve actors have headlined the series as the Doctor. The transition from one actor to another is written into the plot of the show, as well as the differing approach to the role that each brings, under the concept of regeneration into a new incarnation. The show's premise is that this is a life process of Time Lords through which the character of the Doctor takes on a new body and, to some extent, new personality, which occurs after sustaining an injury which would be fatal to most other species. Each actor's portrayal differs, but they are all intended to be aspects of the same character and form part of the same storyline. The time-travelling nature of the plot means that, on occasion, different Doctors have met each other. Peter Capaldi took on the role after Matt Smith's exit in the 2013 Christmas special "The Time of the Doctor".
[After leaving Edison's company] Tesla partnered with [two businessmen] in [1886], [Robert Lane] and [Benjamin Vail], who agreed to finance an [electric lighting company] in Tesla's name, [Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing]. The company installed [electrical arc light] based illumination systems designed by Tesla and also had designs for [dynamo electric machine commutators], [the first patents] issued to Tesla in [the US].	After leaving Edison's company Tesla partnered with two businessmen in 1886, Robert Lane and Benjamin Vail, who agreed to finance an electric lighting company in Tesla's name, Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing. The company installed electrical arc light based illumination systems designed by Tesla and also had designs for dynamo electric machine commutators, the first patents issued to Tesla in the US.
[Braddock] (with [George Washington] as one of his aides) led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition in [June 1755] to take [Fort Duquesne]. The expedition was a [disaster]. It was attacked by [French] and [Indian] soldiers [ambushing] them from up in [trees] and [behind logs]. [Braddock] called for a [retreat]. He was [killed]. Approximately 1,000 [British] soldiers were [killed] or [injured]. The remaining 500 [British] troops, led by [George Washington], retreated to [Virginia]. Two future opponents in the [American Revolutionary War], [Washington] and [Thomas Gage], played key roles in [organizing] the retreat.	Braddock (with George Washington as one of his aides) led about 1,500 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne. The expedition was a disaster. It was attacked by French and Indian soldiers ambushing them from up in trees and behind logs. Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed. Approximately 1,000 British soldiers were killed or injured. The remaining 500 British troops, led by George Washington, retreated to Virginia. Two future opponents in the American Revolutionary War, Washington and Thomas Gage, played key roles in organizing the retreat.
The [immune system] is a system of many [biological structures] and [processes] within an organism that [protects against disease]. To function properly, an immune system must [detect] a [wide variety] of [agents], known as [pathogens], from [viruses] to [parasitic worms], and [distinguish] them from the [organism's own healthy tissue]. In many species, the immune system can be classified into [subsystems], such as the [innate immune system] versus the [adaptive immune system], or [humoral immunity] versus [cell-mediated immunity]. In [humans], the [blood–brain barrier], [blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier], and [similar fluid–brain barriers] [separate] the [peripheral immune system] from the [neuroimmune system] which [protects] the [brain].	The immune system is a system of many biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism's own healthy tissue. In many species, the immune system can be classified into subsystems, such as the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system, or humoral immunity versus cell-mediated immunity. In humans, the blood–brain barrier, blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and similar fluid–brain barriers separate the peripheral immune system from the neuroimmune system which protects the brain.
In the early years, many [Huguenots] also settled in the area of present-day [Charleston], [South Carolina]. In [1685], Rev. [Elie Prioleau] from the town of [Pons] in [France], was among the first to settle there. He became pastor of the first [Huguenot church] in [North America] in that city. After the [Revocation] of the [Edict of Nantes] in [1685], several Huguenot families of [Norman] and [Carolingian] [nobility] and descent, including [Edmund Bohun] of [Suffolk England] from the [Humphrey de Bohun] line of [French royalty] descended from [Charlemagne], [Jean Postell] of [Dieppe France], [Alexander Pepin], [Antoine Poitevin] of [Orsement France], and [Jacques de Bordeaux] of [Grenoble], immigrated to the [Charleston Orange district]. They were very successful at [marriage] and [property speculation]. After petitioning the [British Crown] in [1697] for the right to own land in the [Baronies], they prospered as [slave owners] on the [Cooper], [Ashepoo], [Ashley] and [Santee River] [plantations] they purchased from the British [Landgrave Edmund Bellinger]. Some of their descendants moved into the [Deep South] and [Texas], where they developed new plantations.	In the early years, many Huguenots also settled in the area of present-day Charleston, South Carolina. In 1685, Rev. Elie Prioleau from the town of Pons in France, was among the first to settle there. He became pastor of the first Huguenot church in North America in that city. After the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, several Huguenot families of Norman and Carolingian nobility and descent, including Edmund Bohun of Suffolk England from the Humphrey de Bohun line of French royalty descended from Charlemagne, Jean Postell of Dieppe France, Alexander Pepin, Antoine Poitevin of Orsement France, and Jacques de Bordeaux of Grenoble, immigrated to the Charleston Orange district. They were very successful at marriage and property speculation. After petitioning the British Crown in 1697 for the right to own land in the Baronies, they prospered as slave owners on the Cooper, Ashepoo, Ashley and Santee River plantations they purchased from the British Landgrave Edmund Bellinger. Some of their descendants moved into the Deep South and Texas, where they developed new plantations.
Since then, and so far, [general relativity] has been acknowledged as the theory that best explains [gravity]. In [GR], [gravitation] is not viewed as a [force], but rather, objects moving freely in [gravitational fields] travel under their own [inertia] in [straight lines] through [curved space-time] – defined as the [shortest space-time path] between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all [motion] occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when [observing] the motion in a [global sense] that the [curvature of space-time] can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's [curved path]. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a [curved line] in space, and it is called the [ballistic trajectory] of the object. For example, a [basketball] thrown from the [ground] moves in a [parabola], as it is in a [uniform gravitational field]. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a [straight line], slightly [curved] (with the [radius of curvature] of the order of [few light-years]). The [time derivative] of the [changing momentum] of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".	Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory that best explains gravity. In GR, gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own inertia in straight lines through curved space-time – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".
[On 30 July 1891] [Tesla] became [a naturalized citizen] of [the United States], and [established] his [South Fifth Avenue laboratory], and later [another] at [46 E. Houston Street], in [New York]. He lit [electric lamps] [wirelessly] at both locations, [demonstrating] the [potential] of [wireless power transmission]. In the [same year], he [patented] the [Tesla coil].	On 30 July 1891, at the age of 35, Tesla became a naturalized citizen of the United States, and established his South Fifth Avenue laboratory, and later another at 46 E. Houston Street, in New York. He lit electric lamps wirelessly at both locations, demonstrating the potential of wireless power transmission. In the same year, he patented the Tesla coil.
The [central garden] was redesigned by [Kim Wilkie] and opened as the [John Madejski Garden], on [5 July 2005]. The design is a [subtle blend] of the [traditional] and [modern], the [layout] is [formal]; there is an [elliptical water feature] lined in [stone] with [steps] around the [edge] which may be [drained] to use the [area] for [receptions], [gatherings] or [exhibition purposes]. This is in front of the [bronze doors] leading to the [refreshment rooms], a [central path] flanked by [lawns] leads to the [sculpture gallery]; the [north], [east] and [west sides] have [herbaceous borders] along the [museum walls] with [paths] in front which continues along the [south façade]; in the [two corners] by the [north façade] there is planted an [American Sweetgum tree]; the [southern], [eastern] and [western edges] of the [lawns] have [glass planters] which contain [orange] and [lemon trees] in [summer], these are replaced by [bay trees] in [winter].	The central garden was redesigned by Kim Wilkie and opened as the John Madejski Garden, on 5 July 2005. The design is a subtle blend of the traditional and modern, the layout is formal; there is an elliptical water feature lined in stone with steps around the edge which may be drained to use the area for receptions, gatherings or exhibition purposes. This is in front of the bronze doors leading to the refreshment rooms, a central path flanked by lawns leads to the sculpture gallery; the north, east and west sides have herbaceous borders along the museum walls with paths in front which continues along the south façade; in the two corners by the north façade there is planted an American Sweetgum tree; the southern, eastern and western edges of the lawns have glass planters which contain orange and lemon trees in summer, these are replaced by bay trees in winter.
The pattern of [warfare], followed by [brief periods] of [peace], continued for nearly another [quarter-century]. The [warfare] was definitively [quelled] in [1598], when [Henry of Navarre], having succeeded to the [French throne] as [Henry IV], and having [recanted Protestantism] in favour of [Roman Catholicism], issued the [Edict of Nantes]. The Edict [reaffirmed Catholicism] as the [state religion] of France, but granted the [Protestants equality] with [Catholics] under the [throne] and a degree of [religious and political freedom] within their [domains]. The Edict simultaneously [protected] [Catholic interests] by [discouraging the founding] of new [Protestant churches] in [Catholic-controlled regions].	The pattern of warfare, followed by brief periods of peace, continued for nearly another quarter-century. The warfare was definitively quelled in 1598, when Henry of Navarre, having succeeded to the French throne as Henry IV, and having recanted Protestantism in favour of Roman Catholicism, issued the Edict of Nantes. The Edict reaffirmed Catholicism as the state religion of France, but granted the Protestants equality with Catholics under the throne and a degree of religious and political freedom within their domains. The Edict simultaneously protected Catholic interests by discouraging the founding of new Protestant churches in Catholic-controlled regions.citation needed
[Commissioners] have various [privileges], such as being [exempt] from [member state taxes] (but not [EU taxes]), and having [immunity] from [prosecution] for doing [official acts]. [Commissioners] have sometimes been found to have [abused] their [offices], particularly since the [Santer Commission] was [censured] by [Parliament] in [1999], and it eventually [resigned] due to [corruption allegations]. This resulted in one main case, [Commission v Edith Cresson] where the [European Court of Justice] held that a [Commissioner] giving her [dentist] a [job], for which he was [clearly unqualified], did in fact not break any [law]. By contrast to the [ECJ]'s [relaxed approach], a [Committee of Independent Experts] found that a [culture] had developed where few [Commissioners] had ‘even the [slightest sense of responsibility]’. This led to the creation of the [European Anti-fraud Office]. In [2012] it investigated the [Maltese Commissioner for Health], [John Dalli], who quickly [resigned] after allegations that he received a €60m [bribe] in connection with a [Tobacco Products Directive]. Beyond the [Commission], the [European Central Bank] has [relative executive autonomy] in its conduct of [monetary policy] for the purpose of managing the [euro]. It has a [six-person board] appointed by the [European Council], on the [Council's recommendation]. The [President of the Council] and a [Commissioner] can sit in on [ECB meetings], but do not have [voting rights].	Commissioners have various privileges, such as being exempt from member state taxes (but not EU taxes), and having immunity from prosecution for doing official acts. Commissioners have sometimes been found to have abused their offices, particularly since the Santer Commission was censured by Parliament in 1999, and it eventually resigned due to corruption allegations. This resulted in one main case, Commission v Edith Cresson where the European Court of Justice held that a Commissioner giving her dentist a job, for which he was clearly unqualified, did in fact not break any law. By contrast to the ECJ's relaxed approach, a Committee of Independent Experts found that a culture had developed where few Commissioners had ‘even the slightest sense of responsibility’. This led to the creation of the European Anti-fraud Office. In 2012 it investigated the Maltese Commissioner for Health, John Dalli, who quickly resigned after allegations that he received a €60m bribe in connection with a Tobacco Products Directive. Beyond the Commission, the European Central Bank has relative executive autonomy in its conduct of monetary policy for the purpose of managing the euro. It has a six-person board appointed by the European Council, on the Council's recommendation. The President of the Council and a Commissioner can sit in on ECB meetings, but do not have voting rights.
Imperialism is a type of [advocacy] of [empire]. Its name originated from the Latin word "imperium", which means to [rule over] [large territories]. Imperialism is "a policy of [extending] a [country's power] and [influence] through [colonization], [use of military force], or [other means]". Imperialism has greatly [shaped] the [contemporary world]. It has also allowed for the [rapid spread] of [technologies] and [ideas]. The term imperialism has been applied to [Western] (and [Japanese]) [political] and [economic dominance] especially in [Asia] and [Africa] in the [19th] and [20th centuries]. Its [precise meaning] continues to be [debated] by [scholars]. Some writers, such as [Edward Said], use the term more [broadly] to describe any [system] of [domination] and [subordination] [organised] with an [imperial center] and a [periphery].	Imperialism is a type of advocacy of empire. Its name originated from the Latin word "imperium", which means to rule over large territories. Imperialism is "a policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means". Imperialism has greatly shaped the contemporary world. It has also allowed for the rapid spread of technologies and ideas. The term imperialism has been applied to Western (and Japanese) political and economic dominance especially in Asia and Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars. Some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery.
The mechanism for [chloroplast DNA] (cpDNA) replication has not been [conclusively determined], but two main [models] have been [proposed]. Scientists have [attempted] to [observe] [chloroplast replication] via [electron microscopy] since the [1970s]. The [results] of the [microscopy experiments] led to the [idea] that chloroplast DNA [replicates] using a [double displacement loop] (D-loop). As the D-loop moves through the [circular DNA], it [adopts] a [theta intermediary form], also known as a [Cairns replication intermediate], and [completes replication] with a [rolling circle mechanism]. [Transcription] starts at [specific points] of [origin]. [Multiple replication forks] [open up], allowing [replication machinery] to [transcribe] the DNA. As replication continues, the [forks] grow and eventually [converge]. The [new cpDNA structures] [separate], creating [daughter cpDNA chromosomes].	The mechanism for chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) replication has not been conclusively determined, but two main models have been proposed. Scientists have attempted to observe chloroplast replication via electron microscopy since the 1970s. The results of the microscopy experiments led to the idea that chloroplast DNA replicates using a double displacement loop (D-loop). As the D-loop moves through the circular DNA, it adopts a theta intermediary form, also known as a Cairns replication intermediate, and completes replication with a rolling circle mechanism. Transcription starts at specific points of origin. Multiple replication forks open up, allowing replication machinery to transcribe the DNA. As replication continues, the forks grow and eventually converge. The new cpDNA structures separate, creating daughter cpDNA chromosomes.
[Each year], the [southern California area] has about [10,000 earthquakes]. [Nearly all] of them are [so small] that they are [not felt]. [Only several hundred] are [greater than magnitude 3.0], and [only about 15–20] are [greater than magnitude 4.0]. The [magnitude 6.7 1994 Northridge earthquake] was [particularly destructive], causing a [substantial number] of [deaths], [injuries], and [structural collapses]. It caused the [most property damage] of any earthquake in [U.S. history], [estimated] at [over $20 billion].	Each year, the southern California area has about 10,000 earthquakes. Nearly all of them are so small that they are not felt. Only several hundred are greater than magnitude 3.0, and only about 15–20 are greater than magnitude 4.0. The magnitude 6.7 1994 Northridge earthquake was particularly destructive, causing a substantial number of deaths, injuries, and structural collapses. It caused the most property damage of any earthquake in U.S. history, estimated at over $20 billion.
[Trioxygen] (O 3) is usually known as [ozone] and is a very [reactive allotrope] of [oxygen] that is damaging to [lung tissue]. [Ozone] is produced in the [upper atmosphere] when [O 2 combines] with [atomic oxygen] made by the [splitting] of [O 2] by [ultraviolet (UV) radiation]. Since [ozone absorbs] [strongly] in the [UV region] of the [spectrum], the [ozone layer] of the [upper atmosphere] functions as a [protective radiation shield] for the [planet]. [Near the Earth's surface], it is a [pollutant] formed as a [by-product] of [automobile exhaust]. The [metastable molecule tetraoxygen] (O 4) was [discovered] in [2001], and was assumed to [exist] in [one of the six phases] of [solid oxygen]. It was proven in [2006] that this [phase], created by [pressurizing O 2 to 20 GPa], is in fact a [rhombohedral O 8 cluster]. This cluster has the [potential] to be a much more [powerful oxidizer] than either [O 2 or O 3] and may therefore be used in [rocket fuel]. A [metallic phase] was [discovered] in [1990] when [solid oxygen] is subjected to a [pressure] of above [96 GPa] and it was shown in [1998] that at very [low temperatures], this [phase] becomes [superconducting].	Trioxygen (O 3) is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when O 2 combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of O 2 by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrum, the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet. Near the Earth's surface, it is a pollutant formed as a by-product of automobile exhaust. The metastable molecule tetraoxygen (O 4) was discovered in 2001, and was assumed to exist in one of the six phases of solid oxygen. It was proven in 2006 that this phase, created by pressurizing O 2 to 20 GPa, is in fact a rhombohedral O 8 cluster. This cluster has the potential to be a much more powerful oxidizer than either O 2 or O 3 and may therefore be used in rocket fuel. A metallic phase was discovered in 1990 when solid oxygen is subjected to a pressure of above 96 GPa and it was shown in 1998 that at very low temperatures, this phase becomes superconducting.
In 1893, [George Westinghouse] won the bid to light the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago with [alternating current], beating out a [General Electric] bid by one million dollars. This World's Fair devoted a building to [electrical exhibits]. It was a key event in the history of AC power, as [Westinghouse] demonstrated the [safety], [reliability], and [efficiency] of a fully integrated alternating current system to the [American public]. At the Columbian Exposition, under a banner announcing the "[Tesla Polyphase System]", [Tesla] demonstrated a series of [electrical effects] previously performed throughout [America] and [Europe],:76 included using [high-voltage], [high-frequency] alternating current to light a [wireless gas-discharge lamp].:79 An observer noted:	In 1893, George Westinghouse won the bid to light the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago with alternating current, beating out a General Electric bid by one million dollars. This World's Fair devoted a building to electrical exhibits. It was a key event in the history of AC power, as Westinghouse demonstrated the safety, reliability, and efficiency of a fully integrated alternating current system to the American public. At the Columbian Exposition, under a banner announcing the "Tesla Polyphase System", Tesla demonstrated a series of electrical effects previously performed throughout America and Europe,:76 included using high-voltage, high-frequency alternating current to light a wireless gas-discharge lamp.:79 An observer noted:
The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (Ayurbarwada), was a [competent emperor]. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt [mainstream Chinese culture] after the reign of Kublai, to the [discontent] of some [Mongol elite]. He had been [mentored] by [Li Meng], a [Confucian academic]. He made many [reforms], including the [liquidation] of the [Department of State Affairs] (Chinese: 尚書省), which resulted in the [execution] of [five] of the [highest-ranking officials]. Starting in 1313 the [traditional imperial examinations] were [reintroduced] for [prospective officials], testing their [knowledge] on [significant historical works]. Also, he [codified] much of the [law], as well as [publishing] or [translating] a number of [Chinese books] and [works].	The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng, a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs (Chinese: 尚書省), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.
The galleries also link design to wider trends in British culture. [For instance], design in the Tudor period was influenced by the [spread] of [printed books] and the work of [European artists] and [craftsmen] employed in Britain. In the Stuart period, [increasing trade], especially with [Asia], enabled [wider access] to [luxuries] like [carpets], [lacquered furniture], [silks] and [porcelain]. In the [Georgian age] there was [increasing emphasis] on [entertainment] and [leisure]. [For example], the increase in [tea drinking] led to the production of [tea paraphernalia] such as [china] and [caddies]. [European styles] seen on the [Grand Tour] also influenced [taste]. As the [Industrial Revolution] took hold, the growth of [mass production] produced [entrepreneurs] such as [Josiah Wedgwood], [Matthew Boulton] and [Eleanor Coade]. In the [Victorian era] [new technology] and [machinery] had a [significant effect] on [manufacturing], and for the [first time] since the [reformation], the [Anglican] and [Roman Catholic Churches] had a [major effect] on [art] and [design] such as the [Gothic Revival]. There is a [large display] on the [Great Exhibition] which, [among other things], led to the [founding] of the [V&A]. In the later 19th century, the [increasing backlash] against [industrialization], led by [John Ruskin], contributed to the [Arts and Crafts movement].	The galleries also link design to wider trends in British culture. For instance, design in the Tudor period was influenced by the spread of printed books and the work of European artists and craftsmen employed in Britain. In the Stuart period, increasing trade, especially with Asia, enabled wider access to luxuries like carpets, lacquered furniture, silks and porcelain. In the Georgian age there was increasing emphasis on entertainment and leisure. For example, the increase in tea drinking led to the production of tea paraphernalia such as china and caddies. European styles seen on the Grand Tour also influenced taste. As the Industrial Revolution took hold, the growth of mass production produced entrepreneurs such as Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton and Eleanor Coade. In the Victorian era new technology and machinery had a significant effect on manufacturing, and for the first time since the reformation, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches had a major effect on art and design such as the Gothic Revival. There is a large display on the Great Exhibition which, among other things, led to the founding of the V&A. In the later 19th century, the increasing backlash against industrialization, led by John Ruskin, contributed to the Arts and Crafts movement.
[Funding] for [private schools] is generally provided through [student tuition], [endowments], [scholarship/voucher funds], and [donations] and [grants] from [religious organizations] or [private individuals]. [Government funding] for [religious schools] is either subject to [restrictions] or possibly [forbidden], according to the [courts'] interpretation of the [Establishment Clause] of the [First Amendment] or [individual state Blaine Amendments]. [Non-religious private schools] theoretically could qualify for such [funding] without [hassle], preferring the [advantages] of [independent control] of their [student admissions] and [course content] instead of the [public funding] they could get with [charter status].	Funding for private schools is generally provided through student tuition, endowments, scholarship/voucher funds, and donations and grants from religious organizations or private individuals. Government funding for religious schools is either subject to restrictions or possibly forbidden, according to the courts' interpretation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment or individual state Blaine Amendments. Non-religious private schools theoretically could qualify for such funding without hassle, preferring the advantages of independent control of their student admissions and course content instead of the public funding they could get with charter status.
Evolution of the [adaptive immune system] occurred in an [ancestor] of the [jawed vertebrates]. Many of the [classical molecules] of the [adaptive immune system] (e.g., [immunoglobulins] and [T cell receptors]) exist only in [jawed vertebrates]. However, a [distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule] has been discovered in [primitive jawless vertebrates], such as the [lamprey] and [hagfish]. These animals possess a large array of molecules called [Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs)] that, like the [antigen receptors] of [jawed vertebrates], are produced from only a [small number] (one or two) of [genes]. These molecules are believed to bind [pathogenic antigens] in a similar way to [antibodies], and with the same [degree of specificity].	Evolution of the adaptive immune system occurred in an ancestor of the jawed vertebrates. Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (e.g., immunoglobulins and T cell receptors) exist only in jawed vertebrates. However, a distinct lymphocyte-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive jawless vertebrates, such as the lamprey and hagfish. These animals possess a large array of molecules called Variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of genes. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic antigens in a similar way to antibodies, and with the same degree of specificity.
The smaller the [economic inequality], the more [waste] and [pollution] is created, resulting in many cases, in more [environmental degradation]. This can be explained by the fact that as the [poor people] in the society become more [wealthy], it increases their yearly [carbon emissions]. This relation is expressed by the [Environmental Kuznets Curve] (EKC).not in citation given It should be noted here however that in certain cases, with [great economic inequality], there is nonetheless not more waste and pollution created as the [waste]/[pollution] is [cleaned up] [better afterwards] ([water treatment], [filtering], ...).... Also note that the [whole] of the increase in environmental degradation is the result of the increase of emissions [per person] being [multiplied] by a [multiplier]. If there were [fewer people] however, this [multiplier] would be [lower], and thus the [amount] of environmental degradation would be [lower] as well. As such, the [current high level of population] has a large impact on this as well. If (as [WWF] argued), population levels would start to drop to a [sustainable level] (1/3 of current levels, so about [2 billion people]), [human inequality] can be [addressed]/[corrected], while still not resulting in an increase of environmental damage.	The smaller the economic inequality, the more waste and pollution is created, resulting in many cases, in more environmental degradation. This can be explained by the fact that as the poor people in the society become more wealthy, it increases their yearly carbon emissions. This relation is expressed by the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC).not in citation given It should be noted here however that in certain cases, with great economic inequality, there is nonetheless not more waste and pollution created as the waste/pollution is cleaned up better afterwards (water treatment, filtering, ...).... Also note that the whole of the increase in environmental degradation is the result of the increase of emissions per person being multiplied by a multiplier. If there were fewer people however, this multiplier would be lower, and thus the amount of environmental degradation would be lower as well. As such, the current high level of population has a large impact on this as well. If (as WWF argued), population levels would start to drop to a sustainable level (1/3 of current levels, so about 2 billion people), human inequality can be addressed/corrected, while still not resulting in an increase of environmental damage.
Near the end of the 19th century [compound engines] came into widespread use. [Compound engines] [exhausted steam] in to [successively larger cylinders] to accommodate the [higher volumes] at [reduced pressures], giving [improved efficiency]. These stages were called [expansions], with [double and triple expansion engines] being [common], especially in [shipping] where [efficiency] was [important] to reduce the [weight] of [coal] carried. [Steam engines] remained the [dominant source of power] until the [early 20th century], when [advances in the design] of [electric motors] and [internal combustion engines] gradually resulted in the [replacement] of [reciprocating (piston) steam engines], with [shipping] in the [20th-century] relying upon the [steam turbine].	Near the end of the 19th century compound engines came into widespread use. Compound engines exhausted steam in to successively larger cylinders to accommodate the higher volumes at reduced pressures, giving improved efficiency. These stages were called expansions, with double and triple expansion engines being common, especially in shipping where efficiency was important to reduce the weight of coal carried. Steam engines remained the dominant source of power until the early 20th century, when advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines gradually resulted in the replacement of reciprocating (piston) steam engines, with shipping in the 20th-century relying upon the steam turbine.
The network's [troubles] with sustaining [existing series] and gaining [new hits] spilled over into its [2010–11 schedule]: ABC's [dramas] during that season continued to [fail], with the [midseason forensic investigation drama] [Body of Proof] being the only one that was [renewed] for a [second season]. The network also [struggled] to establish [new comedies] to support the [previous year's debuts], with only [late-season premiere] [Happy Endings] earning a [second season]. Meanwhile, the new [lows] hit by [Brothers & Sisters] led to its [cancellation], and the [previous year's only drama renewal], [V], also failed to earn another season after a [low-rated midseason run]. Despite this and another [noticeable ratings decline], ABC would [manage] to [outrate] [NBC] for [third place] by a [larger margin] than the [previous year].	The network's troubles with sustaining existing series and gaining new hits spilled over into its 2010–11 schedule: ABC's dramas during that season continued to fail, with the midseason forensic investigation drama Body of Proof being the only one that was renewed for a second season. The network also struggled to establish new comedies to support the previous year's debuts, with only late-season premiere Happy Endings earning a second season. Meanwhile, the new lows hit by Brothers & Sisters led to its cancellation, and the previous year's only drama renewal, V, also failed to earn another season after a low-rated midseason run. Despite this and another noticeable ratings decline, ABC would manage to outrate NBC for third place by a larger margin than the previous year.
Despite waiving [longtime running back] DeAngelo Williams and losing [top wide receiver] Kelvin Benjamin to a torn ACL in the preseason, the [Carolina Panthers] had their [best regular season] in [franchise history], becoming the [seventh team] to win at least [15 regular season games] since the league expanded to a [16-game schedule] in [1978]. [Carolina] started the season [14–0], not only setting [franchise records] for the [best start] and the [longest single-season winning streak], but also posting the [best start] to a season by an [NFC team] in [NFL history], breaking the [13–0 record] previously shared with the [2009 New Orleans Saints] and the [2011 Green Bay Packers]. With their [NFC-best 15–1 regular season record], the [Panthers] clinched [home-field advantage] throughout the [NFC playoffs] for the [first time] in [franchise history]. [Ten players] were selected to the [Pro Bowl] (the [most in franchise history]) along with [eight All-Pro selections].	Despite waiving longtime running back DeAngelo Williams and losing top wide receiver Kelvin Benjamin to a torn ACL in the preseason, the Carolina Panthers had their best regular season in franchise history, becoming the seventh team to win at least 15 regular season games since the league expanded to a 16-game schedule in 1978. Carolina started the season 14–0, not only setting franchise records for the best start and the longest single-season winning streak, but also posting the best start to a season by an NFC team in NFL history, breaking the 13–0 record previously shared with the 2009 New Orleans Saints and the 2011 Green Bay Packers. With their NFC-best 15–1 regular season record, the Panthers clinched home-field advantage throughout the NFC playoffs for the first time in franchise history. Ten players were selected to the Pro Bowl (the most in franchise history) along with eight All-Pro selections.
Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of classical music in the 11th century. [Fécamp Abbey] and [Saint-Evroul Abbey] were [centres] of [musical production] and [education]. At [Fécamp], under two [Italian abbots], [William of Volpiano] and [John of Ravenna], the [system] of [denoting notes] by [letters] was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of [pitch representation] in [English]- and [German-speaking countries] today. Also at [Fécamp], the [staff], around which [neumes] were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the [German abbot] [Isembard], [La Trinité-du-Mont] became a centre of [musical composition].	Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of classical music in the 11th century. Fécamp Abbey and Saint-Evroul Abbey were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, William of Volpiano and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the staff, around which neumes were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the German abbot Isembard, La Trinité-du-Mont became a centre of musical composition.
[Southern California] is also home to the [Port of Los Angeles], the [United States]' [busiest commercial port]; the adjacent [Port of Long Beach], the [United States'] [second busiest container port]; and the [Port of San Diego].	Southern California is also home to the Port of Los Angeles, the United States' busiest commercial port; the adjacent Port of Long Beach, the United States' second busiest container port; and the Port of San Diego.
The conflict is known by multiple names. [In British America], wars were often named after [the sitting British monarch], such as [King William's War] or [Queen Anne's War]. As there had already been [a King George's War] in [the 1740s], British colonists named [the second war in King George's reign] after [their opponents], and it became known as [the French and Indian War]. [This traditional name] continues as [the standard] in [the United States], but it obscures [the fact] that [Indians fought] on [both sides of the conflict], and that [this] was [part of] [the Seven Years' War], [a much larger conflict] between [France] and [Great Britain]. [American historians] generally use [the traditional name] or sometimes [the Seven Years' War]. [Other], [less frequently used names] for [the war] include [the Fourth Intercolonial War] and [the Great War for the Empire].	The conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King William's War or Queen Anne's War. As there had already been a King George's War in the 1740s, British colonists named the second war in King George's reign after their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War. This traditional name continues as the standard in the United States, but it obscures the fact that Indians fought on both sides of the conflict, and that this was part of the Seven Years' War, a much larger conflict between France and Great Britain. American historians generally use the traditional name or sometimes the Seven Years' War. Other, less frequently used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial War and the Great War for the Empire.
Packet mode communication may be implemented with or without [intermediate forwarding nodes] (packet switches or routers). [Packets] are normally forwarded by [intermediate network nodes] [asynchronously] using [first-in, first-out buffering], but may be forwarded according to some [scheduling discipline] for [fair queuing], [traffic shaping], or for [differentiated or guaranteed quality of service], such as [weighted fair queuing] or [leaky bucket]. In case of a [shared physical medium] (such as [radio] or [10BASE5]), the packets may be delivered according to a [multiple access scheme].	Packet mode communication may be implemented with or without intermediate forwarding nodes (packet switches or routers). Packets are normally forwarded by intermediate network nodes asynchronously using first-in, first-out buffering, but may be forwarded according to some scheduling discipline for fair queuing, traffic shaping, or for differentiated or guaranteed quality of service, such as weighted fair queuing or leaky bucket. In case of a shared physical medium (such as radio or 10BASE5), the packets may be delivered according to a multiple access scheme.
The [principle] of [faunal succession] is based on the [appearance] of [fossils] in [sedimentary rocks]. As [organisms] exist at the [same time period] throughout the [world], their [presence] or (sometimes) [absence] may be used to provide a [relative age] of the [formations] in which they are found. Based on [principles] laid out by [William Smith] almost a [hundred years] before the [publication] of [Charles Darwin]'s [theory of evolution], the [principles] of [succession] were developed [independently] of [evolutionary thought]. The [principle] becomes [quite complex], however, given the [uncertainties] of [fossilization], the [localization] of [fossil types] due to [lateral changes] in [habitat] ([facies change] in [sedimentary strata]), and that [not all] [fossils] may be found [globally] at the [same time].	The principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by William Smith almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the principles of succession were developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, the localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat (facies change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time.
The [companion figure] – generally a [human] – has been a [constant feature] in [Doctor Who] since the [programme's inception] in [1963]. One of the [roles] of the companion is to remind the [Doctor] of his "moral duty". The Doctor's [first companions] seen on screen were his [granddaughter] [Susan Foreman] ([Carole Ann Ford]) and her [teachers] [Barbara Wright] ([Jacqueline Hill]) and [Ian Chesterton] ([William Russell]). These [characters] were intended to act as [audience surrogates], through which the audience would discover information about the Doctor who was to act as a [mysterious father figure]. The only [story] from the [original series] in which the Doctor travels alone is [The Deadly Assassin]. [Notable companions] from the [earlier series] included [Romana] ([Mary Tamm] and [Lalla Ward]), a [Time Lady]; [Sarah Jane Smith] ([Elisabeth Sladen]); and [Jo Grant] ([Katy Manning]). [Dramatically], these [characters] provide a figure with whom the audience can identify, and serve to further the [story] by requesting [exposition] from the Doctor and [manufacturing peril] for the Doctor to resolve. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes — or loves — on worlds they have visited. Some have died during the course of the series. Companions are usually [human], or [humanoid aliens].	The companion figure – generally a human – has been a constant feature in Doctor Who since the programme's inception in 1963. One of the roles of the companion is to remind the Doctor of his "moral duty". The Doctor's first companions seen on screen were his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and her teachers Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) and Ian Chesterton (William Russell). These characters were intended to act as audience surrogates, through which the audience would discover information about the Doctor who was to act as a mysterious father figure. The only story from the original series in which the Doctor travels alone is The Deadly Assassin. Notable companions from the earlier series included Romana (Mary Tamm and Lalla Ward), a Time Lady; Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen); and Jo Grant (Katy Manning). Dramatically, these characters provide a figure with whom the audience can identify, and serve to further the story by requesting exposition from the Doctor and manufacturing peril for the Doctor to resolve. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes — or loves — on worlds they have visited. Some have died during the course of the series. Companions are usually human, or humanoid aliens.
The [dominant economic sectors] in the [Middle Rhine area] are [viniculture] and [tourism]. The [Rhine Gorge] between [Rüdesheim am Rhein] and [Koblenz] is listed as a [UNESCO World Heritage Site]. Near [Sankt Goarshausen], the Rhine flows around the famous rock [Lorelei]. With its [outstanding architectural monuments], the slopes full of [vines], [settlements] crowded on the [narrow river banks] and [scores of castles] lined up along the top of the steep slopes, the [Middle Rhine Valley] can be considered the [epitome] of the [Rhine romanticism].	The dominant economic sectors in the Middle Rhine area are viniculture and tourism. The Rhine Gorge between Rüdesheim am Rhein and Koblenz is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Near Sankt Goarshausen, the Rhine flows around the famous rock Lorelei. With its outstanding architectural monuments, the slopes full of vines, settlements crowded on the narrow river banks and scores of castles lined up along the top of the steep slopes, the Middle Rhine Valley can be considered the epitome of the Rhine romanticism.
Following the treaty, [King George III] issued the [Royal Proclamation of 1763] on [October 7, 1763], which outlined the [division] and [administration] of the [newly conquered territory], and to some extent continues to [govern relations] between the [government] of [modern Canada] and the [First Nations]. Included in its provisions was the [reservation] of [lands west] of the [Appalachian Mountains] to its [Indian population], a [demarcation] that was at best a [temporary impediment] to a [rising tide] of [westward-bound settlers]. The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented [civic participation] by the [Roman Catholic Canadians]. When [accommodations] were made in the [Quebec Act] in [1774] to [address this] and [other issues], [religious concerns] were raised in the largely [Protestant Thirteen Colonies] over the [advance] of "popery"; the Act maintained [French Civil law], including the [seigneurial system], a [medieval code] soon to be [removed] from [France] within a [generation] by the [French Revolution].	Following the treaty, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and to some extent continues to govern relations between the government of modern Canada and the First Nations. Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population, a demarcation that was at best a temporary impediment to a rising tide of westward-bound settlers. The proclamation also contained provisions that prevented civic participation by the Roman Catholic Canadians. When accommodations were made in the Quebec Act in 1774 to address this and other issues, religious concerns were raised in the largely Protestant Thirteen Colonies over the advance of "popery"; the Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code soon to be removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution.
The [outer surface] bears usually [eight comb rows], called [swimming-plates], which are used for [swimming]. The rows are [oriented] to run from [near the mouth] (the "oral pole") to [the opposite end] (the "aboral pole"), and are [spaced] [more or less evenly] around [the body], although [spacing patterns] [vary] by [species] and in [most species] the comb rows [extend only part] of the [distance] from [the aboral pole] [towards] [the mouth]. The "combs" (also called "ctenes" or "comb plates") run [across] [each row], and each consists of [thousands] of [unusually long] [cilia], up to [2 millimeters] (0.079 in). Unlike [conventional cilia] and [flagella], which has a [filament structure] [arranged] in a [9 + 2 pattern], these cilia are [arranged] in a [9 + 3 pattern], where [the extra compact filament] is [suspected] to have a [supporting function]. These [normally beat] so that [the propulsion stroke] is [away from] [the mouth], although they can also [reverse direction]. Hence [ctenophores] usually swim in [the direction] in which [the mouth] is pointing, unlike [jellyfish]. When trying to [escape predators], one [species] can [accelerate] to [six times] its [normal speed]; some other species [reverse direction] as [part of] their [escape behavior], by [reversing] [the power stroke] of [the comb plate cilia].	The outer surface bears usually eight comb rows, called swimming-plates, which are used for swimming. The rows are oriented to run from near the mouth (the "oral pole") to the opposite end (the "aboral pole"), and are spaced more or less evenly around the body, although spacing patterns vary by species and in most species the comb rows extend only part of the distance from the aboral pole towards the mouth. The "combs" (also called "ctenes" or "comb plates") run across each row, and each consists of thousands of unusually long cilia, up to 2 millimeters (0.079 in). Unlike conventional cilia and flagella, which has a filament structure arranged in a 9 + 2 pattern, these cilia are arranged in a 9 + 3 pattern, where the extra compact filament is suspected to have a supporting function. These normally beat so that the propulsion stroke is away from the mouth, although they can also reverse direction. Hence ctenophores usually swim in the direction in which the mouth is pointing, unlike jellyfish. When trying to escape predators, one species can accelerate to six times its normal speed; some other species reverse direction as part of their escape behavior, by reversing the power stroke of the comb plate cilia.
[Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre], [Marin], [French forces], [died], [October 29], [Washington], [dine], [letter], [Dinwiddie], [demanding], [immediate], [French withdrawal], [Ohio Country], [Superior], [British], [René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle], [explored], [nearly a century earlier]	Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, who succeeded Marin as commander of the French forces after the latter died on October 29, invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre said, "As to the Summons you send me to retire, I do not think myself obliged to obey it." He told Washington that France's claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country nearly a century earlier.
The [University of Chicago] was created and incorporated as a [coeducational], [secular institution] in [1890] by the [American Baptist Education Society] and a [donation] from [oil magnate] and [philanthropist] [John D. Rockefeller] on [land] donated by [Marshall Field]. While the [Rockefeller donation] provided [money] for [academic operations] and [long-term endowment], it was stipulated that such money could not be used for [buildings]. The [original physical campus] was financed by [donations] from [wealthy Chicagoans] like [Silas B. Cobb] who provided the funds for the campus' [first building], [Cobb Lecture Hall], and matched [Marshall Field's pledge] of [$100,000]. Other [early benefactors] included [businessmen] [Charles L. Hutchinson] (trustee, treasurer and donor of [Hutchinson Commons]), [Martin A. Ryerson] (president of the [board of trustees] and donor of the [Ryerson Physical Laboratory]) [Adolphus Clay Bartlett] and [Leon Mandel], who funded the construction of the [gymnasium] and [assembly hall], and [George C. Walker] of the [Walker Museum], a relative of [Cobb] who encouraged his inaugural donation for [facilities].	The University of Chicago was created and incorporated as a coeducational, secular institution in 1890 by the American Baptist Education Society and a donation from oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field. While the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B. Cobb who provided the funds for the campus' first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Field's pledge of $100,000. Other early benefactors included businessmen Charles L. Hutchinson (trustee, treasurer and donor of Hutchinson Commons), Martin A. Ryerson (president of the board of trustees and donor of the Ryerson Physical Laboratory) Adolphus Clay Bartlett and Leon Mandel, who funded the construction of the gymnasium and assembly hall, and George C. Walker of the Walker Museum, a relative of Cobb who encouraged his inaugural donation for facilities.
Courts have distinguished between two types of civil disobedience: ["Indirect civil disobedience"] involves ["violating a law"] which is not, itself, the ["object of protest"], whereas ["direct civil disobedience"] involves ["protesting the existence of a particular law"] by ["breaking that law"]. During the ["Vietnam War"], courts typically refused to ["excuse"] the ["perpetrators"] of ["illegal protests"] from ["punishment"] on the ["basis"] of their ["challenging"] the ["legality"] of the ["Vietnam War"]; the courts ruled it was a ["political question"]. The ["necessity defense"] has sometimes been used as a ["shadow defense"] by ["civil disobedients"] to ["deny guilt"] without ["denouncing"] their ["politically motivated acts"], and to ["present"] their ["political beliefs"] in the ["courtroom"]. However, court cases such as ["U.S. v. Schoon"] have greatly ["curtailed"] the ["availability"] of the ["political necessity defense"]. Likewise, when ["Carter Wentworth"] was ["charged"] for his ["role"] in the ["Clamshell Alliance's 1977 illegal occupation"] of the ["Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant"], the ["judge instructed"] the ["jury"] to ["disregard"] his ["competing harms defense"], and he was ["found guilty"]. ["Fully Informed Jury Association activists"] have sometimes ["handed out"] ["educational leaflets"] ["inside courthouses"] despite ["admonitions"] not to; according to ["FIJA"], many of them have ["escaped prosecution"] because "prosecutors have reasoned (correctly) that if they ["arrest fully informed jury leafleters"], the leaflets will have to be given to the ["leafleter's own jury"] as ["evidence"].	Courts have distinguished between two types of civil disobedience: "Indirect civil disobedience involves violating a law which is not, itself, the object of protest, whereas direct civil disobedience involves protesting the existence of a particular law by breaking that law." During the Vietnam War, courts typically refused to excuse the perpetrators of illegal protests from punishment on the basis of their challenging the legality of the Vietnam War; the courts ruled it was a political question. The necessity defense has sometimes been used as a shadow defense by civil disobedients to deny guilt without denouncing their politically motivated acts, and to present their political beliefs in the courtroom. However, court cases such as U.S. v. Schoon have greatly curtailed the availability of the political necessity defense. Likewise, when Carter Wentworth was charged for his role in the Clamshell Alliance's 1977 illegal occupation of the Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, the judge instructed the jury to disregard his competing harms defense, and he was found guilty. Fully Informed Jury Association activists have sometimes handed out educational leaflets inside courthouses despite admonitions not to; according to FIJA, many of them have escaped prosecution because "prosecutors have reasoned (correctly) that if they arrest fully informed jury leafleters, the leaflets will have to be given to the leafleter's own jury as evidence."
The [Beroida], also known as [Nuda], have no [feeding appendages], but their [large pharynx], just inside the large mouth and filling most of the [saclike body], bears "macrocilia" at the [oral end]. These fused bundles of several thousand [large cilia] are able to "bite" off pieces of [prey] that are too large to swallow whole – almost always other [ctenophores]. In front of the field of [macrocilia], on the mouth "lips" in some species of [Beroe], is a pair of [narrow strips] of [adhesive epithelial cells] on the [stomach wall] that "zip" the mouth shut when the animal is not feeding, by forming [intercellular connections] with the opposite adhesive strip. This [tight closure] streamlines the front of the animal when it is pursuing prey.	The Beroida, also known as Nuda, have no feeding appendages, but their large pharynx, just inside the large mouth and filling most of the saclike body, bears "macrocilia" at the oral end. These fused bundles of several thousand large cilia are able to "bite" off pieces of prey that are too large to swallow whole – almost always other ctenophores. In front of the field of macrocilia, on the mouth "lips" in some species of Beroe, is a pair of narrow strips of adhesive epithelial cells on the stomach wall that "zip" the mouth shut when the animal is not feeding, by forming intercellular connections with the opposite adhesive strip. This tight closure streamlines the front of the animal when it is pursuing prey.
In the course of the [10th century], the initially [destructive] [incursions] of [Norse war bands] into the [rivers] of [France] evolved into more [permanent encampments] that included [local women] and [personal property]. The [Duchy of Normandy], which began in [911] as a [fiefdom], was established by the [treaty] of [Saint-Clair-sur-Epte] between [King Charles III] of [West Francia] and the famed [Viking ruler] [Rollo], and was situated in the former [Frankish kingdom] of [Neustria]. The [treaty] offered [Rollo] and his men the [French lands] between the [river Epte] and the [Atlantic coast] in exchange for their [protection] against further [Viking incursions]. The area corresponded to the [northern part] of present-day [Upper Normandy] down to the [river Seine], but the [Duchy] would eventually extend [west] beyond the [Seine]. The territory was roughly equivalent to the old province of [Rouen], and reproduced the [Roman administrative structure] of [Gallia Lugdunensis II] (part of the former [Gallia Lugdunensis]).	In the course of the 10th century, the initially destructive incursions of Norse war bands into the rivers of France evolved into more permanent encampments that included local women and personal property. The Duchy of Normandy, which began in 911 as a fiefdom, was established by the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between King Charles III of West Francia and the famed Viking ruler Rollo, and was situated in the former Frankish kingdom of Neustria. The treaty offered Rollo and his men the French lands between the river Epte and the Atlantic coast in exchange for their protection against further Viking incursions. The area corresponded to the northern part of present-day Upper Normandy down to the river Seine, but the Duchy would eventually extend west beyond the Seine. The territory was roughly equivalent to the old province of Rouen, and reproduced the Roman administrative structure of Gallia Lugdunensis II (part of the former Gallia Lugdunensis).
For most of [human history] [higher material living standards] – [full stomachs], [access to clean water] and [warmth from fuel] – led to [better health] and [longer lives]. This pattern of [higher incomes-longer lives] still holds among [poorer countries], where [life expectancy] [increases rapidly] as [per capita income increases], but in [recent decades] it has [slowed down] among [middle income countries] and [plateaued] among the [richest thirty or so countries] in the world. [Americans] live no longer on average (about [77 years] in [2004]) than [Greeks] ([78 years]) or [New Zealanders] ([78]), though the [USA] has a [higher GDP per capita]. [Life expectancy] in [Sweden] ([80 years]) and [Japan] ([82]) – where [income] was [more equally distributed] – was [longer].	For most of human history higher material living standards – full stomachs, access to clean water and warmth from fuel – led to better health and longer lives. This pattern of higher incomes-longer lives still holds among poorer countries, where life expectancy increases rapidly as per capita income increases, but in recent decades it has slowed down among middle income countries and plateaued among the richest thirty or so countries in the world. Americans live no longer on average (about 77 years in 2004) than Greeks (78 years) or New Zealanders (78), though the USA has a higher GDP per capita. Life expectancy in Sweden (80 years) and Japan (82) – where income was more equally distributed – was longer.
Before World War II, [Fresno] had many [ethnic neighborhoods], including [Little Armenia], [German Town], [Little Italy], and [Chinatown]. In [1940], the [Census Bureau] reported Fresno's population as [94.0% white], [3.3% black] and [2.7% Asian]. (Incongruously, [Chinatown] was primarily a [Japanese neighborhood] and today [Japanese-American businesses] still remain). During [1942], [Pinedale], in what is now [North Fresno], was the site of the [Pinedale Assembly Center], an [interim facility] for the relocation of [Fresno area Japanese Americans] to [internment camps]. The [Fresno Fairgrounds] was also utilized as an [assembly center].	Before World War II, Fresno had many ethnic neighborhoods, including Little Armenia, German Town, Little Italy, and Chinatown. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported Fresno's population as 94.0% white, 3.3% black and 2.7% Asian. (Incongruously, Chinatown was primarily a Japanese neighborhood and today Japanese-American businesses still remain). During 1942, Pinedale, in what is now North Fresno, was the site of the Pinedale Assembly Center, an interim facility for the relocation of Fresno area Japanese Americans to internment camps. The Fresno Fairgrounds was also utilized as an assembly center.
Since [teachers] can affect how [students] perceive the [course materials], it has been found that [teachers] who showed [enthusiasm] towards the [course materials] and [students] can affect a [positive learning experience] towards the [course materials]. On [teacher/course evaluations], it was found that [teachers] who have a [positive disposition] towards the [course content] tend to transfer their [passion] to [receptive students]. These [teachers] do not teach by [rote] but attempt to find new [invigoration] for the [course materials] on a [daily basis]. One of the [difficulties] in this [approach] is that [teachers] may have [repeatedly covered] a [curriculum] until they begin to feel [bored] with the [subject] which in turn [bores] the [students] as well. [Students] who had [enthusiastic teachers] tend to [rate] them [higher] than [teachers] who didn't show much [enthusiasm] for the [course materials].	Since teachers can affect how students perceive the course materials, it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can affect a positive learning experience towards the course materials. On teacher/course evaluations, it was found that teachers who have a positive disposition towards the course content tend to transfer their passion to receptive students. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the course materials on a daily basis. One of the difficulties in this approach is that teachers may have repeatedly covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject which in turn bores the students as well. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didn't show much enthusiasm for the course materials.
A [deterministic Turing machine] is the most [basic] Turing machine, which uses a [fixed set] of [rules] to determine its [future actions]. A [probabilistic Turing machine] is a [deterministic Turing machine] with an [extra supply] of [random bits]. The [ability] to make [probabilistic decisions] often helps [algorithms] [solve problems] [more efficiently]. [Algorithms] that use [random bits] are called [randomized algorithms]. A [non-deterministic Turing machine] is a [deterministic Turing machine] with an [added feature] of [non-determinism], which allows a [Turing machine] to have [multiple possible future actions] from a [given state]. One way to view [non-determinism] is that the [Turing machine] [branches] into [many possible computational paths] at each [step], and if it [solves] the [problem] in any of these [branches], it is said to have [solved the problem]. Clearly, this [model] is not meant to be a [physically realizable model], it is just a [theoretically interesting abstract machine] that gives rise to particularly [interesting complexity classes]. For examples, see [non-deterministic algorithm].	A deterministic Turing machine is the most basic Turing machine, which uses a fixed set of rules to determine its future actions. A probabilistic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an extra supply of random bits. The ability to make probabilistic decisions often helps algorithms solve problems more efficiently. Algorithms that use random bits are called randomized algorithms. A non-deterministic Turing machine is a deterministic Turing machine with an added feature of non-determinism, which allows a Turing machine to have multiple possible future actions from a given state. One way to view non-determinism is that the Turing machine branches into many possible computational paths at each step, and if it solves the problem in any of these branches, it is said to have solved the problem. Clearly, this model is not meant to be a physically realizable model, it is just a theoretically interesting abstract machine that gives rise to particularly interesting complexity classes. For examples, see non-deterministic algorithm.
[Harvard]'s 209-acre (85 ha) main campus is centered on [Harvard Yard] in [Cambridge], about 3 miles (5 km) west-northwest of the [State House] in downtown [Boston], and extends into the surrounding [Harvard Square] neighborhood. [Harvard Yard] itself contains the [central administrative offices] and [main libraries] of the university, [academic buildings] including [Sever Hall] and [University Hall], [Memorial Church], and the majority of the [freshman dormitories]. [Sophomore], [junior], and [senior undergraduates] live in twelve residential [Houses], nine of which are south of [Harvard Yard] along or near the [Charles River]. The other three are located in a [residential neighborhood] half a mile northwest of the Yard at the [Quadrangle] (commonly referred to as the [Quad]), which formerly housed [Radcliffe College students] until [Radcliffe merged] its [residential system] with [Harvard]. Each [residential house] contains [rooms] for [undergraduates], [House masters], and [resident tutors], as well as a [dining hall] and [library]. The facilities were made possible by a [gift] from [Yale University] [alumnus] [Edward Harkness].	Harvard's 209-acre (85 ha) main campus is centered on Harvard Yard in Cambridge, about 3 miles (5 km) west-northwest of the State House in downtown Boston, and extends into the surrounding Harvard Square neighborhood. Harvard Yard itself contains the central administrative offices and main libraries of the university, academic buildings including Sever Hall and University Hall, Memorial Church, and the majority of the freshman dormitories. Sophomore, junior, and senior undergraduates live in twelve residential Houses, nine of which are south of Harvard Yard along or near the Charles River. The other three are located in a residential neighborhood half a mile northwest of the Yard at the Quadrangle (commonly referred to as the Quad), which formerly housed Radcliffe College students until Radcliffe merged its residential system with Harvard. Each residential house contains rooms for undergraduates, House masters, and resident tutors, as well as a dining hall and library. The facilities were made possible by a gift from Yale University alumnus Edward Harkness.
Several [French paintings] entered the [collection] as part of the [260 paintings and miniatures] (not all the works were French, for example [Carlo Crivelli]'s Virgin and Child) that formed part of the [Jones bequest] of [1882] and as such are displayed in the [galleries] of [continental art] [1600–1800], including the [portrait] of [François], [Duc d'Alençon] by [François Clouet], [Gaspard Dughet] and works by [François Boucher] including his portrait of [Madame de Pompadour] dated [1758], [Jean François de Troy], [Jean-Baptiste Pater] and their [contemporaries].	Several French paintings entered the collection as part of the 260 paintings and miniatures (not all the works were French, for example Carlo Crivelli's Virgin and Child) that formed part of the Jones bequest of 1882 and as such are displayed in the galleries of continental art 1600–1800, including the portrait of François, Duc d'Alençon by François Clouet, Gaspard Dughet and works by François Boucher including his portrait of Madame de Pompadour dated 1758, Jean François de Troy, Jean-Baptiste Pater and their contemporaries.
In this work, [one of his most emphatic statements] on [faith], he argued that [every good work] designed to [attract God's favor] is [a sin]. [All humans] are [sinners] by [nature], he explained, and [God's grace] (which cannot be earned) alone can make them [just]. On [1 August 1521], Luther wrote to [Melanchthon] on [the same theme]: "Be [a sinner], and let your [sins] be [strong], but let your [trust] in [Christ] be [stronger], and [rejoice] in [Christ] who is [the victor over sin], [death], and [the world]. [We] will [commit sins] while [we] are [here], for [this life] is not [a place] where [justice] resides."	In this work, one of his most emphatic statements on faith, he argued that every good work designed to attract God's favor is a sin. All humans are sinners by nature, he explained, and God's grace (which cannot be earned) alone can make them just. On 1 August 1521, Luther wrote to Melanchthon on the same theme: "Be a sinner, and let your sins be strong, but let your trust in Christ be stronger, and rejoice in Christ who is the victor over sin, death, and the world. We will commit sins while we are here, for this life is not a place where justice resides."
In [1952], when the release of the [FCC]'s [Sixth Report and Order] announced the end of its [freeze] on [new station license applications], among the [issues] the [Commission] was slated to address was whether to approve the [UPT-ABC merger]. One [FCC Commissioner] saw the [possibility] of [ABC], funded by [UPT], becoming a [viable] and [competitive] [third television network]. On [February 9, 1953], the FCC approved [UPT]'s [purchase] of [ABC] in exchange for [$25 million] in [shares]. The [merged company], renamed [American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres, Inc.] and [headquartered] in the [Paramount Building] at [1501 Broadway] in [Manhattan], [owned] [six] [AM] and several [FM] [radio stations], [five television stations] and [644 cinemas] in [300 U.S. cities]. To comply with [FCC ownership restrictions] in effect at the time that barred [common ownership] of [two television stations] in the [same market], [UPT] sold its [Chicago television station], [WBKB-TV], to [CBS] (which subsequently changed the station's [call letters] to [WBBM-TV]) for [$6 million], while it kept [ABC's existing Chicago station], [WENR-TV]. The [merged company] acquired the [WBKB call letters] for [channel 7], which would eventually become [WLS-TV]. [Goldenson] began to sell some of the [older theaters] to help finance the new television network.	In 1952, when the release of the FCC's Sixth Report and Order announced the end of its freeze on new station license applications, among the issues the Commission was slated to address was whether to approve the UPT-ABC merger. One FCC Commissioner saw the possibility of ABC, funded by UPT, becoming a viable and competitive third television network. On February 9, 1953, the FCC approved UPT's purchase of ABC in exchange for $25 million in shares. The merged company, renamed American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres, Inc. and headquartered in the Paramount Building at 1501 Broadway in Manhattan, owned six AM and several FM radio stations, five television stations and 644 cinemas in 300 U.S. cities. To comply with FCC ownership restrictions in effect at the time that barred common ownership of two television stations in the same market, UPT sold its Chicago television station, WBKB-TV, to CBS (which subsequently changed the station's call letters to WBBM-TV) for $6 million, while it kept ABC's existing Chicago station, WENR-TV. The merged company acquired the WBKB call letters for channel 7, which would eventually become WLS-TV. Goldenson began to sell some of the older theaters to help finance the new television network.
The [UMC] supports [federal funding] for [research on embryos] created for [IVF] that [remain] after the [procreative efforts] have ceased, if the [embryos] were provided for [research] instead of being [destroyed], were not obtained by [sale], and those [donating] had given [prior informed consent] for the [research purposes]. The [UMC] stands in "[opposition] to the [creation] of [embryos] for the sake of [research]" as "a [human embryo], even at its [earliest stages], commands our [reverence]." It supports [research] on [stem cells] retrieved from [umbilical cords] and [adult stem cells], stating that there are "[few moral questions]" raised by this issue.	The UMC supports federal funding for research on embryos created for IVF that remain after the procreative efforts have ceased, if the embryos were provided for research instead of being destroyed, were not obtained by sale, and those donating had given prior informed consent for the research purposes. The UMC stands in "opposition to the creation of embryos for the sake of research" as "a human embryo, even at its earliest stages, commands our reverence." It supports research on stem cells retrieved from umbilical cords and adult stem cells, stating that there are "few moral questions" raised by this issue.
[Private schools] generally prefer to be called [independent schools], because of their [freedom] to operate outside of [government] and [local government control]. Some of these are also known as [public schools]. [Preparatory schools] in the [UK] [prepare pupils] aged up to [13 years old] to enter [public schools]. The name "public school" is based on the fact that the schools were [open] to pupils from [anywhere], and not merely to those from a certain [locality], and of [any religion] or [occupation]. According to [The Good Schools Guide] approximately [9 per cent] of children being [educated] in the [UK] are doing so at [fee-paying schools] at [GSCE level] and [13 per cent] at [A-level].[citation needed] Many [independent schools] are [single-sex] (though this is becoming [less common]). [Fees] range from under £3,000 to £21,000 and above per year for [day pupils], rising to £27,000+ per year for [boarders]. For details in [Scotland], see "Meeting the Cost".	Private schools generally prefer to be called independent schools, because of their freedom to operate outside of government and local government control. Some of these are also known as public schools. Preparatory schools in the UK prepare pupils aged up to 13 years old to enter public schools. The name "public school" is based on the fact that the schools were open to pupils from anywhere, and not merely to those from a certain locality, and of any religion or occupation. According to The Good Schools Guide approximately 9 per cent of children being educated in the UK are doing so at fee-paying schools at GSCE level and 13 per cent at A-level.citation needed Many independent schools are single-sex (though this is becoming less common). Fees range from under £3,000 to £21,000 and above per year for day pupils, rising to £27,000+ per year for boarders. For details in Scotland, see "Meeting the Cost".

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