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<h2>World Orphan Week - celebrity balloon races</h2><p><strong>27/09/2006</strong></p>
<p>The Operababes will be helping SOS Children to celebrate its <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Main.htm">World Orphan Week</a> campaign next week when they join in with balloon races at schools around the country. </p><p>SOS Children is holding balloon races at a number of schools next week to help launch World Orphan Week and raise money for some of the world's most vulnerable children.</p><img src="../../wp/a/African_boys_balloons_WOW.jpg" width="384" height="288" alt="Boys in Malawi" class="left" /><p>Friday 6 October will see World Orphan Week Ambassadors The Operababes joining the pupils of Mount Carmel School in Little Ealing, London to support SOS Children, the world’s largest orphan charity.</p><p>Pupils at the school will be buying World Orphan Week balloons for a balloon race, with all money going directly to World Orphan Week and helping provide orphaned children around the world with a new family home. The helium-filled balloons will be released into the air by the celebs, with prizes awarded for the balloon that travels the furthest and to the member of public who finds the winning balloon.</p><p>World Orphan Week which runs from 2-8 October aims to get any and everyone joining in to help make a difference to the lives of children in need. </p><p>As well as the balloon race in Ealing, there will also be races taking place during World Orphan Week in Doncaster (October 1st), Manchester and Ascot (2nd), Cambridge (3rd), Newcastle (4th) and Reigate (6th). There'll also be a whole host of other fundraising activities up and down the country throughout the week.</p><h3>See the pictures!</h3>
<p>There are plenty of pictures from last week's balloon races - <a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">why</a> <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Newcastle_Balloon_Launch.htm">not</a> <a href="../../wp/e/Ealing_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">take</a> <a href="../../wp/r/Reigate_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">a look</a>?</p><h3>Get fundraising!</h3>
<p>If you'd like to get involved in World Orphan Week but are in need of a bit of inspiration, why not take a look at our <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Main.htm">WOW pages</a> or our <a href="../../wp/a/A_To_Z_Fundraising.htm">A-Z of Fundraising</a>?</p>
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<h2>WOW Celebrities</h2>
<p>In 2006, we're very lucky to have celebrities supporting our World Orphan Week balloon races - WOW Ambassadors The OperaBabes, Tracey Edwards MBE and Lysette Anthony. Find out more about what's going on during the week <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Balloon_Races.htm">here</a>.</p><p>But we also have a number of other famous supporters, who are injecting the WOW factor into World Orphan Week 2006 and will hopefully inspire you to also take part!</p><h3>G4</h3>
<img src="../../wp/g/G4_Ghana_Tema.jpg" width="274" height="179" alt="G4 with SOS children in Ghana" class="right" /><p>Earlier this year, G4 went to Ghana to see for themselves the SOS Children’s Village in Tema and our work with local communities. </p><p>They were all taken aback by the situation some of the children were living in - Matt said: "Without SOS these children would have had to survive on the streets, most would not have survived, or would have died as abandoned babies" </p><p>You can read more about their visit to Ghana in their <a href="../../wp/g/G4_Classic_Response.htm">diary</a>.</p><h3>Wayne Rooney</h3>
<img src="../../wp/r/Rooney_Ambassado.jpg" width="128" height="129" alt="Wayne Rooney, SOS Ambassador" class="left" /><p>Following on from our hugely successful joint World Cup campaign with FIFA <a href="../../wp/s/Six_Villages.htm">"6 villages for 2006"</a>, Wayne Rooney will also be supporting World Orphan Week in his role as official <a href="../../wp/s/Six_Villages_Wayne_Rooney.htm">FIFA/SOS Ambassador</a>:</p><p>“The work they (SOS Children’s Villages) do is for kids who have suffered and have no families to help them. I know how much it means to have a family that supports you, so I am delighted I can give my support to these kids.”</p><h3>OperaBabes</h3>
<img src="../../wp/w/WOW_Operababes.jpg" width="216" height="147" alt="The OperaBabes visiting SOS Children's Village Piliyandala, Sri Lanka" class="right" /><p>Karen England, who along with Rebecca Knight makes up the successful classical duo The OperaBabes, explains why they are supporting World Orphan Week: </p><p>"SOS Children provides a home in every sense of the word for kids who've lost everything and would otherwise have very little hope. Rebecca and I are proud to be Ambassadors and urge you to support this most deserving of causes as much as you can."</p><h3>George Alagiah</h3>
<img src="../../wp/g/GEORGEALAGIAH.jpg" width="115" height="118" alt="George Alagiah, World Orphan Week supporter" class="left" /><p>“In my years as a BBC Foreign Correspondent, I saw that the most vulnerable people, mainly children, were always the ones that suffered. Many end up as orphans after disasters and wars. Please join me in supporting WOW and help SOS Children help more orphaned children; one by one.”</p>
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<h2>Fundraise At Work</h2>
<img src="../../wp/w/WOW_Nat_Davids_Party_April_2005.jpg" width="300" height="454" alt="Dress up or down for WOW!!" class="left" /><p>WOW 2006 will take place 2-8 October 2006.</p><p>We would like to work with companies across the UK in the run up to WOW and during WOW itself. </p><p>WOW will offer companies opportunities for their staff to work together and be a part of a nationwide campaign. Your contribution counts - and it's easy to make a difference Here are just a few examples of how you could help WOW: </p><ul><li><p>Choose WOW as your company's charity campaign. Adopting a cause is a great way of building good staff relationships - whose team will raise the most money for WOW?</p></li><li><p>Get your colleagues to donate an hour's pay during WOW - with the MD leading the way of course! You can <a href="../../wp/w/WOW_Donate_An_Hours_Pay_Form.pdf">download our simple form here</a> and circulate amongst your colleagues - this is easy to do with email. You'll see how quickly the money will start coming.</p></li><li><p>You can also <a href="../../wp/w/WOW_Company_Information_Sheet.pdf">download an information sheet on WOW</a> to go with it.</p></li><li><p>Give As You Earn - start payroll giving - the easy and tax-effective way to help World Orphan Week. You can <a href="../../wp/w/WOW_Payroll_Giving_Information_Sheet.pdf">read more information here</a> on how payroll giving works and the benefits for you and your company. <a href="../../wp/w/WOW_Payroll_Giving_Form.pdf">Download our simple payroll giving form here</a> and start donating tax-free to WOW directly from your salary. Circulate this form amongst your colleagues and encourage them to donate regularly to WOW as well! For further information on how to set up a payroll giving scheme in your company visit www.payrollgivinggrants.co.uk</p></li><li><p>Hold an event at your office for WOW. There are lots of fun ideas such as a family fun day - a day that staff and their families can enjoy - bouncy castles, competitions, entertainment. Another idea is a dress-down day - everyone pays to dress down for the day. To make it more interesting you could give it a theme - why not ask everyone to wear something green for WOW? Another fun activity is a guess the baby competition - people in the office bring in photos of themselves as babies then everyone has to pay to enter and guess who the baby is! A prize for the winner.</p></li></ul><p>Get in touch with the WOW team for further information or advice. We would be happy to come and meet with you to discuss ideas. Call 01223 365589 or email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a></p>
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<h2>Get Sponsored</h2>
<img src="../../wp/s/Serena_Frisby1.jpg" width="300" height="557" alt="Sponsored rollerblade for WOW!" class="right" /><p>You can make a difference!There are many ways to raise money for WOW, some more strenuous than others! </p><p><strong>Serena Frisby and Arabella Smith raised money for WOW by doing a five mile sponsored rollerblade around their village. Serena had heard about WOW and wanted to be one of the first to hold a sponsored event to support SOS Children's work with orphaned and abandoned children.</strong></p><p>You don't have to go halfway round the world to raise money for WOW (although you can if you want to!). Why not get together with friends to do a sponsored bike ride, swim or walk? Or you could host a party for friends in aid of WOW ... but whatever you do, make sure it's fun!</p><p>You see our <a href="../../wp/a/A_To_Z_Fundraising.htm">WOW A-Z of Fundraising Ideas</a> or you can download our PDF sheet of <a href="../../wp/a/A_Z_Fundraising_Ideas_2006.pdf">Fundraising Ideas</a>. </p><p>You can also download a PDF of the <a href="../../wp/w/WOW_Sponsorship_Form.pdf">WOW Sponsorship Form</a>. </p><p>You can email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> for more details on how we can help you support SOS Children.</p>
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<img src="../../wp/w/WOW_Team_Before_10k_Run.jpg" width="400" height="360" alt="The WOW team in action at the 10K Run, London" class="left" /><p><strong>Help us help more children one by one.</strong></p><p><strong>WOW</strong> is the time for<strong> YOU </strong>to make a difference - and it's really that simple!</p><h3>Want to give it a go? Want to make a difference?</h3>
<p>Get on board and help us do some serious fundraising! These funds really will give orphans a brighter future.</p><p>Fundraising is fun and immensely rewarding. And the great thing is that there are so many different ways of doing it. Anyone can become a successful fundraiser for WOW, whatever their skills and abilities. </p><p>Here are just a few ideas:</p><p><strong>Do you like sport? Do you belong to a club? </strong><br />Inject the WOW factor into your favourite sport and organise a special event, with all proceeds donated to WOW. Hold a tennis tournament, half marathon, golf day, swimathon, badminton competition, special cricket match ... the possibilities are endless!</p><p><strong>Can you bring people together? </strong><br />Get together with your friends and raise money for WOW: hold a pub quiz, coffee morning, bring and buy, dinner dance, barbecue, picnic - even a sponsored bike ride!</p><p><strong>Are you at School? </strong><br />Get your teachers and classmates switched on to raising funds for WOW - organise a non-uniform day and get everyone wearing WOW wristbands - you could even sell them yourself! Email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> for more information on how to sell wristbands at your school.</p><p><strong>Can you raise funds for WOW at work? </strong><br />Choose WOW as your charity campaign! Adopting a cause is a great way of building good staff relationships: whose team will raise the most money for WOW? Get your colleagues to donate an hour's pay during WOW - with the MD leading the way, of course!</p><p>And there are hundreds of other fundraising ideas. The more imaginative the activity, the more fun it is. </p><p>Get in touch with the WOW team who'll be more than happy to provide you with advice, help or support. You can call us on 01223 365589 or email: <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a></p>
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<h2>World Orphan Week - get fundraising!</h2><p><strong>25/07/2006</strong></p>
<img src="../../wp/w/WOWLOGO_website.jpg" width="310" height="256" alt="WOW logo" class="left" /><p>World Orphan Week, or WOW, is an annual fundraising campaign to support SOS Children’s work around the world that takes place during the first week in October. </p><p>This year, between 2-8 October, we’re asking you, your friends your school or work colleagues to do something fun, something silly or perhaps even something outrageous to raise money for orphans and abandoned children worldwide. Last year we raised over £200,000 and we’re hoping to improve on that this year. </p><p>To find out how to get the WOW factor you can see our <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Main.htm">fundraising ideas pages</a>.</p>
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<h2>Involve your school</h2>
<img src="../../wp/k/Kettlefields_Malawi_Cake_Stall.jpg" width="400" height="533" alt="Hold a cake sale using ingredients from around the world" class="left" /><p>World Orphan Week is an easy way for pre-school, primary and secondary schools to develop international links and partnerships and give children an understanding and respect for other cultures.</p><p>WOW teaching resources are full of interesting facts, recipes, quizzes, maps and flags. Use them for a PSHE or Geography lesson. Base a display board around the information and see what else you can discover about these countries by searching on <a href="../../wp/e/Education_Cd.htm">SOS Children’s Wikipedia </a>, a special downloadable child-friendly Wikipedia selection for schools</p><img src="../../wp/k/Kettlefields_Art_Exhib2.jpg" width="300" height="190" alt="Encourage parents to buy art made at school" class="right" /><p>You can download a range of resources to use at your school: just click on the items listed below:<br /><ul><li><p>Our unique <a href="../../wp/e/Education_Cd.htm">encyclopaedia CD</a> gives you safe access to over 2,006 articles from Wikipedia, together with thousands of pictures.</p></li><li><p>We have a selection of PDFs for you to download which describe how WOW will support orphans in :<br /><a href="../../wp/w/WowsaschoolresourceV.pdf">Vietnam</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/WowsaschoolresourceG.pdf">Ghana</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/WowsaschoolresourceSA.pdf">South Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/WowsaschoolresourceBR.pdf">Brazil</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/WowsaschoolresourceBE.pdf">Belarus</a>.</p></li><li><p>Why not get the whole school involved by holding a WOW assembly - our <a href="../../wp/w/WOW_schools_presentation.ppt">PowerPoint presentation</a> can inject the WOW factor into your fundraising and inspire staff and pupils to get on board. </p><p>Email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> or call 01223 365589 </p></li></ul><h3>Fundraising</h3>
<p>You could also use World Orphan Week to raise funds for us if you like. If your school <strong>raises £240 or more</strong>, you can <strong>sponsor an SOS Children's Village for a year</strong>. By becoming a sponsor your school will receive twice-yearly newsletters and photographs with progress of your sponsored village. </p><p>We have a schools' fundraising pack available which which come with a WOW brochure, WOW DVD, WOW poster, fundraising ideas, <a href="../../wp/e/Education_Cd.htm">encyclopaedia CD</a> and a school information sheet. </p><p>See how your fundraising progresses with our WOW poster. Your funds will help to support children in need in 124 countries around the world.<ul><li><p>Hold a ‘WOW-factor’ talent show, based on 'The X-factor' TV programme</p></li><li><p>Have a non-uniform day/wear national dress/tribal costumes </p></li><li><p>Hold an art exhibition - encourage parents to buy the artwork</p></li><li><p>Hold a coffee morning with WOW decorated cookies and cakes</p></li><li><p>Do a sponsored skip, spell, or penalty shoot-out</p></li><li><p>Take part in a virtual challenge - climb the equivalent of Mt Kilimanjaro up the school stairs or ‘Walk the Wall of China’ by doing circuits of the playground. ‘Swim across Lake Malawi’ by doing laps of the local pool! It is possible with the combined efforts of teachers and pupils!</p></li><li><p>Have an SOS collection box in the school library for book fines</p></li><li><p>Do a lunchtime carwash</p></li><li><p>Hold a film screening during lunch time or after school - dress up and have refreshments and a raffle</p></li><li><p>Have a themed day - you could choose country and western and wear cowboy hats, listen to Johnny Cash and hold a barn dance</p></li></ul><p>Or think of another great idea and let us know about it - we’d love to hear from you!</p><p><strong>See how your money could give a future to children in need: </strong><br /><ul><li><p>66p a day helps to support a child in an SOS Children's Village.</p></li><li><p>£3.50 buys a child a pair of shoes.</p></li><li><p>£6.40 feeds one child for a month at an SOS Village in Cambodia.</p></li><li><p>£7.50 buys a school uniform.</p></li><li><p>£72 provides clothes, school bags, school shoes and pocket money for five children.</p></li><li><p>£3,100 buys equipment for a nursery school including chalkboards, chalk, books, paper, pens and paints.</p></li><li><p>£15,600 runs a nursery school for a year, providing a quality early education to 90 children from an SOS Children's Village and the local community.</p></li></ul><p>If you would like our WOW schools pack, please email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> or call 01223 365589 to speak to the WOW team.</p>
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<h2>How you can help</h2>
<img src="../../wp/w/WOWLogoPSDV3orange2.jpg" width="200" height="165" alt="World Orphan Week Logo" class="left" /><img src="../../wp/b/Back_Of_WOW_Team_10k.jpg" width="247" height="300" alt="World Orphan Week supporters take part in the the London 10K Run" class="right" /><p>Thank you to everyone who helped make World Orphan Week such a great success last week! People held all kinds of activities to raise money for SOS Children including sponsored walks, auctions, photo exhibitions, badminton tournaments, bring and buy sales and win-a-day-off-work raffles. </p><p>SOS Children also held a number of balloon races at schools around the country - have a look at the photos for <a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">Cambridge</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Newcastle_Balloon_Launch.htm">Newcastle</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ealing_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">Ealing</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Reigate_Wow_Balloon_Launch.htm">Reigate</a>!</p><p>You can still support World Orphan Week, by sending in donations or organising an event - keep reading!</p><p>Want to give it a go? Fundraising is fun and immensely rewarding. Anyone can become a successful fundraiser for WOW, whatever their skills and abilities. We have put together some resources to give you some ideas and help you along the way. There are so many different things you can do to raise awareness and funds and we would love to hear from you.</p><img src="../../wp/s/Sponsored.jpg" width="200" height="50" alt="Get sponsored" class="left" /><p>It's easy to get involved in an event or perhaps you could even design your own! And why not get sponsored to do it? We have put together some <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Get_Sponsored.htm">fundraising ideas</a> to get you started and here's a <a href="../../wp/w/WOW_Sponsorship_Form.pdf">sponsorship form</a> for you and your friends to download.</p><img src="../../wp/h/Hold_An_Event.jpg" width="200" height="50" alt="Hold an event" class="left" /><p>Put the WOW factor into your favourite sport and organise a special event! Possible events include tennis tournaments, half marathons, golf days, swimathons, badminton competitions, special cricket matches ... <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Hold_An_Event.htm">the possibilities are endless!</a>.</p><img src="../../wp/i/Involve_Your_School.jpg" width="200" height="50" alt="Involve your school" class="left" /><p>You can involve your school with activities! We have<a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Involve_Your_School.htm"> suggestions for activities</a> and a balloon launch package which we can arrange for you and your school. We have lots of resources you can use to plan your lessons, including case studies of the countries in which SOS Children is active.</p><img src="../../wp/f/Fundraise_At_Work.jpg" width="200" height="50" alt="Fundraise at work" class="left" /><p>Giving a small, regular donation is very valuable to SOS Children. There are many schemes, such as payroll giving, which allow you to <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Companies.htm"> donate</a> as you earn. You may like to organise a <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Companies.htm">fundraising event</a> with your colleagues. This can help with office team building and supports our work at the same time!</p><img src="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.jpg" width="200" height="50" alt="Sponsor a child" class="left" /><p>Read about what is involved in <a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">child sponsorship</a> and about the countries in which this is offered by looking through our<a href="../../wp/s/Sponsorship_Directory.htm"> sponsorship directory</a>. <a href="../../wp/d/Directdebit_B.htm">Sponsoring a child</a> is a very rewarding experience and can make a big difference to a child's life.</p><img src="../../wp/m/Make_A_Donation.jpg" width="200" height="50" alt="Make a external/donation.htm" class="left" /><p>To support our work you can easily make a <a href="../../wp/o/One_Off_Donation.htm">one off donation</a>. The process is simple and can be done online. You can specify that you would like the money to be used for WOW in the instructions box on the <a href="../../wp/d/Donation_A.htm">online donation form</a>.</p><h3>All money goes to those who need it most</h3>
<p>100% of the proceeds from World Orphan Week go to support the work of SOS Children. We currently care for over 60,000 children in our unique SOS Children's Villages and youth homes and support a further 900,000 in the community in 124 countries around the world. </p><p><strong><em>Together we can really make a difference - do something today for WOW !</em></strong></p><p>Please contact us with any ideas or questions you may have about getting involved in WOW. Visit our <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_2005_Photogallery.htm">photo gallery</a> to view some of the great events held in 2005 which supported our work and helped give orphans a future.</p><h3>WOW Celebrities</h3>
<p>And it's not just schools and community groups supporting World Orphan Week - we've also got a number of <a href="../../wp/w/Wow_Celebrites.htm">WOW celebrity supporters</a> lending a hand!</p>
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<h2>World Orphan Week Newcastle Balloon Launch</h2>
<p>On Wednesday 4th October, the children of St Bedes Primary School in Newcastle were the wonderful hosts of the city's first 'World Orphan Week' balloon launch.</p><img src="../../wp/n/Newcastle_Balloon_Launch06_004.jpg" width="400" height="300" alt="WOW Newcastle balloon launch" class="centre" /><p>The children very kindly sponsored the WOW balloons, which are labelled with the address of the SOS Children office.</p><img src="../../wp/n/Newcastle_Balloon_Launch06_005.jpg" width="400" height="533" alt="WOW Newcastle Balloon Launch" class="centre" /><p>The sponsor of the balloon which travels the furthest will win a star prize.</p><img src="../../wp/n/Newcastle_Balloon_Launch06_007.jpg" width="400" height="533" alt="WOW Newcastle Balloon Launch." class="centre" /><p>The balloons were soon carried far away.</p><img src="../../wp/n/Newcastle_Balloon_Launch06_008.jpg" width="400" height="533" alt="WOW balloon launch in Newcastle" class="centre" /><p>Keep a look out for WOW balloons as there is also a prize for the person who finds the balloon that travels the furthest.</p><img src="../../wp/n/Newcastle_Balloon_Launch06_0091.jpg" width="400" height="460" alt="WOW balloon launch Newcastle" class="centre" />
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<h2>Manchester photo exhibition supports World Orphan Week</h2><p><strong>27/09/2006</strong></p>
<p>The opening of the photography project ‘Be with us, because we are with you’ on Monday 2 October at Kro Bar, Piccadilly Gardens will mark the beginning of World Orphan Week for SOS Children’s Villages in Manchester.</p><p>Manchester-based community artist Charlotte Barnes and students from Manchester University recently spent three weeks working with youths on a Young Person’s Photography Project in Sofia, Bulgaria. During the visit, 15 young adults, all supported by SOS Children, were given cameras to explore their lives, culture, dreams and hopes.</p><img src="../../wp/m/Manchester_Photo_Exhibition.jpg" width="450" height="338" alt="Photograph by Bulgarian boy" class="left" /><p>The photographs offer a unique insight into the lives of the young people; some are full of humour, others are deeply moving. Speaking about the project, photographer and project coordinator Charlotte Barnes commented “the photography project built the self esteem of the young people and was an amazing opportunity for sharing skills across countries.”</p><p>The exhibition at Kro Bar will run for a week from 2 - 8 October 2006 as part of SOS Children’s annual campaign World Orphan Week. The campaign aims to raise both funds for and awareness of the charity’s work helping some of the most vulnerable children around the world and get any- and everyone joining in to help make a difference to a child’s life. </p><p>During the opening event on Monday 2 October from 6.30pm, the artists behind the project as well as staff from SOS Children will be on hand at Kro Bar to answer any questions about the project.</p><p>For more information about the event please contact either<br />Bec at SOS Children - 01223 365589, <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> or<br />Charlotte Barnes, 07951 616938, http://www.yppp.co.uk</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria_A.htm">Bulgaria</a>.</p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wren</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Wrens</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14871.jpg.htm" title="Cactus Wren"><img alt="Cactus Wren" height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cactuswren63.jpg" src="../../images/148/14871.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Cactus Wren</small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><i><b>Troglodytidae</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Swainson, 1832</small></td>
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<th>
<center>Genera</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Donacobius</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Odontorchilus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Salpinctes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Microcerculus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Campylorhynchus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Catherpes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Hylorchilus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Thryomanes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Thryothorus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Cinnycerthia</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Cantorchilus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Thryophilus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Pheugopedius</i> <i><!--del_lnk--> Cyphorhinus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Uropsila</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Thryorchilus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Henicorhina</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Troglodytes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Cistothorus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Ferminia</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The true <b>wrens</b> are members of a mainly <!--del_lnk--> New World <!--del_lnk--> passerine <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> family <b>Troglodytidae</b> containing 79 <!--del_lnk--> species.<p>A troglodyte means a cave-dweller, and wrens get their scientific name from the tendency of some species to forage in dark crevices. They are mainly small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short wings and a thin down-turned bill. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.<p>Only one species, <i>Troglodytes troglodytes</i>, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Winter Wren in North America, occurs in the <!--del_lnk--> Old World, where it is commonly known simply as the <b>Wren</b>.<p>The 27 <!--del_lnk--> Australasian "wren" species are unrelated and are in the family <!--del_lnk--> Maluridae, as are the <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand "wrens" in the family Acanthisittidae.<p>The wren is to become the next official mascot of <!--del_lnk--> The College of William and Mary.<p><a id="Species_list" name="Species_list"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species list</span></h2>
<p>This list follows the review by Mann <i>et al.</i> (2006).<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Donacobius</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Black-capped Donacobius <i>Donacobius atricapillus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Odontorchilus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gray-mantled Wren <i>Odontorchilus branickii</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Tooth-billed Wren <i>Odontorchilus cinereus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Salpinctes</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Rock Wren <i>Salpinctes obsoletus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Microcerculus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Flutist Wren <i>Microcerculus ustulatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Nightingale Wren <i>Microcerculus philomela</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Scaly-breasted Wren <i>Microcerculus marginatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Wing-banded Wren <i>Microcerculus bambla</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Catherpes</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Canyon Wren <i>Catherpes mexicanus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Hylorchilus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nava's Wren <i>Hylorchilus navai</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Slender-billed Wren <i>Hylorchilus sumichrasti</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Campylorhynchus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Band-backed Wren <i>Campylorhynchus zonatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Bicolored Wren <i>Campylorhynchus griseus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Boucard's Wren <i>Campylorhynchus jocosus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Cactus Wren <i>Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Fasciated Wren <i>Campylorhynchus fasciatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Giant Wren <i>Campylorhynchus chiapensis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Gray-barred Wren <i>Campylorhynchus megalopterus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Rufous-naped Wren <i>Campylorhynchus rufinucha</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Spotted Wren <i>Campylorhynchus gularis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Stripe-backed Wren <i>Campylorhynchus nuchalis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Thrush-like Wren <i>Campylorhynchus turdinus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> White-headed Wren <i>Campylorhynchus albobrunneus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Yucatan Wren <i>Campylorhynchus yucatanicus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Thryomanes</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bewick's Wren <i>Thryomanes bewickii</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Thryothorus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Carolina Wren <i>Thryothorus ludovicianus</i><ul>
<li>White-browed Wren <i>Thryothorus (l.) albinucha</i></ul>
</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Cinnycerthia</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Fulvous Wren <i>Cinnycerthia fulva</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Peruvian Wren <i>Cinnycerthia peruana</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Rufous Wren <i>Cinnycerthia unirufa</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Sharpe's Wren <i>Cinnycerthia olivascens</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Cantorchilus</i> (formerly <i>Thryothorus</i>) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Stripe-breasted Wren <i>Cantorchilus thoracicus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Stripe-throated Wren <i>Cantorchilus leucopogon</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Plain Wren <i>Cantorchilus modestus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Riverside Wren <i>Cantorchilus semibadius</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Bay Wren <i>Cantorchilus nigricapillus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Superciliated Wren <i>Cantorchilus superciliaris</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Buff-breasted Wren <i>Cantorchilus leucotis</i> (probably not <!--del_lnk--> monophyletic)<li><!--del_lnk--> Fawn-breasted Wren <i>Cantorchilus guarayanus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Long-billed Wren <i>Cantorchilus longirostris</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Thryophilus</i> (formerly <i>Thryothorus</i>) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gray Wren <i>Thryophilus griseus</i> (placement in genus requires confirmation)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rufous-and-white Wren <i>Thryophilus rufalbus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Niceforo's Wren <i>Thryophilus nicefori</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Sinaloa Wren <i>Thryophilus sinaloa</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Banded Wren <i>Thryophilus pleurostictus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Pheugopedius</i> (formerly <i>Thryothorus</i>) <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Moustached Wren <i>Pheugopedius genibarbis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Coraya Wren <i>Pheugopedius coraya</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Whiskered Wren <i>Pheugopedius mystacalis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Plain-tailed Wren <i>Pheugopedius euophrys</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Black-bellied Wren <i>Pheugopedius fasciatoventris</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Black-throated Wren <i>Pheugopedius atrogularis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Speckle-breasted Wren <i>Pheugopedius sclateri</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Sooty-headed Wren <i>Pheugopedius spadix</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Happy Wren <i>Pheugopedius felix</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Inca Wren <i>Pheugopedius eisenmanni</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Rufous-breasted Wren <i>Pheugopedius rutilus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Spot-breasted Wren <i>Pheugopedius maculipectus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Cyphorhinus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Chestnut-breasted Wren <i>Cyphorhinus thoracicus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Musician Wren <i>Cyphorhinus aradus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Song Wren <i>Cyphorhinus phaeocephalus</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Uropsila</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> White-bellied Wren <i>Uropsila leucogastra</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Thryorchilus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Timberline Wren <i>Thryorchilus browni</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Henicorhina</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bar-winged Wood Wren <i>Henicorhina leucoptera</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Gray-breasted Wood Wren <i>Henicorhina leucophrys</i><li><!--del_lnk--> White-breasted Wood Wren <i>Henicorhina leucosticta</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Munchique Wood-wren, <i>Henicorhina negreti</i></ul>
</ul>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14872.jpg.htm" title="Winter Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes)Stamp FR 345 of Postverk Føroya, Faroe IslandsIssued: 22 February 1999Artist: Astrid Andreasen"><img alt="Winter Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes)Stamp FR 345 of Postverk Føroya, Faroe IslandsIssued: 22 February 1999Artist: Astrid Andreasen" height="295" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Faroe_stamp_345_wren_%28troglodytes_troglodytes%29.jpg" src="../../images/148/14872.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14872.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Winter Wren (<i>Troglodytes troglodytes</i>)<br /> Stamp FR 345 of <!--del_lnk--> Postverk Føroya, <a href="../../wp/f/Faroe_Islands.htm" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a><br /> Issued: 22 February 1999<br /> Artist: <!--del_lnk--> Astrid Andreasen</div>
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<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Troglodytes</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Clarion Island Wren <i>Troglodytes tanneri</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Cobb's Wren <i>Troglodytes cobbi</i><li><!--del_lnk--> House Wren <i>Troglodytes aedon</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Socorro Wren <i>Trodlodytes sissonii</i> (sometimes placed in <i>Thryomanes</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mountain Wren <i>Troglodytes solstitialis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Ochraceous Wren <i>Troglodytes ochraceus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Rufous-browed Wren <i>Troglodytes rufociliatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Santa Marta Wren <i>Troglodytes monticola</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Tepui Wren <i>Troglodytes rufulus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Winter Wren <i>Troglodytes troglodytes</i> (sometimes <!--del_lnk--> monotypic genus <i>Nannus</i>)</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Cistothorus</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Apolinar's Wren <i>Cistothorus apolinari</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Marsh Wren <i>Cistothorus palustris</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Paramo Wren <i>Cistothorus meridae</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Sedge Wren <i>Cistothorus platensis</i></ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Genus <i>Ferminia</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Zapata Wren <i>Ferminia cerverai</i></ul>
</ul>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Bird', 'Bird', 'Faroe Islands'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wrench</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Engineering.htm">Engineering</a></h3>
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<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14873.jpg.htm" title="Combination wrench, or combination spanner"><img alt="Combination wrench, or combination spanner" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Maulringschluessel.jpg" src="../../images/148/14873.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14873.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Combination wrench, or combination spanner</div>
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<p>A <b>wrench</b> or <b>spanner</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> tool used to provide a <!--del_lnk--> mechanical advantage in applying <!--del_lnk--> torque to turn <a href="../../wp/s/Screw.htm" title="Screw">bolts</a>, <!--del_lnk--> nuts or other hard-to-turn items.<p>In <a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" title="American English">American English</a>, <i>wrench</i> is the standard term, while <i>spanner</i> refers to a specialized wrench with a series of pins or tabs around the circumference. (These pins or tabs fit into the holes or notches cut into the object to be turned.) In <a href="../../wp/b/British_English.htm" title="British English">British English</a>, <i>spanner</i> is the standard term. Hinged tools, such as <!--del_lnk--> pliers or <!--del_lnk--> tongs, are not generally considered wrenches.<p>
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</script><a id="Common_wrenches" name="Common_wrenches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Common wrenches</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:121px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14874.jpg.htm" title="Double open-end wrench or open-ended spanner"><img alt="Double open-end wrench or open-ended spanner" height="512" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Open_ended_spanner.jpg" src="../../images/148/14874.jpg" width="119" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14874.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Double open-end wrench or open-ended spanner</div>
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</div>
<ul>
<li>Open-end wrench, or Open-ended spanner: a one-piece wrench with a U-shaped opening that grips two opposite faces of the bolt or nut. This wrench is often double ended, with a different sized opening at each end. The ends are generally oriented at an angle of around 30 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the handle. This allows a greater range of movement in enclosed spaces by flipping the wrench over.<li>Box-end wrench, or Box spanner, or Ring spanner: a one-piece wrench with an enclosed opening that grips the faces of the bolt or nut. The recess is generally a six-point or twelve-point opening for use with nuts or bolt heads with a hexagonal shape. The twelve-point fits onto the fastening at twice as many angles, an advantage where swing is limited. Eight-point wrenches are also made for square shaped nuts and bolt heads. Box-ends are also often double-ended.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14875.jpg.htm" title="Double Handled Tap Wrench"><img alt="Double Handled Tap Wrench" height="40" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Twohandledwrench.jpg" src="../../images/148/14875.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14875.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Double Handled Tap Wrench</div>
</div>
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<ul>
<li>Combination wrench, or Combination spanner: a double-ended tool with one end being like an open-end wrench or open-ended spanner, and the other end being like a box-end wrench or ring spanner. Both ends generally fit the same size bolt.<li>Flare-nut wrench, or Tube wrench: used for gripping the nuts on the ends of tubes. The design is similar to a box–end wrench but with an opening to allow the wrench to fit over the tube.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14876.jpg.htm" title="Adjustable wrench"><img alt="Adjustable wrench" height="362" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Adjustable_wrench.jpg" src="../../images/148/14876.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14876.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Adjustable wrench</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Adjustable end wrench, or <!--del_lnk--> Adjustable spanner, or Shifting spanner (commonley known as a shifter): an open-ended wrench with adjustable (usually smooth) jaws, also sometimes called by the original patent holder's brand name as a Crescent® Wrench (Crescent Tool and Horseshoe Company).</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Monkey wrench: an old type of adjustable end wrench with a straight handle and smooth jaws, these are also known in the UK as 'gas grips'.<li>Crescent® wrench: the brand name of an improved version of the adjustable end wrench (see the photo at right) developed by the <i>Crescent Tool and Horseshoe Company</i>. Often used as a <!--del_lnk--> generic term.<li><!--del_lnk--> Pipe wrench: an adjustable end wrench with self-tightening properties and hard serrated jaws that securely grip soft iron pipe and pipe fittings. Sometimes known by the original patent holder's brand name as a <i>Stillson® Wrench</i>.</ul>
</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Socket wrench: a hollow cylinder that fits over one end of a nut or bolt head—may include a handle but usually used with various drive tools. It generally has either a six–point or twelve–point recess, may be shallow or deep, and may have a built-in <!--del_lnk--> universal joint. In addition, face driving sockets are available. These are more durable still, and have the ability to drive a range of hexagonal head sizes, with less risk of damaging the nut or bolt head than traditional "corner" drivers. The drive handles generally used are:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>a break–over (or hinged) handle.<dd>a ratchet handle (contains a mechanism which allows the socket to be turned without removing it from the nut or bolt).<dd>a speed handle (sometimes called a crank handle).<dd>a screwdriver handle (for use of the socket as a nutdriver).</dl>
<dd>Sockets are often sold as a <!--del_lnk--> set containing a collection of sockets of various sizes and associated drive tools; usually including, as a minimum, extensions, a ratchet driver, and a universal joint. Sockets are also used with various power tools.</dl>
<ul>
<li>Crowfoot socket wrench: a type of socket designed to fit some of the same drive handles as the regular socket but non-cylindrical in shape. The ends are the same as those found on the open-end, box-end, or the flare-nut wrenches. These sockets use for use where space restrictions preclude the use of a regular socket. Their principle use is with torque wrenches.<li>Saltus wrench: similar in concept to a socket wrench. A Saltus wrench features a socket permanently affixed to a handle; sockets are not interchangeable as with a socket wrench. The socket often rotates around the handle to allow the user to access a fastener from a variety of angles. Commonly a Saltus wrench is part of a double-ended wrench, with an open-end type head on the opposide side from the socket head.<li>A <i>mole wrench</i>, also known as a <!--del_lnk--> mole grip, is not a wrench but a type of self-locking <!--del_lnk--> pliers</ul>
<p><a id="Other_general_wrenches" name="Other_general_wrenches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other general wrenches</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Wrenches for screws and bolts with internal sockets — <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Hex key wrench, or Allen wrench / Allen key — a (usually) L-shaped wrench fabricated from hexagonal wire stock of various sizes, used to turn screw or bolt heads designed with a hexagonal recess to receive this wrench.<li><!--del_lnk--> Bristol® wrench, or Bristol spline wrench — another wrench designed for internal socket head screws and bolts. The cross-section resembles a square-toothed gear. Not a common design, it is chiefly used on small <!--del_lnk--> set screws.<li><!--del_lnk--> TORX® wrench — a relatively recent internal socket head screw design. The cross-section resembles a star. Commonly used on automated equipment and computer components.</ul>
<li>Strap wrench or chain wrench — a self-tightening wrench with either a chain or strap of metal, leather, or rubber attached to a handle, used to grip and turn smooth cylindrical objects. In bicycle repair circles it is known as a chain whip and used to remove and install cassettes onto rear hubs.</ul>
<p><a id="Specialized_wrenches" name="Specialized_wrenches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Specialized wrenches</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Spoke wrench or spoke key: a wrench with a clearance slot for a wire wheel spoke such as a bicycle wheel and a drive head for the adjustment nipple nut.<li><!--del_lnk--> Tap wrench: a double–handled wrench for turning the square drive on <!--del_lnk--> taps used in threading operations (cutting the female threads such as within a nut) or a precision <!--del_lnk--> reamer.<li>Die wrench: A double–handled wrench for turning the <!--del_lnk--> dies used in threading operations (cutting the male threads such as on a bolt).<li><!--del_lnk--> Torque wrench: a socket wrench drive tool that measures the amount of rotational force applied to the socket—this may be indicated visually with a rod or dial or may simply slip when a set torque is exceeded. The torque wrench would also be categorized as a <i>measuring tool.</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Drum wrench: a tool commonly used to open bungs on large 55 gallon drums.<li><!--del_lnk--> Lug wrench: a socket wrench used to turn lug nuts on <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobile</a> <!--del_lnk--> wheels.<li><!--del_lnk--> Plumber wrench: a tool to screw (rotate with force) various pipes during <!--del_lnk--> plumbing.<li><!--del_lnk--> Tuning wrench: a socket wrench used to tune some stringed musical instruments.<li>Oil-filter wrench: a type of wrench for removing cylindrical oil filters. It may be either a strap–type wrench or a socket.<li>Sink wrench: a self-tightening wrench mounted at the end of a torque tube with a transverse handle at the opposite end. Used to tighten tubing connections to washstand valves in ceramic sinks - the nuts are often located deep in recesses. The self-tightening head may be flipped over to loosen connections.<li>Podging Wrench or Podger: A steel erecting tool which consists of a normal wrench at one end and a spike at the other, used for lining up bolt holes.<li>Golf shoe spike wrench: a T-handle wrench with two pins and clearance for the spike - allows removal and insertion of spikes in shoes.<li>Head nut wrench: a flat wrench with a circular hole and two inward protruding pins to engage slots in the nut. This type of nut is used on bicycles to secure the front fork pivot bearing to the headpiece of the frame.<li>Fire hydrant wrench (hose connection): The hose connection has a threaded collar with a protruding pin. From the handle of the wrench an arc has at its end a loop to engage the pin.<li>Fire hydrant wrench (valve operator): This is a pentagonal (five sided) box wrench.<li>Chain wrench: Similar to a <!--del_lnk--> pipe wrench, but uses a chain similar to a <!--del_lnk--> drive chain, instead of an adjustable jaw. The links of the chain have extended pegs which fit into grooves in the front of the handle, with one end of the chain attached permently to the handle. This is used in situations where pipe wrenches can't maintain a proper grip on an object such as a wet or oily pipe.<li>Left-handed wrench: A non-existent tool which is often the object of a <!--del_lnk--> fool's errand.<li>Air impact wrench: A compressed air (pneumatic) powered wrench commonly used in car garages and workshops to tighten and remove wheel nuts.</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrench"</div>
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| ['Screw', 'American English', 'British English', 'Automobile'] |
Wrestling | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Sports.htm">Sports</a></h3>
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<p><b>Wrestling</b> is an ancient physical combat sport in which two opponents attempt to control the other through <!--del_lnk--> grappling techniques without the use of <!--del_lnk--> striking. In modern systems, wrestlers score points for various accomplishments including, depending upon the style, takedowns, reversals, escapes and near-falls. Besides winning a match by points, a wrestler can win at any time during a match by turning his opponent to his back, known as a <!--del_lnk--> pin.<p>Wrestling is often categorized as one of the <!--del_lnk--> martial arts; its virile image and usefulness as military training helped generate such multi-cultural evolutions. Some evidence suggests that wrestling may be the oldest sport known to man. A large amount of early artwork, for example, depicts matches between two opponents. One of the most famous wresting matches appears in the book of <!--del_lnk--> Genesis where Jacob wrestles an <!--del_lnk--> angel and is renamed <i><a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></i> for his struggle, which translates to "Wrestles (or struggles) with God". Wrestling has evolved into many different styles and forms, ranging from world-wide, commercialised stadium events to less publicized, local amateur competitions.<p>Some sports commentators have observed that wrestling may be the most demanding athletic sport physically and mentally, combining a need for incredible strength, speed, conditioning and the memorizing of at least dozens and sometimes hundreds of offensive and defensive moves. Participants who are competitive in the sport typically train year-round and many lose weight to become even more competitive by participating at lower <!--del_lnk--> weight classes.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14877.jpg.htm" title=""The Wrestlers" -Pankratiasts- from Uffizi Gallery, Florence."><img alt=""The Wrestlers" -Pankratiasts- from Uffizi Gallery, Florence." height="193" longdesc="/wiki/Image:UffiziFlorenceWrestlers.jpg" src="../../images/148/14877.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14877.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "The Wrestlers" -<!--del_lnk--> Pankratiasts- from <!--del_lnk--> Uffizi Gallery, <!--del_lnk--> Florence.</div>
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<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles (FILA), the governing body of international amateur wrestling, the four main forms of amateur competitive wrestling practiced internationally today are <!--del_lnk--> Greco-Roman wrestling, <!--del_lnk--> Freestyle wrestling, <!--del_lnk--> Judo and <!--del_lnk--> Sambo. <!--del_lnk--> Staged grappling is commonly called <!--del_lnk--> professional wrestling.<p>
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</script><a id="Geographic_popularity" name="Geographic_popularity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geographic popularity</span></h2>
<p>Wrestling is a major sport in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> and most nations in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. In Asia, it is particluarly prominent in traditional <!--del_lnk--> nomadic warrior cultures, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Turkic and <a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolian</a> <!--del_lnk--> steppe peoples.<p>In the United States, there are several geographic pockets in the nation where the sport is particularly advanced, competitive and popular, including areas of <!--del_lnk--> Illinois, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Iowa, <!--del_lnk--> Nebraska, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey, <!--del_lnk--> New York, <!--del_lnk--> Ohio, <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania and <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin. Among these, many of the sport's best competitors have come from northeast Ohio, New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania (especially the <!--del_lnk--> Lehigh Valley and <!--del_lnk--> Coal Regions).<p>The sport is also one of many athletic competitions in the <!--del_lnk--> Summer Olympic Games.<p><a id="Collegiate_wrestling" name="Collegiate_wrestling"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Collegiate wrestling</span></h3>
<p>On the collegiate level, several universities are known for regularly having competitive wrestling teams, including <!--del_lnk--> Iowa State, <!--del_lnk--> Lehigh University, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania State University, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Iowa, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Nebraska–Lincoln, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Oklahoma, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Minnesota, & <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma State University. <i>For a discussion of the style used in American college competition, see <!--del_lnk--> Collegiate wrestling.</i><p><a id="Styles" name="Styles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Styles</span></h2>
<p>In international competition, wrestling is conducted under either <!--del_lnk--> freestyle or <!--del_lnk--> Greco-Roman rules. Historically, there are almost as many wrestling styles as there are national traditions. A traditional form of wrestling is called a <b>folk style.</b> <!--del_lnk--> Folk wrestling styles include <!--del_lnk--> Schwingen in <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Glima in <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Shuai jiao in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Böke in Outer and Inner <a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Tuvan <!--del_lnk--> Khuresh, <!--del_lnk--> Ssireum in Korea, Native American wrestling, <!--del_lnk--> Pehlwani in <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sumo.htm" title="Sumo">Sumo</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Judo in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Yağlı güreş, a type of "oiled" wrestling (common in Ancient Mediterranean cultures) still popular in <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.<p>In addition to its sporting nature, wrestling has often been utilized as the basis for popular spectacle, or theatrical drama. Circus and similar shows worldwide have historically included sideshow wrestling matches involving monetary wagers and even people competing against animals (particularly <!--del_lnk--> bears or <a href="../../wp/k/Kangaroo.htm" title="Kangaroo">kangaroos</a>). Such "show wrestling" has continued to this day in <!--del_lnk--> professional wrestling spectaculars choreographed for maximum auditory, visual, and dramatic effects. Often the winner of commercial contests is determined in advance, but some styles such as <a href="../../wp/s/Sumo.htm" title="Sumo">Sumo</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Mixed Martial Arts and <!--del_lnk--> Real Pro Wrestling remain true sporting contests while technically meeting the definition of wrestling that is professional.<p><a id="Wrestling_as_military_training" name="Wrestling_as_military_training"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wrestling as military training</span></h2>
<p>Wrestling has historically been used by militaries as a part of training. Armies in China have used it for several thousand years.<p>The most detailed description of wrestling used in actual warfare comes from the historian Procopius, writing of the Roman versus Persian war in the 6th Century A.D. The following is his remarkable account of two duels between a Roman wrestling teacher and two Persian professional soldiers (<!--del_lnk--> Procopius, <i><!--del_lnk--> History of the Wars</i> I.XIII.29):<blockquote>
<p>"But one Persian, a young man, riding up very close to the Roman army, began to challenge all of them, calling for whoever wished to do battle with him. And no one of the whole army dared face the danger, except a certain Andreas, one of the personal attendants of Bouzes, not a soldier nor one who had ever practised at all the business of war, but a trainer of youths in charge of a certain wrestling school in Byzantium. Through this it came about that he was following the army, for he cared for the person of Bouzes in the bath; his birthplace was Byzantium. This man alone had the courage, without being ordered by Bouzes or anyone else, to go out of his own accord to meet the man in single combat. And he caught the barbarian while still considering how he should deliver his attack, and hit him with his spear on the right breast. And the Persian did not bear the blow delivered by a man of such exceptional strength, and fell from his horse to the earth. Then Andreas with a small knife slew him like a sacrificial animal as he lay on his back, and a mighty shout was raised both from the city wall and from the Roman army. But the Persians were deeply vexed at the outcome and sent forth another horseman for the same purpose, a manly fellow and well favoured as to bodily size, but not a youth, for some of the hair on his head already shewed grey. This horseman came up along the hostile army, and, brandishing vehemently the whip with which he was accustomed to strike his horse, he summoned to battle whoever among the Romans was willing. And when no one went out against him, Andreas, without attracting the notice of anyone, once more came forth, although he had been forbidden to do so by Hermogenes. So both rushed madly upon each other with their spears, and the weapons, driven against their corselets, were turned aside with mighty force, and the horses, striking together their heads, fell themselves and threw off their riders. And both the two men, falling very close to each other, made great haste to rise to their feet, but the Persian was not able to do this easily because his size was against him, while Andreas, anticipating him (for his practice in the wrestling school gave him this advantage), smote him as he was rising on his knee, and as he fell again to the ground dispatched him. Then a roar went up from the wall and from the Roman army as great, if not greater, than before; and the Persians broke their phalanx and withdrew to Ammodios, while the Romans, raising the pæan, went inside the fortifications; for already it was growing dark. Thus both armies passed that night."</blockquote>
<p>The main objectives of wrestling in military training are:<ul>
<li>Superior balance developed from trying to keep one's balance while at the same time trying to upset the opponent's. In war, falling to the ground can quickly make one vulnerable to weapon thrusts, so good balance is a must for warriors.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:297px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14878.jpg.htm" title="Khuresh (Tuvan wrestling) "><img alt="Khuresh (Tuvan wrestling) " height="152" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wrestling_competition_in_Tos_Bulak.jpg" src="../../images/148/14878.jpg" width="295" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14878.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Khuresh (Tuvan wrestling)</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>Grip strength and manual dexterity, for the use of weapons and combat gear<li>Focused and powerful pushing-power. In combat one must smash or thrust weapons forward at one's adversary.<li>The ability to get up quickly if fallen down, a very important survival skill on the battlefield (see above).<li>Improved stamina, endurance and strength.<li>Physical skills to control prisoners, or to carry wounded comrades.<li>Cultivation of aggressiveness and improved reaction time.<li>Camaraderie, diversion and entertainment.</ul>
<p>Wrestling is a safe way to achieve the above goals since it does not use dangerous objects or weapons.<p><a id="Wrestling_and_mixed_martial_arts" name="Wrestling_and_mixed_martial_arts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wrestling and mixed martial arts</span></h2>
<p>Wrestling has gained tremendous respect among martial arts practicioners, especially with the advent of <!--del_lnk--> mixed martial arts competition. Many fighters identify wrestling itself or <!--del_lnk--> Submission wrestling as their style of fighting. Wrestling forms the base of some of the most respected self-defense and mixed martial arts systems in the world, such as <!--del_lnk--> Shootfighting.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wright brothers</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Engineers_and_inventors.htm">Engineers and inventors</a></h3>
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<table cellspacing="2" class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size:90%; text-align: left; align: right;">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><big><font>Orville Wright</font></big></th>
</tr>
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<td align="center" colspan="2">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14879.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="244" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Orville_Wright.jpg" src="../../images/148/14879.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div style="line-height:1.25em;">"We came down here for wind and sand, and we have got them."</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th align="right">Born</th>
<td>Aug. 19, 1871<br /> Dayton, Ohio</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th style="text-align:right;">Died</th>
<td>Jan. 30, 1948<br /> Dayton, Ohio</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th style="text-align:right;">Occupation</th>
<td>printer/publisher, bicycle retailer/manufacturer, airplane inventor/manufacturer, pilot trainer</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th style="text-align:right;">Spouse</th>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table cellspacing="2" class="infobox" style="width: 21em; font-size:90%; text-align: left; align: right;">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><big><font>Wilbur Wright</font></big></th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="264" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wilbur_Wright.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></span></div>
</div>
<div style="line-height:1.25em;">"For some years I have been afflicted with the belief that flight is possible to man." "It is possible to fly without motors, but not without knowledge and skill."</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th align="right">Born</th>
<td>April 16, 1867<br /> Millville, Indiana</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th style="text-align:right;">Died</th>
<td>May 30, 1912<br /> Dayton, Ohio</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th style="text-align:right;">Occupation</th>
<td>printer/editor, bicycle retailer/manufacturer, airplane inventor/manufacturer, pilot trainer</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<th style="text-align:right;">Spouse</th>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Wright brothers</b>, <b>Orville</b> (<!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1871–<!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1948) and <b>Wilbur</b> (<!--del_lnk--> April 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1867–<!--del_lnk--> May 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1912), are Americans generally credited with making the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air human flight on <!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1903. In the two years afterward, they developed their flying machine into the world's first practical <!--del_lnk--> fixed-wing aircraft, along with many other aviation milestones.<p>Currently, their feat is officially recognized by the <!--del_lnk--> Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) as being the first controlled, powered, sustained (from takeoff to landing) flight involving a heavier-than-air vehicle, using mechanically unassisted takeoff (thrust/lift created chiefly by onboard propulsion).<p>Nevertheless, the Wright brothers' claim to this aviation "first" has been subject to counter-claims by various parties. Much controversy persists around the many competing claims of early aviators. See <!--del_lnk--> first flying machine for more discussion.<p>
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</script><a id="Childhood_and_youth" name="Childhood_and_youth"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Childhood and youth</span></h2>
<p>The Wright brothers were the children of <!--del_lnk--> Milton Wright (1828-1917); and Susan Catherine Koerner (1831-1889). Wilbur Wright was born in <!--del_lnk--> Millville, Indiana in <!--del_lnk--> 1867, Orville Wright was born in <!--del_lnk--> Dayton, <!--del_lnk--> Ohio in 1871. The brothers never married. The Wright siblings were Reuchlin (1861-1920), Lorin (1862-1939), Katharine (1874-1929), and twins Otis and Ida (born 1870, died in infancy). In elementary school, Orville was given to a bit of mischief and was once expelled. In 1878 their father, who traveled often as a bishop in the <!--del_lnk--> Church of the United Brethren in Christ, brought home a toy "helicopter" for his two younger sons. The device was based on an invention of French aeronautical pioneer <!--del_lnk--> Alphonse Penaud. Made of paper, bamboo and cork with a rubber band to twirl its rotor, it was about a foot long. Wilbur and Orville played with it until it broke, then built their own. In later years, they pointed to their experience with the toy as the initial spark of their interest in flying.<p>In 1885 or '86 Wilbur was accidentally struck in the face by a hockey stick while playing an ice-skating game with friends. He had been vigorous and athletic until then, and although his injuries did not appear especially severe, he became withdrawn, and did not attend Yale as planned. He spent the next few years largely housebound, caring for his mother who was terminally ill with tuberculosis and reading extensively in his father's library. Wilbur was a determined and methodical industrial engineer and he didn't hesitate to tackle any project such as machinery research and even church building. He drifted into the printing business Orville started, but was also an able technician in many other trades.<p><a id="Early_career_and_research" name="Early_career_and_research"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early career and research</span></h2>
<p>Both brothers received high school educations, but did not receive diplomas. The family's move in 1884 from Indiana to Dayton (where the family had lived during the 1870s) prevented Wilbur from receiving his diploma after finishing four years of high school. Orville dropped out after his junior year to start a printing business in 1889. Wilbur joined him in the enterprise, serving as editor while Orville was publisher of the weekly newspaper the <i>West Side News</i>, followed, for only a few months, by the daily <i>Evening Item</i>. Capitalizing on the national bicycle craze, they opened a repair and sales shop in 1892 (the Wright Cycle Exchange, later the <!--del_lnk--> Wright Cycle Company) and began manufacturing their own brand in 1896. They used this endeavor to fund their growing interest in flight. In the early or mid-1890s they saw newspaper or magazine articles and probably photographs of the dramatic glides by <!--del_lnk--> Otto Lilienthal in Germany. The year 1896 brought three important aeronautical events. In May, Smithsonian Institution Secretary <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Langley successfully flew an unmanned steam-powered model aircraft. In the summer, Chicago engineer and aviation authority <!--del_lnk--> Octave Chanute brought together several men who tested various types of gliders over the sand dunes along the shore of Lake Michigan. In August, Lilienthal was killed in the plunge of his glider. These events lodged in the consciousness of the brothers. In May 1899 Wilbur wrote a letter to the Smithsonian Institution requesting information and publications about aeronautics. Drawing on the work of <!--del_lnk--> Sir George Cayley, Chanute, Lilienthal, <a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, and Langley, they began their mechanical aeronautical experimentation that year. The brothers extended the technology of flight by emphasizing control of the aircraft instead of increased power. They developed <!--del_lnk--> three-axis control, a fundamental principle of aviation which is still used.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14881.jpg.htm" title="Replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel at the Virginia Air and Space Center."><img alt="Replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel at the Virginia Air and Space Center." height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WB_Wind_Tunnel.jpg" src="../../images/148/14881.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14881.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel at the Virginia Air and Space Centre.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Wrights had researched and initially relied upon the aeronautical literature of the day, including Lilienthal's tables; but finding that the Smeaton Coefficient (a variable in the formula for lift and the formula for drag) was wrong, they built a <!--del_lnk--> wind tunnel and tested over two hundred different wing shapes in it, eventually devising their own tables relating air pressure to wing shape. Their work and projects with bicycles, gears, shop motors, and balance (while riding a bicycle), were critical to their success in creating the mechanical aeroplane.<p>During their research, the Wrights always worked together, and their contributions to the airplane's development are inseparable. Biographers, however, note that Wilbur took the initiative in the early stages and at first wrote of "my" machine and "my" plans before Orville became deeply involved, when the first person singular became the plural "we" and "our". Author James Tobin writes, "it is impossible to imagine Orville, bright as he was, supplying the driving force that started their work and kept it going from the back room of a store in Ohio to conferences with capitalists, presidents, and kings. Will did that. He was the leader, from the beginning to the end." <p>Their assistant <!--del_lnk--> Charlie Taylor helped with construction, especially the engine, which he built in consultation with the brothers. The Wrights had to delay their flight experiences from time to time because of church tasks which required their attention. The Wrights did all of the theoretical work and most of the other hands-on construction.<p><a id="Ideas_about_control" name="Ideas_about_control"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ideas about control</span></h3>
<p>Despite Lilienthal's fate, the brothers favored his strategy: to practice gliding in order to master the art of control prior to attempting flight with a motor. The death of British aeronaut <!--del_lnk--> Percy Pilcher in another hang gliding crash in 1899 only reinforced their opinion that a reliable method of pilot control, not elusive built-in stability, was the key to successful—and safe—flight. At the outset of their experiments they regarded control as the unsolved third part of "the flying problem". They believed sufficiently promising knowledge of the other two issues—wings and engines—already existed. The Wright brothers thus differed sharply from more experienced practitioners of the day, notably <!--del_lnk--> Ader, <!--del_lnk--> Maxim and <!--del_lnk--> Langley who built powerful engines, attached them to airframes equipped with unproven control devices, and expected to take to the air with no previous piloting experience. Though agreeing with Lilienthal's idea of practice, the Wrights saw that his method of balance and control—shifting his body weight—was fatally inadequate. They determined to find something better.<p>Observation of birds led Wilbur to conclude they changed the angle of the ends of their wings to make their bodies roll right or left. The brothers decided this would also be a good way for a flying machine to turn—to "bank" or "lean" into the turn just like a bird—and just like a person riding a bicycle, an experience with which they were thoroughly familiar. Equally important, they hoped this method would enable recovery when the wind tilted the machine to one side (lateral balance). They puzzled over how to achieve the same effect with man-made wings and eventually discovered wing-warping when Wilbur idly twisted a long inner tube box at the bicycle shop.<p>Other aeronautical investigators regarded flight as if it were not so different from surface locomotion, except the surface would be elevated. They thought in terms of a ship's rudder for steering, while the flying machine remained essentially level in the air, as did a train or an automobile or a ship at the surface. The idea of deliberately leaning, or rolling, to one side either seemed undesirable or did not enter their thinking. Some of these other investigators, including Langley and Chanute, sought the ideal of "inherent stability," believing the pilot of a flying machine would not be able to react quickly enough to wind disturbances to effectively use mechanical controls. The Wright brothers, on the other hand, wanted the pilot to have absolute control. For that reason, their early designs made no concessions toward built-in stability (such as <!--del_lnk--> dihedral wings). They deliberately designed their 1903 first powered flyer with <!--del_lnk--> anhedral wings, which are inherently unstable. The design mimicked seagulls, however, whose drooping wings help the birds remain balanced in gusty winds.<p><a id="Flights" name="Flights"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flights</span></h2>
<p><a id="Toward_flight" name="Toward_flight"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Toward flight</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14882.jpg.htm" title="First flight, December 17, 1903."><img alt="First flight, December 17, 1903." height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wrightflyer.jpg" src="../../images/148/14882.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14882.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> First flight, December 17, 1903.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In July 1899 Wilbur put wing-warping to the test by building and flying a five-foot box kite in the approximate shape of a biplane. When the wings were warped, or twisted, one end would receive more lift and rise, starting a turn in the direction of the lower end. Warping was controlled by four lines attached to the kite. The lines led to two sticks held by the kite flyer, who tilted them in opposite directions to twist the wings and make the kite bank left or right. It worked.<p>In 1900 the brothers journeyed to <!--del_lnk--> Kitty Hawk, <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina to begin their manned gliding experiments. They chose the location based on advice from Octave Chanute (answering Wilbur's letter), who suggested a sandy coastal area for regular breezes and a soft landing surface. They singled out Kitty Hawk after scrutinizing Weather Bureau data and writing to the government meteorologist stationed there. The remote spot also gave them privacy from reporters, who had turned the 1896 Chanute experiments into something of a circus. The trip required a train ride from Dayton to Cincinnati; change trains for an overnight ride to Old Point Comfort, Virginia (near Newport News); ferryboat to Norfolk; train to Elizabeth City, North Carolina; and boat ride to Kitty Hawk on the Outer Banks.<p><a id="The_gliders" name="The_gliders"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The gliders</span></h3>
<p>They based the design of their first full-size glider on the Chanute-Herring "double-decker," a biplane hang glider which flew well in experiments in 1896 near Chicago. The uprights between the wings of the Chanute and Wright gliders were braced by wires in a modified "Pratt truss," which Chanute, an engineer, had adapted from his bridge-building experience. The general appearance of these gliders was similar to the biplanes that would usher in the era of flight in the next few decades.<table border="1" cellpadding="5">
<caption><b>Glider Vital Statistics</b></caption>
<tr>
<th>
</th>
<th>Wingspan</th>
<th>Wing Area</th>
<th>Chord</th>
<th>Camber</th>
<th>Aspect Ratio</th>
<th>Length</th>
<th>Weight</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>1900</b></td>
<td>17 ft 6in</td>
<td>165 sq ft</td>
<td>5 ft</td>
<td>1/20</td>
<td>3.5</td>
<td>11 ft 6in</td>
<td>52 lb</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>1901</b></td>
<td>22 ft</td>
<td>290 sq ft</td>
<td>7 ft</td>
<td>1/12,*1/19</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>14 ft</td>
<td>98 lb</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>1902</b></td>
<td>32 ft 1in</td>
<td>305 sq ft</td>
<td>5 ft</td>
<td>1/20-1/24</td>
<td>6.5</td>
<td>17 ft</td>
<td>112 lb</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>*(This airfoil caused severe pitch problems; the Wrights modified the camber on-site.)<br />
<br />
<p>The brothers flew the glider only a few days in the early autumn of 1900 at Kitty Hawk. In the first tests, probably Oct. 3, Wilbur was aboard while the glider flew as a kite not far above the ground with men below holding tether ropes. Most of the kite tests were unpiloted with sandbags or chains (and even a local boy) as onboard ballast. They tested wing-warping using control ropes from the ground. The glider was also tested unmanned while suspended from a small homemade tower. Wilbur (but not Orville) made about a dozen free glides on only a single day. For those tests, the brothers trekked four miles south to the <!--del_lnk--> Kill Devil Hills, a group of sand dunes up to 100 feet high (where they made camp in each of the next three years). Although the glider's lift was less than expected (causing most tests to be unmanned), the brothers were encouraged because the craft's front elevator worked well and they had no accidents. However, the small number of free glides meant they were not able to give wing-warping a true test.<p>The pilot lay flat on the lower wing, as planned, to reduce aerodynamic drag. As a glide ended, the pilot was supposed to lower himself to a vertical position through an opening in the wing and land on his feet with his arms wrapped over the framework. Within a few glides, however, they discovered the pilot could remain prone on the wing, headfirst, without undue danger when landing. They made all their flights in that position for the next five years.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14883.jpg.htm" title="Orville with the 1901 glider, its nose pointed skyward; it had no tail."><img alt="Orville with the 1901 glider, its nose pointed skyward; it had no tail." height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wright1901GliderBottom.jpg" src="../../images/148/14883.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14883.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Orville with the 1901 glider, its nose pointed skyward; it had no tail.</div>
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<p>They built the 1901 glider with a much larger wing area, hoping to improve lift. It was flown 50 to 100 times in July and August for distances of 20 to 400 feet. This glider, however, delivered two major disappointments. It produced much less lift than calculated and sometimes failed to respond properly to wing-warping, turning opposite the direction intended. On the trip home after their second season, Wilbur, stung with disappointment, remarked to Orville that man would fly, but not in their lifetimes. In the fall of 1901 they renewed their efforts and conducted systematic wind tunnel experiments. In only a few weeks they re-defined fundamental knowledge of lift, drag, wing shapes and <!--del_lnk--> airfoil curves. With a greater "<!--del_lnk--> aspect ratio"—longer wingspan and shorter <!--del_lnk--> chord (front-to-back wing dimension)—the 1902 glider that emerged from this research looked much more like the modern idea of an aircraft than their previous machines, possessing a notably more graceful appearance with its long narrow wings. The airfoil also had a flatter <i><!--del_lnk--> camber</i>—the ratio of the wing's depth of curvature to its chord. The 1901 wings (before modification) had significantly greater curvature, a feature copied from Lilienthal. With their own wind tunnel data in hand, they were no longer copying anyone else's designs.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14884.jpg.htm" title="Wilbur Wright pilots the 1902 glider over the Kill Devil Hills, Oct 10, 1902. The single rear rudder is steerable; it replaced the original fixed double rudder."><img alt="Wilbur Wright pilots the 1902 glider over the Kill Devil Hills, Oct 10, 1902. The single rear rudder is steerable; it replaced the original fixed double rudder." height="283" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1902_WrightBrosGlider.jpg" src="../../images/148/14884.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14884.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wilbur Wright pilots the <!--del_lnk--> 1902 glider over the Kill Devil Hills, Oct 10, 1902. The single rear rudder is steerable; it replaced the original fixed double rudder.</div>
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<p>With characteristic caution, the brothers first flew the 1902 glider as a large unmanned kite, as they had done with their two previous versions. Rewarding their wind tunnel work, the glider produced the expected lift. It also had a new structural feature: a fixed, rear vertical rudder, which the brothers hoped would eliminate the problem of turns that went contrary to warping control. They understood that wing-warping caused "differential drag". Increasing lift at one end of the wing in order to raise it and bank into a turn also increased drag on that end, slowing it, which sometimes made the aircraft turn in the wrong direction.<p>The improved wing design, generating greater lift, enabled consistently longer glides, but the problem of turns was only partly solved. The glider did not turn opposite its warping control anymore, but sometimes when the pilot banked for a turn, or the wind tilted the glider to one side, the craft failed to respond to corrective wing-warping and continued to slide toward the lower wing, which hit the ground. Orville suggested that the rear rudder be moveable, under control of the pilot, to overcome the problem. Turning the rudder would reduce pressure on one side of it—pressure that could force the glider to continue an unwanted turn—and increase pressure on the other side, in the direction of a desired turn. More experiments showed the rudder should be turned toward the wingtip that was warped to receive less lift (the lower wing when making a turn, the higher wing when leveling off from a turn or a wind disturbance).<p>To simplify matters, they connected the rudder to the warping controls so a single movement (of their hips in the warping "cradle") simultaneously controlled wing warping and rudder deflection.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14885.jpg.htm" title="Wilbur making turn Oct. 24, 1902."><img alt="Wilbur making turn Oct. 24, 1902." height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1902WrightGliderTurns.jpg" src="../../images/148/14885.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14885.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wilbur making turn Oct. 24, 1902.</div>
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<p>With this method they achieved true control in turns and during September and October made 700 to a thousand glides, the longest lasting 26 seconds and covering 622.5 feet—the best results anyone had ever achieved. Thus, did three axis-control evolve: wing-warping for roll (lateral motion), forward elevator for pitch (up and down) and rear rudder for yaw (side to side). On <!--del_lnk--> March 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1903 they applied for a patent for their novel technique of flight control.<p>
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<p><a id="Adding_power" name="Adding_power"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Adding power</span></h3>
<p>In 1903, they built the <!--del_lnk--> Wright Flyer - later the <i>Flyer I</i> (today popularly known as the <i>Kitty Hawk</i>) - carved their own propellers, and had a purpose-built engine made by Charlie Taylor in their bicycle shop in <!--del_lnk--> Dayton, <!--del_lnk--> Ohio. The propellers had an 80% efficiency rate. The engine was superior to manufactured ones, having a high enough <!--del_lnk--> power-to-weight ratio to use on an aeroplane. The chains used to drive the propellers, though resembling those of bicycles, were heavy-duty hardware from a manufacturer of automobile chain-drives. While the early engines used by the Wright brothers are thought to no longer exist, a later example, serial number 17 from circa 1910, is on display at the <!--del_lnk--> New England Air Museum in <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14887.jpg.htm" title="Wright engine serial # 17, circa 1910"><img alt="Wright engine serial # 17, circa 1910" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wright_brothers_engine_17.jpg" src="../../images/148/14887.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14887.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wright engine serial # 17, circa 1910</div>
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<p>By autumn 1903 the Wright brothers were skilled glider pilots. Before attempting their first powered flights of the year, they made many glides in their 1902 machine, surpassing their own records for duration and distance.<p>Then on <!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1903, in a frigid wind gusting to 27 miles an hour, the Wrights took to the air in their powered Flyer, both of them twice. The first flight, by Orville, of 39 meters (120 feet) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous photograph. In the fourth flight of the day, the one most fully controlled, Wilbur flew 279 meters (852 ft) in 59 seconds. Their altitude on the four flights was about ten feet above the ground. <!--del_lnk--> .<p>The flights were witnessed by 4 lifeguards and a boy from the village, making it arguably the first public flight. A local newspaper reported the event, inaccurately. Only one other newspaper, the <!--del_lnk--> Cincinnati Enquirer, printed the story the next day.<p>The <i>Flyer I</i> cost less than a thousand dollars to construct. It had a wingspan of 40 feet (12 m), weighed 750 pounds (340 kg), and sported a 12 hp (9 kW), 170 pound (77 kg) engine. After the fourth flight of December 17th, a strong wind overturned the parked Flyer and wrecked it; the aircraft never flew again. The brothers shipped the pieces home, and years later Orville restored the Flyer, lending it to several museums in the U.S., then to a British museum (see Smithsonian dispute below), before it was finally installed in the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. in 1948.<p><a id="Trouble_establishing_legitimacy" name="Trouble_establishing_legitimacy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Trouble establishing legitimacy</span></h3>
<p>In 1904 the brothers built the <i><!--del_lnk--> Flyer II</i> and set up an airfield at Huffman Prairie, a cow pasture eight miles northeast of Dayton, which banker Torrance Huffman let them use rent-free. On May 23 they invited reporters to their first flight attempt of the year on the condition that no photographs be taken. Engine troubles and slack winds prevented any flying, and they could manage only a very short hop a few days later with fewer reporters present. Some scholars of the Wrights speculate the brothers may have intentionally failed to fly in order to disinterest reporters in their experiments. Whether that is true is not known, but their poor showing did result in the local newspapers virtually ignoring them for the next year and a half.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14888.jpg.htm" title="Orville in flight over Huffman Prairie, approximately 1,760 feet in 40 1/5 seconds, Nov. 16, 1904."><img alt="Orville in flight over Huffman Prairie, approximately 1,760 feet in 40 1/5 seconds, Nov. 16, 1904." height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1904WrightFlyer.jpg" src="../../images/148/14888.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14888.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Orville in flight over Huffman Prairie, approximately 1,760 feet in 40 1/5 seconds, Nov. 16, 1904.</div>
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<p>The Wrights were glad to be free from the distraction of reporters. The absence of newsmen also reduced the chance of competitors learning their methods. After the Kitty Hawk powered flights, the Wrights made a decision to begin withdrawing from the bicycle business and devote themselves to creating and marketing a practical airplane. The decision was financially risky, since they were neither wealthy nor government funded (unlike other experimenters such as Ader, Maxim, Langley and Santos-Dumont). They did not have the luxury of giving away their invention. It was to be their livelihood. Thus, their secrecy intensified, encouraged by the advice of their patent attorney not to reveal details of their machine.<p>At Huffman Prairie lighter winds and lower air density than in Kitty Hawk (due to Ohio's higher altitude and higher temperatures) made takeoffs very difficult, and they had to use a much longer starting rail, stretching to hundreds of feet, compared to the 60-foot rail at Kitty Hawk. During the spring and summer they suffered many hard landings, real crackups, repeated Flyer damage, and bodily bumps and bruises to show for it. In August, making an unassisted takeoff, they finally flew farther than their longest powered flight at Kitty Hawk. Then they decided to use a catapult to make takeoffs easier and tried it for the first time on September 7th. On September 20th, 1904 Wilbur flew a complete circle in about a minute and a half—the first in history by a heavier-than-air flying machine. By the end of the year, the brothers had made 105 flights over the rather soggy 85 acre pasture, which, remarkably, is virtually unchanged today from its original condition and is now part of <!--del_lnk--> Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, adjacent to <!--del_lnk--> Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.<p>In 1905 the brothers built the <i><!--del_lnk--> Flyer III</i>, which had the same marginal performance as the first two Flyers. Its maiden flight was June 23 and its first several flights were no longer than 10 seconds. After Orville suffered a bone-jarring crackup on July 14, they rebuilt the Flyer with the forward elevator and rear rudder both several feet farther away from the wings. The modifications greatly improved stability and control, and by October 5 Wilbur demonstrated they had a practical airplane by setting a record of 39 minutes 23 seconds in the air, flying for 24 miles (38.9 km) circling Huffman Prairie, landing only when his fuel ran out. The flight was seen by a number of people, including several invited friends and their father. Reporters showed up the next day (their first appearance at the field since May the previous year), but the brothers declined to fly. The only photos of the flights of 1904-05 were taken by the brothers.<p>In 1904 Ohio beekeeping businessman <!--del_lnk--> Amos Root, a technology enthusiast, saw a few flights including the first circle. Articles he wrote for his beekeeping magazine were the only published eyewitness reports of the Huffman Prairie flights, except for the unimpressive early hop local newsmen saw. Root offered a report to Scientific American magazine, but the editor turned it down. As a result, the news was not widely known outside of Ohio, and was often met with skepticism. The Paris edition of the Herald Tribune headlined a 1906 article on the Wrights "FLYERS OR LIARS?"<p>In years to come, Dayton newspapers would proudly celebrate the hometown Wright brothers as national heroes, but the local newsmen's ability to overlook one of the biggest stories in human history as it was happening a few miles from their doorstep stands as a unique chapter in the annals of American journalism.<p>The Wright brothers were, in fact, complicit in the lack of attention they received. Wary of the competition stealing their plans, after 1905 they refused make public flights or take part in air shows unless they had a firm contract to sell their airplane. They attempted to interest the military in the U.S., France, Britain, and Germany, but were rebuffed because they insisted on a signed contract before giving a demonstration. American bureaucrats were particularly unreceptive, having recently spent $50,000 on the <!--del_lnk--> Langley Aerodrome, only to see it plunge twice into the Potomac River "like a handful or mortar". Thus, doubted or scorned, the Wright brothers continued their work in semi-obscurity, while other aviation pioneers like Brazilian <a href="../../wp/a/Alberto_Santos-Dumont.htm" title="Alberto Santos-Dumont">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a> and American <!--del_lnk--> Glenn Curtiss were occupying the limelight.<p>The Wright brothers made no flights at all in 1906 and 1907. After finally signing contracts with a French company and the U.S. Army, they went back to Kitty Hawk in May 1908 with the 1905 Flyer, modified with seats for pilot and passenger, and began practicing for their all-important demonstration flights. Their contracts required them to be able to carry a passenger. After tests with sandbags in the passenger seat, Charlie Furnas, a helper from Dayton, became the first fixed-wing aircraft passenger on a few short flights May 14. For safety and as a promise to their father, Wilbur and Orville did not fly together.<p><a id="The_patent" name="The_patent"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The patent</span></h2>
<p>Their 1903 patent application, which they wrote themselves, was rejected. In early 1904 they hired Ohio patent attorney <!--del_lnk--> Henry Toulmin, and on <!--del_lnk--> May 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1906 they were granted patent #821,393 for a "Flying Machine". Significantly, this patent illustrated a non-powered flying machine. The patent's importance lies in its claim of a new and useful method of <i>controlling</i> a flying machine, powered or not. The technique of wing-warping is described, but the patent explicitly states that wing-warping need not be the only method that could be employed to vary the angle presented to the air by the outer portions of a machine's wings. The concept of varying the angle near the wingtips, by whatever means, is central to the patent. The broad protection intended by this language was important in the patent infringement lawsuits the Wrights brought and won against <!--del_lnk--> Glenn Curtiss and other early aviators who adopted <!--del_lnk--> ailerons while the Wrights continued to use wing-warping (see Patent War section below). The patent also describes the innovative steerable rear vertical rudder and its vitally important use in combination with wing-warping to overcome the problem of "skidding" (adverse yaw) when turning the aeroplane. Finally, the patent describes the forward elevator, used for ascending and descending.<p><a id="Public_showing" name="Public_showing"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Public showing</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14889.jpg.htm" title="Orville demonstrating the flyer to the U.S. Army, Fort Myer Virginia September, 1908."><img alt="Orville demonstrating the flyer to the U.S. Army, Fort Myer Virginia September, 1908." height="245" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wright-Fort_Myer.jpg" src="../../images/148/14889.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14889.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Orville demonstrating the flyer to the U.S. Army, Fort Myer Virginia September, 1908.</div>
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<p>The brothers' contracts with the U.S. Army and a French syndicate depended on successful public flight demonstrations that met certain conditions. The brothers had to divide their efforts. Wilbur sailed for Europe; Orville would fly near Washington, D.C.<p>Wilbur began their official public demonstrations on August 8, 1908, at the Hunaudières horse racing track near the town of Le Mans, France. His first flight lasted only one minute 45 seconds, but his ability to effortlessly make banking turns and fly a circle amazed and stunned onlookers, including several pioneer French aviators. In the following days he made a series of technically challenging flights including figure-eights, demonstrating to the world his skills as a pilot and the capability of his flying machine, which far surpassed those of all other pilot pioneers. The French public was thrilled by Wilbur's feats, and the Wright brothers became world famous overnight. On October 7 Mrs. Hart O. Berg (Edith), the wife of the brothers' European business agent, became the first woman airplane passenger when she flew with Wilbur.<p>Orville followed his brother's success by demonstrating another nearly identical flyer to the <!--del_lnk--> United States Army at <!--del_lnk--> Fort Myer, Virginia, starting on <!--del_lnk--> September 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1908. On September 9 he made the first hour-long flight. On September 17 Army lieutenant <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Selfridge rode along as his passenger, serving as an official observer. A few minutes into the flight at an altitude of about 100 feet, a propeller split, sending the aircraft out of control. Selfridge was killed in the crash, the first person to die in powered fixed-wing aircraft. Orville was badly injured, suffering broken ribs and a leg. The brothers' sister Katharine, a school teacher, rushed from Dayton to Washington and stayed by Orville's side for the many weeks of his hospitalization. She helped negotiate a one-year extension of the Army contract.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14890.jpg.htm" title="Wright Model A Flyer and launching derrick, France, 1909"><img alt="Wright Model A Flyer and launching derrick, France, 1909" height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1909_Flyer_and_Derrick.jpg" src="../../images/148/14890.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14890.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wright Model A Flyer and launching derrick, France, 1909</div>
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<p>Deeply shocked by the news, Wilbur determined to make even more impressive flight demonstrations; in the ensuing days and weeks he set new records for altitude and duration. In January 1909 Orville and Katharine joined him in France, and for a time they were the three most famous people in the world, sought after by kings, princes, prime ministers, reporters and the public. In February Katharine flew as Wilbur's passenger. The trio traveled to Pau, in the south of France, where Wilbur made many more public flights, giving rides to a procession of officers, journalists and statesmen. In April Wilbur gave demonstrations in Italy where a cameraman climbed aboard and made the first motion picture from a plane.<p>After their return to the U.S., the brothers and Katharine were invited to the White House where President Taft bestowed awards upon them. Dayton followed up with a lavish two-day homecoming celebration. In July 1909 Orville, with Wilbur assisting, completed the proving flights for the U.S. Army, meeting the requirements of a two-seater able to fly with a passenger for an hour at an average of speed of 40 miles an hour (64 km/h) and land undamaged. They sold the aircraft to the Army's <!--del_lnk--> Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps for $30,000 (which included a $5,000 bonus for exceeding the speed specification). Wilbur climaxed an extraordinary year in early October when he flew at New York City's Hudson-Fulton celebrations, circling the Statute of Liberty and making a 33-minute flight up and down the Hudson River alongside Manhattan in view of up to one million New Yorkers. These flights solidly established the fame of the Wright brothers in America.<p><a id="Family_flights" name="Family_flights"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Family flights</span></h3>
<p>On May 25, 1910 back at Huffman Prairie, Orville piloted two unique flights. First, he took off on a six-minute flight with Wilbur as his passenger, the only time the Wright brothers ever flew together. They received permission from their father to make the flight. They had always promised Milton they would never fly together—to avoid the chance of a double tragedy and to ensure one brother would remain to continue their experiments. Next, Orville took his 82-year old father on a nearly seven-minute flight, the first and only one of Milton Wright's life. The airplane rose to about 350 feet while the elderly Wright called to his son, "Higher, Orville, higher!" <p><a id="The_patent_war" name="The_patent_war"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The patent war</span></h2>
<p>In 1908 the brothers warned Glenn Curtiss not to infringe their patent by profiting from flying or selling aircraft that used <!--del_lnk--> ailerons. Curtiss refused to pay license fees to the Wrights and sold a plane to the Aeronautic Society of New York in 1909. The Wrights filed a lawsuit, beginning a years-long legal conflict. They also sued foreign aviators who flew at U.S. exhibitions, including the leading French aviator <!--del_lnk--> Louis Paulhan. The brothers' licensed European companies, which owned foreign patents the Wrights had received, sued manufacturers in their countries. The European lawsuits were only partly successful. Despite a pro-Wright ruling in France, legal maneuvering dragged on until the patent expired in 1917. A German court ruled the patent invalid due to prior disclosure in speeches by Wilbur Wright in 1901 and Octave Chanute in 1903. The Wrights did make agreements with some U.S. groups that sponsored airshows and collected license fees from them. The Wrights won their initial case against Curtiss in February 1913, but the decision was appealed.<p>From 1910 until his death from typhoid fever in 1912, Wilbur took the leading role in the patent struggle, traveling incessantly to consult with lawyers and testify in what he felt was a moral cause, particularly against Curtiss, who was creating a large company to manufacture aircraft. The Wrights' preoccupation with the legal issue hindered their development of new aircraft designs, and by 1911 Wright aircraft were considered inferior to those made by other firms in Europe. Indeed, aviation development in the US was suppressed to such an extent that when the US entered World War 1 no acceptable American-designed aircraft were available, and the US forces were compelled to use French machines. Orville and Katharine Wright believed Curtiss was partly responsible for Wilbur's premature death, which occurred in the wake of his exhausting travels and the stress of the legal battle.<p>In January 1914 a U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the verdict in favour of the Wrights against Curtiss, whose company continued to avoid penalties through legal tactics and because Orville was planning to sell the Wright company and did not follow up the legal victory. In 1917, with World War I underway, the U.S. government stepped in to supervise a cross-licensing organization in which member companies paid a blanket fee for the use of aviation patents, including the original and subsequent Wright patents. The Wright-Martin company (successor to the Wright company) and the Curtiss company (which held a number of its own patents) each received a $2 million payment. The "patent war" ended, although side issues lingered in the courts until the 1920s. In a twist of irony, the <!--del_lnk--> Wright Aeronautical Corporation (another successor) and the Curtiss Aeroplane company merged in 1929 to form the <!--del_lnk--> Curtiss-Wright corporation, which remains in business today producing high-tech components for the aerospace industry.<p>The lawsuits damaged the public image of the Wright brothers, who were generally regarded before this as heroes. Critics said the brothers were greedy and unfair, and compared their actions unfavourably to European inventors, who refused to enforce restrictive patents on this new technology.. Supporters said the brothers were protecting their interests and were justified in expecting fair compensation for secrets of their invention. Their long friendship with Octave Chanute collapsed after he publicly criticized their actions.<p><a id="In_business" name="In_business"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In business</span></h2>
<p>In 1910, the Wrights hired a 5-man exhibition team to fly airshows. The team's debut was at the <!--del_lnk--> Indianapolis Speedway on June 13, 1910. The short tenure of this program was punctuated by several crashes, including one in which the <!--del_lnk--> mayor of Richmond, Virginia was riding along. The program was discontinued in November 1911, at which time five of nine aviators on the Wright payroll had died in crashes. <!--del_lnk--> <p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1910, the Wright brothers were engaged by Max Moorehouse of <a href="../../wp/c/Columbus%252C_Ohio.htm" title="Columbus, Ohio">Columbus, Ohio</a> to undertake the first commercial air cargo shipment. Moorehouse, owner of Moorehouse-Marten's Department store in Columbus, asked if the Wright brothers could carry a shipment of silk ribbon from a wholesaler in Dayton to Columbus. The Wright brothers agreed to the proposal, adding that their pilot and aircraft would put on an exhibition once the cargo was delivered to the Driving Park landing area on the east side of Columbus. Moorehouse, in turn, agreed to pay the Wrights $5,000 for the service, which was more an exercise in advertising than a simple delivery. The actual flight occurred on <!--del_lnk--> November 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1910, with the <!--del_lnk--> Model B Wright Flyer piloted by <!--del_lnk--> Philip Orin Parmelee. The 62 mile (100 km) flight took 62 minutes, with Parmalee overtaking the <!--del_lnk--> Big Four express train in London, Ohio. In addition to carrying the first air-freight, Parmalee's speed of 60 miles an hour (97 km/h) set a world record for in-flight speed. For the return trip, however, the Wright Flyer was loaded on a train the night of the world record flight, and Parmalee returned to Dayton on the same Big Four Express train that he overtook in the air the day before.<p>Orville sold his interests in the plane company in 1915. He, Katharine and their father Milton moved to a mansion, <!--del_lnk--> Hawthorn Hill, <!--del_lnk--> Oakwood, Ohio, which the newly wealthy family built. There, they lived quietly. Milton died in his sleep in 1917. Katharine married in 1926, which upset Orville. He cut her off, refusing to meet with or write to her. He finally agreed to see her just before she died of pneumonia in 1929. Orville died in 1948, from a <a href="../../wp/m/Myocardial_infarction.htm" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a>. Both brothers are buried at a family plot at <!--del_lnk--> Woodland Cemetery, Dayton, Ohio. Neither brother married nor had children.<p>The <i>Flyer I</i> is now on display in the <!--del_lnk--> National Air and Space Museum, a division of the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Institution in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> (See The Smithsonian Issue).<p>The <i>Flyer III</i>, the only fixed-wing aircraft designated a <!--del_lnk--> National Historic Landmark, was dismantled after the 1905 flights, but rebuilt and flown in 1908 at Kitty Hawk, and was restored in the late 1940s with the help of Orville. It is on display at Dayton, Ohio in the John W. Berry Sr., Wright Brothers Aviation Centre at <!--del_lnk--> Carillon Historical Park. The display space for the aircraft was designed by Orville Wright.<p>Orville instructed that, upon his death, <!--del_lnk--> The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia should receive his collection of airfoils and devices. The Franklin Institute was the first scientific organization to give the Wright brothers credit and ranking for achieving sustained powered flight. Today, The Franklin Institute Science Museum holds the largest collection of artifacts from the Wright brothers' workshop.<p><a id="The_Smithsonian_issue" name="The_Smithsonian_issue"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Smithsonian issue</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Samuel P. Langley, secretary of the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Institution from 1887 to 1906, experimented for many years with model gliders and built successful powered unmanned aircraft models. Two tests of his full-sized manned Aerodrome in October and December 1903, however, were complete failures. Nevertheless, the Smithsonian later displayed the Aerodrome as the first heavier-than-air craft "capable" of manned powered flight, relegating the Wright brothers' achievement to secondary status. Orville Wright objected, but the Smithsonian was unyielding. Orville responded by loaning the Kitty Hawk Flyer to the <!--del_lnk--> London Science Museum in 1928. He stated the airplane would not be donated to the Smithsonian until the Institution acknowledged the primacy of the Wright brothers' invention. <!--del_lnk--> Charles Lindbergh attempted to mediate the dispute, to no avail. In 1942, under different leadership, the Smithsonian finally agreed, but the Flyer remained in Britain until 1948. On November 23, 1948 the executors of the estate of Orville Wright wrote a contract with the Smithsonian Institution regarding the display of the aircraft, stating that "Neither the Smithsonian Institution or its successors, nor any museum or other agency, bureau or facilities administered for the United States of America by the Smithsonian Institution or its successors shall publish or permit to be displayed a statement or label in connection with or in respect of any aircraft model or design of earlier date than the Wright Aeroplane of 1903, claiming in effect that such aircraft was capable of carrying a man under its own power in controlled flight." If this agreement was not fulfilled, the Flyer would be returned to the heir of the Wright brothers. This requirement is widely seen as tainting any possible independent examination of the various competing claims of early aircraft pioneers. The Flyer went on display to the public after installation ceremonies at the Smithsonian on December 17, 1948, forty-five years to the day after the airplane's only flights.<p><a id="Competing_claims" name="Competing_claims"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Competing claims</span></h2>
<p>Numerous claims before the Wrights aspire to the title of first powered, manned, controlled, and self-sustaining heavier than air flight (or minor variations of this classification). See <!--del_lnk--> First flying machine. Several claims actually were made <i>after</i> the Wrights' first successful flights, and attempt to discount the achievement on some technical basis, such as their use of a launching rail and catapult and the Flyer's lack of wheels.<p>Controversy regarding credit for the invention of the fixed-wing aircraft was also fueled by the Wrights' secrecy before and after their patent was granted, and by the pride of nations.<p>There has also been much debate whether the Wright brothers' early flights (as well as those of earlier claims) flew high enough to be out of <!--del_lnk--> ground effect. Competing claimants also note that the Wrights' early flights were usually flown only into the wind, helping lift. Taking off into the wind, in fact, became standard practice in aviation, for the same reason: takeoff is easier because the aircraft receives more lift.<p>Another source of attack is that some replicas of the Wright Flyer do not fly. The reasons usually stem from an inability to know the exact details of the Wrights' design and construction and to duplicate the conditions of the flight. Specific features of the Flyer that even the Wrights did not know were important in rendering it capable of flight are lost to history, such as the octane of the fuels used, and the small details of aerodynamics that can have disproportionate effect on the ability to fly.<p>After their Kitty Hawk flights in windy conditions, the Wrights developed a weight-powered catapult in Ohio to aid initial acceleration, compensating for the several additional horsepower their homebuilt engines lacked. This method of launching has been the source of some attacks on the Wrights' claim. Critics say that a plane incapable of taking off using its own power could not be a true aircraft.<p>In fact, the Flyer II took off without a catapult and made short straight flights dozens of times in the spring and summer of 1904. The location available to the Wrights was unsuitable for wheels and a long takeoff roll, so they used the rail and added the catapult. The combination allowed takeoffs in only 50 or 60 feet, giving them consistent opportunities to get into the air and learn to fly. The takeoff devices materially shortened the time they needed to master their aircraft and make true flights, including turns, circles, figure-eights and safe landings.<p>A few manned heavier-than-air aircraft probably became airborne before the Wrights, but lacked effective control; candidate machines include those of <!--del_lnk--> Clément Ader, <!--del_lnk--> Hiram Stevens Maxim, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Pearse and <!--del_lnk--> Gustave Whitehead. The Wright Flyer, however, stands as the first practical airplane with a combination of features not used before, but included in all that came later: efficient wings, three-axis control, an effective system to generate power and turn it into thrust, and a takeoff system.<p><a id="Ohio.2FNorth_Carolina_dispute" name="Ohio.2FNorth_Carolina_dispute"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ohio/North Carolina dispute</span></h2>
<p>The states of <!--del_lnk--> Ohio and <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina both take credit for the Wright brothers and their world-changing invention - Ohio because the brothers developed and built their design in Dayton, and North Carolina because Kitty Hawk was the site of the first flight. With a spirit of friendly rivalry, Ohio has adopted the informal slogan "Birthplace of Aviation" (later "Birthplace of Aviation Pioneers", with a tip of the hat to not only the Wrights, but also <!--del_lnk--> John Glenn and <a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" title="Neil Armstrong">Neil Armstrong</a>, both Ohio natives.) North Carolina has adopted the slogan "First In Flight" and includes the theme on state license plates. Both states included an image of the <i>Flyer I</i> on their respective <!--del_lnk--> state quarters. As the positions of both states can be factually defended, and both states play a significant role in the history of flight, neither state truly has a complete claim to the Wrights' accomplishment. Neil Armstrong, at a presentation at the Museum of the US Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, joked that there is enough credit for both states: North Carolina provided the right winds and soft landing material and Dayton, Ohio provided the know-how, resources and engineering.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<p>Wright State University in Fairborn, Ohio is named after Dayton natives Orville and Wilbur Wright. The University's logo includes the Wright Flyer and one of the brothers on the ground. A diagonal brick wall that was erected across one of the school's main entrances is said to be identical in length to the Wrights' first flight.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1944, the second production <!--del_lnk--> Lockheed <!--del_lnk--> Constellation, piloted by <!--del_lnk--> Howard Hughes and TWA president <!--del_lnk--> Jack Frye flew from <!--del_lnk--> Burbank, California to <!--del_lnk--> Washington D.C. in 6 hours and 57 minutes. On the return trip, the aircraft stopped at <!--del_lnk--> Wright Field to give <!--del_lnk--> Orville Wright his last plane flight, more than forty years after his historic first flight. He commented that the wingspan on the Constellation was longer than the distance of his first flight.<p><a id="Quotes" name="Quotes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Quotes</span></h2>
<p>"While up in the air there is but very little to injure or to put any great strain on any part of the machinery. If you run into a tree or a house, of course, there would be a smash-up. No drinking man should ever be allowed to undertake to run a flying-machine."<br /> Amos I. Root, Jan. 15, 1905 edition of <!--del_lnk--> <i>Gleanings In Bee Culture</i>Accessed Nov. 17, 2006.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothers"</div>
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<h2>Charity Wristbands for World Orphan Week</h2><p><strong>28/02/2005</strong></p>
<img src="../../wp/d/Detail_Wow_Wristband_A.jpg" width="233" height="173" alt="A Detail of A WOW (World Oprhan Week) Wristband" class="left" /><p><em>As worn by Jean-Christophe's team on "Hell's Kitchen"</em><br />Also worn by many stars at the Classic Response concert. Most of these performers have given us personally autographed charity wristbands, which we will auction for world orphan week.</p><p>We have these wristbands available, at a cost of £1 per wristband plus package and postage. We have arranged to have these charity wristbands manufactured directly because we think this gives higher quality and because this reduces our costs. The wristbands cost less than 10p each to make, so 90p from each one goes straight to the charity's work. They have "WOW" in our special logo typeface on one side and "www.worldorphanweek.com" on the other.</p><p><a href="../../wp/w/Wowpurchase_A.htm">You can order wrist bands online</a></p><p>If you want to help a child alone please also consider <a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">sponsoring a child</a> if you can.</p><p>Currently orders for wristbands are being put in the post within 7 days (less for large orders). We can accept orders of just one or two wristbands since we are fortunate to have volunteers to pack and send them. Do you live in Cambridge with some time to spare? You could help keep our charity costs so low by volunteering!</p>
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<p><b>Writing</b> may refer to two activities: the inscribing of characters on a medium, with the intention of forming <!--del_lnk--> words and other constructs that represent <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> or record <a href="../../wp/i/Information.htm" title="Information">information</a>, and the creation of material to be conveyed through written language. (There are some exceptions; for example, the use of a <a href="../../wp/t/Typewriter.htm" title="Typewriter">typewriter</a> to record language is generally called typing, rather than writing.) Writing refers to both activities equally, and both activities may often occur simultaneously.<p>
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<p><a id="Writing_systems" name="Writing_systems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Writing systems</span></h3>
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<p>The major <!--del_lnk--> writing systems – methods of inscription – broadly fall into four categories: logographic, syllabic, alphabetic, and featural. Another category, <!--del_lnk--> ideographic (symbols for ideas), has never been developed sufficiently to represent language. A 6th, <!--del_lnk--> pictographic, is insufficient to represent language on its own, but often forms the core of logographies.<p><a id="Logographies" name="Logographies"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Logographies</span></h4>
<p>A <!--del_lnk--> logogram is a written character which represents a word or <!--del_lnk--> morpheme. The vast number of logograms needed to write language, and the many years required to learn them, are the major disadvantage of the logographic systems over alphabetic systems. However, the efficiency of reading logographic writing once it is learned is a major advantage.<p>No writing system is wholly logographic: all have phonetic components as well as logograms ("logosyllabic" components in the case of Chinese, cuneiform, and Mayan, where a glyph may stand for a morpheme, a syllable, or both; "logoconsonantal" in the case of hieroglyphs), and many have an ideographic component (Chinese "radicals", hieroglyphic "determiners"). For example, in Mayan, the glyph for "fin", pronounced "ka'", was used to represent the syllable "ka" whenever clarification was needed. However, such phonetic elements complement the logographic elements, rather than vice versa.<p>The main logographic system in use today is Chinese, used with some modification for various languages of China, Japanese, and, to a lesser extent, Korean in South Korea. Another is the classical <!--del_lnk--> Yi script.<p><a id="Syllabaries" name="Syllabaries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Syllabaries</span></h4>
<p>A <!--del_lnk--> syllabary is a set of written symbols that represent (or approximate) <!--del_lnk--> syllables. A glyph in a syllabary typically represents a consonant followed by a vowel, or just a vowel alone, though in some scripts more complex syllables (such as consonant-vowel-consonant, or consonant-consonant-vowel) may have dedicated glyphs. Phonetically related syllables are not so indicated in the script. For instance, the syllable "ka" may look nothing like the syllable "ki", nor will syllables with the same vowels be similar.<p>Syllabaries are best suited to languages with relatively simple syllable structure, such as Japanese. Other languages that use syllabic writing include the <!--del_lnk--> Linear B script for <!--del_lnk--> Mycenaean Greek; <!--del_lnk--> Cherokee; <!--del_lnk--> Ndjuka, an English-based <!--del_lnk--> creole language of <!--del_lnk--> Surinam; and the <!--del_lnk--> Vai script of <a href="../../wp/l/Liberia.htm" title="Liberia">Liberia</a>. Most logographic systems have a strong syllabic component.<p><a id="Alphabets" name="Alphabets"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Alphabets</span></h4>
<p>An <a href="../../wp/a/Alphabet.htm" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> is a small set of symbols, each of which roughly represents or historically represented a phoneme of the language. In a perfectly <!--del_lnk--> phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. As languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.<p>In most of the alphabets of the Mid-East, only consonants are indicated, or vowels may be indicated with optional diacritics. Such systems are called <i><!--del_lnk--> abjads</i>. In other, vowels are indicated through diacritics or modification of the shape of the consonant. These are called <i><!--del_lnk--> abugidas</i>. Some abugidas, such as <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopic and <!--del_lnk--> Cree, are learned by children as syllabaries, and are often called "syllabics". However, unlike true syllabaries, there is not an independent glyph for each syllable.<p>Sometimes the term "alphabet" is restricted to systems with separate letters for consonants and vowels, such as the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>.<p><a id="Featural_scripts" name="Featural_scripts"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Featural scripts</span></h4>
<p>A featural script notates the building blocks of the phonemes that make up a language. For instance, all sounds pronounced with the lips ("labial" sounds) may have some element in common. In the Latin alphabet, this is accidentally the case with the letters "b" and "p"; however, labial "m" is completely dissimilar, and the similar-looking "q" is not labial. In Korean <!--del_lnk--> Hangul, however, all four labial consonants are based on the same basic element. However, in practice, Korean is learned by children as an ordinary alphabet, and the featural elements tend to pass unnoticed.<p>Another featural script is <!--del_lnk--> SignWriting, the most popular writing system for many <!--del_lnk--> sign languages, where the shapes and movements of the hands and face are represented iconically. Featural scripts are also common in fictional or invented systems, such as <!--del_lnk--> Tolkien's <!--del_lnk--> Tengwar.<p><a id="Historical_significance_of_writing_systems" name="Historical_significance_of_writing_systems"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Historical significance of writing systems</span></h4>
<p>Historians draw a distinction between prehistory and history, with history defined by the advent of writing. The cave paintings and petroglyphs of prehistoric peoples can be considered precursors of writing, but are not considered writing because they did not represent language directly.<p>Writing systems always develop and change based on the needs of the people who use them. Sometimes the shape, orientation and meaning of individual signs also changes over time. By tracing the development of a script it is possible to learn about the needs of the people who used the script as well as how it changed over time.<p><a id="Tools" name="Tools"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tools</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>(See <!--del_lnk--> methods of representing text)</i></dl>
<p><a id="Writing_in_historical_cultures" name="Writing_in_historical_cultures"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Writing in historical cultures</span></h2>
<p><a id="Mesopotamia" name="Mesopotamia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mesopotamia</span></h3>
<p>The original <!--del_lnk--> Mesopotamian writing system was initially derived from a system of clay tokens used to represent commodities. By the end of the <!--del_lnk--> 4th millennium BC, this had evolved into a method of keeping accounts, using a round-shaped stylus pressed into soft clay for recording numbers. This was gradually augmented with pictographic writing using a sharp stylus to indicate what was being counted. Round-stylus and sharp-stylus writing was gradually replaced by writing using a wedge-shaped stylus (hence the term <!--del_lnk--> cuneiform), at first only for <!--del_lnk--> logograms, but evolved to include phonetic elements by the 29th century BC. About 2600 BC cuneiform began to represent syllables of spoken <!--del_lnk--> Sumerian. Finally, cuneiform writing became a general purpose writing system for logograms, syllables, and numbers. By the 26th century BC, this script had been adapted to another Mesopotamian language, <!--del_lnk--> Akkadian, and from there to others such as <!--del_lnk--> Hurrian, and <!--del_lnk--> Hittite. Scripts similar in appearance to this writing system include those for <!--del_lnk--> Ugaritic and <!--del_lnk--> Old Persian.<p><a id="China" name="China"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">China</span></h3>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> historians have found out a lot about the early Chinese dynasties from the written documents left behind. From the <!--del_lnk--> Shang Dynasty most of this writing has survived on bones or bronze implements. Markings on <a href="../../wp/t/Turtle.htm" title="Turtle">turtle</a> <!--del_lnk--> shells have been carbon-dated to around 1500 BC. Historians have found that the type of media used had an effect on what the writing was documenting and how it was used.<p>There has recently been discoveries of tortoise-shell carvings dating back to c. 6000 BC, but whether or not the carvings are of sufficient complexity to qualify as writing is under debate. If it is deemed to be a written language, writing in China will predate Mesopotamian cuneiform, long acknowledged as the first appearance of writing, by some 2000 years.<p><a id="Egypt" name="Egypt"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Egypt</span></h3>
<p>The earliest known <!--del_lnk--> hieroglyphic inscriptions are the <!--del_lnk--> Narmer Palette, dating to c.3200 BC, and several recent discoveries that may be slightly older, though the glyphs were based on a much older artistic tradition. The hieroglyphic script was <!--del_lnk--> logographic with phonetic adjuncts that included an effective <!--del_lnk--> alphabet.<p>Writing was very important in maintaining the Egyptian empire, and literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status.<p>The world's <!--del_lnk--> oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 BC from a hieroglyphic prototype, and over the next 500 years spread to <!--del_lnk--> Canaan and eventually to the rest of the world.<p><a id="Indus_Valley" name="Indus_Valley"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Indus Valley</span></h3>
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<p>The <a href="../../wp/i/Indus_Valley_Civilization.htm" title="Indus Valley Civilization">Indus Valley</a> script (circa 2000-1500 BC) is a mysterious aspect of ancient Indian culture as it has not yet been deciphered. Although there are many examples of the Indus script, without true understanding of how the script works and what the inscriptions say, it is impossible to understand the importance of writing in the Indus Civilization.<p><a id="Phoenician_writing_system_and_descendants" name="Phoenician_writing_system_and_descendants"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Phoenician writing system and descendants</span></h3>
<p>The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Caananite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian hieroglyphics. This writing system was an <!--del_lnk--> abjad — that is, a <!--del_lnk--> writing system in which only consonants are represented. This script was adapted by the <!--del_lnk--> Greeks, who adapted certain consonantal signs to represent their vowels. This alphabet in turn was adapted by various peoples to write their own language, resulting in the <!--del_lnk--> Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Runes. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the <!--del_lnk--> Cyrillic alphabet, used to write <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the <!--del_lnk--> Aramaic script, from which the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew script and also that of <!--del_lnk--> Arabic are descended.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Tifinagh script (Berber languages) is descended from the Libyco-Berber script which is assumed to be of Phoenecian origin.<p><a id="Elsewhere" name="Elsewhere"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Elsewhere</span></h3>
<p>Many other systems have been developed independently, for example the complex Mayan system.<p><a id="Creation_of_text_or_information" name="Creation_of_text_or_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Creation of text or information</span></h2>
<p><a id="Creativity" name="Creativity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Creativity</span></h3>
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<p><a id="Author" name="Author"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Author</span></h3>
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<p><a id="Critiques" name="Critiques"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Critiques</span></h3>
<p>Writers will often search out others to evaluate or criticize their work. This can give the writer a better product in the end. To this end, many writers join <!--del_lnk--> writing circles, often found at local <a href="../../wp/l/Library.htm" title="Library">libraries</a> or <!--del_lnk--> bookstores. With the evolution of the internet, writing circles have started to go online.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wyndham Robertson</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<table cellpadding="3" class="infobox bordered" style="width: 21em; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;">
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: larger;"><b>Wyndham Robertson</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22945.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wyndhamrobertsonportrait.jpg" src="../../images/229/22945.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /><b>Governor of Virginia</b><br /><b>State Representative</b><br /> Portait of Wyndham Robertson ca. 1880 by L.M.D. Guillaume</td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Governor of Virginia</th>
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<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom: none; text-align: center;">In office</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top: none; text-align: center;">1836 – 1837</td>
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<th>Born</th>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> January 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1803</span><br /> near Manchester, <!--del_lnk--> Chesterfield County, Virginia</td>
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<th>Died</th>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> February 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1888</span><br /><!--del_lnk--> Abingdon, Virginia</td>
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<th>Residence</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Richmond%252C_Virginia.htm" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Abingdon, Virginia</td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Virginia House of Delegates</th>
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<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom: none; text-align: center;">In office</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top: none; text-align: center;">1838 – 1841</td>
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<th>Constituency</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Richmond%252C_Virginia.htm" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a></td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Virginia House of Delegates</th>
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<th colspan="2" style="border-bottom: none; text-align: center;">In office</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top: none; text-align: center;">1859 – 1865</td>
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<th>Constituency</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Richmond%252C_Virginia.htm" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a></td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Whig</td>
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<th>Spouse</th>
<td>Mary Trigg Smith</td>
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<p><b>Wyndham Robertson</b> (<!--del_lnk--> January 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1803 – <!--del_lnk--> February 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1888) was <!--del_lnk--> Governor of the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Virginia from 1836 to 1837. He also served twice in the Virginia House of Delegates, the second time during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.<p>Robertson was a <!--del_lnk--> Whig, and was a advocate for Union during the secession crisis that precipitated the Civil War. However, after Lincoln's call for troops, he advocated secession. After the war, he was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Committee of Nine that helped usher Virginia back into the Union.<p>Robertson, a descendant of <!--del_lnk--> Pocahontas, published a book near the end of his life in her defence.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; float: left; margin-right: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0; background-color: transparent;">
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<p><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_life_and_family" name="Early_life_and_family"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and family</span></h3>
<p>Robertson was born near Manchester, in <!--del_lnk--> Chesterfield County, Virginia, the son of William Robertson and Elizabeth Bolling, a descendant of Pocahontas and <!--del_lnk--> John Rolfe. His father was a member of the Virginia Council of State. Robertson attended private schools in Richmond and was graduated from <!--del_lnk--> William and Mary College in 1821. He then married Mary Trigg Smith, daughter of Captain Francis Smith. Robertson's brother was <!--del_lnk--> Thomas B. Robertson, a <!--del_lnk--> Governor of Louisiana, and <!--del_lnk--> John Robertson, a U.S. Congressman.<p>Robertson studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1824. In 1827, he made a short trip to Paris and London, and in 1830 he was made Counciller of State.<p><a id="Career" name="Career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Career</span></h3>
<p>Robertson was re-elected to the <!--del_lnk--> Council of State in 1833, and on March 31, 1836, he became the senior member of this body, and therefore Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia. When Governor <!--del_lnk--> Littleton Waller Tazewell resigned that same day, Robertson became Governor. Since the Virginia Legislature, which elected the Governor, was Democratic, and he, being a Whig, was not, Robertson was not elected when his term was up in 1837, and he was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> David Campbell.<p>Robertson was then elected to the Virginia House of Delegates for the 1838 session. He was then re-elected for three successive sessions, ending his service in 1841.<p>He moved to his wife's home south of <!--del_lnk--> Abingdon, in southwest Virginia in 1841. He was made a Justice of Washington County on <!--del_lnk--> July 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1842, and was appointed a trustee of Abingdon Academy in 1843. In 1850, he leased the King Saltworks for five years. In 1858, he returned to Richmond. In 1859, he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates for the 1859-1861 session. When Virginia was struggling with the idea of seceding from the United States, Robertson was a staunch Unionist and tried to prevent its secession. He later wrote of himself as a "friend to peace and the Union" and that he had actively opposed South Carolina's call for a Southern Convention in 1859. In fact, he was present at the <!--del_lnk--> Henry Clay banquet in April of 1860, at which former President <a href="../../wp/j/John_Tyler.htm" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> was present, and Robertson was called on to give "The Union" toast, which he did, followed by a short speech. He then proposed the following toast:<blockquote>
<p>"The Constitutional Union of the States" - The Union of the States is the harmony of the spheres. While obedient to the laws of their creation, they sing ever as they go 'glad tidings of great joy' to all the world. Rebelling against them, light and joy are swallowed up in darkness, and order falls back into primordial chaos.</blockquote>
<p>After <!--del_lnk--> South Carolina and several other states started seceding in the winter of 1860-61, he still advocated that Virginia not follow suit. On January 7, 1861, he presented a resolution known as the Anti-Coercion Resolution, which rejected secession, but stated that if the Federal government used coercion against the seceded states, Virginia would fight, which was duly adopted. However, when President <a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> made his call for troops on April 15, 1861, he was "from that time forth zealously active in all measures for the defence of his State." The call for troops was precisely the scenario detailed in their Anti-Coercion Resolution and Virginia seceded.<table cellspacing="5" class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;">
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<td style="text-align: left;">"And now, after twenty years' experience of yet unripened results, I have no regrets, nor repent a single act of my State, or myself, in these unhappy affairs - welcoming the end of slavery, but still believing it would have been reached without the horrors of war."</td>
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<td style="text-align: left;"><i><b>Wyndham Robertson</b></i></td>
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<p>Robertson was re-elected to the House of Delegates for the next two sessions, ending in 1865. In 1863, he opposed and helped to defeat a bill to fix the prices of food, which he believed was "fraught with the direst mischief". When a committee of citizens presented a resolution asking their representatives to support a similar bill or resign, Robertson refused. When he found that his colleagues had already acquiesced, he resigned so as not to misrepresent his constituents. The House, however, requested that his resignation be withdrawn until the wishes of his constituents could be determined. A formal poll was held and it was determined that a majority did not support the bill and Robertson retained his seat.<p>After the war, he moved back to Abingdon. During Reconstruction, Robertson was a member of the Committee of Nine, led by <!--del_lnk--> Alexander H. H. Stuart, that sought Virginia's readmission to the Union. At issue was the new state constitution, which included disenfranchisement of many white males. The committee successfully negotiated with the Federal government to have that clause voted on separately, so that Virginians would accept and ratify the new constitution and so rejoin the Union.<p>He died on <!--del_lnk--> February 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1888, and was buried at Cobbs, Chesterfield County.<p><a id="Legacy_and_writings" name="Legacy_and_writings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy and writings</span></h2>
<p>Robertson was an early donor to <!--del_lnk--> Emory and Henry College, the interest of which furnished the Robertson prize medal for "encouraging oratory".<p>After the American Civil War, Northern writers began questioning the validity of the rescue story of Captain <!--del_lnk--> John Smith and <!--del_lnk--> Pocahontas, attacking the accounts of the historical role played by both, as well as that of her husband <!--del_lnk--> John Rolfe. The movement was led by Henry Adams, a descendant of <a href="../../wp/j/John_Adams.htm" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> whose rival was <!--del_lnk--> John Randolph of Roanoke, was a descendant of Pocahontas. Several Virginians replied, one of whom was Robertson. "Northern attacks disturbed him so much that he prepared a detailed study" and wrote <i>Pocahontas alias Matoaka and Her Descendants through Her Marriage with John Rolfe</i>. He traced her descendants, who included the Bollings, Branches, Lewises, Randolphs, and Pages, as well as him. His argument was that since her descendants were notable, so was she. "History, poetry, and art," wrote Robertson, "have vied with one another in investing her name from that day to the present with a halo of surpassing brightness."<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Robertson"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">X-Men: The Last Stand</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Films.htm">Films</a></h3>
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<table cellspacing="2" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%;">
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 110%; text-align: center;"><i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i></th>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="276" longdesc="/wiki/Image:X3P_003.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></th>
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<th>Directed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brett Ratner</td>
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<th>Produced by</th>
<td>Lauren Shuler Donner<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ralph Winter</td>
</tr>
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<th>Written by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Simon Kinberg<br /><!--del_lnk--> Zak Penn</td>
</tr>
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<th>Starring</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hugh Jackman<br /><!--del_lnk--> Halle Berry<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ian McKellen<br /><!--del_lnk--> Famke Janssen<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anna Paquin<br /><!--del_lnk--> Kelsey Grammer<br /><!--del_lnk--> James Marsden<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rebecca Romijn<br /><!--del_lnk--> Shawn Ashmore<br /><!--del_lnk--> Aaron Stanford<br /><!--del_lnk--> Vinnie Jones<br /><!--del_lnk--> Patrick Stewart</td>
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<th>Music by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Powell</td>
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<th>Cinematography</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dante Spinotti</td>
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<th>Editing by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mark Helfrich<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mark Goldblatt<br /><!--del_lnk--> Julia Wong</td>
</tr>
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<th>Distributed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20th Century Fox</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Release date(s)</th>
<td><b>Theatrical:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> May 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2006<br /><b>DVD:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> October 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
</tr>
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<th>Running time</th>
<td>104 min.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Language</th>
<td>English</td>
</tr>
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<th>Budget</th>
<td>$210 million </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> X2</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> All Movie Guide profile</b></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> IMDb profile</b></th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>X-Men: The Last Stand</b></i> is the third <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a> adaptation of the <!--del_lnk--> Marvel Comics' <!--del_lnk--> X-Men <!--del_lnk--> superhero <!--del_lnk--> comic books. It was directed by <!--del_lnk--> Brett Ratner and written by <!--del_lnk--> Simon Kinberg and <!--del_lnk--> Zak Penn. The previous two movies were <i><!--del_lnk--> X-Men</i> (2000) and <i><!--del_lnk--> X2</i> (2003). The movie revolves around a "mutant cure" that causes serious repercussions among <!--del_lnk--> mutants and humans, and on the mysterious resurrection of <!--del_lnk--> Jean Grey, who appeared to have died in <i>X2</i>. The film is based on two X-Men comic book story arcs: writer <!--del_lnk--> Chris Claremont's and artist <!--del_lnk--> John Byrne's "<!--del_lnk--> Dark Phoenix Saga" in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Uncanny X-Men</i> (1980), and writer <!--del_lnk--> Joss Whedon's six-issue "Gifted" arc in <i><!--del_lnk--> Astonishing X-Men</i> (2004).<p>The film was released <!--del_lnk--> May 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, and one or two days earlier in approximately 22 other countries. Despite mixed reviews from critics, the film has done extremely well at the <!--del_lnk--> box office. Its opening-day gross of $45.5 million is the third-highest on record while its opening weekend gross of $102.75 million is the fifth highest ever. Currently it holds the record for highest grossing movie during Memorial Day weekend totaling nearly $122.9 million in its first four days. It is the highest-grossing of the series, earning over $458.7 million worldwide.<p>The film is sometimes <!--del_lnk--> colloquially referred to as <i><b>X3</b></i> or <i><b>X-Men 3</b></i>.<p>
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</script><a id="Plot" name="Plot"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plot</span></h2>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>A pharmaceutical company called Worthington Labs announces that it has developed an inoculation to suppress the X-gene that gives mutants their powers and makes them different from humans, offering the "cure" to any mutant who wants it. While some mutants are interested in the "cure", including the X-Men's <!--del_lnk--> Rogue, many others are horrified by the announcement. In response to the news, the X-Men's adversary <!--del_lnk--> Magneto raises an army, warning his followers that the "cure" will be forcefully used to exterminate the mutant race.<p><!--del_lnk--> Cyclops, still depressed about the loss of <!--del_lnk--> Jean Grey, returns to Alkali Lake, where Jean sacrificed herself to save the X-Men. Jean appears to Cyclops, and as the two kiss, Jean changes and appears to kill Cyclops. Sensing trouble, <!--del_lnk--> Professor Charles Xavier sends <!--del_lnk--> Wolverine and <!--del_lnk--> Storm to investigate. When they arrive, the two X-Men encounter telekinetically floating rocks, Cyclops' glasses, and an unconscious Jean.<p>Xavier explains that when Jean sacrificed herself, she unleashed the powerful alternate personality she calls "<!--del_lnk--> Phoenix". Wolverine is disgusted to learn that Xavier has kept Jean in check telepathically, but when Jean awakens, he realizes she is not the Jean Grey he knew. Jean pleads with Wolverine to kill her, but when he refuses, the Phoenix surfaces and telekinetically slams Wolverine into a wall. She then escapes to her childhood home.<p>Magneto, also aware that Jean is now a <!--del_lnk--> powerful mutant, meets Xavier at Jean's house. The two men vie for Jean's loyalty until the Phoenix resurfaces, unleashing her devastating power. She destroys her family's house, disintegrates Xavier, and leaves with an uneasy Magneto.<p>Following the loss of Xavier, the X-Men regroup and confront Magneto's army, which is attacking the pharmaceutical company's laboratory on Alcatraz Island. During the fight, <!--del_lnk--> Beast injects Magneto with the "cure", nullifying his mutant powers. After the battle, the Phoenix emerges and begins to destroy everything and everyone around her. Momentarily gaining control, Jean begs Wolverine to save her. Telling Jean he loves her, Wolverine reluctantly kills her with his claws.<p>Despite the X-Men's losses, life goes on. Magneto, now an ordinary man, sits at a chessboard and reaches out toward a metal chess piece that trembles slightly, hinting that the "cure" may not be as permanent as thought. <!--del_lnk--> Following the end credits, <!--del_lnk--> Dr. Moira MacTaggert checks on a comatose patient who greets her with Xavier's voice. Startled, she replies, "Charles?"<p><a id="Cast" name="Cast"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cast</span></h2>
<p><a id="X-Men" name="X-Men"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">X-Men</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> X-Men is a special ops team from the Xavier Institute, charged with protecting both <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Humans">humans</a> and <!--del_lnk--> mutants and trying to <!--del_lnk--> prevent a <a href="../../wp/w/War.htm" title="War">war</a> between the <!--del_lnk--> two.<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Hugh Jackman</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Logan / Wolverine</b>: Logan can heal quickly, a talent which allowed the <!--del_lnk--> painful <!--del_lnk--> implantation of a <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metal</a> coating on his <!--del_lnk--> bones and metal <!--del_lnk--> claws that <!--del_lnk--> emerge from each <!--del_lnk--> hand. He mourns Jean Grey, whom he misses.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Halle Berry</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Ororo Munroe / Storm</b>: <!--del_lnk--> She can <!--del_lnk--> control the <a href="../../wp/w/Weather.htm" title="Weather">weather</a> and <!--del_lnk--> fly. <!--del_lnk--> Halle Berry stated during <!--del_lnk--> interviews for <i>X2</i> that she would not <!--del_lnk--> return as <!--del_lnk--> Storm in the third film unless the character had a significant presence comparable to the comic-book version. <!--del_lnk--> Brett Ratner also felt Storm required a larger <!--del_lnk--> role and there was little <!--del_lnk--> difficulty reaching an agreement.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Patrick Stewart</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Professor Charles Xavier</b>: The founder of the Xavier Institute, with <!--del_lnk--> powerful <!--del_lnk--> telepathic <!--del_lnk--> powers.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Anna Paquin</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Marie / Rogue</b>: A <!--del_lnk--> runaway <!--del_lnk--> mutant who has found a <!--del_lnk--> home at Xavier's school and love with Bobby Drake. When she touches someone she <!--del_lnk--> absorbs their <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a> <a href="../../wp/f/Force.htm" title="Force">force</a>, their <!--del_lnk--> powers if they're a <!--del_lnk--> mutant, and, if not careful, their <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a>.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Kelsey Grammer</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Dr. Henry "Hank" McCoy / Beast</b>: A former student of Xavier's School who is now the Secretary of Mutant Affairs in the U.S. government. The Beast is covered in blue fur and has a genius level I.Q., and heightened strength and agility. Filmmakers considered using the Beast character since the first X-Men movie, but budget constraints ruled him out; however, <!--del_lnk--> Steve Bacic is identified as Hank McCoy when he appears on a television screen in a cameo role in <i>X2</i>.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> James Marsden</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Scott Summers / Cyclops</b>: The X-Men's field leader, who is devastated by the death of Jean Grey. He emits powerful energy blasts from his eyes.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Shawn Ashmore</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Bobby Drake / Iceman</b>: He can control the temperature of the moisture in the air around him to create constructs of ice or blasts of cold. Under extreme conditions, his body may take on many of the characteristics of ice in addition to those of a human.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ben Foster</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Warren Worthington III / Angel</b>: He has angelic wings which allow him to fly. <!--del_lnk--> Cayden Boyd plays Warren as a child.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ellen Page</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Kitty Pryde</b>: She can "phase" through objects, which allows her to walk through walls and float through floors.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Daniel Cudmore</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Peter Rasputin / Colossus</b>: He can transform his skin into metal, granting increased strength and a resistance to damage.</ul>
<p><a id="Brotherhood_of_Mutants" name="Brotherhood_of_Mutants"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Brotherhood of Mutants</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ian McKellen</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto</b>: Master of magnetism, Holocaust survivor, and would-be conqueror, Magneto wages war against humanity in the name of mutant superiority, a goal that often pits him against his old friend Charles Xavier.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Famke Janssen</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Jean Grey / Phoenix</b>: A former member of the X-Men who sacrificed herself to save her comrades. She possesses great telekinetic and telepathic powers. After being revived, her powers consume her and she joins the Brotherhood.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Rebecca Romijn</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Raven Darkholme / Mystique</b>: Magneto's blue-skinned right-hand woman can shapeshift to appear as anyone and can fight with incredible agility and strength.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Aaron Stanford</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> John Allerdyce / Pyro</b>: Former Xavier Institute student Pyro can manipulate fire but cannot create it. He holds a grudge against his former friend Bobby Drake.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Vinnie Jones</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Cain Marko / Juggernaut</b>: The Juggernaut is a new recruit to the Brotherhood. When he starts moving, it is nearly impossible to stop him.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Dania Ramirez</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Callisto</b>: She possesses superhuman speed and can sense the power levels of mutants.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Eric Dane</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Jamie Madrox / Multiple Man</b>: Multiple Man can split himself into multiple copies. He is a criminal who joins the Brotherhood upon their releasing him.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Omahyra Mota</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Philippa Sontag / Arclight</b>: Arclight can generate seismic energies that cause shockwaves and earth tremors.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ken Leung</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Quill</b> (incorrectly credited as <!--del_lnk--> Kid Omega): Has <!--del_lnk--> porcupine-like spikes which he can extend or retract at will.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Mei Melançon</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Elisabeth Braddock / Psylocke</b>: Psylocke is a ninja assassin that has the ability to teleport herself through shadows.</ul>
<p><a id="Other_characters" name="Other_characters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other characters</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Michael Murphy</b> as <b>Warren Worthington II</b>: The Head of Worthington Labs, the corporation developing the "cure". He is also Angel's father and wants to rid his son of his mutant abilities.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Cameron Bright</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Jimmy / Leech</b>: A mutant boy whose power neutralizes the powers of nearby mutants. His DNA is the basis for the "cure". After being rescued, he is admitted to the Xavier Institute.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Shohreh Aghdashloo</b> as <b><!--del_lnk--> Dr. Kavita Rao</b>: Rao is the inventor of the mutant cure, which she created with the <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Leech.</ul>
<p>The sergeant directing defensive preparations before the Brotherhood assaults <!--del_lnk--> Alcatraz Island is played by <!--del_lnk--> Gunnery Sergeant R. Lee Ermey, a former <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Marine Corps <!--del_lnk--> non-commissioned officer who became a military adviser for films and frequent military <!--del_lnk--> character actor. <i>X-Men</i> co-creator <!--del_lnk--> Stan Lee and writer <!--del_lnk--> Chris Claremont have cameos in the film's opening scene as neighbors in Jean Grey's old neighbourhood. Respectively, they are credited as "Waterhose man" and "Lawnmower man".<p>Despite playing a key role in the secret ending and portrayed as having close personal ties to Professor Xavier, <!--del_lnk--> Moira MacTaggert, portrayed by <!--del_lnk--> Olivia Williams, was not listed in the official press notes' cast list and goes uncredited in the finished film.<p><!--del_lnk--> Alan Cumming was reportedly uncomfortable with the long hours he had to take with the <!--del_lnk--> Nightcrawler makeup, but still planned to return for <i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i>. The part for Nightcrawler was so minimal, however, that the studio felt it was not worthwhile to go through the long and costly makeup process, and the character was cut. Nightcrawler's absence was explained in the tie-in game.<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Bryan Singer, the director of the first two X-Men films, left the project during preproduction in order to direct the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns</i>. He was joined by <i>X2</i> screenwriters <!--del_lnk--> Dan Harris and <!--del_lnk--> Michael Dougherty and composer / editor <!--del_lnk--> John Ottman. Though Singer, Harris and Dougherty had yet to complete a script, the director has revealed that at the time of his departure they had partially completed a story treatment for the film which would have focused exclusively on Jean Grey's resurrection with the new villain <!--del_lnk--> Emma Frost, a role intended for <!--del_lnk--> Sigourney Weaver.<p><!--del_lnk--> Simon Kinberg was hired as writer soon after Singer's departure, and speculation arose to Joss Whedon directing the film. <!--del_lnk--> Rob Bowman and <!--del_lnk--> Alex Proyas were also rumoured, though the latter personally turned it down. Despite the controversy over Singer's departure, the cast and producers were still clearly keen to return.<p><!--del_lnk--> Matthew Vaughn was hired as the new director for the project. He cast <!--del_lnk--> Kelsey Grammer as Beast and <!--del_lnk--> Vinnie Jones as <!--del_lnk--> Juggernaut, but family issues reportedly led him to withdraw before shooting began. Vaughn was replaced by Singer's friend Brett Ratner, who was among those originally considered to direct the first film — and coincidentally was considered by Warner Brothers to direct the 2006 <i>Superman</i> project before it evolved into <i><!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns</i>.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, a review of an incomplete early draft of the <!--del_lnk--> screenplay posted by <!--del_lnk--> Drew McWeeny from <!--del_lnk--> Ain't It Cool News sparked controversy from fans, due to certain main characters' storylines; however, that draft was the very first of over two-dozen drafts the film went through and has had numerous changes happen to the storylines. Most notably the Golden Gate Bridge was originally in the middle of the film, but Ratner decided it would create a more dramatic climax if moved to the end., where the climax was originally to take place at <!--del_lnk--> Washington D.C..<p><i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> began shooting in August 2005 and ended in January 2006. Much of X-Men: The Last Stand was filmed in <a href="../../wp/v/Vancouver.htm" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>. According to associate producer Dave Gordon, "This is the biggest production ever filmed in Canada. It used to be <i>X2</i>, now it's <i>X3</i>."<p>Senior actors <!--del_lnk--> Patrick Stewart and <!--del_lnk--> Ian McKellen had their faces completely "de-aged" by complex <!--del_lnk--> keyframing, in which no <!--del_lnk--> CGI elements were used. A technique called "digital skin-grafting" was employed to make them look 20 years younger in the first-scene flashback.<p>The film has extensive wirework, where many of the actors performed some of their own stunts. The whirlwind wire-stunt performed by <!--del_lnk--> Halle Berry during one fight scene reportedly caused Berry to become so nauseated that she vomited. The crew actually had to bring in buckets for her before shooting her scenes. Angel's wings were initially too heavy for <!--del_lnk--> Ben Foster, and were remade from foam. Despite his fear of heights, Foster performed a single second unit stunt where he escapes Worthington's facility.<p><a id="Reception" name="Reception"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reception</span></h2>
<p><i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> grossed $45.5 million domestically for the third-highest opening day after <i><!--del_lnk--> Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest</i> ($55 million) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith</i> ($50 million). It is ranked fourth among film debuts having generated an estimated $122.9 million domestically during its four-day <!--del_lnk--> Memorial Day opening weekend and the number one Memorial Day movie of all time. The website <i>The Numbers</i> notes that the film's weekend gross "equals the record for the fewest number of days taken to earn $100 million, joining four other movies that achieved the feat in three days." However, the film suffered a significant drop of 66.9% in its second weekend, when its box office take fell to $34.0 million. Nevertheless, the film has grossed over $234 million in North America (third-highest of 2006) and over $458.7 million globally (fourth-highest of 2006). It is the fifth-highest-grossing comic book adaptation, and the highest grossing of the X-Men series. It became the first film of 2006, and the 67th film on record, to pass the $200 million mark at the North American box office, which it accomplished on the weekend of <!--del_lnk--> June 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. It is the first X-Men movie to surpass $200 million outside the United States. <i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> is one of the few third installments in a series to outgross its predecessors, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Return of the King</i> being another example.<p>Reviews of the film have generally been mixed, with the film-review website <!--del_lnk--> Rotten Tomatoes giving the film a 57% approval rating. The film review aggregate site <!--del_lnk--> Metacritic also reported mixed reviews with a score of 58/100. It holds a 7.0/10 in the movie site IMDb. <i><!--del_lnk--> Ebert & Roeper</i> gave the film two thumbs up, with Ebert stating "I liked the action, I liked the absurdity, I liked the incongruous use and misuse of mutant powers, and I especially liked the way it introduces all of those political issues and lets them fight it out with the special effects." Some film critics, however, considered the third film to be of lesser quality than the previous two. Justin Chang from <i><!--del_lnk--> Variety</i> said the film is "a wham-bam <!--del_lnk--> sequel noticeably lacking in the pop gravitas, moody atmospherics and emotional weight that made the first two Marvel comicbook adaptations so rousingly successful." <!--del_lnk--> Frank Lovece of <i>Film Journal International</i> said, "A risk-taking script with genuine consequences elevates this ... above the lackluster direction of Brett Ratner, whose competent mechanics move the story efficiently but with very little soul." Lawrence Toppman of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Charlotte Observer</i>, said, "Director Brett Ratner can't make chicken a la king out of chicken droppings, and that's what writers Simon Kinberg (<i><!--del_lnk--> XXX: State of the Union</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Mr. & Mrs. Smith</i>) and Zak Penn (<i><!--del_lnk--> Elektra</i>) supply."<p><a id="Possible_sequels_and_spin-offs" name="Possible_sequels_and_spin-offs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Possible sequels and spin-offs</span></h2>
<p>Fox Films Entertainment Chairman Tom Rothman stated <i>The Last Stand</i> is the end of a trilogy, but not necessarily the end of the <i>X-Men</i> film series: "These three movies work as a trilogy. These characters in this relationship, it's the culmination of that saga. It's the culmination and the resolution of those relationships laid out in the first two movies". Earlier, in a <!--del_lnk--> February 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 interview, Ratner said, "We wanted to make sure the audiences knew that this was a trilogy. Even though they weren't made together like <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_film_trilogy.htm" title="The Lord of the Rings film trilogy">Lord of the Rings</a></i>, this is really closure for the X-Men series...This is the last stand for sure". In the same interview, a 20th Century Fox spokesperson confirmed <i>The Last Stand</i> is the final foreseeable installment for the X-Men team, but there are possibilites for <i>X-Men 4</i>. Brett Ratner has stated he would like to return for a sequel. <p>Executive producer <!--del_lnk--> Avi Arad stated in an interview that Marvel would take its time to decide what to do with future <i>X-Men</i> films, but is focusing on the spin-offs. A <!--del_lnk--> Wolverine spin-off and a <!--del_lnk--> Magneto spin-off have been announced and are in the scripting stages. Another possible movie based on the character of <!--del_lnk--> Emma Frost is also being developed. <i><!--del_lnk--> Three Kings</i> director <!--del_lnk--> David O. Russell was contacted about creating a story for the character. A possible film based on the students at the school has also been mentioned.<p>In an in early <!--del_lnk--> November 2006 interview, <!--del_lnk--> Bryan Singer, the director who started the franchise, confirmed that two more direct sequels are in development, and though he had been approached to direct one or both of the films, he would not be able to do so until after completing production on a sequel to <!--del_lnk--> Superman Returns. Singer also confirmed production on the <!--del_lnk--> Wolverine spin-off, expressing interest in directing the film. Actor <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Jackman confirmed that Singer was also the first choice to direct, barring any major scheduling conflicts with the Superman sequel. <p><a id="Comparison_with_other_depictions" name="Comparison_with_other_depictions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Comparison with other depictions</span></h2>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p><i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> draws much of its plot and characters from the source comic books; however, while some of the X-Men characters and details remain similar, a number of comic book elements are altered for the adaptation.<p>The film's plot concerning the emergence of the Phoenix draws from Chris Claremont's 1980 "Dark Phoenix Saga" in <i>The Uncanny X-Men</i>. In both the film and Claremont's original story, the Phoenix is Jean Grey's evil "split personality", a being of unrestrained emotion which Jean eventually allows herself to be killed to stop. The comic story was later <!--del_lnk--> retconned, however, recasting the Phoenix as a fiery, <!--del_lnk--> Phoenix-like alien entity and force of nature that bonds with Jean. However, the focus on Wolverine and Magneto means the story is more similiar to the 2003 <!--del_lnk--> Planet X story.<p>The "cure" for mutant powers, its creator <!--del_lnk--> Kavita Rao and the ethical problems associated with it appear in comic book form in Joss Whedon's 2004 "Gifted" story arc in <i>Astonishing X-Men</i>. A 1993 episode of the <!--del_lnk--> <i>X-Men</i> animated series entitled "<!--del_lnk--> The Cure", written by Mark Edward Edens, features a similar story, which resembles that of the movie more closely than "Gifted" in some respects, particularly regarding its use of Rogue and Warren Worthington. In the 2005 "Decimation" X-Men storyline, a vast majority of the mutants, including Magneto, lose their powers, the result of <!--del_lnk--> Scarlet Witch's actions, but that storyline was being published while the movie was being shot. Since the X-Men first appeared, there have been many stories dealing with mutant cures of various types, as Joss Whedon himself acknowledged in a published discussion with Mark Millar.<p><i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> is the first X-Men adaptation to feature the five original X-Men -- Cyclops, Iceman, Beast, Angel and Jean Grey; however, the characters' backstories and positions within the team are altered. The mutants <!--del_lnk--> Siryn, <!--del_lnk--> Jubilee and the <!--del_lnk--> Stepford Cuckoos have cameo roles in the film and are correctly portrayed as students at the school. Other characters are translated more loosely. For instance, many of the Brotherhood shown in the film, including <!--del_lnk--> Spike, <!--del_lnk--> Phat, <!--del_lnk--> Psylocke and Multiple Man, are not villains in the comics. The mutant <!--del_lnk--> Arclight is depicted more faithfully as a super villain, but her power to create shockwaves is more focused. The filmmakers chose to use the name <!--del_lnk--> Kid Omega for a mutant similar to the comics' <!--del_lnk--> Quill. <!--del_lnk--> Psylocke has a red dagger tattooed above her left eye, and she is able to hide in shadows; this is a reference to a period during which Psylocke was connected to a substance called the "<!--del_lnk--> Crimson Dawn", which gives her powers beyond her innate <!--del_lnk--> mutant abilities of <!--del_lnk--> telepathy and <!--del_lnk--> telekinesis that manifests as a <!--del_lnk--> psionic <!--del_lnk--> knife / <a href="../../wp/k/Katana.htm" title="Katana">katana</a>. Brotherhood member Callisto is depicted with superhuman speed and the ability to sense mutants' power levels. In the comics, Callisto is the leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Morlocks and has neither ability, instead possessing acute senses. Her ability to sense other mutants' powers was based on the comic book character <!--del_lnk--> Caliban. In the comics, Juggernaut is Xavier's human step-brother who acquires power when he finds a <!--del_lnk--> mystical stone; in <i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i>, however, Juggernaut is a mutant, and there is no mention of a relationship with the professor. Whereas he is usually gruff and violent in the comics, his line "Don't you know who I am? I'm the Juggernaut, bitch!" alludes not to the comics, but to a parody video (<i><!--del_lnk--> The Juggernaut Bitch!!</i>) in which the video's creators dubbed over footage from the <!--del_lnk--> <i>X-Men</i> animated series.<p>Familiar details from the X-Men mythos permeate the film. The X-Men are shown training in the trademark <!--del_lnk--> Danger Room, a training complex within the <!--del_lnk--> X-Mansion. A giant, mutant-hunting <!--del_lnk--> Sentinel robot appears as a hologram inside the Danger Room. The <!--del_lnk--> fastball special, in which Colossus throws Wolverine toward an opponent, appears in the film twice, the targets being Magneto and a Sentinel. Beast's line "Oh my stars and garters!" appears frequently in the comics. One of the president's advisers is named Trask, an allusion to <!--del_lnk--> Bolivar Trask, creator of the Sentinels. Iceman transforms his body into ice, just as he does in the comic books. Kitty Pryde's run through the pharmaceutical complex while being chased by the Juggernaut mirrors the character's similar flight from an alien in <i>Uncanny X-Men</i> #143. Finally, Wolverine's killing Jean Grey bears some similarity to his killing love interest <!--del_lnk--> Mariko Yashida to spare her a painful death from poison in <i>Wolverine</i> #57, as well as a scene in the <i>New X-Men</i> story arc "<!--del_lnk--> Planet X" in which he kills Jean to spare her from a more painful death burning up in the Sun.<p>During the post-credits scene, the mind of Professor X is shown to be inhabiting the body of a formerly <!--del_lnk--> brain dead patient under the care of Moira MacTaggert. On the DVD commentary it is explained that this patient is in fact Charles Xavier's twin brother, whose mind was erased by his brother's considerable psychic powers when they were still in the womb together. In the comics Professor X never had a twin brother and this story arc never happened. However, according to the film's creators, there is at least some precedent for the idea since Professor X in the comics had a twin sister, Cassandra Nova.<p><a id="Adaptations" name="Adaptations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Adaptations</span></h2>
<p><a id="Novelization" name="Novelization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Novelization</span></h3>
<p>The novelization of the film, written by comic book writer Chris Claremont, was released on <!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2006.<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>The novelization of the movie differs significantly from the film. In the novel, young Jean Grey discovers her powers after an accident that takes her best friend's life. Angel officially joins the X-Men and travels with them to Alcatraz Island instead of going on his own. Storm spares Callisto's life, which is more in line with Professor Xavier's views on violence. Rogue decides to keep her powers in the end, and Beast stays at the school as a teacher. Iceman takes an unconscious Pyro away from Alcatraz. The attack on Alcatraz is referred to as M-Day, a reference to the "<!--del_lnk--> Decimation of mutantkind" storyline in the comic books. Moira MacTaggert visits Magneto in the park, presumably offering an antidote to the "cure", which he refuses because as the book says: "He couldn't go back. That path had brought nothing but grief, to those he cared for, those who trusted him, to himself. This was better." This suggests that in the novel Magneto turns over a new leaf before discovering a slight return of his powers. Unlike the film, the novel does not allude to Xavier's resurrection. In the end of the novel Wolverine is in the basement of the Institute training the new X-Men, which includes <!--del_lnk--> Gambit, <!--del_lnk--> Sage, <!--del_lnk--> Danielle Moonstar and <!--del_lnk--> Cannonball.<p>The novel also makes a reference to X3 scriptwriter Zak Penn, whose name is given to a sergeant in the middle of the novel, and possibly to X-Men writer Stan Lee as Mr. Lee, one of Jean's neighbours portrayed by Stan Lee in the film. The president's name in the novelization is David Cockrum, a reference to comics writer Dave Cockrum. McCoy asks the president about his wife Paty, who in real life is David Cockrum's wife who used to work at Marvel. Two other references are made towards the end of the book, the first is Hollywood planning a film about the Battle of Alcatraz (a possible reference to the actual movie) along with a British Shakespearean actor, who is also a Knight playing Magneto (a possible reference to Sir Ian McKellen who played Magneto in all three films).<div class="notice metadata spoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div>
<p><a id="Video_game" name="Video_game"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Video game</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Games publisher <!--del_lnk--> Activision released <i><!--del_lnk--> X-Men: The Official Game</i>, the official video game tie-in to the film across all major videogame platforms on <!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. The various editions of the game bridge the events of the films <i>X2</i> and <i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> and feature many of both films' prominent characters. Hugh Jackman, Patrick Stewart, Alan Cumming, Eric Dane, Shawn Ashmore and <!--del_lnk--> Tyler Mane reprise their film roles in this game. Sentinels, Lady Deathstrike, Sabretooth and <!--del_lnk--> Silver Samurai also appear in the game. It also provides an explanation of Nightcrawler's absence from the film.<p><a id="DVD_.28NTSC_Region_1_Version.29" name="DVD_.28NTSC_Region_1_Version.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">DVD (NTSC Region 1 Version)</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="X-Men 3: The Last Stand (Collector's Edition)" height="261" longdesc="/wiki/Image:X-Men3-DVD-Collector%27sEdition.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></span></div>
<p><i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> was released in the United States and Canada on DVD in both standard and collector's edition formats on <!--del_lnk--> October 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. The single-disc standard DVD, in either widescreen or fullscreen, features two menu settings: "Join The Brotherhood" and "Take A Stand". The choice of either simply changes the menu's design, it doesn't alter the movie content. The DVD also features commentaries featuring the director, writers, and producers; 10 deleted scenes; three alternate endings; and two easter eggs. On the first day of its release errors were reported with the DVD. About 60% of the DVD currently have errors in them. Some DVD's come with only 10 deleted scenes while others come with 21, amongst other errors.<p>The "Stan Lee Collector's Edition" DVD is a widescreen standard DVD that was packaged in a slipcase with a 100-page booklet featuring a completely new <i>X-Men</i> comic by Stan Lee. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Hollywood Reporter</i> announced that 20th Century Fox will make films available to buy online the same day as the DVD, through <!--del_lnk--> Direct2Drive, with <i>X-Men: The Last Stand</i> among the first such available. Also, <!--del_lnk--> Wal-Mart stores included a special exclusive DVD titled "X-Men Revealed" with 50 minutes of behind-the-scenes look at the evolution of the "<!--del_lnk--> X-Men" franchise. The Wal-Mart exclusive DVD disc is not what it seems however. From the information of the exclusive DVD front and back cover, it is supposed to be a behind-the-scenes look of the X-Men movie franchise but instead it is a brief history of the X-Men comics. Target also has an exclusive that comes in a tin case with the one disc dvd plus a reprint of X-men annual #1 and four collectible cards from the movie.<p>The DVD sold 5 million copies in its first week in stores. In other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the DVD package has a bonus disc containing three documentaries (<i>Brett Ratner's Production Diary</i> (40 minutes), <i>X-Men: Evolution Of A Trilogy</i> (40 minutes), and <i>X-Men: The Excitement Continues</i> (20 minutes)) as well as various featurettes, character guides and pre-visualisation sequences. This version is planned for a later <!--del_lnk--> region 1 release.<p><a id="Soundtrack" name="Soundtrack"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Soundtrack</span></h2>
<p><i>X-Men: The Last Stand Soundtrack</i> has been very successful and has received many positive reviews.<p><a id="Tracklisting" name="Tracklisting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tracklisting</span></h3>
<ol>
<li>"20 Years Ago" <small>(1:10)</small><li>"Bathroom Titles" <small>(1:09)</small><li>"The Church of Magneto, Raven Is My Slave Name" <small>(2:40)</small><li>"Meet Leech, Then off to the Lake" <small>(2:37)</small><li>"Whirlpool Of Love" <small>(2:04)</small><li>"Examining Jean" <small>(1:12)</small><li>"Dark Phoenix" <small>(1:28)</small><li>"Angel's Cure" <small>(2:34)</small><li>"Jean and Logan" <small>(1:39)</small><li>"Dark Phoenix Awakes" <small>(1:45)</small><li>"Rejection Is Never Easy" <small>(1:09)</small><li>"Magneto Plots" <small>(2:05)</small><li>"Entering the House" <small>(1:18)</small><li>"Dark Phoenix's Tragedy" <small>(3:18)</small><li>"Farewell to X" <small>(0:30)</small><li>"The Funeral" <small>(2:52)</small><li>"Skating on the Pond" <small>(1:12)</small><li>"Cure Wars" <small>(2:57)</small><li>"Fight in the Woods" <small>(3:06)</small><li>"St Lupus Day" <small>(3:03)</small><li>"Building Bridges" <small>(1:16)</small><li>"Shock and No Oars" <small>(1:15)</small><li>"Attack on Alcatraz" <small>(4:36)</small><li>"Massacre" <small>(0:31)</small><li>"The Battle of the Cure" <small>(4:21)</small><li>"Phoenix Rises" <small>(4:21)</small><li>"The Last Stand" <small>(5:29)</small></ol>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Men:_The_Last_Stand"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">X Window System</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.IT.Software.htm">Software</a></h3>
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<caption style="font-size: 130%; font-weight: bold;">X Window System</caption>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22946.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:X11.svg" src="../../images/285/28515.png" width="20" /></a></th>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Maintainer:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> X.Org Foundation</td>
</tr>
<tr class="plainlinksneverexpand">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Stable release:</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> 7.1</span> <small>(<!--del_lnk--> 22 May <!--del_lnk--> 2006)</small> <sub>[<!--del_lnk--> +/-]</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr class="plainlinksneverexpand">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Preview release:</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> 7.2RC1</span> <small>(October 13th, 2006)</small><p><span class="plainlinks"><!--del_lnk--> git (development)</span> <small>(various)</small> <sub>[<!--del_lnk--> +/-]</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> OS:</b></td>
<td>multiple</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>Use:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Windowing system</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> License:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MIT License</td>
</tr>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Website:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.x.org</td>
</tr>
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<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28516.png.htm" title="KDE 3.5"><img alt="KDE 3.5" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kde35.png" src="../../images/285/28516.png" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28516.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> KDE 3.5</div>
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<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28517.png.htm" title="GNOME 2.14.0"><img alt="GNOME 2.14.0" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gnome-2.14.png" src="../../images/285/28517.png" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28517.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" title="GNOME">GNOME</a> 2.14.0</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> computing, the <b>X Window System</b> (commonly <b>X11</b> or <b>X</b>) is a protocol and associated software to provide <!--del_lnk--> windowing on <!--del_lnk--> bitmap displays. It provides the standard toolkit and protocol to build <!--del_lnk--> graphical user interfaces (GUIs) on <a href="../../wp/u/Unix.htm" title="Unix">Unix</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Unix-like <!--del_lnk--> operating systems, and <!--del_lnk--> OpenVMS, and is supported by almost all other modern operating systems.<p>X provides the basic framework for a GUI environment: drawing and moving <!--del_lnk--> windows on the <!--del_lnk--> screen and interacting with a <!--del_lnk--> mouse and/or <!--del_lnk--> keyboard. X does not mandate the <!--del_lnk--> user interface – individual client programs handle this. As such, the visual styling of X-based environments varies greatly; different programs may present radically different interfaces.<p>X features <!--del_lnk--> network transparency: the machine where application programs (the <i>client</i> applications) run can differ from the user's local machine (the display <i>server</i>). X's usage of the terms <!--del_lnk--> "client" and "server" reverses what people often expect, in that "server" refers to the user's local display ("display server") rather than to a remote machine.<p>X originated at <!--del_lnk--> MIT in 1984. The <!--del_lnk--> current protocol version, X11, appeared in September 1987. The <!--del_lnk--> X.Org Foundation leads the X project, with the <!--del_lnk--> current <!--del_lnk--> reference implementation, version 11 release 7.1, available as <!--del_lnk--> free software under the <!--del_lnk--> MIT License and similar permissive licenses <!--del_lnk--> .<p>
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</script><a id="The_X_client-server_model_and_network_transparency" name="The_X_client-server_model_and_network_transparency"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The X client-server model and network transparency</span></h2>
<p>X uses a <!--del_lnk--> client-server model: an <i>X server</i> communicates with various <i>client</i> programs. The server accepts requests for graphical output (windows) and sends back user input (from keyboard, mouse, or touchscreen). The server may function as any one of:<ul>
<li>an application displaying to a window of another display system<li>a system program controlling the video output of a <!--del_lnk--> PC<li>a dedicated piece of hardware.</ul>
<p>This client-server terminology — the user's terminal as the "server", the remote applications as the "clients" — often confuses new X users, because the terms appear reversed. But X takes the perspective of the program, rather than that of the end-user or of the hardware: the local X display provides display services to programs, so it acts as a server; any remote program uses these services, thus it acts as a client.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22947.png.htm" title="In this example, the X server takes input from a keyboard and mouse and displays to a screen. A web browser and a terminal emulator run on the user's workstation, and a system updater runs on a remote server but is controlled from the user's machine. Note that the remote application runs just as it would locally."><img alt="In this example, the X server takes input from a keyboard and mouse and displays to a screen. A web browser and a terminal emulator run on the user's workstation, and a system updater runs on a remote server but is controlled from the user's machine. Note that the remote application runs just as it would locally." height="422" longdesc="/wiki/Image:X_client_server_example.png" src="../../images/229/22947.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">In this example, the X server takes input from a keyboard and mouse and displays to a screen. A <!--del_lnk--> web browser and a <!--del_lnk--> terminal emulator run on the user's workstation, and a system updater runs on a remote server but is controlled from the user's machine. Note that the remote application runs just as it would locally.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> communication protocol between server and client operates <!--del_lnk--> network-transparently: the client and server may run on the same machine or on different ones, possibly with different <!--del_lnk--> architectures and <!--del_lnk--> operating systems, but they run the same in either case. A client and server can even communicate <!--del_lnk--> securely over the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a> by <!--del_lnk--> tunneling the connection over an <!--del_lnk--> encrypted network session.<p>To start a remote client program displaying to a local server, the user will typically open a <!--del_lnk--> terminal window and <!--del_lnk--> telnet or <!--del_lnk--> ssh to the remote machine, tell it to display to the user's machine (<i>e.g.</i> <tt>export DISPLAY=</tt><i>[user's machine]</i><tt>:0</tt> on a remote machine running <!--del_lnk--> bash), then start the client. The client will then connect to the local server and the remote application will display to the local screen and accept input from the local input devices. Alternatively, the local machine may run a small helper program to connect to a remote machine and start the desired client application there.<p>Practical examples of remote clients include:<ul>
<li>administering a remote machine graphically<li>running a computationally intensive simulation on a remote Unix machine and displaying the results on a local Windows desktop machine<li>running graphical software on several machines at once, controlled by a single display, keyboard and mouse.</ul>
<p><a id="Design_principles_of_X" name="Design_principles_of_X"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Design principles of X</span></h2>
<p>In 1984, <!--del_lnk--> Bob Scheifler and <!--del_lnk--> Jim Gettys set out the early principles of X:<ul>
<li><i>Do not add new functionality unless an implementor cannot complete a real application without it.</i><li><i>It is as important to decide what a system is not as to decide what it is. Do not serve all the world's needs; rather, make the system extensible so that additional needs can be met in an upwardly compatible fashion.</i><li><i>The only thing worse than generalizing from one example is generalizing from no examples at all.</i><li><i>If a problem is not completely understood, it is probably best to provide no solution at all.</i><li><i>If you can get 90 percent of the desired effect for 10 percent of the work, use the simpler solution.</i> (See also <!--del_lnk--> Worse is better.)<li><i>Isolate complexity as much as possible.</i><li><i>Provide mechanism rather than policy. In particular, place user interface policy in the clients' hands.</i></ul>
<p>The first principle was modified during the design of X11 to: <i>"Do not add new functionality unless you know of some real application that will require it."</i><p>X has largely kept to these principles since. The reference implementation is developed with a view to extension and improvement of the implementation, whilst remaining almost entirely compatible with the original 1987 protocol.<p><a id="User_interfaces" name="User_interfaces"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">User interfaces</span></h2>
<p>X deliberately contains no specification as to application <!--del_lnk--> user interface, such as <!--del_lnk--> buttons, <!--del_lnk--> menus, window <!--del_lnk--> title bars and so on. Instead, user software – such as <!--del_lnk--> window managers, GUI <!--del_lnk--> widget toolkits and <!--del_lnk--> desktop environments, or application-specific GUIs, such as <!--del_lnk--> point of sale – provide/define all such details. As such, the "typical" X interface has varied tremendously over the years.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> window manager controls the placement and appearance of application windows. This may have an interface akin to that of <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> or of the <a href="../../wp/m/Macintosh.htm" title="Apple Macintosh">Macintosh</a> (examples include <!--del_lnk--> KWin in <!--del_lnk--> KDE or <!--del_lnk--> Metacity in <a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" title="GNOME">GNOME</a>) or have radically different controls (such as a <!--del_lnk--> tiling window manager). The window manager may be bare-bones (<i>e.g.</i> <!--del_lnk--> twm, the basic window manager supplied with X) or offer functionality verging on that of a full desktop environment (<i>e.g.</i> <!--del_lnk--> Enlightenment).<p>Many users use X with a full <!--del_lnk--> desktop environment, which includes a window manager, various applications and a consistent interface. <a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" title="GNOME">GNOME</a> and <!--del_lnk--> KDE are the most popular desktop environments. The <!--del_lnk--> Unix standard environment is the <!--del_lnk--> Common Desktop Environment (CDE). The <!--del_lnk--> freedesktop.org initiative addresses interoperability between desktops and the components needed for a competitive X desktop.<p>As X is responsible for keyboard and mouse interaction with graphical desktops, certain <!--del_lnk--> keyboard shortcuts have become associated with X. Control-Alt-Backspace terminates the currently running X session, while Control-Alt in conjunction with a <!--del_lnk--> function key switches to the associate <!--del_lnk--> virtual console.<p><a id="Implementations" name="Implementations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Implementations</span></h2>
<p>The X.Org <!--del_lnk--> reference implementation serves as the <!--del_lnk--> canonical implementation of X. Due to the liberal <!--del_lnk--> licensing, a number of variations, both <!--del_lnk--> free and <!--del_lnk--> proprietary, have appeared. Commercial UNIX vendors have tended to take the reference implementation and adapt it for their hardware, usually customising it heavily and adding proprietary extensions.<table align="left" style="float: left; clear: left; background: none; border: none;">
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<p>Up to 2004, <!--del_lnk--> XFree86 provided the most common X variant on free <!--del_lnk--> Unix-like systems. XFree86 started as a <!--del_lnk--> port of X for <!--del_lnk--> 386-compatible PCs and, by the end of the 1990s, had become the greatest source of technical innovation in X and the <i>de facto</i> steward of X development <!--del_lnk--> . Since 2004, however, the <!--del_lnk--> X.Org reference implementation, a <!--del_lnk--> fork of XFree86, has become predominant.<p>While computer aficionados most often associate X with Unix, X servers also exist natively within other graphical environments. <!--del_lnk--> Hewlett-Packard's <!--del_lnk--> OpenVMS operating system includes a version of X with <!--del_lnk--> CDE, known as <!--del_lnk--> DECwindows, as its standard desktop environment. <!--del_lnk--> Apple's <!--del_lnk--> Mac OS X v10.3 (Panther) and up includes <!--del_lnk--> X11.app, based on XFree86 4.3 and X11R6.6, with better <!--del_lnk--> Mac OS X integration. Third-party servers under Macintosh System 7, 8 and 9 included <!--del_lnk--> MacX.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> does not come with support for X, but many third-party implementations exist, both <!--del_lnk--> free software such as <!--del_lnk--> Cygwin/X, <!--del_lnk--> Xming, <!--del_lnk--> WeirdMind and <!--del_lnk--> WeirdX; and proprietary products such as <!--del_lnk--> Xmanager, <!--del_lnk--> X-Deep/32, <!--del_lnk--> WiredX, <!--del_lnk--> Exceed and <!--del_lnk--> X-Win32. They normally serve to control remote X clients.<p>When another windowing system (such as those of Microsoft Windows or Mac OS) hosts X, the X system generally runs "rootless", meaning the host windowing environment looks after the root window (the background and associated menus) and manages the geometry of the hosted X windows — although some servers (Exceed, for example) can also create the root window for the remote clients to display to as a separate window in the host system.<p><a id="X_terminals" name="X_terminals"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">X terminals</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28520.jpg.htm" title="A Network Computing Devices NCD-88k X terminal."><img alt="A Network Computing Devices NCD-88k X terminal." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Network_Computing_Devices_NCD-88k_X_terminal.jpg" src="../../images/285/28520.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28520.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Network Computing Devices NCD-88k X terminal.</div>
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<p>An <i>X terminal</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> smart terminal that runs an X server as a <!--del_lnk--> thin client. This architecture became popular for building inexpensive terminal parks for many users to simultaneously use the same large server. This use very much aligns with the original intention of the MIT project.<p>X terminals explore the network (the local <!--del_lnk--> broadcast domain) using the <!--del_lnk--> X Display Manager Control Protocol to generate a list of available hosts that they can run clients from. The initial host needs to run an <!--del_lnk--> X display manager.<p>Dedicated (hardware) X terminals have become less common; a <!--del_lnk--> PC with an X server typically provides the same functionality at a lower cost.<p><a id="Limitations_and_criticisms_of_X" name="Limitations_and_criticisms_of_X"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Limitations and criticisms of X</span></h2>
<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> UNIX-HATERS Handbook</i> devoted an entire chapter, <!--del_lnk--> "The X-Windows Disaster", to the problems of X in the late 1980s and early 1990s. <i>Why X Is Not Our Ideal Window System</i> (1990) by Gajewska, Manasse and McCormack detailed problems in the protocol with recommendations for improvement.<p><a id="Video_hardware" name="Video_hardware"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Video hardware</span></h3>
<p>The performance edge for graphical computing is now in the most advanced graphics functions. Manufacturers typically implement these in proprietary drivers, generally writing for <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> (the largest consumer-market) first. <!--del_lnk--> XFree86 and the <!--del_lnk--> X.Org Server have reverse-engineered drivers for many older cards. However, as the high performance video market offers "<!--del_lnk--> state-of-the-art" products, some vendors regard programming details as trade secrets or as <!--del_lnk--> patentable inventions that they do not wish to reveal.<p><a id="User_interface_features" name="User_interface_features"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">User interface features</span></h3>
<p>X deliberately contains no specification as to user interface or most inter-application communication. This has resulted in several vastly different interfaces, and in applications that have not always quite worked together. The <!--del_lnk--> ICCCM, a specification for client interoperability, has a reputation as difficult to implement correctly. Further standards efforts such as <!--del_lnk--> Motif and <!--del_lnk--> CDE did not remedy matters. This has frustrated users and programmers <!--del_lnk--> for a long time. Graphics programmers <!--del_lnk--> now generally address consistency of application <!--del_lnk--> look and feel and communication by coding to a specific desktop environment or to a specific widget toolkit, which also avoids having to deal directly with the ICCCM.<p>The X protocol provides no facilities for handling sound, leaving it to the operating system to provide support for audio hardware and sound playback. As users increasingly expect sound, this has led to various incompatible sound subsystems. Most programmers simply use local, OS-specific sound <!--del_lnk--> APIs. The first generation of client-server sound systems included <!--del_lnk--> rplay and <!--del_lnk--> Network Audio System. More recent efforts have produced <!--del_lnk--> EsounD (GNOME) and <!--del_lnk--> ARts (KDE). In 2001, the <!--del_lnk--> X.org foundation announced the development of the <!--del_lnk--> Media Application Server (<i>MAS</i>) to remedy this problem. However, none of these is generally used as a solution to the problem.<p><a id="Network" name="Network"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Network</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28521.png.htm" title="Example of tunnelling an X11 application over SSH."><img alt="Example of tunnelling an X11 application over SSH." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:X11_ssh_tunnelling.png" src="../../images/285/28521.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28521.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Example of tunnelling an X11 application over SSH.</div>
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<p>One cannot <!--del_lnk--> currently detach an X client or session from one server and reattach it to another, as with <!--del_lnk--> Virtual Network Computing (VNC). Work has started to add this facility to X. Workarounds (<i>VNC :0 viewers</i>) exist to make the current X-server screen available via VNC.<p>Network traffic between an X server and remote X clients has no default encryption. An attacker with a <!--del_lnk--> packet sniffer can intercept and read it. Most users address this issue by tunneling X over <!--del_lnk--> SSH; most SSH implementations support the tunneling of X applications although it is sometimes disabled by default.<p><a id="Client-server_separation" name="Client-server_separation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Client-server separation</span></h3>
<p>X's design requires the clients and server to operate separately, and device independence and the separation of client and server incur overhead compared to an operating system where the graphics are integrated into the OS, such as early versions of <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Mac OS. X advocates recommended 4 to 8 <!--del_lnk--> MB of <!--del_lnk--> RAM for reasonable performance; until the mid-1990s, this seemed bloated compared to Windows or Mac OS.<p>Current versions of Windows and <!--del_lnk--> Mac OS X <!--del_lnk--> Quartz have internal subsystem separation similar to the client/server divide in X and comparable performance and resource usage to X with <!--del_lnk--> KDE or <a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" title="GNOME">GNOME</a>. Most of the overhead comes from network <!--del_lnk--> round-trip delay time between client and server (<!--del_lnk--> latency rather than from the protocol itself): the best solutions to performance issues involve paying attention to application design <!--del_lnk--> . A common misconception is that X's network features result in excessive complexity if only used locally, and that X's network capabilities cause an undesirable performance hit; modern X implementations use local sockets and shared memory, requiring very little overhead.<p><a id="Competitors_to_X" name="Competitors_to_X"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Competitors to X</span></h2>
<p>For graphics <!--del_lnk--> Unix-like systems use X almost universally. Nevertheless, some people have attempted writing alternatives to and replacements for X. Historical alternatives include <!--del_lnk--> Sun's <!--del_lnk--> NeWS, which failed in the market, and <!--del_lnk--> NeXT's <!--del_lnk--> Display PostScript, which eventually became <!--del_lnk--> Apple's <!--del_lnk--> Quartz for <!--del_lnk--> Mac OS X.<p>Modern attempts to address criticisms of X by replacing it completely include Berlin/<!--del_lnk--> Fresco and the <!--del_lnk--> Y Window System. These alternatives have seen negligible take-up, however, and commentators widely doubt the viability of any replacement that does not preserve backwards-compatibility with X.<p>Other competitors attempt to avoid the overhead of X by working directly with the hardware. Such projects include <!--del_lnk--> DirectFB and the very small <!--del_lnk--> FBUI. The <!--del_lnk--> Direct Rendering Infrastructure, which aims to provide a reliable kernel-level interface to the <!--del_lnk--> framebuffer, may make these efforts redundant.<p>Other ways to achieve network transparency for graphical services include:<ul>
<li>the <!--del_lnk--> SVG Terminal, a protocol to update <!--del_lnk--> Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) content in a browser in near-real-time<li><!--del_lnk--> Virtual Network Computing (VNC), a very low-level system which sends compressed bitmaps across the network; the Unix implementation includes an X server<li><!--del_lnk--> Citrix MetaFrame, an X-like product for Microsoft Windows<li><!--del_lnk--> Tarantella, which provides a Java client for use in web browsers</ul>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Predecessors" name="Predecessors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Predecessors</span></h3>
<p>Several bitmap display systems preceded X. From <!--del_lnk--> Xerox came the <!--del_lnk--> Alto (1973) and the <!--del_lnk--> Star (1981). From <!--del_lnk--> Apple came the <!--del_lnk--> Lisa (1983) and the <a href="../../wp/m/Macintosh.htm" title="Apple Macintosh">Macintosh</a> (1984). The <a href="../../wp/u/Unix.htm" title="Unix">Unix</a> world had the <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Project (1982) and <!--del_lnk--> Rob Pike's <!--del_lnk--> Blit terminal (1984).<p>X derives its name as a successor to a pre-1983 window system called <!--del_lnk--> W (the letter X directly following W in the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>). W Window System ran under the <!--del_lnk--> V operating system. W used a network protocol supporting terminal and graphics windows, the server maintaining display lists.<p><a id="Origin_and_early_development" name="Origin_and_early_development"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Origin and early development</span></h3>
<p>The original idea of X emerged at MIT in 1984 as a collaboration between <!--del_lnk--> Jim Gettys (of <!--del_lnk--> Project Athena) and <!--del_lnk--> Bob Scheifler (of the <!--del_lnk--> MIT Laboratory for Computer Science). Scheifler needed a usable display environment for debugging the <!--del_lnk--> Argus system. Project Athena (a joint project between <!--del_lnk--> Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), MIT and <!--del_lnk--> IBM to provide easy access to computing resources for all students) needed a platform-independent graphics system to link together its heterogeneous multiple-vendor systems; the window system then under development in <!--del_lnk--> Carnegie Mellon University's <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Project did not make licences available, and no alternatives existed.<p>The project solved this by creating a protocol that could both run local applications and call on remote resources. In mid-1983 an initial port of W to Unix ran at one-fifth of its speed under V; in May 1984, Scheifler replaced the <!--del_lnk--> synchronous <!--del_lnk--> protocol of W with an <!--del_lnk--> asynchronous protocol and the display lists with immediate mode graphics to make X version 1. X became the first windowing system environment to offer true hardware-independence and vendor-independence.<p>Scheifler, Gettys and <!--del_lnk--> Ron Newman set to work and X progressed rapidly. They released Version 6 in January 1985. DEC, then preparing to release its first <!--del_lnk--> Ultrix workstation, judged X the only windowing system likely to become available in time. DEC engineers ported X6 to DEC's QVSS display on <!--del_lnk--> MicroVAX.<p>In the second quarter of 1985 X acquired <!--del_lnk--> colour support to function in the DEC <!--del_lnk--> VAXstation-II/GPX, forming what became version 9. Although MIT had licensed X6 to some outside groups for a fee, it decided at this time to license X9 and future versions under what became known as the <!--del_lnk--> MIT License. X9 appeared in September 1985.<p>A group at <!--del_lnk--> Brown University ported version 9 to the <!--del_lnk--> IBM <!--del_lnk--> RT/PC, but problems with reading unaligned data on the RT forced an incompatible protocol change, leading to version 10 in late 1985. By 1986, outside organizations had started asking for X. The release of X10R2 took place in January 1986; that of X10R3 in February 1986. X10R3 became the first version to achieve wide deployment, with both DEC and <!--del_lnk--> Hewlett-Packard releasing products based on it. Other groups ported X10 to <!--del_lnk--> Apollo and to <!--del_lnk--> Sun workstations and even to the IBM <!--del_lnk--> PC/AT. Demonstrations of the first commercial application for X (a mechanical computer-aided engineering system that ran on VAXes and displayed on PCs running an X server) took place at the Autofact trade show at that time. The last version of X10, X10R4, appeared in December 1986.<p>Although X10 offered interesting and powerful functionality, it had become obvious that the X protocol could use a more hardware-neutral redesign before it became too widely deployed; but MIT alone would not have the resources available for such a complete redesign. As it happened, DEC's <!--del_lnk--> Western Software Laboratory found itself between projects. <!--del_lnk--> Smokey Wallace of DEC WSL and Jim Gettys proposed that DEC WSL build X11 and make it freely available under the same terms as X9 and X10. This process started in May 1986, with the protocol finalised in August. Alpha-testing of the software started in February 1987, beta-testing in May; the release of X11 finally occurred on <!--del_lnk--> September 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1987.<p>The X11 protocol design, led by Scheifler, got extensively discussed on open mailing lists on the nascent <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a>. X therefore represents one of the first very large-scale <!--del_lnk--> free software projects.<p><a id="The_MIT_X_Consortium_and_the_X_Consortium.2C_Inc." name="The_MIT_X_Consortium_and_the_X_Consortium.2C_Inc."></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The MIT X Consortium and the X Consortium, Inc.</span></h3>
<p>In 1987, with the success of X11 becoming apparent, MIT wished to relinquish the stewardship of X, but at a June 1987 meeting with nine vendors, the vendors told MIT that they believed in the need for a neutral party to keep X from fragmenting in the marketplace. In January 1988, the <i>MIT X Consortium</i> formed as a non-profit vendor group, with Scheifler as director, to direct the future development of X in a neutral atmosphere inclusive of commercial and educational interests. Jim Fulton joined in January 1988 and <!--del_lnk--> Keith Packard in March 1988 as senior <!--del_lnk--> developers, with Jim focusing on <!--del_lnk--> Xlib, fonts, window managers, and utilities; and Keith re-implementing the server. Donna Converse and Chris Peterson joined later that year, focusing on toolkits and widget sets, working closely with Ralph Swick of MIT Project Athena. The MIT X Consortium produced several significant revisions to X11, the first (Release 2 - X11R2) in February 1988.<table align="right" style="float: right; clear: right; background: none; border: none;">
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<p>In 1993, the X Consortium, Inc. (a non-profit corporation) formed as the successor to the MIT X Consortium. It released X11R6 on <!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1994. In 1995 it took over stewardship of the <!--del_lnk--> Motif toolkit and of the <!--del_lnk--> Common Desktop Environment for Unix systems. The X Consortium dissolved at the end of 1996, producing a final revision, X11R6.3, and a legacy of increasing commercial influence in the development. <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="The_Open_Group" name="The_Open_Group"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Open Group</span></h3>
<p>In mid-1997 the X Consortium passed stewardship of X to <!--del_lnk--> The Open Group, a vendor group formed in early 1996 by the merger of the <!--del_lnk--> Open Software Foundation and <!--del_lnk--> X/Open.<p>The Open Group released X11R6.4 in early 1998. Controversially, X11R6.4 departed from the traditional liberal licensing terms, as the Open Group sought to assure funding for X's development <!--del_lnk--> . The new terms would have prevented its adoption by many projects (such as <!--del_lnk--> XFree86) and even by some commercial vendors. After XFree86 threatened a <!--del_lnk--> fork <!--del_lnk--> , the Open Group relicensed X11R6.4 under the traditional license in September 1998. <!--del_lnk--> The Open Group's last release came as X11R6.4 patch 3.<p><a id="X.Org_and_XFree86" name="X.Org_and_XFree86"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">X.Org and XFree86</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> XFree86 originated in 1992 from the X386 server for <!--del_lnk--> IBM PC compatibles included with X11R5 in 1991, written by Thomas Roell and Mark W. Snitily and donated to the MIT X Consortium by Snitily Graphics Consulting Services (SGCS). XFree86 evolved over time from just one port of X to the leading and most popular implementation and the <i>de facto</i> steward of X's development <!--del_lnk--> .<p>In May 1999, the Open Group formed <!--del_lnk--> X.Org. X.Org supervised the release of versions X11R6.5.1 onward. X development at this time had become moribund <!--del_lnk--> ; most technical innovation since the X Consortium had dissolved had taken place in the XFree86 project <!--del_lnk--> . In 1999, the XFree86 team joined X.Org as an honorary (non-paying) member <!--del_lnk--> , encouraged by various hardware companies <!--del_lnk--> interested in using XFree86 with Linux and in its status as the most popular version of X.<p>By 2003, while the popularity of Linux (and hence the installed base of X) surged, X.Org remained all but inactive <!--del_lnk--> , and active development took place largely within XFree86. However, considerable dissent developed within XFree86. The XFree86 project suffered from a perception of a far too <!--del_lnk--> cathedral-like development model; developers could not get <!--del_lnk--> CVS commit access <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> and vendors had to maintain extensive <!--del_lnk--> patch sets <!--del_lnk--> . In March 2003 the XFree86 organization expelled Keith Packard, who had joined XFree86 after the end of the original MIT X Consortium, with considerable ill-feeling <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> .<p>X.Org and XFree86 began discussing a reorganisation suited to properly nurturing the development of X <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> . Jim Gettys had been pushing strongly for an open development model since at least 2000 <!--del_lnk--> . Gettys, Packard and several others began discussing in detail the requirements for the effective governance of X with open development.<p>Finally, in an echo of the X11R6.4 licensing dispute, XFree86 released version 4.4 in February 2004 under a more restricted license which many projects relying on X found unacceptable <!--del_lnk--> . The added clause to the license was based upon the original <!--del_lnk--> BSD license's advertising clause, which was viewed by the <!--del_lnk--> Free Software Foundation and <!--del_lnk--> Debian as incompatible with the <!--del_lnk--> GNU General Public License <!--del_lnk--> . Other groups saw further restrictions as being against the spirit of the original X (<a href="../../wp/o/OpenBSD.htm" title="OpenBSD">OpenBSD</a> threatening a <!--del_lnk--> fork, for example). The license issue, combined with the difficulties in getting changes in, left many feeling the time was ripe for a fork <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="The_X.Org_Foundation" name="The_X.Org_Foundation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The X.Org Foundation</span></h3>
<p>In early 2004 various people from X.Org and freedesktop.org formed the <!--del_lnk--> X.Org Foundation, and the Open Group gave it control of the <tt>x.org</tt> <!--del_lnk--> domain name. This marked a radical change in the governance of X. Whereas the stewards of X since 1988 (including the previous X.Org) had been vendor organizations, the Foundation was led by software developers and used community development based on the <!--del_lnk--> bazaar model, which relies on outside involvement. Membership was opened to individuals, with corporate membership being in the form of sponsorship. Several major corporations such as <!--del_lnk--> Hewlett-Packard and <!--del_lnk--> Sun Microsystems currently support the X.Org Foundation.<p>The Foundation takes an oversight role over X development: technical decisions are made on their merits by achieving rough consensus among community members. Technical decisions are not made by the board of directors; in this sense, it is strongly modelled on the technically non-interventionist <!--del_lnk--> GNOME Foundation. The Foundation does not employ any developers.<p>The Foundation released X11R6.7, the <!--del_lnk--> X.Org Server, in April 2004, based on XFree86 4.4RC2 with X11R6.6 changes merged. Gettys and Packard had taken the last version of XFree86 under the old license and, by making a point of an open development model and retaining GPL compatibility, brought many of the old XFree86 developers on board <!--del_lnk--> .<p>X11R6.8 came out in September 2004. It added significant new features, including preliminary support for translucent windows and other sophisticated visual effects, screen magnifiers and thumbnailers, and facilities to integrate with 3D immersive display systems such as Sun's <!--del_lnk--> Project Looking Glass and the <!--del_lnk--> Croquet project. External applications called <i><!--del_lnk--> compositing managers</i> provide policy for the visual appearance.<p><a id="Future_directions" name="Future_directions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Future directions</span></h2>
<p>With the X.Org Foundation and freedesktop.org, the main line of X development has started to progress rapidly once more. The developers intend to release present and future versions as usable finished products, not merely as bases for vendors to build a product upon.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 <!--del_lnk--> , X.Org released X11R6.9, the monolithic <!--del_lnk--> source tree for legacy users, and X11R7.0, the same source code separated into independent modules, each maintainable in separate projects <!--del_lnk--> . The Foundation released X11R7.1 on May 22, 2006, about four months after 7.0, with considerable feature improvements <!--del_lnk--> .<p>For sufficiently capable combinations of hardware and operating systems, X.Org plans to access the video hardware only via <!--del_lnk--> OpenGL and the <!--del_lnk--> Direct Rendering Infrastructure (DRI). The DRI first appeared in XFree86 version 4.0 and became standard in X11R6.7 and later <!--del_lnk--> . Many operating systems have started to add kernel support for hardware manipulation. This work proceeds incrementally.<p><a id="Nomenclature" name="Nomenclature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nomenclature</span></h2>
<p>People in the computer trade commonly shorten the phrase "X Window System" to "X11" or simply to "X". The term "X Windows" (in the manner of "Microsoft Windows") is not officially endorsed, though it has been in common use since early in the history of X and has been used deliberately for literary effect, for example in the <i>UNIX-HATERS Handbook</i>.<p><a id="Release_history" name="Release_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Release history</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Version</th>
<th style="width:10em">Release date</th>
<th>Most important changes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X1</td>
<td>June 1984</td>
<td>First use of the name "X"; fundamental changes distinguishing the product from W.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X6</td>
<td>January 1985</td>
<td>First version licensed to a handful of outside companies.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X9</td>
<td>September 1985</td>
<td>Colour. First release under <!--del_lnk--> MIT License.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X10</td>
<td>late 1985</td>
<td>IBM RT/PC, AT (running DOS), and others</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X10R2</td>
<td>January 1986</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X10R3</td>
<td>February 1986</td>
<td>First release outside MIT. <!--del_lnk--> uwm made standard window manager.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X10R4</td>
<td>December 1986</td>
<td>Last version of X10.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
<td>First release of the current protocol.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R2</td>
<td>February 1988</td>
<td>First X Consortium release. <!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> XDM</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> XDMCP, <!--del_lnk--> twm brought in as standard window manager, application improvements, <!--del_lnk--> Shape extension, new fonts.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R5</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> PEX, Xcms (<!--del_lnk--> colour management), font server, <!--del_lnk--> X386, <!--del_lnk--> X video extension</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ICCCM v2.0; Inter-Client Exchange; X Session Management; X Synchronization extension; X Image extension; XTEST extension; X Input; X Big Requests; XC-MISC; XFree86 changes.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.1</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
<td>X Double Buffer extension; <!--del_lnk--> X keyboard extension; X Record extension.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.2<br /> X11R6.3 (Broadway)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
<td>Web functionality, <!--del_lnk--> LBX. Last X Consortium release. X11R6.2 is the tag for a subset of X11R6.3 with the only new features over R6.1 being XPrint and the Xlib implementation of vertical writing and user-defined character support. <!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Xinerama. <!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.5</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>Internal X.org release; not made publicly available.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.5.1</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.6</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2001</td>
<td>Bug fixes, XFree86 changes.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.7.0</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td>First X.Org Foundation release, incorporating XFree86 4.4rc2. Full end-user distribution. Removal of XIE, <!--del_lnk--> PEX and libxml2. <!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.8.0</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td>Window translucency, XDamage, Distributed Multihead X, <!--del_lnk--> XFixes, Composite, XEvIE.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.8.1</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td>Security fix in <!--del_lnk--> libxpm.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.8.2</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> February 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td>Bug fixes, driver updates.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X11R6.9<br /> X11R7.0</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EXA, major source code refactoring <!--del_lnk--> . From the same source-code base, the modular <!--del_lnk--> autotooled version became 7.0 and the monolithic <!--del_lnk--> imake version was frozen at 6.9.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>X11R7.1</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td>EXA enhancements, <!--del_lnk--> KDrive integrated, <!--del_lnk--> AIGLX, OS and platform support enhancements <!--del_lnk--> .</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>X11R7.2</i></td>
<td><i>2006</i></td>
<td>Removal of <!--del_lnk--> LBX and the built-in keyboard driver, X-ACE, <!--del_lnk--> XCB, autoconfig improvements, cleanups. <!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">X Window System protocols and architecture</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.IT.Software.htm">Software</a></h3>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22946.png.htm" title="The X Window System logo"><img alt="The X Window System logo" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:X11.svg" src="../../images/229/22946.png" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22946.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The X Window System logo</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> computing, the <b><a href="../../wp/x/X_Window_System.htm" title="X Window System">X Window System</a></b> (commonly <b>X11</b> or <b>X</b>) is a <!--del_lnk--> network-transparent <!--del_lnk--> windowing system for <!--del_lnk--> bitmap displays. This article details the protocols and technical structure of X11.<p>
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</script><a id="The_X_client-server_model_and_network_transparency" name="The_X_client-server_model_and_network_transparency"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The X client-server model and network transparency</span></h2>
<p>X is based on a <!--del_lnk--> client-server model. An <i>X server</i> program runs on a computer with a graphical display and communicates with various <i>client programs</i>. The server accepts requests for graphical output (windows) and sends back user input (keyboard, mouse).<p>In X Window, the server runs on the user's computer, while the clients may run on a different machine. This is the reverse of the common configuration of client-server systems, where the <i>client</i> runs on the user's computer and the server runs on a remote computer. This reversal often confuses new X users. The X Window terminology takes the perspective of the program, rather than the end-user or the hardware: the remote programs connect to the X server display running on the local machine, and thus act as clients; the local X display accepts incoming traffic, and thus acts as a server.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22947.png.htm" title="In this example, the X server takes input from a keyboard and mouse and displays to a screen. A web browser and a terminal emulator run on the user's workstation, and a system updater runs on a remote server but is controlled from the user's machine. Note that the remote application runs just as it would locally."><img alt="In this example, the X server takes input from a keyboard and mouse and displays to a screen. A web browser and a terminal emulator run on the user's workstation, and a system updater runs on a remote server but is controlled from the user's machine. Note that the remote application runs just as it would locally." height="422" longdesc="/wiki/Image:X_client_server_example.png" src="../../images/229/22947.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">In this example, the X server takes input from a keyboard and mouse and displays to a screen. A <!--del_lnk--> web browser and a <!--del_lnk--> terminal emulator run on the user's workstation, and a system updater runs on a remote server but is controlled from the user's machine. Note that the remote application runs just as it would locally.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> communication protocol between server and client runs <!--del_lnk--> network-transparently: the client and server may run on the same machine or on different ones, possibly with different <!--del_lnk--> architectures and <!--del_lnk--> operating systems. A client and server can communicate <!--del_lnk--> securely over the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a> by <!--del_lnk--> tunneling the connection over an encrypted connection.<p><a id="Design_principles" name="Design_principles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Design principles</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Bob Scheifler and <!--del_lnk--> Jim Gettys set out the early principles of X as follows (as listed in Scheifler/Gettys 1996):<ul>
<li><i>Do not add new functionality unless an implementor cannot complete a real application without it.</i><li><i>It is as important to decide what a system is not as to decide what it is. Do not serve all the world's needs; rather, make the system extensible so that additional needs can be met in an upwardly compatible fashion.</i><li><i>The only thing worse than generalizing from one example is generalizing from no examples at all.</i><li><i>If a problem is not completely understood, it is probably best to provide no solution at all.</i><li><i>If you can get 90 percent of the desired effect for 10 percent of the work, use the simpler solution.</i> (See also <!--del_lnk--> Worse is better.)<li><i>Isolate complexity as much as possible.</i><li><i>Provide mechanism rather than policy. In particular, place user interface policy in the clients' hands.</i></ul>
<p>The first principle was modified during the design of X11 to: <i>"Do not add new functionality unless you know of some real application that will require it."</i> X has largely kept to these principles since. The reference implementation is developed with a view to extension and improvement of the implementation, whilst remaining almost entirely compatible with the original 1987 protocol.<p><a id="X_Window_core_protocol" name="X_Window_core_protocol"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">X Window core protocol</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Communication between server and clients is done by exchanging packets over a network channel. The connection is established by the client, which sends the first packet. The server answers by sending back a packet stating the acceptance or refusal of the connection, or with a request for a further authentication. If the connection is accepted, the acceptance packet contains data for the client to use in the subsequent interaction with the server.<p>After connection is established, four types of packets are exchanged by the client and the server over the channel:<ol>
<li><b>Request:</b> The client requests information from the server or requests it to perform an action.<li><b>Reply:</b> The server responds to a request. Not all requests generate replies.<li><b>Event:</b> The server sends an event to the client, e.g., keyboard or mouse input, or a window being moved, resized or exposed.<li><b>Error:</b> The server sends an error packet if a request is invalid. Since requests are queued, error packets generated by a request may not be sent immediately.</ol>
<p>The X server provides a set of basic services. The client programs realize more complex functionalities by interacting with the server.<p><a id="Windows" name="Windows"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Windows</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:319px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22948.png.htm" title="A possible placement of some windows: 1 is the root window, which covers the whole screen; 2 and 3 are top-level windows; 4 and 5 are subwindows of 2. The parts of window that are outside its parent are not visible."><img alt="A possible placement of some windows: 1 is the root window, which covers the whole screen; 2 and 3 are top-level windows; 4 and 5 are subwindows of 2. The parts of window that are outside its parent are not visible." height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Some_X_windows.png" src="../../images/229/22948.png" width="317" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">A possible placement of some windows: 1 is the root window, which covers the whole screen; 2 and 3 are top-level windows; 4 and 5 are subwindows of 2. The parts of window that are outside its parent are not visible.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>What is usually called a window in other <!--del_lnk--> graphical user interfaces is a <i>top-level window</i> in the X Window System. The term <i>window</i> is also used for windows that lie within another window, that is, the <i>subwindows</i> of a <i>parent window</i>. Graphical elements such as buttons, menus, icons, etc. are all realized using windows.<p>A window can only be created as a subwindow of a parent window. This makes the windows to be arranged in a <!--del_lnk--> tree, that is, a <!--del_lnk--> hierarchy. The root of this hierarchy is called the <!--del_lnk--> root window, which is automatically created by the server. The top-level windows are exactly the direct subwindows of the root window. Visibly, the root window is as large as the screen, and lies behind all other windows.<p><a id="Identifiers" name="Identifiers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Identifiers</span></h3>
<p>All data about windows, fonts, etc. is stored in the server. The client knows identifiers of these objects—integers it can use as names for them when interacting with the server. For example, if a client wishes a window to be created, it requests the server to create a window with a given identifier. The server creates a window and associates it with the identifier. The identifier can be later used by the client to request, for example, a string to be drawn in the window.<p>Identifiers are unique to the server, not only to the client; for example, no two windows have the same identifier, even if created by two different clients. A client can access any object given its identifier, even if the object has been created by another client.<p><a id="Attributes_and_properties" name="Attributes_and_properties"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Attributes and properties</span></h3>
<p>Every window has a predefined set of attributes and a set of properties, all stored in the server and accessible to the clients via appropriate requests. Attributes are data about the window, such as its size, position, background colour, etc. Properties are pieces of data that are attached to a window. Contrary to attributes, properties have no meaning at the level of the X Window core protocol. A client can store arbitrary data in a property of a window.<p>A property is characterized by a name, a type, and a value. Properties are similar to <!--del_lnk--> variables in <!--del_lnk--> imperative programming languages, in that the application can create a new property with a given name and of a given type and store a value in it. Properties are associated to windows: two properties with the same name can exist on two different windows while having different types and values.<p>Properties are mostly used for inter-client communication. For example, the property named <code>WM_NAME</code> is used for storing the name for the window; window managers typically read this property and display the name of the window at the top of it.<p>The properties of a window can be shown using the <code>xprop</code> program. In particular, <code>xprop -root</code> shows the properties of the root window, which include the <!--del_lnk--> X resources (parameters of programs).<p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h3>
<p>Events are packets sent by the server to the client to communicate that something the client may be interested in has happened. A client can request the server to send an event to another client; this is used for communication between clients. For example, when a client requests the text that is currently selected, an event is sent to the client that is currently handling the window that holds the selection.<p>The content of a window may be destroyed in some conditions (for example, if the window is covered). Whenever an area of destroyed content is made visible, the server generates an <code>Expose</code> event to notify the client that a part of the window has to be drawn.<p>Other events are used to notify clients of keyboard or mouse input, of the creation of new windows, etc.<p>Some kinds of events are always sent to client, but most kinds of event are sent only if the client previously stated an interest in them. This is because clients may only be interested in some kind of events. For example, a client may be interested in keyboard-related event but not in mouse-related events.<p><a id="Color_modes" name="Color_modes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colour modes</span></h3>
<p>The way colors are handled in the X Window Systems sometimes confuse users, and historically several different modes has been supported. Most modern applications use <!--del_lnk--> TrueColor (24-bit color, 8 bits for each of red, green and blue), but old or specialist applications may require a different colour mode. Many commercial specialist applications use PseudoColor.<p>The X11 protocol actually uses a single 32-bit unsigned integer for representing a single colour in most graphic operations, called a <i>pixelvalue</i>. When transferring <!--del_lnk--> primary colors intensity, a 16 bits integer is used for each colour component. The following representations of colors exist; not all of them may be supported on a specific device.<ul>
<li><b>DirectColor:</b> A pixel value is decomposed into separate red, green, and blue subfields. Each subfield indexes a separate colormap. Entries in all colormaps can be changed. <ul>
<li><b>TrueColor:</b> Same as DirectColor, except that the colormap entries are predefined by the hardware and cannot be changed. Typically, each of the red, green, and blue colormaps provides a (near) linear ramp of intensity.</ul>
<li><b>GrayScale:</b> A pixel value indexes a single colormap that contains monochrome intensities. Colormap entries can be changed. <ul>
<li><b>StaticGray:</b> Same as GrayScale, except that the colormap entries are predefined by the hardware and cannot be changed.</ul>
<li><b>PseudoColor</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Chunky): A pixel value indexes a single colormap that contains colour intensities. Colormap entries can be changed. <ul>
<li><b>StaticColor:</b> Same as PseudoColor, except that the colormap entries are predefined by the hardware and cannot be changed.</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Xlib_and_other_client_libraries" name="Xlib_and_other_client_libraries"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Xlib and other client libraries</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>Most client programs communicate with the server via the <!--del_lnk--> Xlib client library. In particular, most clients use libraries such as <!--del_lnk--> Xaw, <!--del_lnk--> Motif, <!--del_lnk--> GTK+, or <!--del_lnk--> Qt which in turn use <!--del_lnk--> Xlib for interacting with the server.<p><a id="Inter-client_communication" name="Inter-client_communication"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inter-client communication</span></h2>
<p>The X Window core protocol provides mechanisms for communication between clients: window properties and events, in particular the client-to-client message events. However, it does not specify any protocol for such interactions. These protocols are instead governed by a separate set of inter-client communication conventions.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Inter-Client Communication Conventions Manual specifies the protocol for the exchange of data via selections and the interaction of applications with the window manager. This specification has been considered difficult and confusing; consistency of application <!--del_lnk--> look and feel and communication is typically addressed by programming to a given desktop environment.<p>The Inter-Client Exchange protocol (ICE) specifies a framework for building protocols for interaction between clients, so that a specific protocol can be built at the top of it. In particular, the X Session Management protocol (XSMP) is a protocol based on ICE that mandates over the interaction between applications with the <!--del_lnk--> session manager, which is the program that takes care of storing the status of the desktop at the end of an interactive session and recovering it when another session with the same user is started again.<p>Newer conventions are included in the <!--del_lnk--> freedesktop specifications, including the drag-and-drop convention Xdnd used for transferring data by selecting it and dragging in another window and the embedded application convention Xembed which details how an application can be run in a subwindow of another application.<p><a id="Selections.2C_cut_buffers.2C_and_drag-and-drop" name="Selections.2C_cut_buffers.2C_and_drag-and-drop"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Selections, cut buffers, and drag-and-drop</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>Selections, cut buffers, and drag-and-drop are the mechanisms used in the X Window System to allow a user to transfer data from a window to another. Selections and cut buffer are used (typically) when a user selects text or some other data in a window and paste in another one. Drag-and-drop is used when a user selects something in a window, then clicks on the selection and drags it into another window.<p>Since the two windows may be handled by two different applications, data transfer requires two different clients connected with the same X server to interact. The X Window core protocol includes some types of requests and events that are specific to selection exchange, but the transfer is mainly done using the general client-to-client event sending and window properties, which are not specific to selection transfer.<p>Data to be transferred between clients can be of different types: it is usually text, but can also be a pixmap, a number, a list of objects, etc.<p>Selections and drag-and-drop are active mechanisms: after some text has been selected in a window, the client handling the window must actively support a protocol for transferring the data to the application requesting it. On the contrary, cut buffers are a passive mechanism: when the user selects some text, its content is transferred to a cut buffer, where it remains even if the application handling the window terminates and the window is destroyed.<p><a id="Window_manager" name="Window_manager"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Window manager</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>A window manager is a program that controls the general appearance of windows and other graphical elements of the <!--del_lnk--> graphical user interface. Differences in the look of X Window System in different installations is mainly due to the use of different window managers or different configurations of the window manager.<p>The window manager takes care of deciding the position of windows, placing the decorative border around them, handling icons, handling mouse clicks outside windows (on the “background”), handling certain keystrokes (for example, iconifying a window when ALT-F4 is pressed), etc.<p>From the point of view of the X server, the window manager is not different from the other clients. The initial position and the decorative borders around windows are handled by the window manager using the following requests:<ol>
<li>an application can request the server not to satisfy requests of mapping (showing) subwindows of a given window, and to be sent an event instead;<li>an application can request changing the parent of a window.</ol>
<p>The window manager uses the first request to intercept any request for mapping top-level windows (children of the root window). Whenever another application requests the mapping of a top-level window, the server does not do it but sends an event to the window manager instead. Most window managers <!--del_lnk--> reparents the window: they create a larger top-level window (called the frame window) and reparent the original window as a child of it. Graphically, this corresponds to placing the original window inside the frame window. The space of the frame window that is not taken by the original window is used for the decorative frame around the window (the “border” and the “title bar”).<p>The window manager manages mouse clicks in the frame window. This allows for example to move or resize the window when the user clicks and drags on the border or on the title bar.<p>The window manager is also responsible for the handling of icons and related visual elements of the graphical user interface. Icons do not exist at the level of the X Window core protocol. They are implemented by the window manager. For example, whenever a window has to be “iconified”, the window manager <!--del_lnk--> FVWM unmaps the window, making it not visible, and creates a window for the icon name and possibly another window for the icon image. The meaning and handling of icons is therefore completely decided by the window manager: some window managers such as <!--del_lnk--> wm2 do not implement icons at all.<p><a id="Session_manager" name="Session_manager"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Session manager</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Roughly, the state of a <!--del_lnk--> session is the “state of the desktop” at a given time: a set of windows with their current content. More precisely, it is the set of applications managing these windows and the information that allow these applications to restore the condition of their managed windows if required. An X session manager is a program that saves and restore the state of sessions.<p>The most recognizable effect of using a session manager is the possibility of logging out from an interactive session and then finding exactly the same windows in the same state when logging in again. For this to work, the session manager program stores the names of the running applications at logout and starts them again at login. In order for the state of the applications to be restored as well (which is needed to restore the content of windows), the applications must be able to save their state of execution upon request from the session manager and load it back when they start again.<p>The X Window System include a default session manager called <code>xsm</code>. Other session managers have been developed for specific desktop systems: for example, <code>ksmserver</code> is the default session manager of <!--del_lnk--> KDE.<p><a id="X_display_manager" name="X_display_manager"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">X display manager</span></h2>
<dl>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> X display manager is the program that shows the graphical login prompt in the X Window System. More generally, a display manager runs one or more X servers on the local computer and accepts incoming connections from X servers running on remote computers. The local servers are started by the display manager, which then connects to them to present the user the login screen. The remote servers are started independently from the display manager and connect to it. In this situation, the display manager works like a graphical <!--del_lnk--> telnet server: an X server can connect to the display manager, which starts a session; the programs of this sessions run on the same computer of the display manager but have input and output on the computer where the X server runs (which is the computer in front of the user).<p><!--del_lnk--> XDM is the basic display manager supplied with the X Window System. Other display manager include <!--del_lnk--> GDM (<a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" title="GNOME">GNOME</a>), <!--del_lnk--> KDM (<!--del_lnk--> KDE), <!--del_lnk--> WDM (using the WINGs widget set used in <!--del_lnk--> Window Maker) and <!--del_lnk--> entrance (using the architecture used in <!--del_lnk--> Enlightenment v.17).<p><a id="User_interface_elements" name="User_interface_elements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">User interface elements</span></h2>
<p>Early <!--del_lnk--> widget toolkits for X included <!--del_lnk--> Xaw (the <!--del_lnk--> Athena Widget Set), <!--del_lnk--> OLIT (OPEN LOOK Intrinsics Toolkit), <!--del_lnk--> XView, <!--del_lnk--> Motif and <!--del_lnk--> Tk. OLIT and XView function as the base toolkits for <a href="../../wp/a/AT%2526T.htm" title="AT&T">AT&T</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Sun's <!--del_lnk--> OPEN LOOK GUI.<p>Motif provides the base toolkit for the <!--del_lnk--> Common Desktop Environment (CDE), which is the standard <!--del_lnk--> desktop environment used on commercial <a href="../../wp/u/Unix.htm" title="Unix">Unix</a> systems such as <!--del_lnk--> Solaris and <!--del_lnk--> HP-UX. (<a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" title="GNOME">GNOME</a> is offered in Solaris 9 and will be standard in future versions.)<p>More modern toolkits include <!--del_lnk--> Qt (used by <!--del_lnk--> KDE), <!--del_lnk--> GTK+ (used by <a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" title="GNOME">GNOME</a>), <!--del_lnk--> wxWidgets, <!--del_lnk--> FLTK and <!--del_lnk--> FOX.<p><a id="Extensions" name="Extensions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Extensions</span></h2>
<p>The X server was designed to be simple but extensible. As such, much functionality now resides in extensions to the protocol. The following is a partial list of extensions that have been developed, sorted roughly by recency of introduction:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> AIGLX<li>Composite<li>Damage<li><!--del_lnk--> XFixes<li>Extended-Visual-Information (EvIE)<li>Dual Multihead (DMX)<li><!--del_lnk--> XvMC, video with motion compensation<li><!--del_lnk--> GLX<li><!--del_lnk--> XRender<li>Resize and Rotate (RANDR)<li><!--del_lnk--> Xinerama<li>Display Power Management Signaling (DPMS)<li>XPRINT<li>Low Bandwidth Extension (LBX, obsolete)<li><!--del_lnk--> X keyboard extension<li>DOUBLE-BUFFER<li>RECORD<li>XImage Extension (obsolete)<li><!--del_lnk--> MIT-SHM<li>SYNC<li>XTEST<li>XInputExtension<li>BIG-REQUESTS<li>XC-MISC<li><!--del_lnk--> X video extension, also called Xv (not to be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> xv program)<li>PEX (obsolete)<li><!--del_lnk--> Shape<li>DEC-XTRAP<li>MIT-SCREEN-SAVER<li>MIT-SUNDRY-NONSTANDARD<li>SECURITY<li>TOG-CUP<li>X-Resource<li>XC-APPGROUP<li>XFree86-Bigfont<li>XFree86-DGA<li>XFree86-Misc<li>XFree86-VidModeExtension</ul>
<p>At the protocol level, every extension can be assigned new request/event/error packet types. Access to client applications to the functionalities provided by extensions is facilitated by client libraries. The coding of extensions into the current X server implementations is reportedly difficult due to a lack of modularity in the server design. It is a long term goal of the <!--del_lnk--> XCB project to automate generating both the client and server sides of extensions from XML protocol descriptions.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System_protocols_and_architecture"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">X Window core protocol</h1>
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<p>The <b>X Window core protocol</b> is the base protocol of the <a href="../../wp/x/X_Window_System.htm" title="X Window System">X Window System</a>, which is a <!--del_lnk--> networked <!--del_lnk--> windowing system for <!--del_lnk--> bitmap displays used to build <!--del_lnk--> graphical user interfaces on <a href="../../wp/u/Unix.htm" title="Unix">Unix</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Unix-like, and other <!--del_lnk--> operating systems. The X Window System is based on a <!--del_lnk--> client-server model: a single <!--del_lnk--> server controls the <!--del_lnk--> input/output <!--del_lnk--> hardware, such as the <!--del_lnk--> screen, the <!--del_lnk--> keyboard, and the <!--del_lnk--> mouse; all application <!--del_lnk--> programs act as <!--del_lnk--> clients, interacting with the <!--del_lnk--> user and with the other clients via the server. This interaction is regulated by the X Window core protocol. Other <!--del_lnk--> protocols related to the X Window System exist, both built at the top of the X Window core protocol or as separate protocols.<p>In the X Window core protocol, only four kinds of packets are sent, <!--del_lnk--> asynchronously, over the network: requests, replies, events, and errors. <i>Requests</i> are sent by a client to the server to ask it to perform some operation (for example, create a new window) and to send back data it holds. <i>Replies</i> are sent by the server to provide such data. <i>Events</i> are sent by the server to notify clients of user activity or other occurrences they are interested in. <i>Errors</i> are packet sent by the server to notify a client of errors occurred during processing of its requests. Requests may generate replies, events, and errors; other than this, the protocol does not mandate over a specific order in which packets are sent over the network. Some extensions to the core protocol exist, each one having its own requests, replies, events, and errors.<p>X Window originated at <!--del_lnk--> MIT in 1984 (its <!--del_lnk--> current release X11 appeared in September 1987). Its designers <!--del_lnk--> Bob Scheifler and <!--del_lnk--> Jim Gettys set as an early principle that its core protocol was to "create mechanism, not policy". As a result, the core protocol does not specify the interaction between clients and between a client and the user. These interactions are the subject of separate specifications, such as the <!--del_lnk--> ICCCM and the <!--del_lnk--> freedesktop.org specifications, and are typically enforced automatically by using a given <!--del_lnk--> widget set.<p>
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</script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<p>Communication between server and clients is done by exchanging packets over a <!--del_lnk--> channel. The connection is established by the client. The client also sends the first packet, containing the <!--del_lnk--> byte order to be used and information about the version of the protocol and the kind of authentication the client expects the server to use. The server answers by sending back a packet stating the acceptance or refusal of the connection, or with a request for a further <!--del_lnk--> authentication. If the connection is accepted, the acceptance packet contains data for the client to use in the subsequent interaction with the server.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28524.png.htm" title="An example interaction between a client and a server."><img alt="An example interaction between a client and a server." height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xcore-overview.svg" src="../../images/285/28524.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28524.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An example interaction between a client and a server.</div>
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<p>After connection is established, four types of packets are exchanged between client and server over the channel:<ol>
<li><b>Request:</b> The client requests information from the server or requests it to perform an action.<li><b>Reply:</b> The server responds to a request. Not all requests generate replies.<li><b>Event:</b> The server informs the client of an event, such as keyboard or mouse input, a window being moved, resized or exposed, etc.<li><b>Error:</b> The server sends an error packet if a request is invalid. Since requests are queued, error packets generated by a request may not be sent immediately.</ol>
<p>Request and reply packets have varying length, while event and error packets have a fixed length of 32 <!--del_lnk--> bytes.<p>Request packets are numbered sequentially by the server as soon as it receives them: the first request from a client is numbered 1, the second 2, etc. The least significant 16 bits of the sequential number of a request is included in the reply and error packets generated by the request, if any. They are also included in event packets to indicate the sequential number of the request that the server is currently processing or has just finished processing.<p><a id="Windows" name="Windows"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Windows</span></h2>
<p>What is usually called a window in most <!--del_lnk--> graphical user interfaces is called a <i>top-level window</i> in the X Window System. The term window is also used to denote windows that lay within another window, that is, the <i>subwindows</i> of a <i>parent window</i>. Graphical elements such as <!--del_lnk--> buttons, <!--del_lnk--> menus, <!--del_lnk--> icons, etc. can be realized using subwindows.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:380px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28525.png.htm" title="A possible placement of some windows: 1 is the root window, which covers the whole screen; 2 and 3 are top-level windows; 4 and 5 are subwindows of 2. The parts of a window that are outside its parent are not visible."><img alt="A possible placement of some windows: 1 is the root window, which covers the whole screen; 2 and 3 are top-level windows; 4 and 5 are subwindows of 2. The parts of a window that are outside its parent are not visible." height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Some_X_windows.svg" src="../../images/285/28525.png" width="378" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">A possible placement of some windows: 1 is the root window, which covers the whole screen; 2 and 3 are top-level windows; 4 and 5 are subwindows of 2. The parts of a window that are outside its parent are not visible.</div>
</div>
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<p>A client can request the creation of a window. More precisely, it can request the creation of a subwindow of an existing window. As a result, the windows created by clients are arranged in a <!--del_lnk--> tree (a hierarchy). The root of this tree is the <!--del_lnk--> root window, which is a special window created automatically by the server at startup. All other windows are directly or indirectly subwindows of the root window. The top-level windows are the direct subwindows of the root window. Visibly, the root window is as large as the screen, and lays behind all other windows.<p>The content of a window is not always guaranteed to be preserved over time. In particular, the window content may be destroyed when the window is moved, resized, covered by other windows, and in general made totally or partly non-visible. In particular, content is lost if the X server is not maintaining a <i>backing store</i> of the window content. The client can request backing store for a window to be maintained, but there is not obligation for the server to do so. Therefore, clients cannot assume that backing store is maintained. If a visible part of a window has an unspecified content, an event is sent to notify the client that the window content has to be drawn again.<p>Every window has an associated set of <i>attributes</i>, such as the <i>geometry</i> of the window (size and position), the background image, whether backing store has been requested for it, etc. The protocol includes requests for a client to inspect and change the attributes of a window.<p>Windows can be <code>InputOutput</code> or <code>InputOnly</code>. Windows that can be shown on the screen and used for drawing are of the first kind. The second kind of windows are never shown on the screen; they are used only to receive input.<p>The decorative frame and <!--del_lnk--> title bar (possibly including buttons) that is usually seen around windows are created by the <!--del_lnk--> window manager, not by the client that creates the window. The window manager also handles input related to these elements, such as resizing the window when the user clicks and drags the window frame. Clients usually operate on the window they created disregarding the changes operated by the window manager. A change it has to take into account is that <!--del_lnk--> re-parenting window managers, which almost all modern window managers are, change the parent of top-level windows to a window that is not the root. From the point of view of the core protocol, the window manager is a client, not different from the other applications.<p>Data about a window can be obtained running the <code>xwininfo</code> program. Passing it the <code>-tree</code> <!--del_lnk--> command-line argument, this program shows the tree of subwindows of a window, along with their identifiers and geometry data.<p><a id="Pixmaps_and_drawables" name="Pixmaps_and_drawables"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pixmaps and drawables</span></h2>
<p>A pixmap is a region of memory that can be used for drawing. Contrary to windows, the content of pixmaps is not automatically shown on the screen. However, the content of a pixmap (or a part of it) can be transferred to a window and vice versa. This allows for example to implement <!--del_lnk--> double buffering. Most of the graphical operations that can be done on windows can also be done on pixmaps.<p>Windows and pixmaps are collectively named <i>drawables</i>, and their content data resides on the server. A client can however request the content of a drawable to be transferred from the server to the client or vice versa.<p><a id="Graphic_contexts_and_fonts" name="Graphic_contexts_and_fonts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Graphic contexts and fonts</span></h2>
<p>The client can request a number of graphic operations, such clearing an area, copying an area into another, drawing points, lines, rectangles, and text. Beside clearing, all operations are possible on all drawables, both windows and pixmaps.<p>Most requests for graphic operations include a <i>graphic context</i>, which is a structure that contains the parameters of the graphic operations. A graphic context includes the foreground color, the background colour, the font of text, and other graphic parameters. When requesting a graphic operation, the client includes a graphic context. Clearly, not all parameters of the graphic context affects the operation: for example, the font does not affect drawing a line.<p>The core protocol specifies the use of server-side fonts. Such fonts are stored as <!--del_lnk--> files, and the server accesses them either directly via the local <!--del_lnk--> filesystem or via the network from another program called <i>font server</i>. Clients can request the list of fonts available to the server and can request a font to be loaded (if not already) or unloaded (if not used by other clients) by the server. A client can request general information about a font (for example, the font <!--del_lnk--> ascent) and the space a specific string takes when drawn with a specific font.<p>The names of the fonts are arbitrary strings at the level of the X Window core protocol. The X Logical Font Description Conventions specify how fonts should be named according to their attributes. These conventions also specify the values of optional properties that can be attached to fonts.<p>The <code>xlsfonts</code> program prints the list of fonts stored in the server. The <code>xfontsel</code> program shows the glyphs of fonts, and allow the user to select the name of a font for pasting it in another window.<p>The use of server-side fonts is currently considered deprecated in favour of client-side fonts Such fonts are rendered by the client, not by the server, with the support of the <!--del_lnk--> Xft2 or <!--del_lnk--> cairo libraries and the <!--del_lnk--> XRender extension. No specification on client-side fonts is given in the core protocol.<p><a id="Resources_and_identifiers" name="Resources_and_identifiers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2>
<p>Events are packets sent by the server to a client to communicate that something the client may be interested in has happened. For example, an event is sent when the user presses a key or clicks a mouse button. Events are not only used for input: for example, events are sent to indicate the creation of new subwindows of a given window.<p>Every event is relative to a window. For example, if the user clicks when the pointer is in a window, the event will be relative to that window. The event packet contains the identifier of that window.<p>A client can request the server to send an event to another client; this is used for communication between clients. Such an event is for example generated when a client requests the text that is currently selected: this event is sent to the client that is currently handling the window that holds the selection.<p>The <code>Expose</code> event is sent when an area of a window of destroyed content is made visible. The content of a window may be destroyed in some conditions, for example, if the window is covered and the server is not maintaining a backing store. The server generates an <code>Expose</code> event to notify the client that a part of the window has to be drawn.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:452px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28528.png.htm" title="An example of event: when a key is pressed in a window, an event is generated and sent to a client depending on its window event mask, which the client can change."><img alt="An example of event: when a key is pressed in a window, an event is generated and sent to a client depending on its window event mask, which the client can change." height="292" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xevents.svg" src="../../images/285/28528.png" width="450" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28528.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An example of event: when a key is pressed in a window, an event is generated and sent to a client depending on its window event mask, which the client can change.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Most kinds of events are sent only if the client previously stated an interest in them. This is because clients may only be interested in some kind of events. For example, a client may be interested in keyboard-related events but not in mouse-related events. Some kinds of events are however sent to clients even if they have not specifically requested them.<p>Clients specify which kinds of events they want to be sent by setting an attribute of a window. For example, in order to redraw a window when its content has been destroyed, a client must receive the <code>Expose</code> events, which inform it that the window needs to be drawn again. The client will however be sent <code>Expose</code> events only if the client has previously stated its interest in these events, which is done by appropriately setting the <i>event <!--del_lnk--> mask</i> attribute of the window.<p>Different clients can request events on the same window. They can even set different event masks on the same window. For example, a client may request only keyboard events on a window while another client requests only mouse events on the same window. This is possible because the server, for each window, maintains a separate event mask for each client. However, there are some kinds of events that can only be selected by one client at time for each window. In particular, these events report mouse button clicks and some changes related to window management.<p>The <code>xev</code> program shows the events relative to a window. In particular, <code>xev -id WID</code> requests all possible events relative to the window of identifier <code>WID</code> and prints them.<p><a id="Example" name="Example"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Example</span></h2>
<p>The following is a possible example of interaction between a server and a program that creates a window with a black box in it and exits on a keypress. In this example, the server does not send any reply because the client requests do not generate replies. These requests could generate errors.<ol>
<li>The client opens the connection with the server and sends the initial packet specifying the byte order it is using.<li>The server accepts the connection (no authorization is involved in this example) by sending an appropriate packet, which contains other information such as the identifier of the root window (e.g., <code>0x0000002b</code>) and which identifiers the client can create.<li>The client requests the creation of a default graphic context with identifier <code>0x00200000</code> (this request, like the other requests of this example, does not generate replies from the server)<li>The client requests the server to create a top-level window (that is, it specifies the parent to be the root window <code>0x0000002b</code>) with identifier <code>0x00200001</code>, size 200x200, position (10,10), etc.<li>The client requests a change in the attributes of the window <code>0x00200001</code>, specifying it is interested in receiving <code>Expose</code> and <code>KeyPress</code> events.<li>The client requests the window <code>0x00200001</code> to be mapped (shown on the screen)<li>When the window is made visible and its content has to be drawn, the server sends the client an <code>Expose</code> event<li>In response to this event, the client requests a box to be drawn by sending a <code>PolyFillRectangle</code> request with window <code>0x00200001</code> and graphic context <code>0x00200000</code></ol>
<p>If the window is covered by another window and uncovered again, assuming that backing store is not maintained:<ol>
<li>The server sends another <code>Expose</code> event to tell the client that the window has to be drawn again<li>The client redraws the window by sending a <code>PolyFillRectangle</code> request</ol>
<p>If a key is pressed:<ol>
<li>The server sends a <code>KeyPress</code> event to the client to notify it that the user has pressed a key<li>The client reacts appropriately (in this case, it terminates)</ol>
<p><a id="Colors" name="Colors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Colors</span></h2>
<p>At the protocol level, a colour is represented by a 32-bit unsigned integer, called a <i>pixelvalue</i>. The following elements affect the representation of colors:<ol>
<li>the <!--del_lnk--> colour depth<li>the <i>colormap</i>, which is a table containing red, green, and blue intensity values<li>the <i>visual type</i>, which specifies how the table is used to represent colors</ol>
<p>In the easiest case, the colormap is a table containing a <!--del_lnk--> RGB triple in each row. A pixelvalue <code>x</code> represents the colour contained in the <code>x</code>-th row of the table. If the client can change the entries in the colormap, this representation is identified by the <code>PseudoColor</code> <i>visual class</i>. The visual class <code>StaticColor</code> is similar, but the client cannot change the entries in the colormap.<p>There are a total of six possible visual classes, each one identifying a different way for representing an RGB triple with a pixelvalue. <code>PseudoColor</code> and <code>StaticColor</code> are two. <code>GrayScale</code> and <code>StaticGray</code> are other two, differing from them because only shades of gray are used.<p>The two remaining visual classes differ from the ones above because they break pixelvalues in three parts and use three separate tables for the red, green, and blue intensity. According to this colour representation, a pixelvalue is converted into an RGB triple as follows:<ol>
<li>the pixelvalue is seen as a sequence of <!--del_lnk--> bits<li>this sequence is broken in three parts<li>each of these three chunks of bits is seen as an integer and used as an index to find a value in each of three separate tables</ol>
<p>This mechanism requires the colormap to be composed of three separate tables, one for each <!--del_lnk--> primary colour. The result of the conversion is still a triple of intensity values. The visual classes using this representation are the <code>DirectColor</code> and <code>TrueColor</code> ones, differing on whether the client can change colormaps or not.<p>These six mechanisms for representing colors with pixelvalues all require some additional parameters to work. These parameters are collected into a <i>visual type</i>, which contains a visual class and other parameters of the representation of colors. Each server has a fixed set of visualtypes, each one associated with a numerical identifier. These identifiers are 32-bit unsigned integers, but are not necessarily different from identifiers of resources or atoms.<p>When the connection from a client is accepted, the acceptance packet sent by the server contains a sequence of blocks, each one containing information about a single screen. For each screen, the relative block contains a list of other blocks, each one relative to a specific colour depth that is supported by the screen. For each supported depth, this list contains a list of visualtypes. As a result, each screen is associated a number of possible depths, and each depth of each screen is associated a number of possible visual types. A given visual type can be used for more screens and for different depths.<p>For each visual type, the acceptance packet contains both its identifier and the actual parameters it contains (visual class, etc.) The client stores this information, as it cannot request it afterwards. Moreover, clients cannot change or create new visual types. Requests for creation of a new window include the depth and the identifier of the visual type to use for representing colors of this window.<p>Colormaps are used regardless of whether the hardware controlling the screen (e.g., a <!--del_lnk--> graphic card) uses a <!--del_lnk--> palette, which is a table that is also used for representing colors. Servers use colormaps even if the hardware is not using a palette. Whenever the hardware uses palettes, only a limited number of colormaps can be installed. In particular, a colormap is installed when the hardware shows colors according to it. A client can request the server to install a colormap. However, this may require the uninstalling of another colormap: the effect is that windows using the uninstalled colormap are not shown with the correct colour, an effect dubbed <i>colour flashing</i> or <i>technicolor</i>. This problem can be solved using <i>standard colormaps</i>, which are colormaps with a predictable association between pixelvalues and colors. Thanks to this property, standard colormaps can be used by different applications.<p>The creation of colormaps is regulated by the <!--del_lnk--> ICCCM convention. Standard colormaps are regulated by the ICCCM and by the <!--del_lnk--> Xlib specification.<p><a id="Atoms" name="Atoms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Atoms</span></h2>
<p>Atoms are 32-bit integers representing <!--del_lnk--> strings. The protocol designers introduced atoms because they represent strings in a short and fixed size: while a string may be arbitrarily long, an atom is always a 32-bit integer. That atoms are short was exploited by mandating their use in the kinds of packets that are likely to be sent many times with the same strings; this results in a more efficient use of the network. That atoms have fixed size was exploited by specifying a fixed size for events, namely 32 bytes: fixed-size packets can contain atoms, while they cannot contain long strings.<p>Precisely, atoms are identifiers of strings stored in the server. They are similar to the identifiers of resources (Windows, Pixmaps, etc.) but differ from them in two ways. First, the identifiers of atoms are chosen by the server, not by the client. In other words, when a client requests the creation of a new atom, it only sends the server the string to be stored, not its identifier; this identifier is chosen by the server and sent back as a reply to the client. The second important difference between resources and atoms is that atoms are not associated with clients. Once created, an atom survives until the server quits or resets (this is not the default behaviour of resources).<p>Atoms are identifiers and are therefore unique. However, an atom and a resource identifier can coincide. The string associated with an atom is called the <i>atom name</i>. The name of an atom cannot be changed after creation, and no two atoms can have the same name. As a result, the name of an atom is commonly used to indicate the atom: “the atom <code>ABCD</code>” means, more precisely, “the atom whose associated string is <code>ABCD</code>.” or “the atom whose name is <code>ABCD</code>.” A client can request the creation of a new atom and can request for the atom (the identifier) of a given string. Some atoms are <i>predefined</i> (created by the server with given identifier and string).<p>Atoms are used for a number of purposes, mostly related to communication between different clients connected to the same server. In particular, they are used in association with the properties of windows, which are described below.<p>The list of all atoms residing in a server can be printed out using the program <code>xlsatoms</code>. In particular, this program prints each atom (the identifier, that is, a number) with its name (its associated string).<p><a id="Properties" name="Properties"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Properties</span></h2>
<p>Every window has a predefined set of attributes and a set of properties, all stored in the server and accessible to the clients via appropriate requests. Attributes are data about the window, such as its size, position, background colour, etc. Properties are arbitrary pieces of data attached to a window. Contrary to attributes, properties have no meaning at the level of the X Window core protocol. A client can store arbitrary data in a property of a window.<p>A property is characterized by a name, a <!--del_lnk--> type, and a value. Properties are similar to <!--del_lnk--> variables in <!--del_lnk--> imperative programming languages, in that a client can create a new property with a given name and type and store a value in it. Properties are associated to windows: two properties with the same name can exist on two different windows while having different types and values.<p>The name, type, and value of a property are strings; more precisely, they are atoms, that is, strings stored in the server and accessible to the clients via identifiers. A client application can access a given property by using the identifier of the atom containing the name of the property.<p>Properties are mostly used for inter-client communication. For example, the property named <code>WM_NAME</code> (the property named by the atom whose associated string is <code>"WM_NAME"</code>) is used for storing the name of windows. <!--del_lnk--> Window managers typically read this property to display the name of windows in their title bar.<p>Some types of inter-client communication use properties of the root window. For example, according to the <!--del_lnk--> freedesktop window manager specification , window managers should store the identifier of the currently active window in the property named <code>_NET_ACTIVE_WINDOW</code> of the root window. The <!--del_lnk--> X resources, which contain <!--del_lnk--> parameters of programs, are also stored in properties of the root window; this way, all clients can access them, even if running on different computers.<p>The <code>xprop</code> program prints the properties of a given window; <code>xprop -root</code> prints the name, type, and value of each property of the root window.<p><a id="Mappings" name="Mappings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mappings</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28529.jpg.htm" title="This key always generates the same keycode, but the symbols /, 7, and { are associated to three different keysyms."><img alt="This key always generates the same keycode, but the symbols /, 7, and { are associated to three different keysyms." height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Akey.jpg" src="../../images/285/28529.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">This key always generates the same <i>keycode</i>, but the symbols <code>/</code>, <code>7</code>, and <code>{</code> are associated to three different <i>keysyms</i>.</div>
</div>
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<p>In the X Window System, every individual, physical key is associated a number in the range 8-255, called its <i>keycode</i>. A keycode only identifies a key, not a particular character or term (e.g., "Page Up") among the ones that may be printed on the key. Each one of these characters or terms is instead identified by a <i>keysym</i>. While a keycode only depends on the actual key that is pressed, a keysym may depend, for example, on whether the Shift key or another <!--del_lnk--> modifier was also pressed.<p>When a key is pressed or released, the server sends events of type <code>KeyPress</code> or <code>KeyRelease</code> to the appropriate clients. These events contain:<ol>
<li>the keycode of the pressed key<li>the current state of the modifiers (Shift, Control, etc.) and mouse buttons</ol>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28530.png.htm" title="How a keycode is translated into a keysym."><img alt="How a keycode is translated into a keysym." height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xkeyboard.svg" src="../../images/285/28530.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28530.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> How a keycode is translated into a keysym.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The server therefore sends the keycode and the modifier state without attempting to translate them into a specific character. It is a responsibility of the client to do this conversion. For example, a client may receive an event stating that a given key has been pressed while the Shift modifier was down. If this key would normally generate the character "a", the client (and not the server) associates this event to the character "A".<p>While the translation from keycodes to keysysms is done by the client, the table that represents this association is maintained by the server. Storing this table in a centralized place makes it accessible to all clients. Typical clients only requests this mapping and use it for decoding the keycode and modifiers field of a key event into a keysym. However, clients can also change this mapping at will.<p>A modifier is a key that, when pressed, changes the interpretation of other keys. A common modifier is the <!--del_lnk--> Shift key: when the key that normally produce a lowercase "a" is pressed together with Shift, it produces an uppercase "A". Other common modifiers are "Control", "Alt", and "Meta".<p>The X server works with at most eight modifiers. However, each modifier can be associated with more than one key. This is necessary because many keyboards have duplicated keys for some modifiers. For example, many keyboards have two "Shift" keys (one on the left and one on the right). These two keys produce two different keycodes when pressed, but the X server associates both with the "Shift" modifier.<p>For each of the eight modifiers, the X server maintains a list of the keycodes that it consider to be that modifier. As an example, if the list of the first modifier (the "Shift" modifier) contains the keycode <code>0x37</code>, then the key that produces the keycode <code>0x37</code> is considered a shift key by the X server.<p>The lists of modifier mappings is maintained by the X server but can be changed by every client. For example, a client can request the "<!--del_lnk--> F1 key" to be added to the list of "Shift" modifiers. From this point on, this key behaves like another shift modifier. However, the keycode corresponding to F1 is still generated when this key is pressed. As a result, F1 operates as it did before (for example, a help window may be opened when it is pressed), but also operates like the shift key (pressing "a" in a text editor while F1 is down adds "A" to the current text).<p>The X server maintains and uses a modifier mapping for the mouse buttons. However, the buttons can only be <!--del_lnk--> permuted. This is mostly useful for exchanging the leftmost and rightmost button for <!--del_lnk--> left-handed users.<p>The <code>xmodmap</code> program shows and changes the key, modifier, and mouse button mappings.<p><a id="Grabs" name="Grabs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Grabs</span></h2>
<p>A <i>grab</i> is a condition in which all keyboard or mouse events are sent to a single client. A client can request a grab of the keyboard, the mouse, or both: if the request is fulfilled by the server, all keyboard/mouse events are sent to the grabbing client until the grab is released. The other clients will not receive these events.<p>When requesting a grab, a client specifies a <i>grab window</i>: all events are sent to the grabbing client as if they were relative to the grab window. However, the other clients do not receive events even if they have selected them in the grab window. There are two kinds of grabs:<dl>
<dt>active <dd>the grab takes place immediately<dt>passive <dd>the grab takes place only when a previously specified key or mouse button is pressed and terminates when it is released</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:452px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28531.png.htm" title="If the pointer or the keyboard are frozen, the events they generate are blocked in a queue. If they are grabbed, their events are rerouted to the grabbing client instead of the window that normally receives them. Pointer events can be discarded depending on an event mask."><img alt="If the pointer or the keyboard are frozen, the events they generate are blocked in a queue. If they are grabbed, their events are rerouted to the grabbing client instead of the window that normally receives them. Pointer events can be discarded depending on an event mask." height="244" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xgrab.svg" src="../../images/285/28531.png" width="450" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28531.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> If the pointer or the keyboard are frozen, the events they generate are blocked in a queue. If they are grabbed, their events are rerouted to the grabbing client instead of the window that normally receives them. Pointer events can be discarded depending on an event mask.</div>
</div>
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<p>A client can estabilish a grab over the keyboard, the pointer, or both. A request for grabbing can include a request for <i>freezing</i> the keyboard or the pointer. The difference between grabbing and freezing is that grabbing changes the recipient of events, while freezing stops their delivery altogether. When a device is frozen, the events it generates are stored in a queue to be delivered as usual when the freeze is over.<p>For pointer events, an additional parameter affects the delivery of events: an event mask, which specifies which types of events are to be delivered and which ones are to be discarded.<p>The requests for grabbing include a field for specifying what happens to events that would be sent to the grabbing client even if it had not established the grab. In particular, the client can request them to be sent as usual or according to the grab. These two conditions are not the same as they may appear. For example, a client that would normally receive the keyboard events on a first window may request the keyboard to be grabbed by a second window. Events that would normally be sent to the first window may or may not be redirected to the grab window depending on the parameter in the grab request.<p>A client can also request the grab of the entire server. In this case, no request will be processed by the server except the ones coming from the grabbing client.<p><a id="Other" name="Other"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other</span></h2>
<p>Other requests and events in the core protocol exist. A first kind of requests are relative to the parent relationship between windows: a client can request to change the parent of a window, or can request information about the parenthood of windows. Other requests are relative to the <!--del_lnk--> selection, which is however mostly governed by other protocols. Other requests are about the <!--del_lnk--> input focus and the shape of the <!--del_lnk--> cursor. A client can also request the owner of a resource (window, pixmap, etc.) to be killed, which causes the server to terminate the connection with it. Finally, a client can send a <!--del_lnk--> no-operation request to the server.<p><a id="Extensions" name="Extensions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Extensions</span></h2>
<p>The X Window core protocol was designed to be extensible. The core protocol specifies a mechanism for querying the available extensions and how extension requests, events, and errors packets are made.<p>In particular, a client can request the list of all available extensions for data relative to a specific extension. The packets of extensions are similar to the packets of the core protocol. The core protocol specifies that request, event, and error packets contain an integer indicating its type (for example, the request for creating a new window is numbered 1). A range of these integers are reserved for extensions.<p><a id="Authorization" name="Authorization"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Authorization</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>When the client initially establishes a connection with the server, the server can reply by either accepting the connection, refusing it, or requesting <!--del_lnk--> authentication. An authentication request contains the name of the authentication method to use. The core protocol does not specify the authentication process, which depends on the kind of authentication used, other than it ends with the server either sending an acceptance or a refusal packet.<p>During the regular interaction between a client and a server, the only requests related to authentication are about the <i>host-based access method</i>. In particular, a client can request this method to be enabled and can request reading and changing the list of hosts (<!--del_lnk--> clients) that are authorized to connect. Typical applications do not use these requests; they are used by the <code>xhost</code> program to give a user or a <!--del_lnk--> script access to the host access list. The host-based access method is considered insecure.<p><a id="Xlib_and_other_client_libraries" name="Xlib_and_other_client_libraries"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Xlib and other client libraries</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Most client programs communicate with the server via the <!--del_lnk--> Xlib client library. In particular, most clients use libraries such as <!--del_lnk--> Xaw, <!--del_lnk--> Motif, <!--del_lnk--> GTK+, or <!--del_lnk--> Qt which in turn use Xlib for interacting with the server. The use of Xlib has the following effects:<ol>
<li>Xlib makes the client synchronous with respect to replies and events: <ol>
<li>the Xlib functions that send requests block until the appropriate replies, if any is expected, are received; in other words, an X Window client not using Xlib can send a request to the server and then do other operations while waiting for the reply, but a client using Xlib can only call an Xlib function that sends the request and wait for the reply, thus blocking the client while waiting for the reply (unless the client starts a new thread before calling the function);<li>while the server sends events <!--del_lnk--> asynchronously, Xlib stores events received by the client in a <!--del_lnk--> queue; the client program can only access them by explicitly calling functions of the X11 library; in other words, the client is forced to block or <!--del_lnk--> busy-wait if expecting an event.</ol>
<li>Xlib does not send requests to the server immediately, but stores them in a queue, called the <i>output buffer</i>; the requests in the output buffer are actually sent when: <ol>
<li>the program explicitely requests so by calling a library function such as <code>XFlush</code>;<li>the program calls a function that gives as a result something that involve a reply from the server, such as <code>XGetWindowAttributes</code>;<li>the program asks for an event in the event queue (for example, by calling <code>XNextEvent</code>) and the call blocks (for example, <code>XNextEvent</code> blocks if the queue is empty.)</ol>
</ol>
<p>Higher-level libraries such as <!--del_lnk--> Xt (which is in turn used by <!--del_lnk--> Xaw and <!--del_lnk--> Motif) allow the client program to specify the <!--del_lnk--> callback functions associated with some events; the library takes care of polling the event queue and calling the appropriate function when required; some events such as those indicating the need of redrawing a window are handled internally by Xt.<p>Lower-level libraries, such as <!--del_lnk--> XCB, provide asynchronous access to the protocol, allowing better latency hiding.<p><a id="What_the_X_Window_core_protocol_does_not_specify" name="What_the_X_Window_core_protocol_does_not_specify"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">What the X Window core protocol does not specify</span></h2>
<p>The X Window core protocol does not mandate over inter-client communication and does not specify how windows are used to form the visual elements that are common in graphical user interfaces (<!--del_lnk--> buttons, <!--del_lnk--> menus, etc.) Graphical user interface elements are defined by client libraries realizing <!--del_lnk--> widget toolkits. Inter-client communication is covered by other standards such as the <!--del_lnk--> ICCCM and <!--del_lnk--> freedesktop specifications .<p>Inter-client communication is relevant to <!--del_lnk--> selections, cut buffers, and drag-and-drop, which are the methods used by a user to transfer data from a window to another. Since the windows may be controlled by different programs, a protocol for exchanging this data is necessary. Inter-client communication is also relevant to <!--del_lnk--> X window managers, which are programs that control the appearance of the windows and the general <!--del_lnk--> look-and-feel of the graphical user interface. Yet another issue where inter-client communication is to some extent relevant is that of <!--del_lnk--> session management.<p>How a user session starts is another issue that is not covered by the core protocol. Usually, this is done automatically by the <!--del_lnk--> X display manager. The user can however also start a session manually running the <!--del_lnk--> xinit or <!--del_lnk--> startx programs.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_core_protocol"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Architecture.htm">Architecture</a></h3>
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<p>The <b>Xanadu Houses</b> were a series of <!--del_lnk--> experimental homes, built to showcase examples of <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computers</a> and <!--del_lnk--> automation in the home in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. The architectural project began in 1979, and during the early 1980s three houses were built in different parts of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>: one each in <!--del_lnk--> Kissimmee, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin Dells, <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin; and <!--del_lnk--> Gatlinburg, <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee. The houses included novel construction and design techniques, and became popular <!--del_lnk--> tourist attractions during the 1980s.<p>The Xanadu Houses were notable for being built with <!--del_lnk--> polyurethane insulation foam rather than <!--del_lnk--> concrete, for easy, fast, and cost-effective construction. They were <!--del_lnk--> ergonomically designed, and contained some of the earliest <!--del_lnk--> home automation systems. The Kissimmee Xanadu, designed by <!--del_lnk--> Roy Mason, was the most popular, and at its peak was attracting 1000 visitors every day. The Wisconsin Dells and Gatlinburg houses were closed and demolished in the early 1990s; the Kissimmee Xanadu House was closed in 1996 and demolished in October 2005.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Bob Masters, who conceived the Xanadu House concept, was an early pioneer in creating and living in houses built of rigid insulation. Before creating Xanadu House, Masters designed and created inflatable balloons to be used in the construction of the house. He was inspired by the <!--del_lnk--> Kesinger House in <a href="../../wp/d/Denver%252C_Colorado.htm" title="Denver, Colorado">Denver</a>, by architect Stan Nord Connolly, one of the earliest homes built from insulation. Masters built his first home in 1969 in two-and-a-half days during a blustery snowstorm, using the same methods later used to build the Xanadu houses. Masters was convinced that these dome-shaped homes built of foam could work for others, so he decided to create a series of show homes around the country. Masters’s business partner Tom Gussel chose the name "Xanadu" for the homes, a reference to Mongol Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Kublai Khan’s summer residence <!--del_lnk--> Xanadu, which is prominently featured in <a href="../../wp/s/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge.htm" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>’s famous poem <i><a href="../../wp/k/Kubla_Khan.htm" title="Kubla Khan">Kubla Khan</a></i>. "Xanadu" is also the name of the palace in the movie <i><a href="../../wp/c/Citizen_Kane.htm" title="Citizen Kane">Citizen Kane</a></i>.<p>The first Xanadu House was located in Wisconsin Dells. It was designed by architect Stewart Gordon in 1979, and was created by Bob Masters. It was 4,000 square feet in area, and featured a geodesic greenhouse. In its first summer, 100,000 people visited the new attraction. <p>The most popular Xanadu house was the second house, designed by architect <!--del_lnk--> Roy Mason. Masters had met Mason at a futures conference in <a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> in 1980. Mason had worked on a similar project prior to his involvement in the creation of the Kissimmee Xanadu House — an “experimental school” on a hill in <!--del_lnk--> Virginia which was also a foam structure. Both Mason and Masters were influenced by other experimental houses and building concepts which emphasized ergonomics, usability, and energy efficiency. These included apartments designed by architect <!--del_lnk--> Kisho Kurokawa featuring detachable building modules and more significant designs including a floating habitat made of fibreglass designed by Jacques Beufs for living on water surfaces, concepts for living underwater by architect Jacques Rougerie and the <!--del_lnk--> Don Metz house built in the 1970s which took advantage of the earth as insulation. Fifty years before Xanadu House, another "House of Tomorrow" at the Century Progress Exposition in Chicago introduced air conditioning, forced air heating, circuit breakers, electric eye doors, and other innovative features.<p>Mason believed Xanadu House would alter people's views of houses as little more than inanimate, passive shelters against the elements. "No one's really looked at the house as a total organic system," said Mason, who was also the architecture editor of <i>The Futurist</i> magazine. "The house can have intelligence and each room can have intelligence." The estimated cost of construction for one home was $300,000. Roy Mason also planned a low cost version which would cost $80,000, to show that homes using computers do not have to be expensive. The low cost Xanadu was never built.<p><!--del_lnk--> Disney opened the <!--del_lnk--> Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1982 as the <i>EPCOT Centre</i>. Masters and Mason decided to open a Xanadu House several miles away in Kissimmee. It eventually opened in 1983, after several years of research into the concepts Xanadu would use. It was over 6,000 square feet in size, considerably larger than the average house because it was built as a showcase. At its peak in the mid 1980s, more than 1,000 people were visiting the new Kissimmee attraction every day. A third Xanadu House was built in Gatlinburg, Tennessee. Shortly after the Xanadu Houses were built and opened as visitor attractions, <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> companies began to <a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" title="Advertising">advertise</a> them as the "home of the future" in brochures encouraging people to visit. <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/130/13090.jpg.htm" title="The exterior of the Xanadu House in Kissimmee, Florida in 2004"><img alt="The exterior of the Xanadu House in Kissimmee, Florida in 2004" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Adb.jpg" src="../../images/130/13090.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/130/13090.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The exterior of the Xanadu House in Kissimmee, Florida in 2004</div>
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<p>By the early 1990s, the Xanadu houses began to lose popularity because the technology they used was quickly becoming obsolete, and as a result the houses in Wisconsin and Tennessee were demolished, while the Xanadu House in Kissimmee continued to operate as a public visitor attraction until it was closed in 1996. It was consequently put up for sale in 1997 and was sold for office and storage use. By 2001 the Kissimmee house had suffered greatly from mold and mildew throughout the interior due to a lack of maintenance since being used as a visitor attraction, it was put up for sale again for an asking price of US$2 million. By October 2005, the last of the Xanadu houses had been demolished, following years of abandonment and use by the homeless. A condominium is planned for the Xanadu tract. <p><a id="Design" name="Design"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Design</span></h2>
<p>Xanadu House was ergonomically designed, with future occupants in mind. It used curved walls, painted concrete floors rather than carpets, a light colour scheme featuring cool colors throughout, and an open-floor plan linking rooms together without the use of doors. The modular exterior was reminiscent of a <!--del_lnk--> UFO, because of the domes built by spraying <!--del_lnk--> polyurethane foam onto removable molds. Xanadu House featured white painted walls, a <!--del_lnk--> communications pole, an outside public toilet, and a lake. It had at least two entrances, and large porthole-type windows. The interior of Xanadu was cave-like, featuring cramped rooms and low ceilings. The interior used a cream color for the walls, and a pale green for the floor. At the centre of the house was the living room, in which a large false tree supported the roof, and also acted as part of the built-in heating system.<p>Construction of the Xanadu house in <!--del_lnk--> Kissimmee, Florida, began with the pouring of a concrete slab base and the erection of a tension ring 40 feet in diameter to anchor the domed roof of what would become the "Great Room" of the house. A pre-shaped vinyl balloon was formed and attached to the ring, and then inflated by air pressure from large fans. Once the form was fully inflated, its interior surface was sprayed with quick-hardening polyurethane plastic foam. Spraying from the inside permitted work to continue even in wet or windy weather. The foam, produced by the sudden mixture of two chemicals that expand on contact to 30 times their original volume, hardened almost instantly. Repeated spraying produced a five-to-six-inch-thick structurally sound shell within a few hours. Once the foam cured, the plastic balloon form was removed to be used again. Once the second dome was completed and the balloon form removed, the two rooms were joined together by wire mesh which was also sprayed with foam to form a connecting gallery or hall. This process was repeated until the house was complete. Window, skylight, and door openings were cut and the frames foamed into place. Finally, the interior of the entire structure was sprayed with a 3/4 inch coating of fireproof material that also provided a smooth, easy-to-clean finish for walls and ceilings. The exterior was given a coat of white elastomeric paint as the final touch. <p><a id="Interior" name="Interior"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Interior</span></h2>
<p>The Xanadu Houses used an <!--del_lnk--> automated system controlled by <!--del_lnk--> Commodore <!--del_lnk--> microcomputers. The houses had 15 rooms each, of these the kitchen, party room, health spa, and bedrooms all used computers and other electronics equipment heavily in their design. For example, the bath could be filled with water at a set temperature on a specific date and time. The automation concepts which Xanadu House used are based on original ideas conceived in the 1950s and earlier. The Xanadu Houses aimed to bring the original concepts into a finished and working implementation. As visitors followed an electronic <!--del_lnk--> tour guide of the house, featuring constantly changing computer-graphics art shows on video screens in the family room, they learned about the different advantages and features of the Xanadu House including the security and fire systems.<p>The main features of the Xanadu House design included an "electronic hearth" featuring a television, games console, sound system, VCR and other electronics equipment, an automated kitchen including tele-shopping and housekeeping capabilities, a family room with several television sets to watch multiple channels at once, a telecommunications antenna, computer-controlled heating and computer-controlled electricity and gas usage. <p>Xanadu House's kitchen was automated by "autochef", an electronic dietitian which planned well-balanced meals. Meals could be cooked automatically at a set date and time. If new food was required, it could either be obtained via tele-shopping through the computer system or from Xanadu's own greenhouse. The kitchen's computer terminal could also be used for the household calendar, records, and home book keeping. <p>The Xanadu homes also suggested a way to do <a href="../../wp/b/Business.htm" title="Business">business</a> at home with the <!--del_lnk--> office room and the use of computers for electronic mail, access to stock and commodities trading, and news services.<p>Computers in the master bedroom allowed for other parts of the house to be controlled. This eliminated chores such as having to go downstairs to turn off the coffee pot after one had gone to bed. The children's bedroom featured the latest in teaching microcomputers and "videotexture" windows, whose realistic computer-generated landscapes could shift in a flash from scenes of real places anywhere in the world to imaginary scenes. The beds at the right of the room retreated into the wall to save space and cut down on clutter; the study niches were just the right size for curling up all alone with a pocket computer game or a book. <p>The "great room" was the largest room in the entire Xanadu home, and included a <!--del_lnk--> fountain, small <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> set, and a <!--del_lnk--> video projector. Nearby was the dining room, featuring a glass table with a curved seat surrounding it; behind the seats was a large window covering the entire wall. The family room featured television monitors and other <a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" title="Electronics">electronic</a> <!--del_lnk--> equipment covering the walls. The builders called the <!--del_lnk--> entertainment centre an "electronic hearth". It was planned as a gathering place for family members and relatives, just as is a traditional hearth with a <!--del_lnk--> fireplace. <p>In the spa, people could relax in a whirlpool, sun sauna, and environmentally-controlled habitat, and even exercise with the help of spa monitors. One of the advantages of using computers in the home includes security. In Xanadu House, a <!--del_lnk--> HAL-type voice would speak when someone entered to make the intruder think someone was home.<p><a id="Disadvantages" name="Disadvantages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Disadvantages</span></h2>
<p>An initial concern was that the cost of <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> would be excessive, since several computers would be running all day, all year. However, Mason figured that a central computer could control the energy consumption of all the other computers in the house. Many believed using computers in the home was a disadvantage, because if the computer failed, occupants would be restricted from getting food, having a bath, and even leaving the house if doors are locked. Many also resisted the concept of computers in the home because of concerns people would become less social. Those in favour argued that computers improved security and helped get household chores such as cleaning done quickly.<p>While the majority of people who visited a Xanadu House felt at ease because of the organic design, others felt that the concept was not viable because it was badly affected by the weather. Other architects and designers saw Xanadu House as an unprofessional <!--del_lnk--> architectural design because of the materials used, and the odd use of colors and shapes inside the home. Designers continued to build conventionally-shaped homes, dismissing Xanadu House as an unsuccessful concept. Many disliked Xanadu House as a practical home because of its low ceilings, curved walls, and cramped rooms.<p><a id="Xanadu_in_print" name="Xanadu_in_print"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Xanadu in print</span></h2>
<p>A book about Xanadu House entitled <i>Xanadu: The Computerized Home of Tomorrow and How It Can Be Yours Today!</i> and written by Roy Mason, Lane Jennings and Robert Evans was published by Acropolis Books in November 1983. The book explains how computers can be used in the home, including many concepts in use today such as integrated <!--del_lnk--> media centers, <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">televisions</a> and <!--del_lnk--> sound systems; it also describes how the Xanadu Houses were designed and constructed, including interviews with Bob Masters. The book includes several photos of the Xanadu Houses, and discusses several other similar examples of architecture that used rigid insulation or an automated computer system.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanadu_House"</div>
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<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14891.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xe-TableImage.png" src="../../images/148/14891.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">General</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>xenon, Xe, 54</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> noble gases</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18, <!--del_lnk--> 5, <!--del_lnk--> p</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>colorless<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14892.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xe%2C54.jpg" src="../../images/148/14892.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 131.293<!--del_lnk--> (6) g/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">Kr</a>] 4d<sup>10</sup> 5s<sup>2</sup> 5p<sup>6</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 18, 8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Physical properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" title="Gas">gas</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>(0 °C, 101.325 kPa)<br /> 5.894 g/L</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>161.4 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (-111.7 °<!--del_lnk--> C, -169.1 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>165.03 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (-108.12 °<!--del_lnk--> C, -162.62 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Critical point</td>
<td>289.77 <!--del_lnk--> K, 5.841 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>2.27 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>12.64 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 20.786 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
<tr align="center">
<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>83</td>
<td>92</td>
<td>103</td>
<td>117</td>
<td>137</td>
<td>165</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>cubic face centered</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>0, +1, +2, +4, +6, +8<br /> (rarely more than 0)<br /> (weakly <!--del_lnk--> acidic oxide)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>2.6 (Pauling scale)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies</td>
<td>1st: 1170.4 <!--del_lnk--> kJ/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2nd: 2046.4 kJ/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 3099.4 kJ/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 108 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 130 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Van der Waals radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 216 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>nonmagnetic</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 5.65 mW·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound</td>
<td>(liquid) 1090 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-63-3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of xenon</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>124</sup>Xe</td>
<td>0.1%</td>
<td>1.1×10<sup>17</sup><!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε ε</td>
<td>no data</td>
<td><sup>124</sup><a href="../../wp/t/Tellurium.htm" title="Tellurium">Te</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>125</sup>Xe</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>16.9 <!--del_lnk--> h</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>1.652</td>
<td><sup>125</sup><a href="../../wp/i/Iodine.htm" title="Iodine">I</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>126</sup>Xe</td>
<td>0.09%</td>
<td colspan="4">Xe is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 72 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>127</sup>Xe</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>36.4 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>0.662</td>
<td><sup>127</sup><a href="../../wp/i/Iodine.htm" title="Iodine">I</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>128</sup>Xe</td>
<td>1.91%</td>
<td colspan="4">Xe is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 74 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>129</sup>Xe</td>
<td>26.4%</td>
<td colspan="4">Xe is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 75 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>130</sup>Xe</td>
<td>4.1%</td>
<td colspan="4">Xe is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 76 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>131</sup>Xe</td>
<td>21.29%</td>
<td colspan="4">Xe is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 77 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>132</sup>Xe</td>
<td>26.9%</td>
<td colspan="4">Xe is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 78 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>133</sup>Xe</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>5.243 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Beta<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.427</td>
<td><sup>133</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Caesium.htm" title="Caesium">Cs</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>134</sup>Xe</td>
<td>10.4%</td>
<td colspan="4">Xe is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 80 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>135</sup>Xe</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>9.10 <!--del_lnk--> h</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Beta<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>1.16</td>
<td><sup>135</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Caesium.htm" title="Caesium">Cs</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>136</sup>Xe</td>
<td>8.9%</td>
<td>2.36×10<sup>21</sup><!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Beta<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>no data</td>
<td><sup>136</sup><a href="../../wp/b/Barium.htm" title="Barium">Ba</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#c0ffff; color:green"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Xenon</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈzɛnɒn, ˈziːnɒn/</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Xe</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 54. A colorless, heavy, odorless <!--del_lnk--> noble gas, xenon occurs in the earth's atmosphere in trace amounts and was part of the first <!--del_lnk--> noble gas compound synthesized. <p>
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</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Xenon is a member of the zero-<!--del_lnk--> valence elements that are called <!--del_lnk--> noble or <!--del_lnk--> inert <a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" title="Gas">gases</a>, however, "inert" is not a completely accurate description of this <!--del_lnk--> chemical series since some noble gas compounds have been synthesized. In a <!--del_lnk--> gas filled tube, xenon emits a <!--del_lnk--> blue glow when the gas is excited by electrical discharge. Using tens of <!--del_lnk--> gigapascals of <!--del_lnk--> pressure, xenon has been forced into a metallic phase. Xenon can also form <!--del_lnk--> clathrates with water when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14893.jpg.htm" title="Xenon in shaped Geissler tubes."><img alt="Xenon in shaped Geissler tubes." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:XeTube.jpg" src="../../images/148/14893.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14893.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Xenon in <!--del_lnk--> shaped Geissler tubes.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>This gas is most widely and most famously used in light-emitting devices called <!--del_lnk--> Xenon flash lamps, which are used in <!--del_lnk--> photographic flashes, stroboscopic lamps, to excite the <!--del_lnk--> active medium in <!--del_lnk--> lasers which then generate <!--del_lnk--> coherent light, to produce laser power for <!--del_lnk--> inertial confinement fusion, in <!--del_lnk--> bactericidal lamps (rarely), and in certain dermatological uses. Continuous, short-arc, high pressure <!--del_lnk--> Xenon arc lamps have a colour temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are used in solar simulators, some projection systems, automotive <!--del_lnk--> HID headlights and other specialized uses. They are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet light and they have intense emissions in the near infrared, which are used in some night vision systems. Other uses of Xenon:<ul>
<li>Has been used as a <!--del_lnk--> general anaesthetic, though the cost is prohibitive.<li>In nuclear energy applications it is used in bubble chambers, probes, and in other areas where a high molecular weight and inert nature is a desirable quality.<li><!--del_lnk--> Perxenates are used as oxidizing agents in <!--del_lnk--> analytical chemistry.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> isotope Xe-133 is useful as a <!--del_lnk--> radioisotope.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hyperpolarized <!--del_lnk--> MRI of the lungs and other tissues using <sup>129</sup>Xe.<li>Preferred fuel for <!--del_lnk--> Ion propulsion because of high molecular weight, ease of ionization, store as a liquid at near room temperature (but at high pressure) yet easily converts back into a gas to fuel the engine, inert nature makes it environmentally friendly and less corrosive to an ion engine than other fuels such as <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528element%2529.htm" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> or <!--del_lnk--> cesium. Europe's <!--del_lnk--> SMART-1 spacecraft utilized Xenon in its engines. <li>Is commonly used in protein crystallography. Applied at high pressure (~600 psi) to a protein crystal, xenon atoms bind in predominantly hydrophobic cavities, often creating a high quality, isomorphous, heavy-atom derivative.</ul>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Xenon (<!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>ξένος</i> meaning "stranger") was discovered in England by <!--del_lnk--> William Ramsay and <!--del_lnk--> Morris Travers on <!--del_lnk--> July 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1898, shortly after their discovery of the elements <a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">krypton</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Neon.htm" title="Neon">neon</a>. They found it in the residue left over from evaporating components of <!--del_lnk--> liquid air.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>Xenon is a trace gas in <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, occurring in one part in twenty million. The element is obtained commercially through extraction from the residues of liquefied air. This noble gas is naturally found in gases emitted from some <!--del_lnk--> mineral springs. Xe-133 and Xe-135 are synthesized by <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutron</a> irradiation within air-cooled <!--del_lnk--> nuclear reactors.<p><a id="Extraction" name="Extraction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Extraction</span></h2>
<p>Like the noble gas <a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">krypton</a> , xenon can also be extracted by <!--del_lnk--> fractional distillation or liquefaction of liquid air and by selective <!--del_lnk--> adsorption on <!--del_lnk--> activated carbon.<p><a id="Compounds" name="Compounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Compounds</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14894.png.htm" title="Xenon tetrafluoride"><img alt="Xenon tetrafluoride" height="74" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xenon-tetrafluoride-3D-vdW.png" src="../../images/148/14894.png" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14894.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Xenon tetrafluoride</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Xenon and the other noble gases had for a long time been considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to form <!--del_lnk--> compounds. However, in 1962 at the <!--del_lnk--> University of British Columbia, the first xenon compound, <!--del_lnk--> xenon hexafluoroplatinate, was synthesized. Now, many compounds of xenon are known, including <!--del_lnk--> xenon difluoride, <!--del_lnk--> xenon tetrafluoride, <!--del_lnk--> xenon hexafluoride, <!--del_lnk--> xenon tetroxide, <!--del_lnk--> xenon hydrate, xenon deuterate, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">sodium</a> <!--del_lnk--> perxenate. A highly <!--del_lnk--> explosive compound <!--del_lnk--> xenon trioxide has also been made. There are at least 80 xenon compounds in which <a href="../../wp/f/Fluorine.htm" title="Fluorine">fluorine</a> or <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> is bonded to xenon. Some compounds of xenon are <a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">colored</a> but most are colorless.<p>Recently at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Helsinki in <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a>, a group of scientists (M. Räsänen <i>et al.</i>) prepared HXeH, HXeOH, and HXeCCH (<!--del_lnk--> xenon dihydride, <!--del_lnk--> xenon hydride-hydroxide, and <!--del_lnk--> hydroxenoacetylene). They are stable up to 40<!--del_lnk--> K.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14895.gif.htm" title="XeF4 crystals. 1962."><img alt="XeF4 crystals. 1962." height="259" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xenon_tetrafluoride.gif" src="../../images/148/14895.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14895.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> XeF<sub>4</sub> crystals. 1962.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>Naturally occurring xenon is made of seven <!--del_lnk--> stable and two slightly <!--del_lnk--> radioactive <!--del_lnk--> isotopes. Beyond these stable forms, there are 20 unstable isotopes that have been studied. Xe-129 is produced by <!--del_lnk--> beta decay of <a href="../../wp/i/Iodine.htm" title="Iodine">I</a>-129 (<!--del_lnk--> half-life: 16 million years); Xe-131m, Xe-133, Xe-133m, and Xe-135 are some of the <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_fission.htm" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> products of both <a href="../../wp/u/Uranium.htm" title="Uranium">U</a>-235 and <a href="../../wp/p/Plutonium.htm" title="Plutonium">Pu</a>-239, and therefore used as indicators of nuclear explosions.<p>The artificial isotope Xe-135 is of considerable significance in the operation of <!--del_lnk--> nuclear fission reactors. Xe-135 has a huge cross section for thermal neutrons, 2.65x10<sup>6</sup> <!--del_lnk--> barns, so it acts as a neutron absorber or "poison" that can slow or stop the chain reaction after a period of operation. This was discovered in the earliest nuclear reactors built by the American <!--del_lnk--> Manhattan Project for <a href="../../wp/p/Plutonium.htm" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> production. Fortunately the designers had made provisions in the design to increase the reactor's reactivity (the number of neutrons per fission that go on to fission other atoms of nuclear fuel).<p>Relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes are also found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of this fission gas from cracked fuel rods or fissioning of uranium in cooling water. The concentrations of these isotopes are still usually low compared to naturally occurring radioactive noble gases such as Rn-222.<p>Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, Xe isotope ratios in <!--del_lnk--> meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the <!--del_lnk--> formation of the solar system. The I-Xe method of <!--del_lnk--> dating gives the time elapsed between <!--del_lnk--> nucleosynthesis and the condensation of a solid object from the <!--del_lnk--> solar nebula. Xenon isotopes are also a powerful tool for understanding terrestrial differentiation. Excess Xe-129 found in <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> well gases from <!--del_lnk--> New Mexico was believed to be from the decay of <!--del_lnk--> mantle-derived gases soon after Earth's formation.<p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<p>The gas can be safely kept in normal sealed <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> containers at <!--del_lnk--> standard temperature and pressure. Xenon is non-<!--del_lnk--> toxic, but many of its compounds are toxic due to their strong <!--del_lnk--> oxidative properties.<p>Because xenon is denser than air, the speed of sound in xenon is slower than that in air, and when inhaled, lowers the resonant frequencies of the <!--del_lnk--> vocal tract. This produces a characteristic lowered voice pitch, opposite the high-pitched voice caused by inhalation of <a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a>. Like helium, xenon does not satisfy the body's need for oxygen and is a simple <!--del_lnk--> asphyxiant; consequently, many universities no longer allow the voice stunt as a general chemistry demonstration. As xenon is expensive, the gas <!--del_lnk--> sulfur hexafluoride, which is similar to xenon in molecular weight (146 vs 131), is generally used in this stunt, although it too is an <!--del_lnk--> asphyxiant.<p>A myth exists that xenon is too heavy for the lungs to expel unassisted, and that after inhaling xenon, it is necessary to bend over completely at the waist to allow the excess gas to "spill" out of the body. In fact, the lungs mix gases very effectively and rapidly, such that xenon would be purged from the lungs within a breath or two. There is, however, a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities: it may sit invisibly in a container, and if a person enters a container filled with an odorless, colorless gas, they may find themselves breathing it unknowingly. Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern, though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yagan</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13105.jpg.htm" title="Portrait of Yagan by George Cruikshank.This portrait was painted from observations of Yagan's severed head, which had shrunk substantially during smoking. According to George Fletcher Moore, it bears little resemblance to the living face of Yagan, which was "plump, with a burly-headed look about it.""><img alt="Portrait of Yagan by George Cruikshank.This portrait was painted from observations of Yagan's severed head, which had shrunk substantially during smoking. According to George Fletcher Moore, it bears little resemblance to the living face of Yagan, which was "plump, with a burly-headed look about it."" height="301" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yagan.jpg" src="../../images/131/13105.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13105.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Portrait of Yagan</i> by <!--del_lnk--> George Cruikshank.<br /> This portrait was painted from observations of Yagan's severed head, which had shrunk substantially during smoking. According to <!--del_lnk--> George Fletcher Moore, it bears little resemblance to the living face of Yagan, which was "plump, with a burly-headed look about it."</div>
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<p><b>Yagan</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈjæɪgən]</span>; rhymes with <i>pagan</i>) (c. 1795–<!--del_lnk--> 11 July <!--del_lnk--> 1833) was a <!--del_lnk--> Noongar warrior who played a key part in early <!--del_lnk--> indigenous Australian resistance to <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> settlement and rule in the area of <a href="../../wp/p/Perth%252C_Western_Australia.htm" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth, Western Australia</a>. After he led a series of attacks in which white settlers were killed, a <!--del_lnk--> bounty was offered for his capture dead or alive, and he was shot dead by a young settler. Yagan's death has passed into <!--del_lnk--> Western Australian <a href="../../wp/f/Folklore.htm" title="Folklore">folklore</a> as a symbol of the unjust and sometimes brutal treatment of the indigenous peoples of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> by colonial settlers.<p>Yagan's head was removed and brought to <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, where it was exhibited as an "<a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropological</a> curiosity". It spent over a century in storage at a museum before being buried in an unmarked grave in 1964. In 1993 its location was identified, and four years later <!--del_lnk--> it was exhumed and repatriated to Australia. Since then, the issue of its proper reburial has become a source of great controversy and conflict amongst the indigenous people of the Perth area. To date, the head remains unburied.<p>
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</script><a id="Yagan.27s_life" name="Yagan.27s_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Yagan's life</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h3>
<p>A member of the <!--del_lnk--> Whadjuk Noongar people, Yagan belonged to a tribe of around 60 people whose name, according to <!--del_lnk--> Robert Lyon, was <i><!--del_lnk--> Beeliar</i>. Lyon's information is not entirely reliable, however, and it is now thought that the Beeliar people may have been a family subgroup of a larger tribe that <!--del_lnk--> Daisy Bates called <i>Beelgar</i>. According to Lyon, the Beeliar people occupied the land south of the <!--del_lnk--> Swan and <!--del_lnk--> Canning Rivers, as far south as <!--del_lnk--> Mangles Bay. It is evident, however, that the group had customary land usage rights over a much larger area than this, extending north as far as <!--del_lnk--> Lake Monger and north-east to the <!--del_lnk--> Helena River. The group also had an unusual degree of freedom to move over their neighbours' land, possibly due to kinship and marriage ties with neighbouring tribes.<p>Yagan is thought to have been born around 1795. His father was <!--del_lnk--> Midgegooroo, an elder of the Beeliar people; his mother was presumably one of Midgegooroo's two wives. Yagan was probably a <i>Ballaroke</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> Noongar classification. According to Green, he had a wife and two children, but most other sources state that he was unmarried and childless. Described as taller than average with an impressive burly physique, Yagan had a distinctive tribal tattoo on his right shoulder which identified him as "a man of high degree in tribal law". He was generally acknowledged to be the most physically powerful of his tribe.<p><a id="Relations_with_settlers" name="Relations_with_settlers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Relations with settlers</span></h3>
<p>Yagan would have been about 35 years old in <!--del_lnk--> 1829 when <!--del_lnk--> British settlers landed in the area and established the <!--del_lnk--> Swan River Colony. For the first two years of the colony, relations between settlers and Noongars were generally amicable, as there was little competition for resources, and the Noongars welcomed the white settlers as <i>Djanga</i>, the returned spirits of the Noongar dead. As time passed, however, conflicts between the two cultures gradually became more frequent. The settlers took the view that the Noongars were nomads with no claim to the land over which they roamed, and so they considered themselves free to fence off land for grazing and farming. As more and more land was fenced off, the Noongars were increasingly denied access to their traditional hunting grounds and sacred sites, so by 1832 Yagan's family group was unable to approach the Swan or Canning Rivers without danger, because <!--del_lnk--> land grants lined the banks. The Noongars' response to the loss of their hunting and gathering grounds was to take the settlers' crops and spear their <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>. They also developed a taste for the settlers' food, and their constant <!--del_lnk--> theft of <!--del_lnk--> flour and other food supplies became a serious problem for the colony. Another cause of conflict was the Noongar practice of <!--del_lnk--> firestick farming, <!--del_lnk--> firing <!--del_lnk--> the bush to flush out game and encourage germination of undergrowth, which threatened the settlers' crops and houses.<p>The first significant Aboriginal resistance to white settlement in Western Australia occurred in December 1831 after Thomas Smedley, a servant of farmer Archibald Butler, ambushed some natives who were raiding a <a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" title="Potato">potato</a> patch, and shot dead one of Yagan's family group. A few days later, Yagan, Midgegooroo and others stormed the farmhouse and, finding the door locked, began to break through the mud-brick walls. Inside was another of Butler's servants, Erin Entwhistle, and his two sons Enion and Ralph. After hiding his sons under the bed, Entwhistle opened the door to parley and was instantly speared to death by Yagan and Midgegooroo. Noongar tribal law required that murders be avenged by the killing of a member of the murderer's tribal group, not necessarily the murderer. The spearing of Entwhistle may therefore be understood as retribution under tribal law, as the Noongars would have thought of Butler's household as a family group. The white settlers, however, saw the act as the unprovoked murder of an innocent man.<p>In June 1832 Yagan led a party of Aborigines in an attack on two labourers who were sowing a field of <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a> alongside the Canning River near <!--del_lnk--> Kelmscott. One of the men escaped, but the other, William Gaze, was wounded and later died, possibly through infection of the spear wound. In response to this, Yagan was declared an outlaw with a reward of £20 offered for his capture. Yagan managed to avoid capture until early October 1832, when a group of fishermen enticed Yagan and two of his friends into their boat, then pushed off into deep water. The three Noongars were initially taken to the Perth guardhouse, then later transferred to the <!--del_lnk--> Round House at Fremantle. Yagan was sentenced to death, but he was saved by the intercession of a settler named <!--del_lnk--> Robert Lyon, who argued that Yagan was defending his land against invasion, and was therefore not a criminal but a <!--del_lnk--> prisoner of war, and was entitled to be treated as such. At the recommendation of <!--del_lnk--> John Septimus Roe, Yagan and his friends were instead exiled on <!--del_lnk--> Carnac Island at the <!--del_lnk--> Governor's pleasure, under the supervision of Lyon and two soldiers.<p>Lyon was convinced that he could civilise Yagan and convert him to <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and hoped to use his tribal standing to obtain the Noongars' acceptance of white authority. To this end Lyon spent many hours with Yagan learning his language and customs. However, his efforts were cut short when, after a month, Yagan and his companions escaped by stealing an unattended <!--del_lnk--> dinghy and rowing to <!--del_lnk--> Woodman Point on the mainland. No attempt was made to recapture the men; apparently, the Government considered that they had been sufficiently punished.<p>In January 1833 two Noongars, Gyallipert and Manyat, visited Perth from <!--del_lnk--> King George Sound, where relations between settlers and natives were amicable. Two settlers, Richard Dale and George Smythe, arranged for the men to meet a party of local Noongars in the hope that it might encourage the same friendly relations in the Swan River Colony. On <!--del_lnk--> 26 January Yagan led a group of ten formally armed Noongars in greeting the two men near Lake Monger. The men exchanged weapons and held a <!--del_lnk--> corroboree, though neither group seemed to understand the language of the other. Yagan and Gyallipert then competed at spear throwing, Yagan striking a walking stick from a distance of 25 metres.<p>Gyallipert and Manyat remained in Perth for some time, and on <!--del_lnk--> 3 March, Yagan obtained permission to hold another corroboree, this time in the Post Office garden in Perth. The Perth and King George Sound men met at dusk, chalked their bodies, and performed a number of dances including a <a href="../../wp/k/Kangaroo.htm" title="Kangaroo">kangaroo</a> hunt dance. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Perth Gazette</i> wrote that Yagan "was master of ceremonies and acquitted himself with infinite grace and dignity".<p>During February and March, Yagan was involved in a series of minor conflicts with settlers. In February settler William Watson complained that Yagan had pushed open his door, demanded a gun, and taken <!--del_lnk--> handkerchiefs, and that Watson had had to give him and his companions flour and bread. The following month, he was among a group who received biscuits from a military contingent under Lieutenant Norcott; when Norcott tried to restrict his supply, Yagan threatened him with his spear. Later that month, Yagan was with a group of Noongars that entered Watson's house while he was away. The group left after Watson's wife called on neighbours for help, but were brought back the next day to be lectured about their behaviour by Captain Ellis. The constant conflict prompted <i>The Perth Gazette</i> to remark on "the reckless daring of this desperado who sets his life at a pin's fee ... For the most trivial offence ... he would take the life of any man who provoked him. He is at the head and front of any mischief."<p><a id="Wanted_dead_or_alive" name="Wanted_dead_or_alive"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wanted dead or alive</span></h3>
<p>On the night of <!--del_lnk--> 29 April, a party of Noongars broke into a Fremantle store to steal flour and were fired upon by the caretaker Peter Chidlow. Domjum, a brother of Yagan, was badly injured and died in jail a few days later. The rest of the party then moved from Fremantle to <!--del_lnk--> Preston Point, where Yagan was heard to vow vengeance for the death. Between fifty and sixty Noongars then gathered at <!--del_lnk--> Bull Creek, within sight of High Road, where they met a party of settlers who were loading carts with provisions. Later that day, the group ambushed the lead cart, spearing to death two white men, Tom and John Velvick. Tribal law only required a single death; the native Munday later explained that both were speared because they had previously mistreated Aboriginal people. The Velvicks had previously been convicted for assaulting Aboriginal people and coloured seamen. Alexandra Hasluck has also argued that a desire to steal the provisions was an important motive in the attack , but this has been refuted elsewhere .<p>For the killing of the Velvicks, the Lieutenant-Governor <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Irwin declared Yagan, Midgegooroo and Munday outlaws, offering rewards of £20 each for the capture of Midgegooroo and Munday, and a reward of £30 for Yagan's capture dead or alive. Munday successfully appealed against his proscription. Midgegooroo and Yagan must have realised that they would be hunted by settlers, as their group immediately moved from their territory north towards the Helena Valley. Four days after the murder, Midgegooroo was captured on the Helena River, and after a brief, informal trial was <!--del_lnk--> executed by <!--del_lnk--> firing squad. Yagan, however, remained at large for over two months.<p>Late in May, Yagan was seen by <!--del_lnk--> George Fletcher Moore on his property in <!--del_lnk--> Upper Swan, and the two held a conversation in <!--del_lnk--> pidgin <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>. Yagan then spoke in his own language; Moore wrote:<blockquote>
<p>Yagan stepped forward and leaning with his left hand on my shoulder while he gesticulated with the right, delivered a sort of recitation, looking earnestly into my face. I regret that I could not understand it. I thought from the tone and manner that the purport was this:-<br /> You came to our country; you have driven us from our haunts, and disturbed us in our occupations. As we walk in our own country we are fired upon by the white men; why should the white men treat us so?</blockquote>
<p>Since Moore had little knowledge of Yagan's native language, Hasluck suggests that this conjecture is probably more indicative of "a feeling of conscience on the part of the white men" than an accurate rendering of Yagan's state of mind.<p>Yagan then asked Moore whether Midgegooroo was dead or alive. Moore gave no reply, but a servant answered that Midgegooroo was a prisoner on Carnac Island. Yagan responded with a warning: "White man shoot Midgegooroo, Yagan kill three." Moore made no attempt to capture Yagan other than to report the sighting to the nearest magistrate; he wrote, "The truth is, every one wishes him taken, but no one likes to be the captor ... there is something in his daring which one is forced to admire."<p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13106.png.htm" title="Map of skirmish area showing gravesite and Henry Bull's mill"><img alt="Map of skirmish area showing gravesite and Henry Bull's mill" height="177" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yagan-Belhus.png" src="../../images/131/13106.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13106.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of skirmish area showing gravesite and Henry Bull's mill</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 11 July <!--del_lnk--> 1833, two teenage brothers named William and James Keates were herding cattle along the Swan River north of <!--del_lnk--> Guildford when a group of Noongars approached on their way to collect their rations of flour from <!--del_lnk--> Henry Bull's house. Being on friendly terms with Yagan, the Keates brothers suggested he remain with them to avoid arrest. Yagan remained with them all morning, during which time the boys decided to kill Yagan and claim the reward. William Keates tried once to shoot him but the gun stopped at half-cock; no further opportunity arose before they were rejoined by the other natives. When the natives attempted to depart, the Keates took their last opportunity. William Keates shot Yagan, and James shot another native, Heegan, in the act of throwing his spear. Both boys then ran for the river, but William was overtaken and speared to death. James escaped by swimming the river and returned shortly afterwards with a party of armed settlers from Bull's estate.<p>Moore records that a party of soldiers passed by the area shortly after the incident, and speculates that they must have "frightened the natives (I supposed) or they would have carried off the bodies". When the party of settlers arrived, they found Yagan dead and Heegan dying. Heegan "was groaning and his brains were partly out when the party came, and whether humanity or brutality, a man put a gun to his head and blew it to pieces." Yagan's head was then cut from his body, and his back was skinned to obtain his tribal markings as a trophy. The bodies were buried a short distance from where they had been killed.<p>James Keates successfully claimed the reward, but his actions were widely criticised; <i>The Perth Gazette</i> referred to Yagan's killing as "a wild and treacherous act ... it is revolting to hear this lauded as a meritorious deed." Keates departed the colony the following month; the reasons are unknown, but it is possible that he left from fear of being murdered in retaliation.<p><a id="Yagan.27s_head" name="Yagan.27s_head"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Yagan's head</span></h2>
<p><a id="Exhibition_and_burial" name="Exhibition_and_burial"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Exhibition and burial</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13107.png.htm" title="A portion of George Fletcher Moore's handwritten diary, showing sketches of Yagan's head."><img alt="A portion of George Fletcher Moore's handwritten diary, showing sketches of Yagan's head." height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yagan%27s_head_from_Moore%27s_diary.png" src="../../images/131/13107.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13107.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A portion of <!--del_lnk--> George Fletcher Moore's handwritten diary, showing sketches of Yagan's head.</div>
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<p>Yagan's head was initially taken to Henry Bull's house. Moore saw it there and sketched the head a number of times in his unpublished, handwritten diary, commenting that "possibly it may yet figure in some museum at home". The head was then preserved by smoking, by hanging it in a hollow tree over a fire of <i><!--del_lnk--> Eucalyptus</i> wood for three months.<p>In September 1833 Yagan's head was taken to London by Ensign <!--del_lnk--> Robert Dale. According to Paul Turnbull, Dale appears to have persuaded <!--del_lnk--> Governor Irwin to let him have the head as an "anthropological curiosity" . After arriving in London, Dale approached a number of <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomists</a> and <!--del_lnk--> phrenologists attempting to sell the head for £20, claiming that it was worth twice that much. Having failed to find a buyer, he then entered into an arrangement with <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Pettigrew for the exclusive use of the head for one year. Pettigrew, a surgeon and antiquarian who was well-known in the London social scene for holding private parties at which he unrolled and <!--del_lnk--> autopsied <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mummy.htm" title="Mummy">mummies</a>, displayed the head on a table in front of a panoramic view of King George Sound that was reproduced from Dale's sketches. For effect the head was adorned with a fresh corded headband and feathers of the <!--del_lnk--> Red-tailed Black Cockatoo.<p>Pettigrew also arranged for the head to be examined by a phrenologist. Examination was considered difficult because of the large <!--del_lnk--> fracture across the back of the head caused by the gunshot. The findings, which were predictably consistent with contemporary European opinion of Indigenous Australians, were published as part of a pamphlet by Dale entitled <i>Descriptive Account of the Panoramic View &c. of King George's Sound and the Adjacent Country</i>, which Pettigrew encouraged his guests to buy as a <!--del_lnk--> souvenir of their evening. The frontispiece of the pamphlet was a hand-coloured <!--del_lnk--> aquatint print of Yagan's head by the artist <!--del_lnk--> George Cruikshank.<p>Early in October 1835, both Yagan's head and the panoramic view were returned to Dale, who was then living in <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> 12 October he presented them to the Liverpool Royal Institution, where the head may have been displayed in a case along with some other preserved heads and wax models illustrating cranial anatomy. In 1894 the Institution's collections were dispersed, and Yagan's head was lent to the <!--del_lnk--> Liverpool Museum; it is thought not to have been put on display there. By the 1960s Yagan's head was badly deteriorated, and in April 1964 the decision was made to dispose of it. On <!--del_lnk--> 10 April <!--del_lnk--> 1964, Yagan's head was placed in a plywood box, along with a <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peruvian</a> mummy and a <!--del_lnk--> Māori head, and buried in <!--del_lnk--> Everton Cemetery's General Section 16, grave number 296. In later years a number of burials were made around the grave, and in 1968 a local hospital buried 20 <!--del_lnk--> stillborn babies and two babies who had lived less than twenty-four hours directly over the museum box.<p><a id="Lobbying_for_repatriation" name="Lobbying_for_repatriation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lobbying for repatriation</span></h3>
<p>For many years, at least since the early 1980s, a number of Noongar groups sought the return of Yagan's head.<blockquote>
<p>It is Aboriginal belief that because Yagan's skeletal remains are incomplete, his spirit is earthbound. The uniting of his head and torso will immediately set his spirit free to continue its eternal journey.</blockquote>
<p>It was unknown at that time, however, what had happened to the head after it left Pettigrew's possession. In the early 1980s, <!--del_lnk--> Ken Colbung was entrusted with the search for the head by tribal elders. In 1985 he engaged Lily Bhavna Kauler as a researcher, and a number of unsuccessful enquiries were made to various United Kingdom museums. In the early 1990s, Colbung enlisted the aid of <!--del_lnk--> University of London <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">archaeologist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Peter Ucko. One of Ucko's researchers, Cressida Fforde, was funded by the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Australia to conduct a literature search for information on the head. She successfully traced the head in December 1993, and in April the following year, Colbung applied for permission to exhume it under Section 25 of the <!--del_lnk--> Burial Act 1857. <!--del_lnk--> Home Office regulations required <!--del_lnk--> next of kin consent for the remains of the 22 babies to be disturbed, but Colbung's <!--del_lnk--> solicitors requested that this condition be waived on grounds that the exhumation would be of great personal significance to Yagan's living relatives, and great national importance to Australia.<p>Meanwhile, divisions in the Perth Noongar community began to show, with Colbung's role in the repatriation questioned by a number of elders, and one Noongar registering a complaint with the <!--del_lnk--> Liverpool City Council over Colbung's involvement. There was much acrimonious debate within the Noongar community about who had the best cultural qualifications to take possession of the head, some of which was publicly aired. On <!--del_lnk--> 25 July a public meeting was held in Perth, where all parties agreed to put aside their differences and co-operate to ensure that the repatriation was a "national success". A Yagan Steering Committee was established to co-ordinate the repatriation, and Colbung's application was allowed to proceed.<p>In January 1995 the Home Office advised Colbung that it was unable to waive the necessity of obtaining next of kin consent for the exhumation. It then contacted the five relatives whose addresses were known, receiving unconditional consent from only one. Accordingly, on <!--del_lnk--> 30 June <!--del_lnk--> 1995, Colbung and the other interested parties were advised that the application for exhumation had been rejected.<p>The Yagan Steering Committee then met on <!--del_lnk--> 21 September and decided to proceed by lobbying Australian and British politicians for support. This approach led to an invitation for Colbung to visit the United Kingdom at the British government's expense. Colbung arrived in the United Kingdom on <!--del_lnk--> 20 May <!--del_lnk--> 1997. His visit attracted substantial media coverage and increased the political pressure on the British Government. It also allowed him to secure the support of the <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Australia, <a href="../../wp/j/John_Howard.htm" title="John Howard">John Howard</a>, after <!--del_lnk--> gate crashing the Prime Minister's June visit to the United Kingdom.<p><a id="Exhumation" name="Exhumation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Exhumation</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13108.png.htm" title="A horizontal colour contour map of ground conductivity of Yagan's grave site, showing an anomaly in the electromagnetic signature caused by metal artifacts buried with Yagan's head."><img alt="A horizontal colour contour map of ground conductivity of Yagan's grave site, showing an anomaly in the electromagnetic signature caused by metal artifacts buried with Yagan's head." height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yagan%27s_grave_surface_EM_data.png" src="../../images/131/13108.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13108.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A horizontal colour contour map of ground conductivity of Yagan's grave site, showing an anomaly in the electromagnetic signature caused by metal artifacts buried with Yagan's head.</div>
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<p>While Colbung was in the United Kingdom, Martin and Richard Bates were engaged to undertake a <!--del_lnk--> geophysical survey of the grave site. Using <!--del_lnk--> electromagnetic and <!--del_lnk--> ground penetrating radar techniques, they identified an approximate position of the box that suggested it could be accessed from the side via the adjacent plot. A report of the survey was passed to the Home Office, prompting further discussions between the British and Australian Governments.<p>Of concern to the Home Office were an undisclosed number of letters that it had received objecting to Colbung's involvement in the repatriation process; it therefore sought assurances from the Australian Government that Colbung was a correct applicant. In response Colbung asked his elders to ask the <!--del_lnk--> Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) to tell the British Home Office that he was the correct applicant. ATSIC then convened a meeting in Perth at which it was again resolved that Colbung's application could proceed.<p>Colbung continued to press for the exhumation, asking that it be performed before the 164th anniversary of Yagan's death on <!--del_lnk--> 11 July, so that the anniversary could be the occasion of a celebration. His request was not met, and on the anniversary of Yagan's death, Colbung conducted a short memorial service at the burial plot in Everton. He returned to Australia empty-handed on <!--del_lnk--> 15 July.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> exhumation of Yagan's head eventually proceeded, without Colbung's knowledge, by excavating six feet down the side of the grave, then tunnelling horizontally to the location of the box. Thus the exhumation was performed without disturbing any other remains. The following day, a <!--del_lnk--> forensic <!--del_lnk--> palaeontologist from the <!--del_lnk--> University of Bradford positively identified the <!--del_lnk--> skull as Yagan's by correlating the fractures with those described in Pettigrew's report. The skull was then kept at the museum until <!--del_lnk--> 29 August, when it was handed over to the Liverpool City Council.<p><a id="Repatriation" name="Repatriation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Repatriation</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 27 August <!--del_lnk--> 1997, a delegation of Noongars consisting of Ken Colbung, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Bropho, Richard Wilkes and Mingli Wanjurri-Nungala arrived in the UK to collect Yagan's head. The delegation was to have been larger, but Commonwealth funding was withdrawn at the last minute. The handover of Yagan's skull was further delayed, however, when a Noongar named Corrie Bodney applied to the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court of Western Australia for an injunction against the handover. Claiming that his family group has sole responsibility for Yagan's remains, Bodney declared the exhumation illegal and denied the existence of any tradition or belief necessitating the head's exhumation and removal to Australia. Another Noongar, Albert Corunna, then came forward with a claim to be Yagan's closest living relative. The Supreme Court had no power to grant an emergency injunction binding the <!--del_lnk--> Government of the United Kingdom, so instead it asked the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Western Australia to object formally to the handing over of Yagan's remains. The United Kingdom Government responded favourably to the objection, agreeing to withhold the head until the injunction application had been considered. On <!--del_lnk--> 29 August the court rejected the injunction application, on the grounds that Bodney had previously agreed to the current arrangements, and on the evidence of another Noongar elder and an anthropologist, both of whom refuted Bodney's claim to sole responsibility.<p>Yagan's skull was handed over to the Noongar delegation at a ceremony at the <!--del_lnk--> Liverpool Town Hall on <!--del_lnk--> 31 August <!--del_lnk--> 1997. In accepting the skull, Colbung made comments that allegedly linked Yagan's death with the death of <!--del_lnk--> Princess Diana, who had died that day:<blockquote>
<p>Because the Poms did the wrong thing they have to suffer. They have to learn too, to live with it as we did and that is how nature goes.</blockquote>
<p>Colbung's comments prompted a media furore throughout Australia, with newspapers receiving many letters from the public expressing shock and anger at the comments. Colbung later claimed that his comments had been misinterpreted.<p>On its return to Perth, Yagan's head continued to be a source of controversy and conflict. Responsibility for reburial of the head was given to a "Committee for the Reburial of Yagan's Kaat", headed by Richard Wilkes. However the reburial was delayed by disputes between elders over the burial location, mainly due to uncertainty of the whereabouts of the rest of his body, and disagreement about the importance of burying the head with the body.<p>A number of attempts were made to locate the remains of Yagan's body, which are believed to be on a property on West Swan Road in the outer Perth suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Belhus. A <!--del_lnk--> remote sensing survey of the site was carried out in 1998, but no remains were found. An archaeological survey of the area was undertaken two years later, but this also was unsuccessful. Disputes then arose over whether the head could be buried separately from the body. Wilkes has claimed that it can, so long as it is placed where Yagan was killed, so that <!--del_lnk--> Dreamtime spirits can reunite the remains.<p>In 1998 the Western Australian Planning Commission and the Department of Aboriginal Affairs jointly published a document entitled <i>Yagan's Gravesite Master Plan</i>, which discussed "matters of ownership, management, development and future use" of the property on which Yagan's remains are believed to be buried. Under consideration was the possibility of turning the site into an indigenous burial site, to be managed by the Metropolitan Cemeteries Board.<p>To date, Yagan's head remains unburied. It spent some time in storage in a bank vault, before being handed over to forensics experts who reconstructed a model from it. Since then it has been in storage at Western Australia's state <!--del_lnk--> mortuary. Plans to re-bury the head have been deferred or delayed numerous times, and this has caused ongoing conflict between Noongar groups. The reburial committee have been accused of acting against the wishes of the Noongar community, by deferring its burial in the hope of making money out of it with elaborate parks and monuments. Richard Wilkes, however, says that the committee has direct kinship lines to Yagan, and wants the head to be buried properly, but has been delayed by searches and burial site negotiations. Alternative proposals have been put forward: for example, early in 2006 Ken Colbung called for the head to be <!--del_lnk--> cremated and the ashes scattered on the Swan River. In June 2006, Wilkes stated that the head would be buried by July 2007.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yagan"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yak</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Yak</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14896.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yak_Drawing_historic.jpg" src="../../images/148/14896.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_VU.svg" src="../../images/18/1808.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Vulnerable (VU)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Bos</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>B. grunniens</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Bos grunniens</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1766</small></td>
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<center>Subspecies</center>
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<p><i>Bos grunniens grunniens</i><br /><i>Bos grunniens mutus</i></td>
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<p>The <b>yak</b> (<i>Bos grunniens</i>) is a long-haired humped domestic <!--del_lnk--> bovine found in <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and throughout the <a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> region of south <!--del_lnk--> central Asia, as well as in <a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> Tibetan, the word <i>yak</i> refers only to the male of the species; a female is a <i>dri</i> or <i>nak</i>. In most languages which borrowed the word, including English, however, <i>yak</i> is usually used for both sexes.<p>Wild yaks (subspecies <i>B. g. mutus</i>) stand about two meters tall at the shoulder. Domestic yaks are about half that height. Both types have long shaggy hair to insulate them from the cold. Wild yaks can be either brown or black. Domesticated ones can also be white. Both males and females have horns.<p>
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</script><a id="Wild_yaks" name="Wild_yaks"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wild yaks</span></h2>
<p>Wild yaks can weigh 1,000 kg (2,200 lb). They usually form groups of between 10 and 30 animals. Their <!--del_lnk--> habitat is treeless <!--del_lnk--> uplands like <!--del_lnk--> hills, <!--del_lnk--> mountains and <!--del_lnk--> plateaux between 3,200 m (10,500 ft) and roughly 5,400 m (18,000 ft). They eat <!--del_lnk--> grasses, <!--del_lnk--> lichens and other plants. During the warmest season these hardy animals live in areas of permanent snow and move lower down at colder times. They are insulated by dense, close, matted under-hair as well as their shaggy outer hair. <!--del_lnk--> Yaks secrete a special sticky substance in their sweat which helps keep their under-hair matted and acts as extra insulation. This secretion has been extracted by Nepali tribes and used in medicine. Many wild yaks are killed for food by the <!--del_lnk--> Tibetans; they are now an endangered species.<p><a id="Domesticated_yaks" name="Domesticated_yaks"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Domesticated yaks</span></h2>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14897.jpg.htm" title="Yaks were important caravan animals, replacing camels in mountainous country"><img alt="Yaks were important caravan animals, replacing camels in mountainous country" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yaks_with_loads.JPG" src="../../images/148/14897.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14897.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yaks were important caravan animals, replacing camels in mountainous country</div>
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<p>Domesticated yaks are kept primarily for their <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fibre, and <a href="../../wp/m/Meat.htm" title="Meat">meat</a>; they are also used as <!--del_lnk--> beasts of burden, transporting goods across mountain passes for local farmers and traders as well as in support of climbing and trekking expeditions. Yak milk is often processed to a <a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">cheese</a> called <i>chhurpi</i> in Tibetan and Nepali languages, and <!--del_lnk--> byaslag in Mongolia. Often the pack animals are actually crossbreeds of the yak and <i>Bos taurus</i> (common domestic <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>). These are known in Tibetan as <i><!--del_lnk--> dzo</i> or <i>dzopkyo</i>.<p>Yak fiber is soft and smooth, in several colors, including shades of gray, brown, black and white. The length of yak fiber is about 1.2 inches. It is combed or shed from the yak and then dehaired. The result is a splendid downy fibre that can be spun into <!--del_lnk--> yarn for <!--del_lnk--> knitting.<p>Unlike <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, yaks grunt rather than moo. Yaks can weigh over 1200 pounds and have a lifespan of 20-25 years.<p>More recently, sports involving domesticated yaks, such as <!--del_lnk--> yak skiing or <!--del_lnk--> yak polo, are being marketed as tourist attractions in Central Asian countries.<p><a id="Images" name="Images"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Images</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14898.jpg.htm" title="Yaks still provide the best way to plow fields in Tibet."><img alt="Yaks still provide the best way to plow fields in Tibet." height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yaks_still_provide_the_best_way_to_plow_fields_in_Tibet.jpg" src="../../images/148/14898.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14898.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yaks still provide the best way to plow fields in Tibet.</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14899.jpg.htm" title="In Tibet, yaks are decorated and honored by the families they are part of. Buddhism encourages respect for animals."><img alt="In Tibet, yaks are decorated and honored by the families they are part of. Buddhism encourages respect for animals." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:In_Tibet%2C_yaks_are_decorated_and_honored_by_the_families_they_are_part_of.jpg" src="../../images/148/14899.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14899.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, yaks are decorated and honored by the families they are part of. <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> encourages respect for animals.</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14900.jpg.htm" title="In Manali, India, Yaks are used for transport in the mountainous region."><img alt="In Manali, India, Yaks are used for transport in the mountainous region." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yak_in_India.JPG" src="../../images/149/14900.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14900.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In <!--del_lnk--> Manali, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, Yaks are used for transport in the mountainous region.</div>
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<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yak"</div>
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Yamoussoukro | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<p>The <b>District of Yamoussoukro</b> is the official <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> city of <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>. A city of 200,659<!--del_lnk--> inhabitants as of 2005, and located 240 kilometers north of <a href="../../wp/a/Abidjan.htm" title="Abidjan">Abidjan</a> on rolling hills and plains, the municipality covers 3,500 km² (1,351.3 mi²) and is coterminous with the Department of the same name. The Department and municipality is further split into four sub-prefectures: Attiégouakro, Didiévi, Tié- diékro and the Commune of Yamoussoukro, which contain 169 villages and hamlets.<p>The current governor of district is <!--del_lnk--> N'Dri Koffi Apollinaire.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Colonial_period_history" name="Colonial_period_history"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colonial period history</span></h3>
<p>Chief <!--del_lnk--> Yamousso, the niece of <!--del_lnk--> Kouassi N'Go, ran the village of <i>N'Gokro</i> at the time of <!--del_lnk--> French colonization. The village then comprised 475 inhabitants, and was one of 129 <!--del_lnk--> Akoué villages.<p>Diplomatic and commercial relations were then established but, in <!--del_lnk--> 1909, on the orders of the Chief of <!--del_lnk--> Djamlabo, the Akoué revolted against the administration. <!--del_lnk--> Bonzi station, seven kilometers from Yamoussoukro on the <!--del_lnk--> Bouaflé road, was set on fire, and the French administrator, <!--del_lnk--> Simon Maurice, was spared only by the intervention of Kouassi N'Go. This respected former leader persuaded the Akoué not to wage a war which could only have turned into a disaster.<p>As the situation returned to normal, <!--del_lnk--> Simon Maurice, judging that Bonzi had become unsafe, decided to transfer the French military station to Yamoussoukro, where the French Administration built a pyramid to the memory of Kouassi N'Go, Chief of the Akoué, and in homage to Yamousso, N'Gokro was renamed Yamoussoukro.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1919, the civil station of Yamoussoukro was removed, and <!--del_lnk--> Félix Houphouët-Boigny became the leader of the village in 1939. A long period was passed where Yamoussoukro, small agricultural town, remained in the shadows, until after the war, when it saw the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> African Agricultural Trade Union, and first conferences of its Chief. But it was only with Independence that Yamoussoukro finally started to rise.<p><a id="History_since_independence" name="History_since_independence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">History since independence</span></h3>
<p>After <!--del_lnk--> 1964, the President <!--del_lnk--> Félix Houphouët-Boigny made ambitious plans and started to build. One day in 1965, later called the Great Lesson of Yamoussoukro, he visited the plantations with the leaders of the county, inviting them to transpose to their own villages the efforts and agricultural achievements of the region. On <!--del_lnk--> July 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1977, Houphouët offered its plantations to the State.<p>In March <!--del_lnk--> 1983, Yamoussoukro became the political and administrative capital of <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>, after, in one century, <!--del_lnk--> Grand-Bassam (1893), <!--del_lnk--> Bingerville (1900) and <a href="../../wp/a/Abidjan.htm" title="Abidjan">Abidjan</a> (1933). The majority of economic activity still takes place in <a href="../../wp/a/Abidjan.htm" title="Abidjan">Abidjan</a>.<p><a id="Highlights" name="Highlights"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Highlights</span></h2>
<p>Yamoussoukro is also the site of what is claimed to be largest Christian place of worship on Earth: The <!--del_lnk--> Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro, consecrated by <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_John_Paul_II.htm" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1990.<p>Also noteworthy are the <!--del_lnk--> Kossou Dam, the <!--del_lnk--> Félix Houphouët-Boigny Foundation, the <!--del_lnk--> PDCI-GDR House, the various schools of the <!--del_lnk--> Félix-Houphouët-Boigny-Boigny Polytechnic Institute, the international <!--del_lnk--> airport (with an average of six hundred passengers and 36 flights in 1995, it is the only airport in Africa that can accommodate the <a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" title="Concorde">Concorde</a>), the Town Hall, the Protestant Temple, the Mosque, and the <!--del_lnk--> Palace of Hosts.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, <!--del_lnk--> Yamoussoukro Airport was attacked by French infantry after military aircraft from the airport bombed a <!--del_lnk--> UN <!--del_lnk--> peacekeeper base as well as rebel targets and 9 French peacekeepers and one U.S. civilian were killed. Two Ivory Coast <!--del_lnk--> Sukhoi Su-25 aircraft and several <!--del_lnk--> Mil Mi-24 helicopters were destroyed, which was most of the country's air forces. Mobs and rebels tried to attack the French forces after the airport raid.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamoussoukro"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yangtze River</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.htm">Geography of Asia</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 300px; font-size: 90%;">
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger; background-color: #CEDEFF;">Yangtze River</th>
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<div style="border: 1px solid #CEDEFF;"><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28533.png.htm" title="The course of the Yangtze River through China"><img alt="The course of the Yangtze River through China" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yangtze_River_Map.png" src="../../images/285/28533.png" width="288" /></a></div>
<center>The course of the Yangtze River through China</center>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Origin</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Qinghai and <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></td>
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<td><b>Mouth</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> East China Sea</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Basin countries</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></td>
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<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td>6,211 km (3,859 mi)</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Source elevation</b></td>
<td>5,042 m (16,542 ft)</td>
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<td><b>Avg. <!--del_lnk--> discharge</b></td>
<td>31,900 m³/s (1,127,000 ft³/s)</td>
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<td><b>Basin area</b></td>
<td>1,800,000 km² (695,000 mi²)</td>
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<div style="width:293px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28534.jpg.htm" title="Afternoon light on the jagged grey mountains rising from the Yangtze River gorge"><img alt="Afternoon light on the jagged grey mountains rising from the Yangtze River gorge" height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yangzi_River_gorge.jpg" src="../../images/285/28534.jpg" width="291" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28534.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Afternoon light on the jagged grey mountains rising from the Yangtze River gorge</div>
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<p>The <b>Yangtze River</b> or <b>Chang Jiang</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans" xml:lang="zh-Hans">长江</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant" xml:lang="zh-Hant">長江</span>; <!--del_lnk--> pinyin: Cháng Jiāng) <span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> listen</span> is the longest <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a> in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and the third longest in the world after the <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a> in <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> and the <a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_River.htm" title="Amazon River">Amazon</a> in <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>.<p>The river is about 6,211 <!--del_lnk--> km long and flows from its source in <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai Province in western <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, eastwards into the <!--del_lnk--> East China Sea. It has traditionally been considered a dividing point between <!--del_lnk--> northern and southern China, although geographers consider the <!--del_lnk--> Qinling-<!--del_lnk--> Huai River line to be the official line of geographical division.<p>
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</script><a id="Names" name="Names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Names</span></h2>
<p>The name <b>Yangtze River</b>, as well as various similar names such as <b>Yangtse River</b>, <b>Yangtze Kiang</b> etc., is derived from <b>Yangzi Jiang</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans" xml:lang="zh-Hans">扬子江</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant" xml:lang="zh-Hant">揚子江</span>; <!--del_lnk--> pinyin: <i>Yángzǐ Jiāng</i>) <span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> listen</span> , the Chinese name for the river in its lower reaches. The modern Chinese name, <b>Chang Jiang</b> (长江/長江 <i>Cháng Jiāng</i>), literally means "long river" and is increasingly being adopted as the standard name in English.<p>Like many rivers, the Yangtze is known by different names over different parts of its course. At its source the river is known in Chinese as the <b>Dangqu</b> (当曲/當曲, from the <!--del_lnk--> Tibetan for "marsh river"). Downstream it is called the <b>Tuotuo</b> River (沱沱河) and then the <b>Tongtian River</b> (通天河, literally "pass to heaven river"). Where it runs through deep gorges parallel to the <a href="../../wp/m/Mekong.htm" title="Mekong">Mekong</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Salween before emerging onto the plains of <!--del_lnk--> Sichuan it is famous as the <b>Jinsha River</b> (金沙江 <i>Jīnshā Jiāng</i>, literally "golden sands river"). The name Yangzi was originally used by inhabitants of the river's lower reaches, downstream from <!--del_lnk--> Zhenjiang and <!--del_lnk--> Yangzhou in <!--del_lnk--> Jiangsu, and derives from the name of an ancient ferry crossing Yangzi Jin (扬子津/揚子津, literally "Mr, Yang's crossing"). Because it was the name first heard by missionaries and traders, it was applied in English to the entire river. In Chinese, Yangzi Jiang is considered a historical or poetic name for the river.<p>The Yangtze was earlier known to the Chinese as simply <b>Jiang</b> (江 <i>Jiāng</i>), a name which has become a generic name meaning "river," or the <b>Da Jiang</b> (大江 <i>Dà Jiāng</i>, literally "great river"). The Tibetan name for the river is <b>Vbri-chu</b> (འབྲི་ཆུ་, lit. "river of the female yak"). The Yangtze is sometimes referred to as the Golden Waterway.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28535.jpg.htm" title="Cruising through the Three Gorges along the Yangtze River"><img alt="Cruising through the Three Gorges along the Yangtze River" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:YangtzeCruise.jpg" src="../../images/285/28535.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28535.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cruising through the <!--del_lnk--> Three Gorges along the Yangtze River</div>
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<p>The river originates in a glacier in the <!--del_lnk--> Dangla mountains on the eastern part of the <!--del_lnk--> Tibetan plateau. It then runs through the eastern part of <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai, turning southward down a deep valley at the border of <!--del_lnk--> Sichuan and <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> to reach <!--del_lnk--> Yunnan. In the course of this valley, the river's elevation drops from above 5000 m to less than 1000 m. It enters the basin of Sichuan at <!--del_lnk--> Yibin. While in the Sichuan basin it receives several mighty tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. The river then cuts through <!--del_lnk--> Mount Wushan bordering <!--del_lnk--> Chongqing and <!--del_lnk--> Hubei to create the famous <!--del_lnk--> Three Gorges. Eastward of the Three Gorges, <!--del_lnk--> Yichang is the first city on the Yangtze Plain. After entering <!--del_lnk--> Hubei, the Yangtze receives more water from thousands of lakes. The largest of these lakes is <!--del_lnk--> Dongting Lake, which is located on the border of <!--del_lnk--> Hunan and Hubei provinces, and is the outlet for most of the rivers in Hunan. At <!--del_lnk--> Wuhan it receives its biggest tributary, the <!--del_lnk--> Han River, bringing water from its northern basin as far as <!--del_lnk--> Shanxi. At the northern tip of Jiangxi, <!--del_lnk--> Lake Boyang, the biggest lake in China, merges into the river. The river then runs through <!--del_lnk--> Anhui and <!--del_lnk--> Jiangsu provinces, receiving more water from innumerable smaller lakes and rivers, and finally reaches the East China Sea at <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>. Four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from Yibin to Yichang; the middle part refers to the section from Yichang to <!--del_lnk--> Hukou, where Boyang Lake meets the river; the downstream part is from Hukou to Shanghai.<p><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28536.jpg.htm" title="Tombs on a hill facing the Yangtze as it flows by"><img alt="Tombs on a hill facing the Yangtze as it flows by" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yangzi_river_shrines_on_hill_top.jpg" src="../../images/285/28536.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28536.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tombs on a hill facing the Yangtze as it flows by</div>
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<p>The Yangtze flows into the <!--del_lnk--> East China Sea and was navigable by ocean-going vessels up to a thousand miles from its mouth even before the <a href="../../wp/t/Three_Gorges_Dam.htm" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> was built. As of June 2003, the <a href="../../wp/t/Three_Gorges_Dam.htm" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> now spans the river, flooding <!--del_lnk--> Fengjie, the first of a number of towns affected by the massive flood control and power generation project. The project is the largest comprehensive <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> project in the world. Proponents of the dam argue that it will free people living along the river from <!--del_lnk--> floods that have repeatedly threatened them in the past, and will also offer them <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> and <!--del_lnk--> water transport - though at the expense of permanently flooding many existing towns (including numerous ancient cultural relics) and causing large-scale changes in the local <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a>.<p>Opponents of the dam point out that there are three different kinds of floods on the Yangtze River: floods which originate in the upper reaches, floods which originate in the lower reaches, and floods along the entire length of the river. They argue that the Three Gorges dam will actually make flooding in the upper reaches of the river worse and have little or no impact on floods which originate in the lower reaches. Twelve hundred years of low water marks on the river were recorded in the inscriptions and the carvings of carp at <!--del_lnk--> Baiheliang, now submerged.<p>The Yangtze River is flanked with metallurgical, power, chemical, auto, building materials and machinery industrial belts, and high-tech development zones. It is playing an increasingly crucial role in the river valley's economic growth and has become a vital link for international shipping to the inland provinces. The river is a major transportation artery for China connecting the interior with the coast. The Yangtze River is one of the world's busiest waterways. River traffic includes commercial traffic transporting bulk goods such as coal as well as manufactured goods and passengers. Cargo transportation on the Yangtze River reached 795 million tons in 2005 <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> . River cruises of several days duration especially through the beautiful and scenic <!--del_lnk--> Three Gorges area are becoming popular as the tourism industry grows in China.<p>Flooding along the river has been a major problem. The rainy season in China is May and June in areas south of Yangtze River, and July and August in areas north of river. The huge river system receives water both from southern and northern flanks, which causes its flood season to extend from May to August. Meanwhile, the relatively dense population and rich cities along the river make the floods more deadly and costly. The most recent major floods were the <!--del_lnk--> 1998 Yangtze River Floods, but more disastrous were the <!--del_lnk--> 1954 Yangtze river floods, killing around 30,000 people. Other severe floods included those of <!--del_lnk--> 1911 which killed around 100,000, <!--del_lnk--> 1931 (145,000 dead), and <!--del_lnk--> 1935 (142,000 dead).<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28537.jpg.htm" title="Yangtze River as seen from a cruise boat"><img alt="Yangtze River as seen from a cruise boat" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yangtze_river.jpg" src="../../images/285/28537.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28537.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yangtze River as seen from a cruise boat</div>
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<p>The Yangtze river occupies an important place in the cultural origins of southern China. Human activity was found in the Three Gorges area as far back as 2 million years ago, initiating debate over the origin of the Chinese people.<!--del_lnk--> In the <!--del_lnk--> Spring and Autumn Period, <!--del_lnk--> Ba and <!--del_lnk--> Shu were located in the western part of the river, covering modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and western Hubei; <!--del_lnk--> Chu was located in the central part of river, corresponding to <!--del_lnk--> Hubei, <!--del_lnk--> Hunan, <!--del_lnk--> Jiangxi, and southern <!--del_lnk--> Anhui. <!--del_lnk--> Wu and <!--del_lnk--> Yue were located in the eastern part of the river, now <!--del_lnk--> Jiangsu, <!--del_lnk--> Zhejiang, and <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>. Although the <a href="../../wp/y/Yellow_River.htm" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> region was richer and more developed at that time, the milder climate and more peaceful environment made the Yangtze river area more suitable for agriculture. From the <!--del_lnk--> Han Dynasty, the region of the Yangtze river became more and more important in China's economy. The establishment of irrigation systems (the most famous one is <!--del_lnk--> Dujiangyan, northwest of Chengdu, built during the <!--del_lnk--> Warring States period) made agriculture very stable and productive. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called "<!--del_lnk--> Jiangnan" (includes the southern part of <!--del_lnk--> Jiangsu, the northern part of <!--del_lnk--> Zhejiang, and the southeastern part of <!--del_lnk--> Anhui) provided 1/3-1/2 of the nation's revenues.<p>Historically, the mighty Yangtze river became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see <!--del_lnk--> History of China) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. A lot of battles took place along the river, the most famous being the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Red Cliffs in 208 AD during the <!--del_lnk--> Three Kingdoms period. Politically, <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Wu kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Jin Dynasty, and smaller countries in the <!--del_lnk--> Northern and Southern Dynasties and <!--del_lnk--> Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods. Only the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming</a> occupied most parts of China from their capital at <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing, though it later moved capital to <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> ROC capital was located in <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing in the periods 1911-1912, 1927-1937, 1945-1949.<p><a id="Major_cities_along_the_river" name="Major_cities_along_the_river"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Major cities along the river</span></h2>
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<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28538.png.htm" title="Cities along the Yangtze, between Wuhan and Shanghai"><img alt="Cities along the Yangtze, between Wuhan and Shanghai" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lower_yangtze_3.png" src="../../images/285/28538.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28538.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cities along the Yangtze, between Wuhan and Shanghai</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28539.jpg.htm" title="A loading point for coal barges on the Yangtze River"><img alt="A loading point for coal barges on the Yangtze River" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yangzi_river_coal_barge_loading_point.jpg" src="../../images/285/28539.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28539.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A loading point for coal barges on the Yangtze River</div>
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<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Panzhihua<li><!--del_lnk--> Yibin<li><!--del_lnk--> Luzhou<li><!--del_lnk--> Chongqing<li><!--del_lnk--> Yichang<li><!--del_lnk--> Jingzhou<li><!--del_lnk--> Shishou<li><!--del_lnk--> Yueyang<li><!--del_lnk--> Xianning<li><!--del_lnk--> Wuhan<li><!--del_lnk--> Ezhou<li><!--del_lnk--> Huangshi<li><!--del_lnk--> Huanggang<li><!--del_lnk--> Chaohu<li><!--del_lnk--> Chizhou<li><!--del_lnk--> Jiujiang<li><!--del_lnk--> Anqing<li><!--del_lnk--> Tongling<li><!--del_lnk--> Wuhu<li><!--del_lnk--> Hefei<li><!--del_lnk--> Chuzhou<li><!--del_lnk--> Maanshan<li><!--del_lnk--> Taizhou<li><!--del_lnk--> Yangzhou<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhenjiang<li><!--del_lnk--> Nanjing<li><!--del_lnk--> Nantong<li><a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a></ul>
<p><a id="Tributaries" name="Tributaries"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Tributaries</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28540.jpg.htm" title="A shipyard on the banks of the Yangtze building commercial river freight boats"><img alt="A shipyard on the banks of the Yangtze building commercial river freight boats" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yangzi_river_ship_yard_on_river_bank.jpg" src="../../images/285/28540.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28540.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A shipyard on the banks of the Yangtze building commercial river freight boats</div>
</div>
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<p>The Yangtze River has over 700 tributaries but the principal tributaries are the following:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Yalong River<li><!--del_lnk--> Minjiang River<li><!--del_lnk--> Daduhe River<li><!--del_lnk--> Tuojiang River<li><!--del_lnk--> Jialing River<li><!--del_lnk--> Wujiang River<li><!--del_lnk--> Qingjiang<li><!--del_lnk--> Xiangjiang<li><!--del_lnk--> Lishui (Li)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zijiang (<!--del_lnk--> Zi)<li><!--del_lnk--> Yuanjiang (<!--del_lnk--> Yuan)<li><!--del_lnk--> Han River<li><!--del_lnk--> Ganjiang River<li><!--del_lnk--> Huangpu River</ul>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Cheung Kong Holdings, from the <!--del_lnk--> Cantonese language form of Chang Jiang and named after the river, is the name of the <!--del_lnk--> holding company controlled by <!--del_lnk--> Li Ka-Shing, one of Asia's richest <!--del_lnk--> tycoons.<li>In 2004 <!--del_lnk--> Martin Strel from <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> swam the river from the <!--del_lnk--> Tiger Leaping Gorge to <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> (4600 km, 2860 miles).<li>The Yangtze is home to (at least) three critically endangered species: The <!--del_lnk--> Chinese River Dolphin, the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese Alligator and the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese Paddlefish.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze_River"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Oceania_Australasia.htm">Geography of Oceania (Australasia)</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="margin-left: inherit; background:#F9E2D2; font-size: 1.5em; text-align:center">'<b><i><br /><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="../../wp/c/Canberra.htm" title="Canberra">Canberra</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Australian Capital Territory</span></i></b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28541.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yarralumla_IBMap-MJC.png" src="../../images/285/28541.png" width="250" /></a><br />
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<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b><!--del_lnk--> Population:</b></td>
<td>3026 (2001 census)</td>
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<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b>Established:</b></td>
<td>1928</td>
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<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b><!--del_lnk--> Postcode:</b></td>
<td>2600</td>
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<tr>
<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b>Property Value:</b></td>
<td>AU$692,000 (2005) <!--del_lnk--> AUD</td>
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<tr>
<td bgcolor="#F0F0FF"><b>District:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South Canberra</td>
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<td colspan="2">
<table align="center" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px #ddd solid" width="100%">
<tr>
<td align="center" bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Suburbs around '</td>
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<tr>
<td align="center" width="33%"><small><!--del_lnk--> <i>Black Mountain</i></small></td>
<td align="center" width="33%"><small><!--del_lnk--> Acton</small></td>
<td align="center" width="34%"><small><!--del_lnk--> Civic</small></td>
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<td align="center" width="34%"><small><!--del_lnk--> Parkes</small></td>
<td align="center" width="34%">'</td>
<td align="center" width="34%"><small><i>Stromlo Forest</i></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" width="34%"><small><!--del_lnk--> Curtin</small></td>
<td align="center" width="34%"><small><!--del_lnk--> Deakin</small></td>
<td align="center" width="34%"><small><!--del_lnk--> Capital Hill</small></td>
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<p>[[Category:1928 establishments|]][[Category:Suburbs of Canberra|]]<p><b>Yarralumla</b> is a large suburb in the inner south of <a href="../../wp/c/Canberra.htm" title="Canberra">Canberra</a>, the capital city of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. Located approximately 3.5 <!--del_lnk--> kilometres south-west of the <!--del_lnk--> city centre, Yarralumla extends for much of the southern bank of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Burley_Griffin.htm" title="Lake Burley Griffin">Lake Burley Griffin</a>.<p>Europeans first settled in the area in 1828. It was officially named <i>Yarralumla</i> after the local <!--del_lnk--> Ngunnawal <!--del_lnk--> Indigenous Australian name for the area in 1834. Fredrick Campbell built a large homestead on his property in 1891 that now serves as <!--del_lnk--> Government House, the official residence of the <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. The suburb was officially <!--del_lnk--> gazetted in 1928 and today is home to approximately 3000 people and many <!--del_lnk--> diplomatic missions. In recent years, it has become one of Canberra's most desirable and expensive suburbs because of its leafy streets, attractive lakeside setting and central location.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>Yarralumla is located in the central Canberra district of <!--del_lnk--> South Canberra. It is bordered by Lake Burley Griffin to the north, <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Avenue and <!--del_lnk--> Capital Hill to the east, Adelaide Avenue and the Cotter Road to the south, and Scrivener Dam and part of the <!--del_lnk--> Molonglo River to the west.<p>Although Yarralumla is one of the largest suburbs in Canberra by area, its population remains quite small because more than half of its area consists of open space or non-residential developments. Yarralumla's open areas, Weston and Stirling Parks, the Royal Canberra Golf Club, the grounds of Government House and its proximity to the City and Lake Burley Griffin, are the main reasons for its growing popularity.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28542.png.htm" title="Map of Yarralumla, located south of Lake Burley Griffin"><img alt="Map of Yarralumla, located south of Lake Burley Griffin" height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map_of_Yarralumla_in_Canberra.PNG" src="../../images/285/28542.png" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28542.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Yarralumla, located south of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Burley_Griffin.htm" title="Lake Burley Griffin">Lake Burley Griffin</a></div>
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<p>The embassy area of Yarralumla is located towards the eastern end of the suburb next to Stirling Park. It is the hilliest area of Yarralumla and was one of the most recent parts to be developed; <!--del_lnk--> Parliament House and the <!--del_lnk--> Parliamentary Triangle are located nearby.<p>The streets in Yarralumla are named after Australian <!--del_lnk--> governors and botanists.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_actplatheme"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Most of the older streets in the suburb are laid out on a rectangular grid, while the more hilly eastern end of the suburb, including the embassy area, is set out with organic contour-guided roads. Major roads in Yarralumla include Banks Street, Novar Street and Hopetoun Circuit in a north-south direction and Schlich Street, Loftus Street and Weston Street running east-west. Being a <!--del_lnk--> dormitory suburb there are no major through roads. Access to the rest of the city can be made from Adelaide Avenue, <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Avenue, Lady Denman Drive and the Cotter Road, all of which run along the borders of the suburb.<p>Yarralumla is located on the <i>Yarralumla Formation</i> which is a <!--del_lnk--> mudstone/<!--del_lnk--> siltstone formation that was formed around 425 <!--del_lnk--> million years ago during the <!--del_lnk--> Silurian Period. The formation extends from <!--del_lnk--> Red Hill and <!--del_lnk--> Woden in the South to Lake Burley Griffin in to the north, passing under the suburb of Yarralumla. The formation is evidence of the last major marine sedimentary period when eastern Australia was still covered by shallow seas. It shows fossil evidence of <!--del_lnk--> trilobites, <!--del_lnk--> coral and primitive <!--del_lnk--> crinoids. The Yarralumla brickworks quarry and the <!--del_lnk--> Deakin anticline are places where the formation is exposed and easily studied.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_eactbw"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Settlement" name="Settlement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Settlement</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28543.jpg.htm" title="Yarralumla woolshed in 1925"><img alt="Yarralumla woolshed in 1925" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yarralumla_woolshed_1925.jpg" src="../../images/285/28543.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28543.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yarralumla woolshed in 1925</div>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28544.jpg.htm" title="Workers at Yarralumla Brickworks in 1924"><img alt="Workers at Yarralumla Brickworks in 1924" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yarralumla_brickworks_1924.jpg" src="../../images/285/28544.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28544.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Workers at Yarralumla Brickworks in 1924</div>
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<p>The area now called Yarralumla is part of two original land grants, which were granted to free settlers for the establishment of farms. In 1828 Henry Donnison was granted an allotment on the western side of Stirling Ridge, while a second grant was made to William Klensendorlffe, who had bought the land from John Stephen, on <!--del_lnk--> 7 March <!--del_lnk--> 1839. Donnison's land was officially named <i>Yarralumla</i> in a survey of the area conducted in 1834. <i>Yarralumla</i> was a name for the area used by the local <!--del_lnk--> Ngunnawal people, apparently meaning "echo". Fredrick Campbell, a descendant of <!--del_lnk--> Robert Campbell, bought the property in 1881 and built a new three-storey house that would later form the basis of what is now the Governor General's residence <i>Government House</i>. Campbell also built a large woolshed nearby in 1904 that remains standing to this day.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_govhouse"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>In 1908, the Limestone Plains area, including <i>Yarralumla</i>, was selected as the site for the capital city of the newly-established Commonwealth of Australia. Soon afterwards in 1913, the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Government purchased both properties. Tenant farmers were allowed to stay on the land on annual leases, some remaining until 1963 when the Molonglo River was dammed to form Lake Burley Griffin.<p><a id="Development" name="Development"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Development</span></h3>
<p>With the construction of Australia's capital city underway, the <!--del_lnk--> Yarralumla brickworks were established in 1913 to supply building material. The bricks were used for many of Canberra's buildings, including the <!--del_lnk--> provisional Parliament House. In 1917 Walter Burley Griffin named the area surrounding the brickworks "Westridge".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_1928roll"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> A <!--del_lnk--> Narrow gauge goods <!--del_lnk--> railway line was constructed for the transportation of bricks to some of the major building sites in central Canberra. This linked the brickworks to places like Parliament House, and the <!--del_lnk--> Kingston Power House.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_actplabwpr"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28545.jpg.htm" title="The Yarralumla Brickworks today"><img alt="The Yarralumla Brickworks today" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yarralumla_brickworks_today.jpg" src="../../images/285/28545.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28545.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Yarralumla Brickworks today</div>
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<p>Construction on the Commonwealth nursery and <i>Westbourne Woods</i> <!--del_lnk--> arboretum was started in 1914, and a temporary camp was built near the brickworks to accommodate the workers. <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Charles Weston was Officer-in-Charge (Afforestation Branch) in the years 1913 to 1926, and later became Director of City Planting and the Superintendent of Parks and Gardens. Weston was responsible for testing and selecting plant species at the arboretum for their suitability to Canberra's environment; from 1913 through to 1924 Weston oversaw the propagation of more than two million trees which were then planted in the Canberra area.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ncagreening"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Most of the original <i>Westbourne Woods</i> arboretum is now leased to the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Canberra Golf Club, with the remainder forming part of <!--del_lnk--> Weston Park. The Yarralumla nursery is still active, albeit on a smaller scale and functioning as a retail nursery selling both wholesale and direct to the public.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ntyarranurs"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>In 1922 A workers' tent camp was erected in the area on the eastern side of Stirling Ridge to house the men working on the main intercepting sewer. The following year saw the start of the construction of 62 small, four-room, unlined timber cottages, to be used as housing for the married tradesmen involved in the construction of the provisional Parliament House. Other camps were established at the eastern end of Stirling Park on the hills opposite modern Lotus Bay. The first of these was contractor John Howie's settlement (1922–30), consisting of 25 timber cottages for his married men and timber barracks (Hostel Camp) for his single men. Two other single mens' tent camps were established nearby – Old Tradesmen's Camp (1923–27) and No 1 Labourers Camp (1924–27). The men from Howie's worked on the <!--del_lnk--> Hotel Canberra and the others on the construction of the provisional Parliament House and nearby administrative buildings.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_westlake"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28546.jpg.htm" title="Yarralumla nursery from the air with the Molonglo River in the background, taken in 1923"><img alt="Yarralumla nursery from the air with the Molonglo River in the background, taken in 1923" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yarralumla_nursery_1923.jpg" src="../../images/285/28546.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28546.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yarralumla nursery from the air with the Molonglo River in the background, taken in 1923</div>
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<p>The Stirling Park camps were known as "Westlake" to their new inhabitants, and previously "Gura Bung Dhaura" (stony ground) to the local <!--del_lnk--> Aboriginal people.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ngunnawalbib"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> In 1925, the population of this temporary suburb was 700. This represented roughly one-fifth of the total population of the Federal Capital Territory at the time; in the region, only Molonglo Settlement had a larger population, at 750. The site was chosen so that it was near to Parliament House but hidden from direct line of sight from anywhere "important". The small cottages at Westlake were removed starting in the mid-1950s, with the last one removed in 1965. Many of the Westlake workers' cottages were moved to <!--del_lnk--> Queanbeyan and are still used as housing today. The Stirling Park near the embassy area of Yarralumla now covers the historic Westlake settlement area. Some evidence of these former dwellings still remains today, and signage has been erected to commemorate these pioneering people of early Canberra.<p>The Commonwealth Forestry School was established in Westridge near the brickworks and <i>Westbourne Woods</i> in 1926. It opened with its first intake of students in the following year. Today the heritage-listed Forestry School and the associated principal's residence <i>Westridge House</i> are located on Banks Street, Yarralumla. <!--del_lnk--> CSIRO Forestry and Forestry Products subsumed the school in 1975.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_csiroffp"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> <i>Westridge House</i>, an impressive <!--del_lnk--> tudor-style structure, recently underwent a $500,000 refurbishment and is presently in use as a residence for the chief officer of the CSIRO.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_hansardcsiro"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>By 1928 there were over 130 people on the electoral roll for Westridge. The majority of the population consisted of men working at the brickworks and nursery. Westridge was officially gazetted as a Canberra suburb in 1928. Its residential area was situated adjacent to the proposed site for Lake Burley Griffin, close to Westbourne Woods and the 53-<!--del_lnk--> hectare grounds of the Governor-General's residence.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28547.jpg.htm" title="Scrivener Dam"><img alt="Scrivener Dam" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Scrivener_Dam_Canberra-01JAC.jpg" src="../../images/285/28547.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28547.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Scrivener Dam</div>
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</div>
<p><a id="Post_WWII" name="Post_WWII"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Post WWII</span></h3>
<p>Westridge was officially renamed to Yarralumla in the 1950s. In 1963 Lake Burley Griffin was filled and Yarralumla was expanded to include Westlake, which had up until then been officially part of <!--del_lnk--> Acton.<p>After <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the suburb began to expand rapidly with the construction of many private homes. Yarralumla's image as a "lower-class" suburb would persist into the 1960s and 1970s. This general perception began to alter once Lake Burley Griffin had been created and its surrounds landscaped into parklands; the area soon gained a reputation for its attractive lakeside location.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ppybay"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> During the 1980s house prices began to rise co-incident with a rejuvenation of the suburb. Large numbers of the original government-built <!--del_lnk--> monocrete, brick and weatherboard houses have now been demolished and replaced by larger dwellings of a variety of more modern styles and materials. The suburb is generally regarded as one of the more desirable in Canberra.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28548.png.htm" title="Weekly income statistics"><img alt="Weekly income statistics" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yarralumla_income.png" src="../../images/285/28548.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28548.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weekly income statistics</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The population of the Westridge area on the 1928 electoral roll numbered over 130. On Census night 2001 Yarralumla had a population of 3026 people.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_2001census"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>The 2001 Census shows that Yarralumla residents have a median age of 43, compared to a Canberra average of 32. Yarralumla is a comparatively wealthy suburb with 50% of the population earning over <!--del_lnk--> AU$1000 a week; this compares to a Canberra-wide figure of 29% and an Australia-wide figure of 18.6%. The 2001 Census figures put Yarralumla's unemployment rate at two percentage points below the Canberra average. In line with the Canberra average, the public service or defence force employed around 25% of the workforce. The median monthly housing loan repayments in Yarralumla were $1400–$1599, compared to the Canberra-wide figure of $800–$999.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_2001censuscan"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> In 2005 Yarralumla's median house price was $692,000 versus $352,500 for the whole of Canberra.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_REIAPressRelease"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>The population of Yarralumla is predominantly Australian-born, with some 70.5% of its residents being born in Australia. The second most prevalent birthplace is the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> at 7.5%. The most popular religious affiliations in descending order are <!--del_lnk--> Catholic, no religion, <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Church_of_Australia.htm" title="Anglican Church of Australia">Anglican</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Uniting, <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian and <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a>. Accommodation is mostly separate houses, although the number of residences in the suburb has been increasing through conversion of blocks to dual occupancy and other medium-density-type developments.<p><a id="Suburb_amenities" name="Suburb_amenities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Suburb amenities</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28549.jpg.htm" title="Weston Park"><img alt="Weston Park" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Weston_Park_Yarralumla.jpg" src="../../images/285/28549.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28549.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weston Park</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Yarralumla local shopping centre is located on the corner of Bentham and Novar Streets. The centre contains a <!--del_lnk--> supermarket, <!--del_lnk--> bakery, drycleaners, video store/post office, <!--del_lnk--> chemist and newsagent as well as several restaurants and speciality shops. The shopping area has undergone redevelopment in recent years, including the addition of a two-storey office development facing the shopping centre.<p>Yarralumla's first school, the Catholic St Peter Chanel's Primary School, opened in 1956; it later closed in the 1990s. <!--del_lnk--> Yarralumla Primary School, a public school, opened a year after St Peter Chanel's in 1957. Half of the original primary school is now used as a behavioural centre catering to problem students.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_yps"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> There are two <!--del_lnk--> preschools in Yarralumla: Hill Corner Preschool, which is now the <i>St Nicholas Greek-Australian Preschool</i>; and the <!--del_lnk--> Montessori preschool, which is located in the former St Peter Chanel's Primary school buildings.<p><!--del_lnk--> Weston Park is situated on a peninsula near the western end of Lake Burley Griffin. The park includes swimming areas, children's play equipment and wading pools, and is a popular barbeque spot on weekends. Weston Park forms part of a string of parks that line southern shore of Lake Burley Griffin; other parks include Yarralumla Bay, Lennox Gardens and Stirling Park.<p>Like most of Canberra, Yarralumla's only scheduled public transport is provided by <!--del_lnk--> ACTION buses. Three bus routes run through Yarralumla. Bus numbers 31, 32 and 84 all run an identical route through the suburb via Novar Street, Schlich Street and Hopetoun Circuit. Buses 31 and 32 run from <!--del_lnk--> Woden Town Centre to <!--del_lnk--> Civic, while bus 84 runs from Woden to <!--del_lnk--> Manuka and <!--del_lnk--> Kingston. Generally, ACTION bus routes run every 30 to 60 minutes from 7 a.m. to 11:30 p.m. <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_action"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<table align="top" style="float:right;margin:0 0 0.5em 1em;">
<tr>
<td>
<table class="prettytable">
<tr>
<th colspan="3">2004 ACT Election<small><span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_actelec04"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#E70021"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Labor</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">45%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#080C6B"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liberal</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">33%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#10A26B"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Greens</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">12%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>Independents</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">6%</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td>
<table class="prettytable">
<tr>
<th colspan="3">2004 Federal Election<small><span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_fedelec"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#E70021"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Labor</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">47%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#080C6B"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liberal</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">35%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#10A26B"> </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Greens</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">15%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FEBE10"> </td>
<td>Democrats</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99">2%</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Yarralumla is located within the federal <!--del_lnk--> electorate of <!--del_lnk--> Canberra. <!--del_lnk--> Annette Ellis currently (2005) represents the electorate of Canberra in the <!--del_lnk--> House of Representatives. Historically both federal electorates in the ACT are safe <!--del_lnk--> Labor seats.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_abc2004fe"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Polling place statistics are shown to the right for the <i>Yarralumla</i> polling place in the 2004 federal and ACT elections.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> ACT Legislative Assembly, Yarralumla is part of the electorate of Molonglo, which elects seven members on the basis of proportional representation.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_actec"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> The 2004 ACT election saw a swing of 7.3% towards the Labor Party and 4.1% away from the Liberal Party.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_actelec01"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>The Yarralumla Residents Association (YRA) is a registered organisation formed to represent the views of Yarralumla residents and business. The group stands against government plans for "urban consolidation", supporting open space and the conservation of low-density housing. The organisation has been very vocal in opposing government plans for further development of Yarralumla and is also vocal about any plans for the Yarralumla Brickworks site.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_yra"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="Notable_places" name="Notable_places"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable places</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28550.jpg.htm" title="Government House"><img alt="Government House" height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Government_House_Yarralumla.jpg" src="../../images/285/28550.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28550.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Government House</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Yarralumla is notable among Canberra suburbs for its large number of landmarks and places of historical interest. The <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General's residence <!--del_lnk--> Government House, which shares the name <i>Yarralumla</i>, is located at the western end of the suburb in 53 <!--del_lnk--> hectares of parkland. It sits alongside Lake Burley Griffin, next to the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Canberra Golf Club and Scrivener Dam. The house was built in 1891 as the homestead for the <i>Yarralumla</i> property. The nearby Yarralumla Woolshed is available for event hire, often playing host to parties and bush dances. The land surrounding the woolshed has been developed as an equestrian park, including areas for <!--del_lnk--> showjumping, <!--del_lnk--> eventing and <!--del_lnk--> endurance riding.<p>The Yarralumla brickworks are notable as the first industrial manufacturing facility in the ACT. The brickworks were closed temporarily several times due to the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression and both <!--del_lnk--> World Wars. They closed permanently in 1976 after plans for major modernisation upgrades were not proceeded with. Presently the site is closed to the public and is in a state of disrepair. The unfenced parkland around the brickworks is a popular recreation area for Yarralumla residents. Future plans for the site have not yet been decided.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28551.jpg.htm" title="Chinese Embassy buildings"><img alt="Chinese Embassy buildings" height="147" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Chinese_embassy_Yarralumla.jpg" src="../../images/285/28551.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28551.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Chinese Embassy buildings</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The eastern end of Yarralumla is home to many of the <!--del_lnk--> diplomatic missions in Canberra, many of which are built in a traditional style reflecting that of their respective home countries. Examples of regionally-styled <!--del_lnk--> chanceries include the embassies of <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> High Commissions of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Papua_New_Guinea.htm" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> embassy was the first embassy built in Canberra, with the foundation stone laid on the <!--del_lnk--> fourth of July, 1942. The embassy is an impressive compound of buildings built in a <!--del_lnk--> Georgian style, inspired by several buildings designed by <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Wren.htm" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> for <!--del_lnk--> Virginia at the beginning of the 18th century.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_USembassy"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Canberra tourist drive six takes tourists on a car-based tour past many of Canberra's embassies including those located in Yarralumla.<p>Also located in the eastern end of the suburb are <!--del_lnk--> Lennox Gardens, the Yarralumla Yacht Club, the <!--del_lnk--> Albert Hall and the <!--del_lnk--> Hotel Canberra. The Hotel Canberra opened in 1924 to accommodate politicians when Parliament was in session. The hotel was closed in 1974 and the buildings served as an annexe for Parliament House between 1976 and 1984. The <!--del_lnk--> Hyatt Hotel Group re-opened the hotel in 1987.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_nlahc"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><center>
<table class="prettytable">
<tr>
<th colspan="6">Embassies and High Commissions in Yarralumla</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Flag of Belgium"><img alt="Flag of Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/544.png.htm" title="Flag of Brazil"><img alt="Flag of Brazil" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brazil.svg" src="../../images/5/544.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18768.png.htm" title="Flag of Canada"><img alt="Flag of Canada" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg" src="../../images/7/738.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="Flag of People's Republic of China"><img alt="Flag of People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/72/7234.png.htm" title="Flag of Egypt"><img alt="Flag of Egypt" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt.svg" src="../../images/3/386.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/848.png.htm" title="Flag of Finland"><img alt="Flag of Finland" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Finland_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/8/848.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/790.png.htm" title="Flag of Greece"><img alt="Flag of Greece" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Greece.svg" src="../../images/7/790.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17939.png.htm" title="Flag of India"><img alt="Flag of India" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg" src="../../images/6/607.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/595.png.htm" title="Flag of Indonesia"><img alt="Flag of Indonesia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Indonesia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/595.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/853.png.htm" title="Flag of Republic of Ireland"><img alt="Flag of Republic of Ireland" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ireland.svg" src="../../images/8/853.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/614.png.htm" title="Flag of Israel"><img alt="Flag of Israel" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/614.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/586.png.htm" title="Flag of Japan"><img alt="Flag of Japan" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Japan_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/586.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/590.png.htm" title="Flag of South Korea"><img alt="Flag of South Korea" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Korea_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/590.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">Republic of Korea</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/597.png.htm" title="Flag of Malaysia"><img alt="Flag of Malaysia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg" src="../../images/5/597.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/553.png.htm" title="Flag of Mexico"><img alt="Flag of Mexico" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mexico.svg" src="../../images/5/553.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/598.png.htm" title="Flag of Myanmar"><img alt="Flag of Myanmar" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg" src="../../images/5/598.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a></td>
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<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/545.png.htm" title="Flag of Netherlands"><img alt="Flag of Netherlands" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" src="../../images/5/545.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/29/2940.png.htm" title="Flag of New Zealand"><img alt="Flag of New Zealand" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg" src="../../images/29/2940.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/787.png.htm" title="Flag of Nigeria"><img alt="Flag of Nigeria" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg" src="../../images/7/787.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/851.png.htm" title="Flag of Norway"><img alt="Flag of Norway" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Norway.svg" src="../../images/8/851.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/81/8194.png.htm" title="Flag of Papua New Guinea"><img alt="Flag of Papua New Guinea" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg" src="../../images/81/8194.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Papua_New_Guinea.htm" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/599.png.htm" title="Flag of Philippines"><img alt="Flag of Philippines" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg" src="../../images/5/599.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></td>
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<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/744.png.htm" title="Flag of Poland"><img alt="Flag of Poland" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Poland_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/7/744.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/390.png.htm" title="Flag of Saudi Arabia"><img alt="Flag of Saudi Arabia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg" src="../../images/3/390.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/37/3716.png.htm" title="Flag of Singapore"><img alt="Flag of Singapore" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Singapore_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/600.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title="Flag of South Africa"><img alt="Flag of South Africa" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/14/1448.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Flag of Spain"><img alt="Flag of Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/188/18803.png.htm" title="Flag of Sweden"><img alt="Flag of Sweden" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sweden.svg" src="../../images/5/543.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/601.png.htm" title="Flag of Thailand"><img alt="Flag of Thailand" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Thailand.svg" src="../../images/6/601.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
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</center>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarralumla%2C_Australian_Capital_Territory"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yeast</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Organisms.htm">Organisms</a></h3>
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<th style="background: lightblue;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><map id="ImageMap_1" name="ImageMap_1">
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</map></span><div style="position: relative;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><img alt="How to read a taxobox" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Information-silk.png" src="../../images/353/35309.png" usemap="#ImageMap_1" width="16" /></span></div><i><b>Yeasts</b></i></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/239/23954.jpg.htm" title="Yeast of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae."><img alt="Yeast of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" src="../../images/239/23954.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Yeast of the species <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>.</small></div>
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<th style="background: lightblue;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Domain:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a><br />
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">Fungi</a><br />
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<center>Typical divisions</center>
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<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Ascomycota</b> <small>(sac fungi)</small><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomycotina <small>(true yeasts)</small><li><!--del_lnk--> Taphrinomycotina<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Schizosaccharomycetes <small>(fission yeasts)</small></ul>
</ul>
<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Basidiomycota</b> <small>(club fungi)</small><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Urediniomycetes<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sporidiales</ul>
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<p>
<br /><b>Yeasts</b> are a growth form of <a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> <!--del_lnk--> microorganisms classified in the <!--del_lnk--> kingdom <!--del_lnk--> Fungi. Approximately 1,500 <!--del_lnk--> species of yeasts have been described, most of which reproduce <!--del_lnk--> asexually by <!--del_lnk--> budding, although in a few cases by <!--del_lnk--> binary fission. Yeasts are unicellular, although some species with yeast forms may become multicellular through the formation of a string of connected budding cells known as <i><!--del_lnk--> pseudohyphae</i>, or <i><!--del_lnk--> true hyphae</i> as seen in most <!--del_lnk--> molds. Yeasts size can vary greatly depending on the species, typically measuring 3 to 7 micrometres in <!--del_lnk--> diameter, although some yeasts can reach over 40 µm.<p>The yeast species <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> has been used in <!--del_lnk--> baking and <!--del_lnk--> fermenting <!--del_lnk--> alcoholic beverages for thousands of years. It is also extremely important as a <!--del_lnk--> model organism in modern <!--del_lnk--> cell biology research, and is the most thoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganism. Researchers can use it to gather information into the biology of the eukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology. Other species of yeast, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Candida albicans</i>, are <!--del_lnk--> opportunistic pathogens and can cause <!--del_lnk--> infection in humans. Yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in <!--del_lnk--> microbial fuel cells, and produce ethanol for the <a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> industry.<p>Yeasts do not form a specific <!--del_lnk--> taxonomic or <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetic grouping. At present it is estimated that only 1% of all yeast species have been described. The term "<i>yeast</i>" is often taken as a <!--del_lnk--> synonym for <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, however the phylogenetic diversity of yeasts is shown by their placement in both <!--del_lnk--> divisions <!--del_lnk--> Ascomycota and <!--del_lnk--> Basidiomycota. The budding yeasts ("true yeasts") are classified in the <!--del_lnk--> order <!--del_lnk--> Saccharomycetales.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The word "<i>yeast</i>" comes from the <a href="../../wp/o/Old_English_language.htm" title="Old English language">Old English language</a> "<i>gist</i>", "<i>gyst</i>", ultimately from the <!--del_lnk--> Indo-European root "<i>yes-</i>", meaning <i>boil</i>, <i>foam</i>, or <i>bubble</i>. Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms. People have used yeast for fermentation and baking throughout history. Archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeasted bread, as well as drawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and breweries. In 1680 the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch naturalist <!--del_lnk--> Anton van Leeuwenhoek first <!--del_lnk--> microscopically observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms but rather globular structures. In 1857 <!--del_lnk--> French microbiologist <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_Pasteur.htm" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> proved in the paper "<i>Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique</i>" that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst. Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, cell growth could be increased, but the fermentation inhibited - an observation later called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Pasteur effect</i>.<p><a id="Growth_and_nutrition" name="Growth_and_nutrition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Growth and nutrition</span></h2>
<p>Yeasts are <!--del_lnk--> chemoorganotrophs as they use <!--del_lnk--> organic compounds as a source of energy and do not require light to grow. The main source of carbon is obtained by <!--del_lnk--> hexose sugars such as <!--del_lnk--> glucose and <!--del_lnk--> fructose, or disaccharides such as <!--del_lnk--> sucrose and <!--del_lnk--> maltose. Some species can metabolize <!--del_lnk--> pentose sugars, <a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" title="Alcohol">alcohols</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> organic acids. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic <!--del_lnk--> cellular respiration (<!--del_lnk--> obligate aerobes), or are anaerobic but also have aerobic methods of energy production (<!--del_lnk--> facultative anaerobes). Unlike <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, there are no known yeast species that grow only anaerobically (<!--del_lnk--> obligate anaerobes).<p>Yeasts are ubiquitous in the environment, but are most frequently isolated from sugar-rich samples. Some good examples include fruits and berries (such as <!--del_lnk--> grapes, <a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" title="Apple">apples</a> or <!--del_lnk--> peaches), and exudates from plants (such as plant saps or cacti). Some yeasts are found in association with soil and insects. Yeast are generally grown in the laboratory on solid <!--del_lnk--> growth media or liquid <!--del_lnk--> broths. Common media used for the cultivation of yeasts include; potato dextrose agar (PDA) or <!--del_lnk--> potato dextrose broth, Wallerstien Laboratories Nutrient agar (WLN), Yeast <!--del_lnk--> Peptone <!--del_lnk--> Dextrose agar (YPD), and Yeast Mould agar or broth (YM). The <!--del_lnk--> antibiotic <!--del_lnk--> cycloheximide is sometimes added to yeast growth media to inhibit the growth of <i>Saccharomyces</i> yeasts and select for wild/indigenous yeast species.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23963.png.htm" title="The yeast life cycle. 1. Budding 2. Conjugation 3. Spore"><img alt="The yeast life cycle. 1. Budding 2. Conjugation 3. Spore" class="thumbimage" height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yeast_lifecycle.svg" src="../../images/239/23963.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23963.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The yeast life cycle.<br /> 1. Budding<br /> 2. Conjugation<br /> 3. Spore</div>
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<p>Yeasts have <!--del_lnk--> asexual and <!--del_lnk--> sexual reproductive cycles; however the most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is <!--del_lnk--> asexual reproduction by <!--del_lnk--> budding or <!--del_lnk--> fission. Here a small bud, or daughter cell, is formed on the parent cell. The <!--del_lnk--> nucleus of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell. The bud can develop on different parts of the parent cell depending on the <!--del_lnk--> genus of the yeast.<p>Under high stress conditions <!--del_lnk--> haploid cells will generally die, however under the same conditions <!--del_lnk--> diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (<!--del_lnk--> meiosis) and producing a variety of haploid <!--del_lnk--> spores, which can go on to <!--del_lnk--> mate (conjugate), reforming the <!--del_lnk--> diploid.<p>Yeast of the species <i><!--del_lnk--> Schizosaccharomyces pombe</i> reproduce by <!--del_lnk--> binary fission instead of budding.<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<p>The useful physiological properties of yeast have led to their use in the field of <a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Fermentation of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this technology. Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: Baker's yeast in <a href="../../wp/b/Bread.htm" title="Bread">bread</a> production, brewer's yeast in <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a> fermentation, yeast in <a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" title="Wine">wine</a> fermentation and for <!--del_lnk--> xylitol production. Yeasts are also one of the most widely used <!--del_lnk--> model organisms for <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> cell biology.<p><a id="Alcoholic_beverages" name="Alcoholic_beverages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alcoholic beverages</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Alcoholic beverages are loosely defined as a <!--del_lnk--> beverage that contains <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> (CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>OH). This ethanol is almost always produced by <!--del_lnk--> fermentation - the <!--del_lnk--> metabolism of <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrates by certain species of yeast. Beverages such as <a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" title="Wine">wine</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a>, or <a href="../../wp/d/Distilled_beverage.htm" title="Distilled beverage">distilled spirits</a> all use yeast at some stage of their production.<p><a id="Beer" name="Beer"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Beer</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23970.jpg.htm" title="A mixture of diatomaceous earth and yeast after filtering beer."><img alt="A mixture of diatomaceous earth and yeast after filtering beer." class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DE_and_yeast.JPG" src="../../images/239/23970.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/239/23970.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A mixture of <!--del_lnk--> diatomaceous earth and yeast after filtering <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a>.</div>
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</div>
<p>Beer <!--del_lnk--> brewers classify yeasts as <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Bottom and top fermenting yeast">top-fermenting</a> and bottom-fermenting. This distinction was introduced by the <!--del_lnk--> Dane <!--del_lnk--> Emil Christian Hansen. <i>Top-fermenting yeasts</i> are so-called because they form a foam at the top of the <!--del_lnk--> wort during fermentation. They can produce higher <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a> concentrations and prefer higher temperatures, producing fruitier, sweeter, <!--del_lnk--> ale-type beers. An example of a top-fermenting yeast is <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, known to brewers as <!--del_lnk--> ale yeast. <i>Bottom-fermenting yeasts</i> are used to produce <!--del_lnk--> lager-type beers. These yeasts ferment more sugars, leaving a crisper taste, and grow well at low temperatures. An example of a bottom-fermenting yeast is <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces pastorianus</i>.<p>For both types, yeast is fully distributed through the beer while it is fermenting, and both equally <!--del_lnk--> flocculate (clump together and precipitate to the bottom of the vessel) when it is finished. By no means do all top-fermenting yeasts demonstrate this behaviour, but it features strongly in many English ale yeasts which may also exhibit chain forming (the failure of budded cells to break from the mother cell) which is technically different from true flocculation.<p>Brewers of Bavarian-style <!--del_lnk--> wheat beers often use varieties of <i><!--del_lnk--> Torulaspora delbrueckii</i>, which contribute to the distinctive flavour profile. <!--del_lnk--> Lambic, a style of <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> beer, is fermented spontaneously by wild yeasts primarily of the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Brettanomyces</i>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24009.jpg.htm" title="Fermenting tanks with yeast being used to brew beer."><img alt="Fermenting tanks with yeast being used to brew beer." class="thumbimage" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Samadams2.jpg" src="../../images/240/24009.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24009.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fermenting tanks with yeast being used to <!--del_lnk--> brew <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a>.</div>
</div>
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<p>In industrial brewing, to ensure purity of strain, a 'clean' sample of the yeast is stored refrigerated in a laboratory. After a certain number of <!--del_lnk--> fermentation cycles, a full scale <!--del_lnk--> propagation is produced from this laboratory sample. Typically, it is grown up in about three or four stages using sterile brewing <!--del_lnk--> wort and <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>.<p><a id="Distilled_beverages" name="Distilled_beverages"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Distilled beverages</span></h4>
<p>A <a href="../../wp/d/Distilled_beverage.htm" title="Distilled beverage">distilled beverage</a> is a beverage that contains ethanol that has been purified by <!--del_lnk--> distillation. Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as <!--del_lnk--> whiskey and <!--del_lnk--> rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol are collected in the <!--del_lnk--> condensate, including water, <!--del_lnk--> esters, and other <a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" title="Alcohol">alcohols</a> which account for the <!--del_lnk--> flavor of the beverage.<p><a id="Wine" name="Wine"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Wine</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24015.jpg.htm" title="Grapes covered in yeast growth observable as a white film, also known as the "blush"."><img alt="Grapes covered in yeast growth observable as a white film, also known as the "blush"." class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yeast_on_grapes.jpg" src="../../images/240/24015.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24015.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Grapes covered in yeast growth observable as a white film, also known as the "<i>blush</i>".</div>
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<p>Yeast is used in <!--del_lnk--> winemaking where it converts the sugars present in <!--del_lnk--> grape juice or <!--del_lnk--> must into <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a>. Yeast is normally already present on the grapes, often visible as a powdery film (also known as the <i>bloom</i> or <i>blush</i>) on their exterior. The fermentation can be done with this indigenous (or <i>wild</i>) yeast; however, this may give unpredictable results depending on the exact types of yeast species that are present. For this reason a pure yeast culture is generally added to the must, which rapidly predominates the fermentation as it proceeds. This represses the wild yeasts and ensures a reliable and predictable fermentation. Most added wine yeasts are strains of <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, however not all strains of the species are suitable. Different <i>S. cerevisiae</i> yeast strains have differing physiological and fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a direct impact on the finished wine. Significant research has been undertaken into the develoment of <i>novel</i> wine yeast strains that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines.<p>The growth of some yeasts such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Zygosaccharomyces</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Brettanomyces</i> in wine can result in <!--del_lnk--> wine faults and subsequent spoilage. <i><!--del_lnk--> Brettanomyces</i> produces an array of <!--del_lnk--> metabolites when growing in wine, some of which are volatile <!--del_lnk--> phenolic compounds. Together these compounds are often referred to as <i>"Brettanomyces character"</i>, and are often described as <i><!--del_lnk--> antiseptic</i> or <i>"barnyard"</i> type aromas. Brettanomyces is a significant contributor to <!--del_lnk--> wine faults within the wine industry.<p><a id="Baking" name="Baking"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Baking</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24017.jpg.htm" title="Bread showing pockets left by carbon dioxide."><img alt="Bread showing pockets left by carbon dioxide." class="thumbimage" height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bread_rise.jpg" src="../../images/240/24017.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24017.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bread showing pockets left by carbon dioxide.</div>
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<p>Yeast, specifically <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, is used in <!--del_lnk--> baking as a <!--del_lnk--> leavening agent, where it converts the <!--del_lnk--> fermentable <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugars</a> present in the <!--del_lnk--> dough into <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. This causes the dough to expand or rise as the carbon dioxide forms pockets or <!--del_lnk--> bubbles. When the dough is baked it "sets" and the pockets remain, giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of <a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" title="Potato">potatoes</a>, water from potato boiling, <a href="../../wp/e/Egg_%2528food%2529.htm" title="Egg (food)">eggs</a>, or <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a> in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeasts. <!--del_lnk--> Salt and <!--del_lnk--> fats such as <a href="../../wp/b/Butter.htm" title="Butter">butter</a> slow down yeast growth. The majority of the yeast used in baking is of the same species common in alcoholic <!--del_lnk--> fermentation. Additionally, <!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces exiguus (also known as S. minor) is a wild yeast found on plants, fruits, and grains that is occasionally used for baking.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24019.jpg.htm" title="A block of fresh yeast."><img alt="A block of fresh yeast." class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fresh_yeast.jpg" src="../../images/240/24019.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24019.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A block of fresh yeast.</div>
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<p>It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. The first records that show this use come from Ancient Egypt. Researchers speculate that a mixture of flour meal and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of the flour caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would have been lighter and more tasty than the normal flat, hard cake.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24021.jpg.htm" title="Active dried yeast, a granulated form in which yeast is commercially sold."><img alt="Active dried yeast, a granulated form in which yeast is commercially sold." class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dry_yeast.jpg" src="../../images/240/24021.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24021.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Active dried yeast, a granulated form in which yeast is commercially sold.</div>
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<p>Today there are several retailers of baker's yeast; one of the best-known is Fleischmann’s Yeast, which was developed in 1868. During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> Fleischmann's developed a <!--del_lnk--> granulated active dry yeast, which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelf life than fresh yeast. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Baker's yeast is also sold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square "cake". This form perishes quickly, and must be used soon after production in order to maintain <!--del_lnk--> viability. A weak solution of <!--del_lnk--> water and sugar can be used to determine if yeast is expired. When dissolved in the solution, active yeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide.<p>When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with flour, salt, and warm water (or milk). The dough is kneaded until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. Some bread doughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again. A longer rising time gives a better flavour, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially. The dough is then shaped into loaves, left to rise until it is the correct size, and then baked. Dried yeast is always used for bread made in a <!--del_lnk--> bread machine.<h3> <span class="mw-headline">Industrial ethanol production</span></h3>
<p>The ability of yeast to convert sugar into <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> has been harnessed by the <a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a> industry, which has various uses including <!--del_lnk--> ethanol fuel. The process starts by milling a <!--del_lnk--> feedstock, such as <!--del_lnk--> sugar cane, <!--del_lnk--> sweetcorn, or cheap <!--del_lnk--> cereal grains, and then adding dilute <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfuric_acid.htm" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, or fungal alpha <!--del_lnk--> amylase enzymes, to break down the starches in to complex sugars. A gluco amylase is then added to break the complex sugars down into simple sugars. After this, yeasts are added to convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is then <!--del_lnk--> distilled off to obtain ethanol up to 96% in concentration.<p><i>Saccharomyces</i> yeasts have been <!--del_lnk--> genetically engineered to ferment <!--del_lnk--> xylose, one of the major fermentable sugars present in <!--del_lnk--> cellulosic biomasses, such as agriculture residues, paper wastes, and wood chips. Such a development means that ethanol can be efficiently produced from more inexpensive feedstocks, making <!--del_lnk--> cellulosic ethanol fuel a more competitively priced alternative to <!--del_lnk--> gasoline fuels.<p><a id="Kombucha" name="Kombucha"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Kombucha</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:187px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24023.jpg.htm" title="A Kombucha culture fermenting in a jar"><img alt="A Kombucha culture fermenting in a jar" class="thumbimage" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kombucha_jar.jpg" src="../../images/240/24023.jpg" width="185" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24023.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> Kombucha culture fermenting in a jar</div>
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<p>Yeast in <!--del_lnk--> symbiosis with <!--del_lnk--> acetic acid bacteria is used in the preparation of <!--del_lnk--> Kombucha, a fermented sweetened <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a>. Species of yeast found in the tea can vary, and may include: <i><!--del_lnk--> Brettanomyces bruxellensis</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Candida stellata</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Schizosaccharomyces pombe</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Torulaspora delbrueckii</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Zygosaccharomyces bailii</i>.<p><a id="Nutritional_supplements" name="Nutritional_supplements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nutritional supplements</span></h3>
<p>Yeast is used in nutritional supplements popular with <!--del_lnk--> vegans and the health conscious, where it is often referred to as "nutritional yeast". It is a deactivated yeast, usually <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>. It is an excellent source of protein and vitamins, especially the <!--del_lnk--> B-complex vitamins, whose functions are related to metabolism as well as other <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">minerals</a> and <!--del_lnk--> cofactors required for growth. It is also naturally low in <!--del_lnk--> fat and <a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">sodium</a>. Some brands of <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Nutritional yeast">nutritional yeast</a>, though not all, are fortified with <a href="../../wp/c/Cyanocobalamin.htm" title="Cyanocobalamin">vitamin B12</a>, which is produced separately from <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. Nutritional yeast, though it has a similar appearance to brewer's yeast, is very different and has a very different taste.<p>Nutritional yeast has a nutty, cheesy, creamy flavor which makes it popular as an ingredient in <a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">cheese</a> substitutes. It is often used by vegans in place of <!--del_lnk--> parmesan cheese. Another popular use is as a topping for <!--del_lnk--> popcorn. Some movie theaters are beginning to offer it along with salt or cayenne pepper as a popcorn condiment. It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to cornmeal, and can be found in the bulk aisle of most natural food stores. In Australia it is sometimes sold as "savory yeast flakes". Though "nutritional yeast" usually refers to commercial products, inadequately fed prisoners have used "home-grown" yeast to prevent vitamin deficiency.<p><a id="Probiotics" name="Probiotics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Probiotics</span></h3>
<p>Some <!--del_lnk--> probiotic supplements use the yeast <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces boulardii</i> to maintain and restore the natural flora in the large and small gastrointestinal tract. <i>S. boulardii</i> has been shown to reduce the symptoms of acute <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea in children, prevent reinfection of <i><!--del_lnk--> Clostridium difficile</i>, reduce bowel movements in diarrhea predominant <!--del_lnk--> IBS patients, and reduce the incidence of <!--del_lnk--> antibiotic, <!--del_lnk--> traveler's, and <!--del_lnk--> HIV/AIDS associated diarrheas.<p><a id="Science" name="Science"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Science</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24025.png.htm" title="Diagram showing a yeast cell"><img alt="Diagram showing a yeast cell" class="thumbimage" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yeast_cell_english.svg" src="../../images/240/24025.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24025.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram showing a yeast cell</div>
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<p>Several yeasts, particularly <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, have been widely used in <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> cell biology. This is largely because the <!--del_lnk--> cell cycle in a yeast cell is very similar to the cell cycle in <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a>, and therefore the basic cellular mechanics of <!--del_lnk--> DNA replication, <!--del_lnk--> recombination, <!--del_lnk--> cell division and <!--del_lnk--> metabolism are comparable. Also many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their <!--del_lnk--> homologs in yeast; these proteins include <!--del_lnk--> cell cycle proteins, <!--del_lnk--> signaling proteins, and protein-processing enzymes.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 24 April <!--del_lnk--> 1996 <i>S. cerevisiae</i> was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its <!--del_lnk--> genome, consisting of 12 million <!--del_lnk--> base pairs, fully sequenced as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Genome project. At the time it was the most complex organism to have its full genome sequenced and took 7 years and the involvement of over 100 laboratories to accomplish. The second yeast species to have its genome sequenced was <!--del_lnk--> Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which was completed in <!--del_lnk--> 2002. It was the 6th eukaryotic genome sequenced and consists of 13.8 million base pairs.<p><a id="Yeast_extract" name="Yeast_extract"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Yeast extract</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:126px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24028.jpg.htm" title="Marmite and Vegemite have a distinctive dark colour"><img alt="Marmite and Vegemite have a distinctive dark colour" class="thumbimage" height="101" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Marmite.jpg" src="../../images/240/24028.jpg" width="124" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24028.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Marmite and Vegemite have a distinctive dark colour</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24030.jpg.htm" title="Vegemite and Marmite, products made from yeast extract"><img alt="Vegemite and Marmite, products made from yeast extract" class="thumbimage" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg" src="../../images/240/24030.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24030.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Vegemite and <!--del_lnk--> Marmite, products made from <!--del_lnk--> yeast extract</div>
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<p>Yeast extract is the common name for various forms of processed yeast products that are used as <!--del_lnk--> food additives or <!--del_lnk--> flavours. They are often used in the same way that <!--del_lnk--> monosodium glutamate (MSG) is used, and like MSG, often contain free <!--del_lnk--> glutamic acids. The general method for making yeast extract for food products such as <!--del_lnk--> Vegemite and <!--del_lnk--> Marmite on a commercial scale is to add salt to a suspension of yeast making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells shrivelling up. This triggers <i><!--del_lnk--> autolysis</i>, where the yeast's <!--del_lnk--> digestive enzymes break their own <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">proteins</a> down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls which would give poor texture) are separated. Yeast autolysates are used in <!--del_lnk--> Vegemite and <!--del_lnk--> Promite (<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Marmite and <!--del_lnk--> Bovril (the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Oxo (<a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>), and <!--del_lnk--> Cenovis (<a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>).<p><a id="Pathogenic_yeasts" name="Pathogenic_yeasts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pathogenic yeasts</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24032.jpg.htm" title="A photomicrograph of Candida albicans showing hyphal outgrowth and other morphological characteristics."><img alt="A photomicrograph of Candida albicans showing hyphal outgrowth and other morphological characteristics." class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:C_albicans_en.jpg" src="../../images/240/24032.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/240/24032.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> photomicrograph of <i><!--del_lnk--> Candida albicans</i> showing hyphal outgrowth and other morphological characteristics.</div>
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<p>Some species of yeast are <!--del_lnk--> opportunistic pathogens, where they can cause infection in people with compromised <!--del_lnk--> immune systems.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Cryptococcus neoformans</i>, is a significant pathogen of immunocompromised people, causing the disease termed <!--del_lnk--> Cryptococcosis. This disease occurs in about 7-8% of <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> patients in the USA, and a slightly smaller percentage (3-6%) in western Europe. The cells of the yeast are surrounded by a rigid <!--del_lnk--> polysaccharide capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by <!--del_lnk--> white blood cells in the human body.<p>Yeasts of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Candida</i> genus are another group of opportunistic pathogens, which causes oral and <!--del_lnk--> vaginal <!--del_lnk--> infections in humans, known as <!--del_lnk--> Candidiasis. <i>Candida</i> is commonly found as a <!--del_lnk--> commensal yeast in the <!--del_lnk--> mucus membranes of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. Here the yeast cells sprout a <!--del_lnk--> hyphal outgrowth, which locally penetrates the <!--del_lnk--> mucosal membrane, causing irritation and shedding of the tissues. The pathogenic yeasts of candidiasis in probable descending order of virulence for humans are: <i><!--del_lnk--> C. albicans</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. tropicalis</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. stellatoidea</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. glabrata</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. krusei</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. parapsilosis</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. guilliermondii</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. viswanathii</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> C. lusitaniae</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Rhodotorula mucilaginosa</i>. <i><!--del_lnk--> Candida glabrata</i> is the second most common <i><!--del_lnk--> Candida</i> pathogen after <i>C. albicans</i>, causing infections of the <!--del_lnk--> urogenital tract, and of the <!--del_lnk--> bloodstream (<!--del_lnk--> Candidemia).<p><a id="Food_spoilage" name="Food_spoilage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Food spoilage</span></h2>
<p>Yeasts are able to grow in foods with a low pH, (5.0 or lower) and in the presence of sugars, organic acids and other easily metabolized carbon sources. During their growth, yeasts metabolize some food components and produce metabolic end products. This causes the physical, chemical, and sensory properties of a food to change, and the food is spoilt. The growth of yeast within food products is often seen on their surface, as in <a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">cheeses</a> or <a href="../../wp/m/Meat.htm" title="Meat">meats</a>, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, such as <a href="../../wp/j/Juice.htm" title="Juice">juices</a>, and semi-liquid products, such as <!--del_lnk--> syrups and <!--del_lnk--> jams. The yeast of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Zygosaccharomyces</i> genus have had a long history as a spoilage yeast within the food industry. This is mainly due to the fact that these species can grow in the presence of high <!--del_lnk--> sucrose, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Acetic_acid.htm" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, <!--del_lnk--> sorbic acid, <!--del_lnk--> benzoic acid, and <!--del_lnk--> sulfur dioxide concentrations, representing some of the commonly utilised <!--del_lnk--> food preservation methods. <!--del_lnk--> Methylene Blue is used to test for the presence of live yeast cells.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yellow River</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.htm">Geography of Asia</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger; background-color: #CEDEFF;">Yellow River (<i>Huang He</i>)</th>
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<div style="border: 1px solid #CEDEFF;"><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28552.png.htm" title="Course of the Yellow River with major cities"><img alt="Course of the Yellow River with major cities" height="147" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Huanghemap.png" src="../../images/285/28552.png" width="288" /></a></div>
<center>Course of the Yellow River with major cities</center>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Origin</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bayankala Mountains, <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai Province</td>
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<td><b>Mouth</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bohai Sea</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Basin countries</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a></td>
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<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td>5464 km</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Source elevation</b></td>
<td>4500 m (14,765 ft)</td>
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<td><b>Avg. <!--del_lnk--> discharge</b></td>
<td>2,571 m³/s (90,808 ft³/s)</td>
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<td><b>Basin area</b></td>
<td>752 000 km²</td>
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<p>The <b>Yellow River</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant" xml:lang="zh-Hant">黃河</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans" xml:lang="zh-Hans">黄河</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Hanyu Pinyin: <span class="Unicode">Huáng Hé<span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> listen</span> </span>; <!--del_lnk--> Wade-Giles: Hwang-ho, sometimes simply called the River in ancient Chinese) is the second longest river in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> (after <a href="../../wp/y/Yangtze_River.htm" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>) and the <a href="../../wp/l/List_of_rivers_by_length.htm" title="List of rivers by length">seventh longest</a> in the world. The river is 5464 km long . Originating in the Bayankala Mountains in <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai <!--del_lnk--> Province in western China, the Yellow river flows through nine provinces of China and empties into the <!--del_lnk--> Bohai Sea. The Yellow River basin has an east-west distance of 1900 km and north-south distance of 1100 km. Total basin area is 752443 km².<p>The middle stream of the Yellow River passes through the <!--del_lnk--> Loess Plateau where substantial erosion takes place. The large amount of mud and sand discharged into the river makes the Yellow River the most <!--del_lnk--> sediment-laden river in the world. The highest recorded annual level of silts discharged into the Yellow River is 3.91 billion tons in <!--del_lnk--> 1933. The highest silt concentration level was recorded in 1977 at 920 kg/m³. These sediments later deposit in the slower lower reaches of the river, elevating the <!--del_lnk--> river bed and creating the famous "river above ground". In <!--del_lnk--> Kaifeng, Yellow River is 10 meters above the ground level.<p>The Yellow River is called the "Mother River of China" and "the Cradle of Chinese Civilization" in China, as the Yellow River basin is the birth-place of the northern Chinese civilizations and the most prosperous region in the early Chinese history. However, the frequent devastating flooding, largely due to the elevated river bed in its lower course, has also earned it the unenviable distinction as "China's Sorrow".<p>
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<p>In the early history, the Yellow River is referred to in Chinese literatures simply as <i>He</i> (河), or "River". The first appearance of the name "Yellow River" (黄河) is in the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Han (汉书) written in the <!--del_lnk--> Western Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 9). The name "Yellow River" describes the perennial ochre-yellow colour of the muddy water in the lower course of the river. An alternative poetic name of the river referring to this is the <i>Muddy Flow</i> (<a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <span lang="zh" xml:lang="zh">濁流</span>; <!--del_lnk--> pinyin: Zhuo Liu). The <!--del_lnk--> Chinese expression "when the Yellow River flows clear" is similar to the <!--del_lnk--> English expression "when hell freezes over".<p><a id="History_and_Culture" name="History_and_Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History and Culture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28553.jpg.htm" title=""Mother River""><img alt=""Mother River"" height="101" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MotherHuanghe2.jpg" src="../../images/285/28553.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28553.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "Mother River"</div>
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<p>The Yellow River has special importance in the origins of the Chinese civilization. It is referred to as "the Mother River" and "the Cradle of the Chinese civilization" by Chinese. Traditionally, it is believed that the Chinese civilization originated from the Yellow River basin areas.<p>During the long <!--del_lnk--> history of China, the Yellow River has been considered a blessing as well as a curse and has been <!--del_lnk--> nicknamed both "China's Pride" (<i>Zhōngguó de Jiāoào</i>) and "China's Sorrow" (<i>Zhōngguó de Tòng</i>). Records indicate that, from <!--del_lnk--> 602 BC to present, the river's course made at least 5 major large-scale changes in direction and its levees were breached more than 1,500 times. A major course change that took place in 1194 took over the <!--del_lnk--> Huai River drainage system throughout the next 700 years. The mud in the Yellow River literally blocked the mouth of the Huai River and left thousands homeless. The Yellow River adopted its present course in 1897 after the final course change occurred in 1855. Currently, the Yellow River flows through <!--del_lnk--> Jinan, capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Shandong province and ends in the <!--del_lnk--> Bohai Sea.<p>The river gets its yellow colour mostly from the fine-grained calcareous <!--del_lnk--> silts originated from the <!--del_lnk--> Loess Plateau which are carried in the flow. Centuries of silt deposition and <!--del_lnk--> diking has caused the river to flow above the surrounding farmland, making flooding a critically dangerous problem. Flooding of the Yellow River has caused some of the highest <!--del_lnk--> death tolls in world history, with the <!--del_lnk--> 1887 Huang He flood killing 900,000-2,000,000 and the <!--del_lnk--> 1931 Huang He flood killing 1,000,000-3,700,000. In 1938, during the <!--del_lnk--> Second Sino-Japanese War, the <!--del_lnk--> Nationalist troops under <!--del_lnk--> Chiang Kai-Shek broke the levees holding back the Yellow River in order to stop the advancing <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> troops. The river at that time flooded a huge area and the floodwaters took some 500,000-900,000 lives.<p>Another historic source of devastating floods was the collapse of upstream <!--del_lnk--> ice dams in <!--del_lnk--> Inner Mongolia with their accompanying sudden release of vast quantities of impounded water. There have been 11 such major floods in the past century, each causing tremendous loss of life and property. Nowadays, explosives dropped from aircraft are used to break the ice dams before they become dangerous.<p>Sometimes the Yellow River is poetically called the <i>Zhuo Liu</i> (<span lang="zh" xml:lang="zh">濁流</span>), or the "Muddy Flow." The <!--del_lnk--> Chinese expression "when the Yellow River flows clear" is similar to the <!--del_lnk--> English expression "when hell freezes over."<p>Some of the known flood defenses used in ancient times were the building of ditches, walls (dams), <!--del_lnk--> levees, and rebound channels to route floodwaters around a blockage. The main problem was that the solutions were local and sometimes the dams were too small and weak for the impact. If the river broke down the defenses, it would cause far more damage than if no levees had been built.<p><a id="Characteristics_of_the_Yellow_River" name="Characteristics_of_the_Yellow_River"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics of the Yellow River</span></h2>
<p>The Yellow River is notable for the amount of <!--del_lnk--> silt it carries, amounting to 1.6 billion tons annually at the point where it descends from the <!--del_lnk--> Loess Plateau. If the river is running to the sea with sufficient volume, 1.4 billion tons are carried to the sea. In modern times, since 1972 when it first went dry, the river has gone dry in its lower reaches, from <!--del_lnk--> Jinan to the sea, in most years, in 1997 for 226 days. The low volume of the river is due to increased demands on the river for use in <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> which has increased by a factor of five since 1950. Water diverted from the river by 1999 served 140 million people and irrigated 74000 km² of land. Highest volume occurs during the rainy season, from July to October, when 60% of the volume of the river flows. Water for irrigation, on the other hand, is needed between March and June. In order to capture excess water for use when needed and for flood control and electricity generation several dams have been built, but due to the high silt load their life is expected to be limited. A proposed <!--del_lnk--> South-North Water Transfer Project involves several schemes to divert water from the <a href="../../wp/y/Yangtze_River.htm" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>, one in the western headwaters of the rivers where they are closest to one another, another from the upper reaches of the <!--del_lnk--> Han River, and a third using the route of the <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canal_of_China.htm" title="Grand Canal of China">Grand Canal</a>.<p>Due to its heavy load of silt the Yellow River is a <!--del_lnk--> depositing stream, that is, it deposits part of its carried burden of soil in its bed in stretches where it is flowing slowly. These deposits elevate the riverbed which flows between <!--del_lnk--> natural levees in its lower reaches. Should a flood occur the river may break out of the levees into the surrounding lower flood plain and adopt a new course. Historically this has occurred about once every hundred years. In modern times considerable effort has been made to strengthen levees and control floods.<p>The Yellow River Delta totals 8,000 square kilometers. However, since 1996 it has been reported to be shrinking slightly each year, through erosion.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>From its sources, Gyaring Lake and Ngoring Lake, high in the Bayankala Mountains in <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai Province in the far west of China, the Yellow River loops north, bends south, creating the "Great Bend", and then flows generally eastwards across northern China to the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Bohai, draining a <!--del_lnk--> basin of 752443 km², which nourishes 120 million people.<p>The river is commonly divided into three stages. However, different scholars have different opinions in how the three stages are divided. This article adopts the division by the Yellow River Hydrology Committee.<p><a id="Upper_reaches" name="Upper_reaches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Upper reaches</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28554.jpg.htm" title="The Yellow River, near Xunhua, in Eastern Qinghai"><img alt="The Yellow River, near Xunhua, in Eastern Qinghai" height="299" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellow_river_-_A._Holdrinet.jpg" src="../../images/285/28554.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28554.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Yellow River, near Xunhua, in Eastern Qinghai</div>
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<p>The upper reaches of the Yellow River is a segment starting from the source in the Bayankala Mountains and ending at Hekou County of <!--del_lnk--> Inner Mongolia just before turning sharply to the south. This segment has a total length of 3472 km and total basin area of 386,000 km² (51.3% of total basin area). Along this length, the elevation of the Yellow River drops 3496 metres, with an average drop of 1%.<p>The upper reaches can be further divided into three sections: the source, valley, and <!--del_lnk--> alluvial plain section. The source section flows mainly through pastures, swamps, and knolls between the <!--del_lnk--> Bayankala Mountains and <!--del_lnk--> Anemaqen Mountains. The river water is clear and flows steadily. Crystal clear lakes and sluggish meandering are characteristic in this section. The two main lakes along this section are Lake Zhaling (扎陵湖) and Lake Eling (鄂陵湖), having capacities of 4.7 billion and 10.8 billion m³, respectively. At elevations over 4260 m above sea level, they are the largest two plateau fresh water lakes in China.<p>The valley section stretches from Longyang Gorge in <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai to Qingtong Gorge in <!--del_lnk--> Gansu. Steep cliffs line both sides of the Yellow River. As the water bed is narrow and the average drop is large, the water flow in this section is extremely turbulent and fast. There are 20 gorges in this section, the more famous of these being the Longyang, Jishi, Liujia, Bapan, and Qingtong Gorges. The flow conditions in this section makes it the best location to build <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric plants.<p>After emerging from the Qingtong Gorge, the Yellow River comes into a section of vast alluvial plains, the Yinchuan Plain and Hetao Plain. In this section, the regions along the river are mostly <!--del_lnk--> deserts and <!--del_lnk--> grasslands, with very few tributaries. The flow is slow and on both sides of the river. The Hetao Plain has a length of 900 km and width of 30 to 50 km. It is historically the most important irrigation plain along the Yellow River.<p><a id="Middle_reaches" name="Middle_reaches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Middle reaches</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28555.jpg.htm" title="Yellow River at Lanzhou"><img alt="Yellow River at Lanzhou" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lanzhou-rio-amarillo-d01.jpg" src="../../images/285/28555.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28555.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yellow River at <!--del_lnk--> Lanzhou</div>
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<p>The part of Yellow River between Hekou County in <!--del_lnk--> Inner Mongolia and <!--del_lnk--> Zhengzhou in <!--del_lnk--> Henan constitutes the middle reaches of the river. The middle reaches has a length of 1206 km long and basin area of 344,000 km² (45.7% of total), with a total elevation drop of 890 meters, and average drop of 0.074%. There are 30 large tributaries along the middle reaches, and the water flow is increased by 43.5% on this stage of the river. The middle reaches is the main source of the Yellow River silts, contributing 92% of the total silts.<p>From Hekou County to Yumenkou, the Yellow River passes through the longest series of continuous valleys on its main course, known collectively as the Jinshan Valley. The abundant hydrodynamic resources stored in this section makes it the second most suitable area to build hydroelectric power plants. The famous Hukou Waterfall is in the lower part of this valley.<p><a id="Lower_reaches" name="Lower_reaches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lower reaches</span></h3>
<p>In the lower reaches, from Zhengzhou to the sea, a distance of 786 km, the river is confined to a <!--del_lnk--> levee-lined course as it flows to the northeast across the <!--del_lnk--> North China Plain before emptying into the <!--del_lnk--> Bohai Sea. The basin area in this stage is only 23,000 km² (3% of total). The total drop in elevation of the lower reaches is 93.6 meters, with an average drop of 0.012%.<p>The silts received from the middle reaches form sediments in this stage, elevating the river bed. During two thousand years of levee construction, excessive sediment deposits have raised the riverbed several meters above the surrounding grounds. The levee-confined Yellow River receives flows from few tributaries in this stage. Nearly all rivers to the south of Yellow River drain into the <!--del_lnk--> Huai River, whereas those to the north of it drain into the <!--del_lnk--> Hai River.<p><a id="Tributaries_of_the_Yellow_River" name="Tributaries_of_the_Yellow_River"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tributaries of the Yellow River</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> White River (白河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Black River (黑河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Huang River (湟水)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zuli River (祖厉河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Qingshui River (清水河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dahei River (大黑河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kuye River (窟野河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wuding River (无定河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Fen River (汾河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wei River (渭河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Luo River (洛河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Qin River (沁河)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dawen River (大汶河)</ul>
<p><a id="Hydroelectric_power_dams_on_the_Yellow_River" name="Hydroelectric_power_dams_on_the_Yellow_River"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Hydroelectric power dams on the Yellow River</span></h2>
<p>Below is the list of <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power stations built on the Yellow River (in bracket is the year to start operation):<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sanmen Gorge hydroelectric power station (1960)<li>Sanshenggong hydroelectric power station (1966)<li><!--del_lnk--> Qingtong Gorge hydroelectric power station (1968)<li><!--del_lnk--> Liujia Gorge hydroelectric power station (1974)<li><!--del_lnk--> Yanguo Gorge hydroelectric power station (1975)<li>Tianqiao hydroelectric power station (1977)<li><!--del_lnk--> Bapan Gorge hydroelectric power station (1980)<li><!--del_lnk--> Longyang Gorge hydroelectric power station (1992)<li><!--del_lnk--> Da Gorge hydroelectric power station (1998)<li><!--del_lnk--> Li Gorge hydroelectric power station (1999)<li>Wanjiazhai hydroelectric power station (1999)<li><!--del_lnk--> Xiaolangdi hydroelectric power station (2001)</ul>
<p><a id="Provinces_and_cities_on_the_Yellow_River" name="Provinces_and_cities_on_the_Yellow_River"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Provinces and cities on the Yellow River</span></h2>
<p>Originating in the <!--del_lnk--> Bayankala Mountains, the Yellow River now passes nine <!--del_lnk--> provinces, namely <!--del_lnk--> Qinghai, <!--del_lnk--> Sichuan, <!--del_lnk--> Gansu, <!--del_lnk--> Ningxia, <!--del_lnk--> Inner Mongolia, <!--del_lnk--> Shaanxi, <!--del_lnk--> Shanxi, <!--del_lnk--> Henan and <!--del_lnk--> Shandong. The mouth of the Yellow River is located at <!--del_lnk--> Dongying, <!--del_lnk--> Shandong.<p>The provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Hebei and <!--del_lnk--> Henan derive their names from the <i>Huang He</i>. Their names mean respectively "north" and "south of the (Yellow) River".<p>Major cities located along the Yellow River include (starting from the source): <!--del_lnk--> Lanzhou, <!--del_lnk--> Wuhai, <!--del_lnk--> Baotou, <!--del_lnk--> Kaifeng, and <!--del_lnk--> Jinan.<p><a id="Flooding_and_changing_of_course" name="Flooding_and_changing_of_course"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flooding and changing of course</span></h2>
<p>The river is extremely prone to <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flooding</a>. It has flooded 1593 times in last 3000-4000 years, while its main course changed 18 times and created some of the highest death tolls in Chinese history.<p>Beginning in 1194, the Yellow River to the north changed its course southwards to run into the <!--del_lnk--> Huai River, and changed back and forth several times over the next 700 years. The resulting silting was so heavy that after the Yellow River changed back to its northerly course for the last time in 1897, the Huai He is no longer able to go through its old course. Instead it pools up into <!--del_lnk--> Hongze Lake, and then runs southwards towards the Yangtze River.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1938, during the <!--del_lnk--> Second Sino-Japanese War, the <!--del_lnk--> Nationalist troops under the orders of <!--del_lnk--> Chiang Kai-Shek broke the dike holding back the Yellow River in order to stop the advancing <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> troops. This resulted in the <!--del_lnk--> flooding of an area covering 54,000 km² and the death of 500,000-900,000 people.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_River"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yellow fever</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3>
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<caption style="background: lightgrey; font-size: 95%;"><b>Yellow fever</b><br /><i>Classifications and external resources</i></caption>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> ICD-<!--del_lnk--> 10</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> A<!--del_lnk--> 95.</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> ICD-<!--del_lnk--> 9</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 060</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> DiseasesDB</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 14203</td>
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<div style="float:right; font-size:70%; padding:0 .5em 0 2em"><!--del_lnk--> ?</div><i><b>Yellow fever virus</b></i></th>
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<td style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22956.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="284" longdesc="/wiki/Image:YellowFeverVirus.jpg" src="../../images/229/22956.jpg" width="240" /></a><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> TEM <!--del_lnk--> micrograph showing multiple virions of the yellow fever virus (234,000x magnification).</small></td>
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<th style="background: violet;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Virus classification</b></th>
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<td>Group:</td>
<td>Group IV <small>(<!--del_lnk--> (+)ssRNA)</small></td>
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Flaviviridae</i></td>
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Flavivirus</i></td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td nowrap><i><b>Yellow Fever virus</b></i></td>
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<p>
<br /><b>Yellow fever</b> (also called <i>yellow jack</i>, <i>black vomit</i> or <i>vomito negro</i> in <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, or sometimes <i>American Plague</i>) is an acute <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Virus">viral</a> disease. It is an important cause of <!--del_lnk--> hemorrhagic illness in many <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South American</a> countries despite existence of an effective <!--del_lnk--> vaccine. The yellow in the disease name refers to the <!--del_lnk--> jaundice that affects some patients .<p>Yellow fever has been a source of several devastating epidemics. During one of <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon's</a> campaigns to <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> in 1802, the troops were attacked by yellow fever. More than half of the army perished due to the disease. Outbreaks followed by thousands of fatalities occurred periodically in other Western Hemisphere locations until research which included human volunteers (some of whom died) led to an understanding of the method of transmission to humans (primarily by <!--del_lnk--> mosquitos) and development of a vaccine and other preventative efforts in the early 20th century.<p>Despite the costly and sacrificial breakthrough research by Cuban physician <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Finlay, American physician <!--del_lnk--> Walter Reed and many others, over 100 years later, unvaccinated populations in many developing nations in Africa and Central and South America continue to be at risk. As of 2001, the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) estimates that yellow fever causes 200,000 illnesses and 30,000 deaths every year in unvaccinated populations.<p>
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</script><a id="Cause" name="Cause"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cause</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22957.jpg.htm" title="The female Aedes aegypti mosquito on a human host, about to obtain a blood meal"><img alt="The female Aedes aegypti mosquito on a human host, about to obtain a blood meal" height="98" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aedes_aegypti_mosquito2.jpg" src="../../images/229/22957.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Yellow fever is caused by an <!--del_lnk--> arbovirus of the family <!--del_lnk--> Flaviviridae, and is one of the smallest <!--del_lnk--> RNA viruses isolated. Human infection is begun after deposition of viral particles through the skin in infected <a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">arthropod</a> saliva. <!--del_lnk--> Mosquitos are the primary <!--del_lnk--> vector in transmission of the disease from forest <a href="../../wp/m/Monkey.htm" title="Monkey">monkeys</a> to humans and in person-to-person transmission. The mosquitos involved are <i><!--del_lnk--> Aedes simpsoni</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> A. africanus</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> A. aegypti</i> in Africa, and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Haemagogus</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Sabethes</i> genera in South America.<p><a id="Symptoms" name="Symptoms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Symptoms</span></h2>
<p>After a 3 to 6 day <!--del_lnk--> incubation period, the typical symptoms that arise are <!--del_lnk--> fever, muscle aches, <!--del_lnk--> headache, and backache. Other symptoms may include a red tongue, flushed face, and reddening of the eyes. In a portion of cases there is also involvement of internal organs including the <!--del_lnk--> liver, <!--del_lnk--> kidneys, and <!--del_lnk--> heart. There may be <!--del_lnk--> hemorrhage from the <!--del_lnk--> gastrointestinal tract, causing a bloody vomit with a black colour called <!--del_lnk--> coffee ground vomiting (which explains the name "black vomit"). Later, the disease is sometimes complicated by <!--del_lnk--> jaundice with liver failure (which causes yellow skin colour, hence the name "yellow fever") and/or kidney insufficiency with <!--del_lnk--> proteinuria. If the disease progresses, <!--del_lnk--> delirium, <!--del_lnk--> seizures and <!--del_lnk--> coma ensue. <!--del_lnk--> Hypotension and <!--del_lnk--> dehydration are also common.<p><a id="Pathogenesis" name="Pathogenesis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pathogenesis</span></h2>
<p>Yellow fever infections are frequently severe, but more moderate cases may occur as the result of previous infection by another flavivirus. After infection, the virus first replicates locally, followed by transportation to the rest of the body via the <!--del_lnk--> lymphatic system. Following systemic lymphatic infection, the virus proceeds to establish itself throughout organ systems, including the heart, kidneys, <!--del_lnk--> adrenal glands, and the <!--del_lnk--> parenchyma of the liver; high viral loads are also present in the blood. Necrotic masses (<!--del_lnk--> Councilman bodies) appear in the <!--del_lnk--> cytoplasm of <!--del_lnk--> hepatocytes.<sup>,</sup><p>There is a difference between disease outbreaks in rural or forest areas and in towns. Disease outbreaks in towns and non-native people are usually more serious.<p><a id="Prevention" name="Prevention"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prevention</span></h2>
<p>A <!--del_lnk--> vaccine for yellow fever was developed which gives a 10-year or more immunity from the disease and effectively protects people traveling to the affected areas whilst being a means to control the disease at the same time. Woodcutters working in jungle areas should be particularly targeted for vaccination. <!--del_lnk--> Insecticides, protective clothing and screening of houses are helpful but not always enough. In affected areas <!--del_lnk--> mosquito control methods have proved effective in decreasing the number of cases.<p>Recent studies have noted the increase in areas affected by mosquito-borne viral infections and have called for further research and funding for vaccines.<sup>,</sup><p><a id="Treatment" name="Treatment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Treatment</span></h2>
<p>There is no real specific cure for yellow fever; therefore vaccination is important. Treatment is <!--del_lnk--> symptomatic and supportive only. <!--del_lnk--> Fluid replacement, fighting <!--del_lnk--> hypotension and <!--del_lnk--> transfusion of blood derivates is mostly needed in severe cases. In severe cases resulting in <!--del_lnk--> acute renal failure, <!--del_lnk--> dialysis may be necessary. A fever victim needs to get lots of rest, fresh air, and drink plenty of fluids.<p><a id="Research_data" name="Research_data"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Research data</span></h3>
<p>In the hamster model of yellow fever, early administration of the antiviral <!--del_lnk--> ribavirin is an effective early treatment of many pathological features of the disease. Ribavirin treatment during the first five days after virus infection improved survival, reduced tissue damage in target organs (liver and spleen), prevented hepatocellular <!--del_lnk--> steatosis, and normalized alanine aminotransferase (a liver damage marker) levels. The results of this study suggest that ribavirin may be effective in the early treatment of yellow fever, and that its mechanism of action in reducing liver pathology in yellow fever virus infection may be similar to that observed with ribavirin in the treatment of hepatitis C, a virus related to yellow fever. Because ribavirin had failed to improve survival in a virulent primate (rhesus) model of yellow fever infection, it had been previously discounted as a possible therapy.<p><a id="Prognosis" name="Prognosis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prognosis</span></h2>
<p>Historical reports have claimed a mortality rate of between 1 in 17 (5.8%) and 1 in 3 (33%). However, in 2000, the <!--del_lnk--> WHO stated that in reported cases the fatality rate is between 15% and 50% .<p><a id="Epidemiology" name="Epidemiology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Epidemiology</span></h2>
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<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22958.png.htm" title="Endemic range of yellow fever in Africa, 2005."><img alt="Endemic range of yellow fever in Africa, 2005." height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellow_fever_Africa_2005.png" src="../../images/229/22958.png" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22958.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Endemic range of yellow fever in Africa, 2005.</div>
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<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22959.png.htm" title="Endemic range of yellow fever in South America, 2005."><img alt="Endemic range of yellow fever in South America, 2005." height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellow_fever_South_America_2005.png" src="../../images/229/22959.png" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22959.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Endemic range of yellow fever in South America, 2005.</div>
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<p>Yellow fever occurs only in Africa, South and Central America, and the Caribbean . Most outbreaks in South America are to people who work within the tropical rain forests and have direct contact with the organisms within the rainforest.<p>The disease can remain locally unknown in humans for long periods of time and then suddenly break out in an epidemic fashion. In Central America and Trinidad, such epidemics have been due to a form of the disease (<i>jungle yellow fever</i>) that is kept alive in <!--del_lnk--> Red Howler monkey populations and transmitted by <i>Haemagogus</i> mosquito species which live only in the canopy of rain forests. The virus is passed to humans when the tall rainforest trees are cut down. Infected woodcutters can then pass on the disease to others via species of <i>Aedes</i> mosquitoes that typically live at low altitudes, thus triggering an epidemic.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22960.jpg.htm" title="Photograph taken during the 1965 Aedes aegypti eradication program in Miami, Florida"><img alt="Photograph taken during the 1965 Aedes aegypti eradication program in Miami, Florida" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:A_aegypti_eradication.jpg" src="../../images/229/22960.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22960.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photograph taken during the 1965 <i><!--del_lnk--> Aedes aegypti</i> eradication program in <!--del_lnk--> Miami, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a></div>
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<p>Yellow fever has had an important role in the history of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Americas, <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean.<p><a id="Europe_541-549" name="Europe_541-549"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Europe 541-549</span></h3>
<p>Fragile after the fall of Rome, <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> was further weakened by "Yellow Plague" (Yellow Fever). The <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> suffered as well.<p><a id="Havana.2C_Cuba:_1762-3" name="Havana.2C_Cuba:_1762-3"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Havana, Cuba: 1762-3</span></h3>
<p>English and American colonial troops died by the thousands in <!--del_lnk--> Havana between 1762-1763. Epidemics struck coastal and island communities throughout the area during the next 140 years.<p><a id="Philadelphia:_1793" name="Philadelphia:_1793"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Philadelphia: 1793</span></h3>
<p>In 1793, the largest yellow fever epidemic in American history killed as many as 5,000 people or 10% of the population in <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At the time, the port city was the largest in the United States and <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">seat</a> of the U.S. Government (prior to establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia). The city had recently seen the arrival of political refugees from the Caribbean. The summer that year was especially hot and dry, leaving many <!--del_lnk--> stagnant water areas as ideal breeding grounds for mosquitos.<p>The outbreak began in July and continued through November, when cold weather finally eliminated the breeding ground for mosquitos, although the connection had not yet then been established.<p>Thousands of Philadelphians, including prominent government officials like <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Hamilton.htm" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> fled the national capital. <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Rush, the city's leading physician and a signer of the <!--del_lnk--> Declaration of Independence, advocated the <!--del_lnk--> bloodletting of patients to combat the disease, but the treatment was controversial. <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Girard also helped supervise a hospital established at Bush Hill, a mansion just outside Philadelphia. Though many high-ranking people of Philadelphia fled, a few officials stayed. Mayor <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Clarkson as well as the mayor's committee tried to hold the city together as the death toll increased.<p>Matthew Carey published a fast-selling chronicle of the yellow fever crisis, <i>A short account of the Malignant Fever, Lately Prevalent in Philadelphia</i> that went through four editions. Although other ethnic groups were included, Carey's account failed to include the involvement of the city's <!--del_lnk--> African Americans in the community's response and relief efforts, despite the fact that African American leaders <!--del_lnk--> Richard Allen and <!--del_lnk--> Absalom Jones had rallied their church community to assist victims. Allen and Jones subsequently wrote a pamphlet, <i>Narrative of the Proceedings of the Black People, During the Late Awful Calamity in Philadelphia</i>, which detailed the contributions of the African Americans during the epidemic.<p><a id="Haiti:_1802" name="Haiti:_1802"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Haiti: 1802</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1802, an army of forty thousand sent by First Consul <!--del_lnk--> Napoleon Bonaschild of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> to <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> to suppress the <!--del_lnk--> Haitian Revolution was wiped out by an epidemic of Yellow Fever (including the expedition's commander and Bonaparte's brother-in-law, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Leclerc). Some historians believe Haiti was to be a staging point for an invasion of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> through <!--del_lnk--> Louisiana (then still under French control).<p><a id="Norfolk.2C_Virginia:_1855" name="Norfolk.2C_Virginia:_1855"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Norfolk, Virginia: 1855</span></h3>
<p>A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in <!--del_lnk--> Hampton Roads in southeastern <!--del_lnk--> Virginia in June of <!--del_lnk--> 1855 . The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of <!--del_lnk--> Norfolk and <!--del_lnk--> Portsmouth. The <!--del_lnk--> Howard Association, a benevolent organization, was formed to help coordinate assistance in the form of funds, supplies, and medical professionals and volunteers which poured in from many other areas, particularly the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf Coast</a> areas of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. See also "The Mermaids and Yellow Jack. A NorFolktale." children's historical fiction written by Norfolk Author Lisa Suhay retelling of the event and founding of the Bon Secours DePaul Hospital system in the United States in response to the epedemic. (<!--del_lnk--> http://iparentingmediaawards.com/winners/13/20794-2-751.php)<p><a id="New_York_Harbor:_1856" name="New_York_Harbor:_1856"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">New York Harbour: 1856</span></h3>
<p>Dr. <!--del_lnk--> Lafayette Guild was the medical director of the army post on <!--del_lnk--> Governor's Island in <!--del_lnk--> New York Harbour. He studied the impact of the quarantine station, and found that isolating ill soldiers and Navy sailors did not prevent the spread of certain diseases such as yellow fever. In his opinion, the disease was not merely contagious, but infectious and portable. His observations were used to combat and limit an outbreak of yellow fever in 1856.<p><a id="Memphis.2C_Tennessee:_1878" name="Memphis.2C_Tennessee:_1878"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Memphis, Tennessee: 1878</span></h3>
<p>On August 13th, the first official victim of yellow fever died, sparking an exodus of over half of the city's population. When it was over, 5,150 would die, and 17,600 would suffer the effects of the disease.<p><a id="California.2C_Panama" name="California.2C_Panama"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">California, Panama</span></h3>
<p>Yellow fever severely hampered early Spanish and American efforts to settle <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>, which lacks the frosts that normally control the mosquitos.<p>In addition the first failed attempts to build the <a href="../../wp/p/Panama_Canal.htm" title="Panama Canal">Panama Canal</a> (by a French company) were thwarted in part due to the huge number of deaths amongst workers caused by yellow fever. The vaccination for the fever was first formulated during the second attempt to build the canal.<p><a id="Research_and_Walter_Reed" name="Research_and_Walter_Reed"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Research and Walter Reed</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22961.jpg.htm" title="An entomologist demonstrates the attraction of female yellow fever mosquitoes to his hand in an olfactometer."><img alt="An entomologist demonstrates the attraction of female yellow fever mosquitoes to his hand in an olfactometer." height="98" longdesc="/wiki/Image:K8747-1.jpg" src="../../images/229/22961.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22961.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An entomologist demonstrates the attraction of female yellow fever mosquitoes to his hand in an olfactometer.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Walter Reed, M.D., (1851-1902) was an <!--del_lnk--> American Army surgeon who led the team which confirmed the theory first set forth in <!--del_lnk--> 1881 and proven by the Cuban doctor and scientist Dr. <!--del_lnk--> Carlos Finlay that yellow fever is transmitted by <!--del_lnk--> mosquitoes rather than direct contact. The risky but fruitful research work was done with human volunteers, including some of the medical personnel such as <!--del_lnk--> Clara Maass and <!--del_lnk--> Walter Reed Medal winner surgeon <!--del_lnk--> Jesse William Lazear who allowed themselves to be deliberately infected and died of the virus. By applying methods first suggested by Finlay, the elimination of Yellow Fever from Cuba was completed, as well as the completion of the Panama Canal. Lamentably, almost 20 years passed while the scientific community ignored Finlay's methods of mosquito control; the acceptance of Finlay's work was one of the most important and far-reaching effects of the Walter Reed Commission of 1900.<p>Finlay and Reed's work was put to the test for the first time in the United States when a yellow fever epidemic struck <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans in <!--del_lnk--> 1905; according to the <!--del_lnk--> PBS <i><!--del_lnk--> American Experience</i> documentary <i>The Great Fever</i>, houses were fumigated, cisterns for drinking water were inspected, and pools of standing water were treated with <!--del_lnk--> kerosene. The result was that the death toll from the epidemic was much lower than that from previous yellow fever epidemics, and that there has not been a major outbreak of the disease in the United States since, although no cure has yet been discovered.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_fever"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yellowhammer</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Yellowhammer</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14903.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gulspurv.jpg" src="../../images/149/14903.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Emberizidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Emberiza</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>E. citrinella</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Emberiza citrinella</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Yellowhammer</b>, <i>Emberiza citrinella</i>, is a <!--del_lnk--> passerine <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> bunting family Emberizidae, a group now separated by most modern authors from the <!--del_lnk--> finches, Fringillidae.<p>It breeds across <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and much of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>. The Yellowhammer was also introduced to <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> in 1862 and is now common and widespread there. It is probably more abundant in New Zealand now than in Europe where it has been in serious decline. In Europe and Asia most birds are resident, but some far northern birds <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migrate</a> south in winter. It is common in all sorts of open areas with some scrub or trees.<p>
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<p>In the winter they gather together to from small flocks of birds.<p>The Yellowhammer is a robust 15.5-17cm long bird, with a thick seed-eater's bill. The male has a bright yellow head, yellow underparts, and a heavily streaked brown back. The female is much duller, and more streaked below.<p>The familiar, if somewhat monotonous, song of the cock is <i>A little bit of bread and no cheese</i>.<p>Its natural diet consists of <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> when feeding young, and otherwise <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seeds</a>. The nest is on the ground. 3-6 <!--del_lnk--> eggs are laid, which show the hair-like markings characteristic of those of buntings.<p>It has been claimed by <!--del_lnk--> Karl Czerny, that the Yellowhammer's song was the inspiration for the "fate" motif of the <!--del_lnk--> Symphony No. 5 by <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_van_Beethoven.htm" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>.<p>The unrelated <!--del_lnk--> Yellow-shafted Flicker, <i>Colaptes auratus</i>, is also known as the yellowhammer in <!--del_lnk--> Alabama, the state bird.<p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yellowstone National Park</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 300px; font-size: 90%;">
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger;">Yellowstone National Park</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #CDE5B2; line-height: 1.2;"><!--del_lnk--> IUCN Category II (<!--del_lnk--> National Park)</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height: 1.2;">
<div style="border: 1px solid #CCC;">
<div style="position: relative;">
<div style="position: absolute; left: 75px; top: 45px; padding: 0;"><a class="image" href="../../images/171/17100.png.htm" title="Yellowstone National Park"><img alt="Yellowstone National Park" height="9" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Locator_Dot.svg" src="../../images/171/17100.png" width="9" /></a></div><a class="image" href="../../images/199/19924.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_Locator_Blank.svg" src="../../images/171/17101.png" width="288" /></a></div>
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</td>
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<tr style="vertical-align:top;">
<td><b>Location:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wyoming, <!--del_lnk--> Montana and <!--del_lnk--> Idaho, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
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<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><b>Nearest city:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Billings, Montana</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><b>Coordinates:</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">44°40′0″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">110°28′0″W</span></span></td>
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<tr style="vertical-align:top;">
<td><b>Area:</b></td>
<td>2,219,799 acres (8,983 km²)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align:top;">
<td><b>Established:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1872</td>
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<tr style="vertical-align:top">
<td><b>Visitation:</b></td>
<td>2,835,651 (in 2005)</td>
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<tr style="vertical-align:top;">
<td style="white-space:nowrap;"><b>Governing body:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Park Service</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Yellowstone National Park</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> U.S. National Park located in the <!--del_lnk--> western states of <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming, <!--del_lnk--> Montana, and <!--del_lnk--> Idaho. Yellowstone is the first and oldest <!--del_lnk--> national park in the world and covers 3,470 square miles (8,980 km²), mostly in the northwest corner of <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming. The park is famous for its various <!--del_lnk--> geysers, <!--del_lnk--> hot springs, <!--del_lnk--> supervolcano and <!--del_lnk--> other geothermal features and is home to <!--del_lnk--> grizzly bears, <!--del_lnk--> wolves, and free-ranging herds of <!--del_lnk--> bison and <!--del_lnk--> elk. It is the core of the <!--del_lnk--> Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, one of the largest intact <!--del_lnk--> temperate zone <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems remaining on the planet. The world's most famous geyser, the <!--del_lnk--> Old Faithful Geyser, is also located in Yellowstone National Park.<p>Long before any recorded <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a> history in Yellowstone, a massive <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcanic eruption</a> spewed an immense volume of <!--del_lnk--> ash that covered all of the western U.S., much of the <!--del_lnk--> midwestern U.S., northern <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and some areas of the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Coast. The eruption dwarfed that of <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_St._Helens.htm" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a> in 1980 and left a huge <!--del_lnk--> caldera 43 miles by 18 miles (70 km by 30 km) sitting over a huge magma chamber (see Geology section and <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone Caldera). Yellowstone has registered three major volcanic eruption events in the last 2.2 million years with the last event occurring 640,000 years ago. Its eruptions are the largest known to have occurred on Earth within that timeframe, producing drastic climate change in the aftermath (See also:<!--del_lnk--> Supervolcano).<p>The park received its name from its location at the headwaters of the <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone River. <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <!--del_lnk--> trappers gave this river the name "Roche Jaune," probably a translation of the <!--del_lnk--> Hidatsa name "Mi tsi a-da-zi," and the later American trappers rendered the French name into English as "Yellow Stone." Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Native American source name more likely derived from the yellowish bluffs located near present-day <!--del_lnk--> Billings, Montana.<p>
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</script><a id="Human_history" name="Human_history"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Human history</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28556.jpg.htm" title="Lower Yellowstone Falls where the Yellowstone River plunges into the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone."><img alt="Lower Yellowstone Falls where the Yellowstone River plunges into the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lower_Yellowstone_Fall-1200px.jpg" src="../../images/285/28556.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28556.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lower Yellowstone Falls where the Yellowstone River plunges into the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone.</div>
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<p>The human history of the park begins at least 11,000 years when <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans first began to hunt and fish in the Yellowstone region. These <!--del_lnk--> Paleo-indians were of the <!--del_lnk--> Clovis culture and they used the significant amounts of <!--del_lnk--> obsidian found in the park to make cutting tools and weapons. <!--del_lnk--> Arrowheads made of Yellowstone obsidian have been found as far away as the <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi Valley, indicating that a regular obsidian trade existed between Yellowstone Native Americans and tribes farther east. By the time white explorers first entered the region during the <!--del_lnk--> Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805, they encountered the <!--del_lnk--> Nez Perce, <!--del_lnk--> Crow and <!--del_lnk--> Shoshone tribes. While passing through present day Montana, the expedition members were informed of the Yellowstone region to the south, but did not investigate it.<p>In 1806 a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition named <!--del_lnk--> John Colter left the Expedition to join a group of fur trappers. After splitting up with the other trappers in 1807, Colter passed through a portion of what later became the park, during the winter of 1807-1808, and observed at least one <!--del_lnk--> geothermal area in the northeastern section of the park, near <!--del_lnk--> Tower Falls. After surviving wounds he suffered in a battle with members of the Crow and <!--del_lnk--> Blackfoot tribes in 1809, he gave a description of a place of "fire and brimstone" that was dismissed by most people as delirium. The supposedly imaginary place was nicknamed "Colter's Hell." Over the next forty years, numerous reports from <!--del_lnk--> mountain men and trappers told of boiling mud, steaming rivers and petrified trees and animals, yet most of these reports were believed at the time to be myth.<p>After an 1856 exploration, mountain man <!--del_lnk--> Jim Bridger reported observing boiling springs, spouting water, and a mountain of glass and yellow rock. Because Bridger was known for being a "spinner of yarns" these reports were largely ignored. Nonetheless, his stories did arouse the interest of explorer and geologist <!--del_lnk--> F.V. Hayden, who, in 1859, started a two-year survey of the upper <a href="../../wp/m/Missouri_River.htm" title="Missouri River">Missouri River</a> region with <!--del_lnk--> United States Army surveyor W.F. Raynolds and Bridger as a guide. After exploring the <!--del_lnk--> Black Hills region of in what is now the state of <!--del_lnk--> South Dakota, the party neared the Yellowstone region, but heavy snows forced them to turn away. The intervening <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> prevented any further attempts to explore the region until the late 1860's.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28557.jpg.htm" title="The Roosevelt Arch is located in Montana at the North Entrance. The arch's cornerstone was laid by Theodore Roosevelt. The placard reads "For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the People." "><img alt="The Roosevelt Arch is located in Montana at the North Entrance. The arch's cornerstone was laid by Theodore Roosevelt. The placard reads "For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the People." " height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellowstonenorth.jpg" src="../../images/285/28557.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28557.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Roosevelt Arch is located in <!--del_lnk--> Montana at the North Entrance. The arch's <!--del_lnk--> cornerstone was laid by <a href="../../wp/t/Theodore_Roosevelt.htm" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>. The placard reads <i><b>"For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the People."</b></i></div>
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<p>The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the <!--del_lnk--> Folsom Expedition of 1869, which consisted of three privately funded explorers. The members of the Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone Lake and kept a journal of their findings. Based on the information it reported, in 1870 a party of <!--del_lnk--> Montana residents organized the <!--del_lnk--> Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition, headed by the surveyor-general of Montana <!--del_lnk--> Henry Washburn. Amongst the group was <!--del_lnk--> Nathaniel P. Langford, who would later become known as "National Park" Langford, and a <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane. The expedition spent about a month exploring the region, collecting specimens, and naming sites of interest. A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges, who had been a member of the Washburn expedition, proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a National Park, and wrote a number of detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870-1871. Hedges essentially reinstated comments made in October of 1865 by acting Territorial Governor <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Francis Meagher, who had previously commented that the region should be protected.<p>In 1871, eleven years after his failed first effort, F.V. Hayden was finally able to make another attempt at his exploration of the region. Now government sponsored, Hayden successfully returned to Yellowstone with a second, larger expedition. He compiled a comprehensive report on Yellowstone which included large-format photographs by <!--del_lnk--> William Henry Jackson and paintings by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Moran. This report helped to convince the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Congress to withdraw this region from public auction and on <!--del_lnk--> March 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1872, President <a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> signed a bill into law that created Yellowstone National Park.<p>"National Park" Langford, a member of both the 1870 and 1871 expeditions, was appointed as the park's first superintendent in 1872. He served for five years, but without salary, funding, or staff, he lacked the means to improve the lands or implement any kind of protection to the park. Without even any formal policy or regulations put into place, he lacked any legal method to enforce such protection were it available to him. This left Yellowstone vulnerable to attack from poachers, vandals, and others seeking to raid its resources. As a result Langford was forced to step down in 1877.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28558.jpg.htm" title="Fort Yellowstone, formerly a U.S. Army base, now serves as the administration headquarters for Yellowstone National Park."><img alt="Fort Yellowstone, formerly a U.S. Army base, now serves as the administration headquarters for Yellowstone National Park." height="56" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fort_Yellowstone-750px.jpg" src="../../images/285/28558.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28558.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fort Yellowstone, formerly a U.S. Army base, now serves as the administration headquarters for Yellowstone National Park.</div>
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<p>Having traveled through Yellowstone and witnessed these problems first hand, <!--del_lnk--> Philetus Norris volunteered for the position after Langford's exit. Congress finally saw fit to implement a salary for the position as well as a minimal amount of funds to operate the park. Langford used these monies to expand access to the park, building over 30 new, albeit crude, roads, as well as further exploring Yellowstone. He also hired <!--del_lnk--> Harry Yount (nicknamed "Rocky Mountain Harry") to control poaching and vandalism in the park. Today, Harry Yount is considered the first national park ranger. These measures still proved to be insufficient in protecting the park though, as neither Norris, nor the three superintendents who followed proved effective in stopping the destruction of Yellowstone's natural resources.<p>It was only in 1886, when the United States Army was given the task of managing the park (see <!--del_lnk--> Fort Yellowstone), that control was able to be maintained. With the funding and manpower necessary to keep a diligent watch, the army successfully developed their own policies and regulations that maintained public access while protecting park wildlife and natural resources. When the <!--del_lnk--> National Park Service was created in 1916, it would take its lead largely from the army's successful example. The army turned control over to the National Park Service in 1918.<p>Yellowstone was designated an <!--del_lnk--> International Biosphere Reserve on <!--del_lnk--> October 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1976, and a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> on <!--del_lnk--> September 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1978.<p><a id="Forest_fires" name="Forest_fires"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Forest fires</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28559.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellowstonefire.jpg" src="../../images/285/28559.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28559.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28560.jpg.htm" title="The 1988 fires affected 793,880 acres or 36% of the park. Five wildfires burned into the park that year from adjacent public lands. The largest, the North Fork Fire, started from a discarded cigarette and burned more than 410,000 acres."><img alt="The 1988 fires affected 793,880 acres or 36% of the park. Five wildfires burned into the park that year from adjacent public lands. The largest, the North Fork Fire, started from a discarded cigarette and burned more than 410,000 acres." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fires_yellowstone.jpg" src="../../images/285/28560.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28560.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> 1988 fires affected 793,880 <!--del_lnk--> acres or 36% of the park. Five <!--del_lnk--> wildfires burned into the park that year from adjacent public lands. The largest, the <!--del_lnk--> North Fork Fire, started from a discarded cigarette and burned more than 410,000 acres.</div>
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<p>A series of <!--del_lnk--> lightning-derived <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fires</a> started to burn large portions of the park in July of the especially dry <!--del_lnk--> summer of 1988. Thousands of <!--del_lnk--> firefighters responded to the blaze in order to prevent human-built structures from succumbing to the flames. Controversially, however, no serious effort was made to completely extinguish the fires, and they burned until the arrival of autumn rains. Ecologists argue that fire is part of the Yellowstone <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem, and that not allowing the fires to run their course (as has been the practice in the past) will result in an overgrown forest that would be extremely vulnerable to deoxygenation, disease, and decay. In fact, relatively few <!--del_lnk--> megafauna in the park were killed by the fires; and since the blaze, many saplings have sprung up on their own, old vistas are viewable once again, and many previously unknown archaeological and geological sites of interest were found and cataloged by scientists. The National Park Service now has a policy of lighting smaller, controlled "<!--del_lnk--> prescribed fires" to prevent another dangerous buildup of flammable materials.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28561.jpg.htm" title="The Continental Divide passes through Yellowstone."><img alt="The Continental Divide passes through Yellowstone." height="147" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Continental_Divide_in_Yellowstone-750px.JPG" src="../../images/285/28561.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28561.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Continental Divide passes through Yellowstone.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Continental Divide of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> runs roughly diagonally through the southwestern part of the park. The divide is a <!--del_lnk--> topographic ridgeline that bisects the continent between <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> water drainages (the drainage from one-third of the park is on the Pacific side of this divide).<p>For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone River and the <!--del_lnk--> Snake River both have their origin close to each other in the park. However, the headwaters of the Snake River are on the west side of the continental divide, and the headwaters of the Yellowstone River are on the east side of that divide. The result is that the waters of the Snake River head toward the Pacific Ocean, and the waters of the Yellowstone head for the Atlantic Ocean (via the <a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>).<p>The park sits on a high <!--del_lnk--> plateau which is, on average, 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above <!--del_lnk--> sea level and is bounded on nearly all sides by <!--del_lnk--> mountain ranges of the <a href="../../wp/r/Rocky_Mountains.htm" title="Rocky Mountains">Middle Rocky Mountains</a>, which range from 10,000 to 14,000 feet (3,000 to 4,300 m) in elevation. These ranges are: the <!--del_lnk--> Gallatin Range (to the northwest), <!--del_lnk--> Beartooth Mountains (to the north), <!--del_lnk--> Absaroka Mountains (to the east), <!--del_lnk--> Wind River Range (southeast corner), <!--del_lnk--> Teton Mountains (to the south, see <!--del_lnk--> Grand Teton National Park) and the <!--del_lnk--> Madison Range (to the west). The most prominent summit in the plateau is <!--del_lnk--> Mount Washburn at 10,243 feet (3,122 m).<p>Just outside of the southwestern park border is the <!--del_lnk--> Island Park Caldera, which is a plateau ringed by low hills. Beyond that are the <!--del_lnk--> Snake River Plains of southern Idaho, which are covered by <!--del_lnk--> flood basalts and slope gently to the southwest (see <a href="../../wp/c/Craters_of_the_Moon_National_Monument_and_Preserve.htm" title="Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve">Craters of the Moon National Monument</a>).<p>The major feature of the Yellowstone Plateau is the Yellowstone Caldera; a very large caldera which has been nearly filled-in with volcanic debris and measures 30 by 40 miles (50 by 60 km). Within this caldera lies most of <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone Lake, which is the largest high-elevation lake in North America, and two <!--del_lnk--> resurgent domes, which are areas that are uplifting at a slightly faster rate than the rest of the plateau.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28562.jpg.htm" title="Boiling pool at Biscuit Basin."><img alt="Boiling pool at Biscuit Basin." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellowstone_bubbling_pool.jpg" src="../../images/285/28562.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28562.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Boiling pool at Biscuit Basin.</div>
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<p>Yellowstone is at the northeast tip of a smooth U-shaped curve through the mountains, which is now the Snake River Plain. This curved <!--del_lnk--> plain was created as the North American <a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" title="Continent">continent</a> drifted across a stationary volcanic <!--del_lnk--> hotspot beneath the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s crust. This hot spot used to be near what is now <!--del_lnk--> Boise, Idaho, but North America has drifted at a rate of 45 mm a year in a southwestern direction, shifting the hot spot to its present location.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28563.jpg.htm" title="Columnar basalt near Tower Fall. Large floods of basalt and other lava types preceded mega-eruptions of superheated ash and pumice."><img alt="Columnar basalt near Tower Fall. Large floods of basalt and other lava types preceded mega-eruptions of superheated ash and pumice." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Columnar_basalt_closeup_near_Tower_Fall_in_Yellowstone.jpg" src="../../images/285/28563.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28563.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Columnar basalt near Tower Fall. Large floods of basalt and other lava types preceded mega-eruptions of superheated ash and pumice.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28564.jpg.htm" title="The Firehole River near Excelsior Geyser. Due to the volume of heated water pouring into the river from the geothermal features, the temperature of the river can get as high as 86 °F (30 °C)."><img alt="The Firehole River near Excelsior Geyser. Due to the volume of heated water pouring into the river from the geothermal features, the temperature of the river can get as high as 86 °F (30 °C)." height="145" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Firehole_River_near_Excelsior_Geyser_in_Yellowstone.jpg" src="../../images/285/28564.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28564.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Firehole River near Excelsior Geyser. Due to the volume of heated water pouring into the river from the geothermal features, the temperature of the river can get as high as 86 °F (30 °C).</div>
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<p>Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America. It has been termed a "<!--del_lnk--> supervolcano" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. It was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago that released 1,000 <!--del_lnk--> cubic kilometers of ash, rock and <!--del_lnk--> pyroclastic materials (this was 450 times larger than Mount St. Helens' 1980 eruption), forming a <!--del_lnk--> crater nearly a kilometre deep and 30 by 70 kilometres in area (18 by 43 mi) (the size of the caldera has been modified a bit since this time and has mostly been filled in, however). The <!--del_lnk--> welded tuff <!--del_lnk--> geologic formation created by this eruption is called the <!--del_lnk--> Lava Creek Tuff. In addition to the last great eruptive cycle there were two other previous ones in the Yellowstone area.<p>Each eruption is in fact a part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the collapse of the roof of a partially emptied <!--del_lnk--> magma chamber. This creates a crater, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material (usually through fissures that ring the caldera). The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 900,000 years, but the small number of such climax eruptions can not be used to make a prediction for the time range for the next climax eruption.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28565.jpg.htm" title="A thermal image of the Grand Prismatic Spring."><img alt="A thermal image of the Grand Prismatic Spring." height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Grand_prismatic_spring.jpg" src="../../images/285/28565.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28565.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A thermal image of the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Prismatic Spring.</div>
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<p>The first and largest eruption climaxed to the southwest of the current park boundaries 2.2 million years ago and formed a caldera about 50 by 80 kilometres in area (30 by 50 mi) and hundreds of meters deep after releasing 2,500 cubic kilometers of material (mostly ash, <!--del_lnk--> pumice and other pyroclastics). This caldera has been filled in by subsequent eruptions, and the geologic formation created by this eruption is called the <!--del_lnk--> Huckleberry Ridge Tuff.<p>The second eruption, at 280 km³ of material ejected, climaxed 1.2 million years ago and formed the much smaller Island Park Caldera and the geologic formation called the <!--del_lnk--> Mesa Falls Tuff. All three climax eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America and fell many hundreds of miles away (as far as California to the southwest; see <!--del_lnk--> Lake Tecopa). The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinction</a> of many species in at least North America. About 160,000 years ago a much smaller climax eruption occurred which formed a relatively small caldera that is now filled in with the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28566.jpg.htm" title="Steamboat Geyser: The world's tallest active geyser, Eruptions can reach as high as 300 feet (90 m)."><img alt="Steamboat Geyser: The world's tallest active geyser, Eruptions can reach as high as 300 feet (90 m)." height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Steamboat_Geyser_at_Norris_Geyser_Basin_in_Yellowstone-750px.JPG" src="../../images/285/28566.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28566.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Steamboat Geyser: The world's tallest active geyser, Eruptions can reach as high as 300 feet (90 m).</div>
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<p>Lava strata is most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. According to Ken Pierce, <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Geological Survey geologist, at the end of the last glacial period, about 14,000 to 18,000 years ago, <!--del_lnk--> ice dams formed at the mouth of Yellowstone Lake. When the ice dams melted, a great volume of water was released downstream causing massive <!--del_lnk--> flash floods and immediate and catastrophic erosion of the present-day canyon. These flash floods probably happened more than once. The canyon is a classic V-shaped <!--del_lnk--> valley, indicative of river-type erosion rather than glaciation. Today the canyon is still being eroded by the Yellowstone River.<p>After the last major climax eruption 630,000 years ago until about 70,000 years ago, Yellowstone Caldera was nearly filled in with periodic eruptions of <!--del_lnk--> rhyolitic lavas (example at <!--del_lnk--> Obsidian Cliffs) and <!--del_lnk--> basaltic lavas (example at <!--del_lnk--> Sheepeaters Cliff). But 150,000 years ago the floor of the plateau began to bulge up again. Two areas in particular at the foci of the elliptically shaped caldera are rising faster than the rest of the plateau. This differential in uplift has created two resurgent domes (<!--del_lnk--> Sour Creek dome and <!--del_lnk--> Mallard Lake dome) which are uplifting at 15 <!--del_lnk--> millimeters a year while the rest of the caldera area of the plateau is uplifting at 12.5 millimeters a year.<p>Preserved within Yellowstone are many <!--del_lnk--> geothermal features and some 10,000 hot springs and geysers, 62% of the planet's known total. The superheated water that sustains these features comes from the same hot spot described above.<p>The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is <!--del_lnk--> Old Faithful Geyser (located in Upper Geyser Basin), but the park also contains the largest active geyser in the world, <!--del_lnk--> Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28567.jpg.htm" title="The most famous geyser in the world, Old Faithful Geyser"><img alt="The most famous geyser in the world, Old Faithful Geyser" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Old_Faithful_Geyser_Yellowstone_National_Park.jpg" src="../../images/285/28567.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28567.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The most famous geyser in the world, <!--del_lnk--> Old Faithful Geyser</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28568.jpg.htm" title="Morning Glory Pool"><img alt="Morning Glory Pool" height="99" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Morning_Glory_Pool.JPG" src="../../images/285/28568.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28568.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Morning Glory Pool</div>
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<p>In 2003 changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. This coincided with the release of reports about a multiple year USGS research project mapping the bottom of Yellowstone Lake that identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in past beneath Yellowstone Lake. On <!--del_lnk--> March 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. Shortly after, in April 2004, the park experienced an upsurge of earthquake activity. These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. The United States government responded by allocating more resources to monitor the volcano and reminding visitors to remain on designated safe trails. The intervals between the historic large, caldera-forming explosions suggest that another such explosion may be "due," if not overdue.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Biology_and_ecology" name="Biology_and_ecology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Biology and ecology</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28569.jpg.htm" title="Pronghorn are commonly found on the grasslands in the park"><img alt="Pronghorn are commonly found on the grasslands in the park" height="151" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Antilocapra_americana.jpg" src="../../images/285/28569.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28569.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pronghorn are commonly found on the grasslands in the park</div>
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<p>The dominant tree species in the park is <!--del_lnk--> Lodgepole pine, however, varieties of <!--del_lnk--> spruce, <!--del_lnk--> fir and <!--del_lnk--> aspen are also common. There are at least 600 species of trees and plants found in the park, some of which are found nowhere else.<p>Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the <!--del_lnk--> lower 48 states. Animals found in the park include the majestic <!--del_lnk--> American bison (buffalo), grizzly bear, <!--del_lnk--> black bear, elk, <!--del_lnk--> moose, <!--del_lnk--> mule deer, <!--del_lnk--> pronghorn, <!--del_lnk--> bighorn sheep and <!--del_lnk--> mountain lion (puma). Rivers in the Yellowstone drainage comprise the core range of the <!--del_lnk--> cutthroat trout subspecies known as <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone cutthroat trout, a fish highly sought by <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">anglers</a> yet one that has faced several threats in recent years, including the illegal intentional introduction of <!--del_lnk--> lake trout, which consume the smaller cutthroat trout; the ongoing drought; and the accidental introduction of a parasite which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish, known as <a href="../../wp/m/Myxobolus_cerebralis.htm" title="Myxobolus cerebralis">whirling disease</a>.<p>The relatively large bison populations that exist in the park are a concern for ranchers who fear that the bison can transmit <!--del_lnk--> bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins. In fact, about half of Yellowstone's bison have been exposed to <!--del_lnk--> brucellosis, a <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacterial</a> disease that came to North America with <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> cattle and may cause <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a> to <!--del_lnk--> miscarry. The disease has little effect on park bison and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to a visitor or to domestic livestock has ever been filed. But since the possibility of contagion still exists, the State of Montana believes its "brucellosis-free" status may be jeopardized if bison are in proximity to cattle. Montana had approved a bison hunt for the fall of 2005, with 50 licenses issued to shoot bison that have left the park. Elk also carry the disease, but this popular game species is not considered a threat to livestock.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28570.jpg.htm" title="Bison graze near a hot spring"><img alt="Bison graze near a hot spring" height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bison_near_a_hot_spring_in_Yellowstone-750px.JPG" src="../../images/285/28570.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28570.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bison graze near a hot spring</div>
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<p>To combat the perceived threat, National Park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of park borders. <a href="../../wp/a/Animal_rights.htm" title="Animal rights">Animal rights</a> activists state that is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists also point out that the bison are just traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing (most of these areas are also within <!--del_lnk--> United States National Forests).<p>Starting in 1918, in an effort to protect elk populations, the Director of the Park Service ordered “extermination of mountain lions and other predatory animals” in Yellowstone. Park Service hunters carried out these orders and by 1926 they had killed 122 wolves. By this time wolves were all but eliminated from Yellowstone.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28571.jpg.htm" title="Map showing the ranges of wolf packs that were reintroduced into Yellowstone."><img alt="Map showing the ranges of wolf packs that were reintroduced into Yellowstone." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yellowstone_wolfmap.jpg" src="../../images/285/28571.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28571.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map showing the ranges of wolf packs that were reintroduced into Yellowstone.</div>
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<p>By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), wolves were reintroduced into the park. After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the smaller cousin of the wolf, the <!--del_lnk--> coyote, then became the park's top predator. However, the coyote is not able to bring down any large animal in the park and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna. Since the reintroduction of wolves in the late 1990s this trend has started to reverse.<p>However, ranchers in surrounding areas are concerned about wolves that venture outside the park and prey on their livestock, especially <!--del_lnk--> sheep and cattle. For the most part, wolves kill what they were taught to kill as pups, so they tend to prey on elk rather than sheep, but once a wolf pack begins eating sheep and training the pups to eat sheep, there is little recourse but to destroy the offending pack members. Ranchers are compensated for their losses if they can prove that wolves killed the livestock, but they contend that it is often difficult to prove that the kills were not made by coyotes or wild dogs.<p>Reintroduced wolf packs do not carry <!--del_lnk--> endangered species status, so ranchers can kill wolves that threaten their herds, but wolves relocating from Canada on their own have begun to merge with the Yellowstone population, making it difficult to discern which wolves are protected and which are not.<p>The National Park Service was generally not in favour of the reintroduction, citing evidence that wolves had already begun to return on their own, reestablishing themselves in very limited numbers prior to the wolf reintroduction. Wildlife biologists employed by the National Park Service had documented rare sightings made personally and from eyewitness accounts. It was a quiet concern that the compact agreed on by federal agencies and the states in which Yellowstone is located would ultimately provide less protection to the wolf, because the threatened status would be amended to appease local interests such as ranchers who would not likely face prosecution under the reintroduction agreement.<p>In Yellowstone's hot waters, bacteria form mats consisting of trillions of individual bacteria. The surfaces of these mats assume bizarre shapes, and flies and other arthropods live on the mats, even in the midst of the bitterly cold winters. Scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, but scientists from the <!--del_lnk--> University of Colorado at Boulder discovered in 2005 that the sustenance for some species is <!--del_lnk--> molecular hydrogen - although there is evidence that this may not be the case for all of these diverse hyperthermophilic species.<p><a id="Tourist_information" name="Tourist_information"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Tourist information</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28572.png.htm" title="Orientation map of Yellowstone National Park showing many of the major tourist attractions."><img alt="Orientation map of Yellowstone National Park showing many of the major tourist attractions." height="286" longdesc="/wiki/Image:YellowstoneMap.png" src="../../images/285/28572.png" width="275" /></a></span></div>
<p>Yellowstone is one of the most popular national parks in the United States. The park is unique in that it features multiple natural wonders all in the same park.<p>Geysers, hot springs, a grand canyon, forests, wilderness, wildlife and even a large lake can all be found inside the park. Due to the park's diversity of features, the list of activities for visitors is nearly endless. From backpacking to mountaineering, from <!--del_lnk--> kayaking to fishing, from sightseeing to watching bison, moose, and elk wandering into the parking lot of the visitor centers, most visitors enjoy a memorable experience in nature.<p>
<br /> Most of the geothermal features (hot springs, geysers, etc) emit gaseous sulfur, and though to most people the odour is not terribly offensive or overwhelming, people with respiratory difficulties should consult their doctors before visiting.<p>Wildfires are a relatively common occurrence in Yellowstone, because of the dry summer climate, but they should not be considered "disasters"; instead, they are a regular natural process that contributes to the beauty and ecology of the park. A series of wildfires in 1988 burned about 45% of the park's forest, including some forests adjacent to the major tourist areas. The areas burned in the 1988 fire present a strange, stark beauty, and the burned areas are swiftly returning to green.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28573.jpg.htm" title="Old Faithful Inn."><img alt="Old Faithful Inn." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:IMG_0302.JPG" src="../../images/285/28573.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28573.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Old Faithful Inn.</div>
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<p>Park officials advise visitors not to approach dangerous animals and to stay on designated safe trails to avoid falling into boiling liquids and inhaling toxic gas. In 2004, five bison were discovered dead from an apparent inhalation of toxic geothermal gases.<p>Lodging for visitors exist at 11 locations within park boundaries. There is a clear view of Old Faithful Geyser at the park's <!--del_lnk--> Old Faithful Inn. Lodges range from hotel to cabin accommodations. There also are 11 campgrounds and one hard-sided recreational vehicle park.<p>The park itself is surrounded by other protected lands (including <!--del_lnk--> Grand Teton National Park and <!--del_lnk--> Custer National Forest) and beautiful drives (such as the <!--del_lnk--> Beartooth Highway). Nearby communities include <!--del_lnk--> West Yellowstone, Montana; <!--del_lnk--> Cody, Wyoming; <!--del_lnk--> Red Lodge, Montana; <!--del_lnk--> Ashton, Idaho; and <!--del_lnk--> Gardiner, Montana.<br clear="all" />
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yemen</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_the_Middle_East.Middle_Eastern_Countries.htm">Middle Eastern Countries</a></h3>
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;"><big>الجمهورية اليمنية</big><br /><i>Al-Ǧumhūriyyah al-Yamaniyyah</i></span></b><br /><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;">Republic of Yemen</span></b></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18743.png.htm" title="Flag of Yemen"><img alt="Flag of Yemen" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Yemen.svg" src="../../images/285/28575.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28576.jpg.htm" title="Coat of arms of Yemen"><img alt="Coat of arms of Yemen" height="54" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yemen_Coat.jpg" src="../../images/285/28576.jpg" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>Allah, al-Watan, at-Thawra</i></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <!--del_lnk--> <i>United Republic</i></td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28577.png.htm" title="Location of Yemen"><img alt="Location of Yemen" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationYemen.png" src="../../images/285/28577.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sana'a<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 15°21′N 12°24′E</span></small></td>
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<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a></td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Republic</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ali Abdullah Saleh</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Abdul Qadir Bajamal</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th>Establishment</th>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Unification</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1990 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 527,968 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 49th)<br /> 203,849 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - July 2005 estimate</td>
<td>20,975,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 51st)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>40/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 160th)<br /> 104/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$19.480 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 110th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$751 (<!--del_lnk--> 175th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2006)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up.svg" src="../../images/8/808.png" width="10" /></a> 0.492 (<font style="color:#e0584e">low</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 150th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yemeni rial (<code><!--del_lnk--> YER</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .ye</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+967</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Yemen</b>, officially the <b>Republic of Yemen</b> (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <big>الجمهورية اليمنية</big> ), is a <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle Eastern</a> country located on the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Peninsula in <!--del_lnk--> Southwest Asia. Yemen is composed of former <!--del_lnk--> North and <!--del_lnk--> South Yemen. It borders the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Sea and <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Aden on the south, the <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> on the west, <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> to the northeast and the rest of the country borders <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. Its territory includes the remote island of <!--del_lnk--> Socotra, about 350 kilometres (217 <!--del_lnk--> mi) to the south off the coast of <a href="../../wp/e/East_Africa.htm" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Yemen is one of the oldest centers of civilization in the world. Between the ninth century <!--del_lnk--> BC and the sixth century <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">AD</a>, it was part of the <!--del_lnk--> Sabaean, <!--del_lnk--> Awsanian, <!--del_lnk--> Minaean, <!--del_lnk--> Qatabanian, <!--del_lnk--> Hadhramawtian, <!--del_lnk--> Himyarite, and some other kingdoms, which controlled the lucrative <!--del_lnk--> spice trade. It was known to the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> as "Arabia Felix" ("Happy Arabia") because of the riches its trade generated. <!--del_lnk--> Augustus Caesar attempted to annex it, but the expedition failed. It was annexed by the Ethiopian <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Aksum around 520, and subsequently taken by the <!--del_lnk--> Sassanids around 570.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28578.jpg.htm" title="The town of Hajarin, which features some of the oldest "skyscrapers" in the world - six story buildings made of mud bricks and mortar."><img alt="The town of Hajarin, which features some of the oldest "skyscrapers" in the world - six story buildings made of mud bricks and mortar." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hajarin.jpg" src="../../images/285/28578.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28578.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The town of Hajarin, which features some of the oldest "<!--del_lnk--> skyscrapers" in the world - six story buildings made of mud bricks and mortar.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the late sixth and early seventh centuries, many Sabaean people had continued to migrate from the land of Yemen following the destruction of the <!--del_lnk--> Ma'rib Dam (sadd Ma'rib) and became <!--del_lnk--> Bedouin. At this time when the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Aksum did not have any intentions on keeping their ancient lush kingdom. That had become barren land from extending commerce trade of its lucrative spice trade with the Romans, Persian Sassanid kings. Yemen was successively incorporated into the Ethiopian and Persian Sassanid empires. In the <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th century</a>, Islamic <!--del_lnk--> caliphs began to exert control over the area. After this caliphate broke up, the former North Yemen came under control of <!--del_lnk--> Imams of various dynasties usually of the <!--del_lnk--> Zaidi sect, who established a theocratic political structure that survived until modern times. (Imam is a religious term. The <!--del_lnk--> Shiites apply it to the prophet Muhammad's son-in-law Ali, his sons Hassan and Hussein, and subsequent lineal descendants, whom they consider to have been divinely ordained unclassified successors of the prophet.)<p>Egyptian <!--del_lnk--> Sunni Caliphs occupied much of North Yemen throughout the <a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">eleventh century</a>. By the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">sixteenth century</a> and again in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">nineteenth century</a>, north Yemen was part of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, and in some periods its Imams exerted control over south Yemen.<p><!--del_lnk--> North Yemen became independent of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 and became a <!--del_lnk--> republic in 1962. In <!--del_lnk--> 1839, the British occupied the port of <!--del_lnk--> Aden and established it as a colony in September of that year. They also set up a zone of loose alliances (known as protectorates) around Aden to act as a protective buffer. In 1967, they withdrew following increasing pressure from local insurgency and <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a>-sponsored attacks from the north. After the British withdrawal, this area became known as <!--del_lnk--> South Yemen. In 1970, the southern government adopted a <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communist">communist</a> governmental system. The two countries were formally <!--del_lnk--> united as the Republic of Yemen on <!--del_lnk--> May 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1990.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28579.jpg.htm" title="Old Sana'a"><img alt="Old Sana'a" height="245" longdesc="/wiki/Image:12577961_22f69aeef9.jpg" src="../../images/285/28579.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28579.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Old Sana'a</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Yemen is a republic with a <!--del_lnk--> bicameral legislature. Under the constitution, an elected president, an elected 301-seat House of Representatives, and an appointed 111-member <!--del_lnk--> Shura Council share power. The president is head of state, and the prime minister is head of government. The constitution provides that the president be elected by popular vote from at least two candidates endorsed by Parliament; the prime minister is appointed by the president. The presidential term of office is seven years, and the parliamentary term of elected office is six years. Suffrage is universal over 18 years of age.<p><!--del_lnk--> President <!--del_lnk--> Ali Abdullah Saleh became the first elected President in reunified Yemen in 1999 [though he had been President of unified Yemen since 1990 and President of North Yemen since 1978] and most recently was re-elected in September of 2006 after an initial reluctance to run once more. His victory was marked by an election that international observers judged to be "generally free and fair". Popular demonstrations and editorials of support in major papers helped change his mind to run again. In April 2003 parliamentary elections were held, and the <!--del_lnk--> General People's Congress (GPC) maintained an absolute majority. There was a marked decrease from previous years in election-related violence; however, there were some problems with underage voting, confiscation of ballot boxes, voter intimidation, and election-related violence.<p>The constitution calls for an independent judiciary. The former northern and southern legal codes have been unified. The legal system includes separate commercial courts and a Supreme Court based in <!--del_lnk--> Sanaá. Since the country is an Islamic state, the Islamic holy book, the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>, is the basis for all laws, and no law may contradict the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>. Indeed many court cases are debated by the religious basis of the laws i.e. by interpretations of the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>. For this reason, many Judges are religious scholars as well as legal authorities. Unlike Saudi Arabia and other Islamic states, the consumption of alcohol by foreigners is tolerated, and the mild narcotic <!--del_lnk--> Qat is chewed by Yemenis of all strata of society, despite being banned or frowned upon by other Islamic countries and groups.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<dd>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> As of February 2004, Yemen is divided into twenty <!--del_lnk--> governorates and one municipality <!--del_lnk--> . The size of each governorate in terms of population is as follows:<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="" style="background-color: transparent; width: 100%">
<tr>
<td align="left" style="padding-left:;" valign="top" width="">
<table>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aden</td>
<td align="right">1,000,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Al Bayda'</td>
<td align="right">571,778</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Al Dali'</td>
<td align="right">470,460</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Al Hudaydah </td>
<td align="right">2,161,379</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Al Jawf</td>
<td align="right">451,426</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Al Mahrah</td>
<td align="right">89,093</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Al Mahwit</td>
<td align="right">495,865</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td align="left" style="padding-left:;" valign="top" width="">
<p> </td>
<td align="left" style="padding-left:;" valign="top" width="">
<table>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Amran</td>
<td align="right">872,789</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dhamar</td>
<td align="right">1,339,229</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hadramawt </td>
<td align="right">1,029,462</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hajjah</td>
<td align="right">1,480,897</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ibb</td>
<td align="right">2,137,546</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lahij</td>
<td align="right">727,203</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ma'rib</td>
<td align="right">241,690</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td align="left" style="padding-left:;" valign="top" width="">
<p> </td>
<td align="left" style="padding-left:;" valign="top" width="">
<table>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Raimah</td>
<td align="right">395,076</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sa'dah</td>
<td align="right">693,217</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> San'a'</td>
<td align="right">918,379</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>San'a' City<sup><small>a</small></sup> </td>
<td align="right">1,747,627</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shabwah</td>
<td align="right">466,889</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Socotra</td>
<td align="right">43,000<sup><small>b</small></sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ta'izz</td>
<td align="right">1,438,656</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i>21 divisions</i>: <i>21,721,643</i> <sup><small>b</small></sup><br /><span style="font-size:90%;"><sup>a</sup> <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> (municipality); <sup>b</sup> approx.</span><p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<dd>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28580.gif.htm" title="Map of Yemen"><img alt="Map of Yemen" height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yemen-map.gif" src="../../images/285/28580.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28580.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Yemen</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Yemen is in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, in the south of <!--del_lnk--> Arabia, bordering the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Sea, <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Aden, and <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, west of <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> and south of <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. It is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the <!--del_lnk--> Cradle of Humanity.<p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> islands: <!--del_lnk--> Hanish Islands, <!--del_lnk--> Kamaran and <!--del_lnk--> Perim as well as <!--del_lnk--> Socotra in the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Sea belong to Yemen.<p>At 203,837 <!--del_lnk--> mi² (527,970 <!--del_lnk--> km²), Yemen is the world's 49th-largest country (after <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>). It is comparable in size to <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, and somewhat larger than the US state of <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>.<p>Until recently its northern border was undefined because the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Desert prevented any human habitation there.<p>The country can be divided geographically into four main regions: the coastal plains in the west, the western highlands, the eastern highlands, and the <!--del_lnk--> Rub al Khali in the east.<p>The Tihamah ("hot lands") form a very arid and flat coastal plain. Despite the aridity, the presence of many <!--del_lnk--> lagoons makes this region very marshy and a suitable breeding ground for <a href="../../wp/m/Malaria.htm" title="Malaria">malarial</a> <!--del_lnk--> mosquitoes. There are also extensive crescent-shaped <!--del_lnk--> sand dunes. The evaporation in the Tihama is so great that streams from the highlands never reach the sea, but they do contribute to extensive <!--del_lnk--> groundwater reserves; today these are heavily exploited for agricultural use.<p>The Tihamah ends abruptly at the escarpment of the western highlands. This area, now heavily <!--del_lnk--> terraced to meet the demand for food, receives the highest rainfall in Arabia, rapidly increasing from 100 <!--del_lnk--> mm (4 <!--del_lnk--> inches) per year to about 760 mm (30 inches) in <!--del_lnk--> Ta'izz and over 1,000 mm (40 inches) in <!--del_lnk--> Ibb. Agriculture here is very diverse, with such crops as <a href="../../wp/s/Sorghum.htm" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a> dominating, but <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a> and many <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a> trees are also grown, with <a href="../../wp/m/Mango.htm" title="Mango">mangoes</a> being the most valuable. Temperatures are hot in the day but fall dramatically at night. There are perennial streams in the highlands but these never reach the sea because of high evaporation in the Tihama.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/148.jpg.htm" title="Sana'a, the capital of Yemen."><img alt="Sana'a, the capital of Yemen." height="444" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sanaa.JPG" src="../../images/285/28581.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/1/148.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Sana'a, the capital of Yemen.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The central highlands are an extensive high plateau over 2,000 metres (6,560 <!--del_lnk--> feet) in elevation. This area is drier than the western highlands because of rain-shadow influences, but still receives sufficient rain in wet years for extensive cropping. Diurnal temperature ranges are among the highest in the world: ranges from 30°C (86°F) in the day to 0°C (32°F) at night are normal. Water storage allows for <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and the growing of <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Sana'a is located in this region. The highest point in Yemen is Jabal an Nabi Shu'aya, at 3,760 meters (12,336 <!--del_lnk--> ft).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Rub al Khali in the East is much lower, generally below 1,000 metres, and receives almost no rain. It is populated only by Bedouin herders of <!--del_lnk--> camels.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>In terms of <!--del_lnk--> GDP per capita, Yemen is the poorest country in the Arab world and one of the poorest nations in the world overall. Yemen is also the only country in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> with a "low" <!--del_lnk--> Human Development Index. At unification, both the <!--del_lnk--> YAR and the PDRY were struggling, underdeveloped economies. In the north, disruptions of civil war (1962–1970) and frequent periods of <a href="../../wp/d/Drought.htm" title="Drought">drought</a> had dealt severe blows to a previously prosperous agricultural sector. <a href="../../wp/c/Coffee.htm" title="Coffee">Coffee</a>, formerly the north's main export and principal form of foreign exchange, declined as the cultivation of <!--del_lnk--> qat increased. Low domestic industrial output and a lack of raw materials made the YAR dependent on a wide variety of imports.<p>Remittances from Yemenis working abroad and <!--del_lnk--> foreign aid paid for perennial trade deficits. Substantial Yemeni communities exist in many countries of the world, including Yemen's immediate neighbors on the Arabian Peninsula, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/East_Africa.htm" title="East Africa">East Africa</a>, and also the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Beginning in the mid-<!--del_lnk--> 1950s, the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> provided large-scale assistance.<p>In the south, pre-independence economic activity was overwhelmingly concentrated in the port city of Aden. The seaborne transit trade, which the port relied upon, collapsed with the closure of the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> and Britain's withdrawal from Aden in <!--del_lnk--> 1967.<p>Since unification, the government has worked to integrate two relatively disparate economic systems. However, severe shocks, including the return in 1990 of approximately 850,000 Yemenis from the Gulf states, a subsequent major reduction of aid flows, and internal political disputes culminating in the 1994 civil war hampered economic growth. Yemen, the fastest growing democracy in the Middle East, is attempting to climb into the middle human development region through ongoing political and economic reform.<p>Since the conclusion of the war, the government entered into agreement with the <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund (IMF) to implement a structural adjustment program. Phase one of the IMF program included major financial and monetary reforms, including floating the currency, reducing the budget deficit, and cutting subsidies. Phase two will address structural issues such as civil service reform. The <!--del_lnk--> World Bank also is active in Yemen, with twenty-two active projects in 2004, including projects to improve governance in the public sector, water, and education. Since 1998, the government of Yemen has sought to implement World Bank economic and fiscal recommendations. In subsequent years, Yemen has lowered its debt burden through <!--del_lnk--> Paris Club agreements and restructuring U.S. foreign debt. In <!--del_lnk--> 2003, government reserves reached $5 billion.<p>The main oil produced and used in Yemen is Marib oil. Marib oil contains associated <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>. Proven reserves of 10 to 13 trillion <!--del_lnk--> cubic feet (283 to 368 km³) could sustain a liquid natural gas (LNG) export project.<p><a id="Foreign_relations" name="Foreign_relations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign relations</span></h2>
<p>The geography and ruling Imams of <!--del_lnk--> North Yemen kept the country isolated from foreign influence before <!--del_lnk--> 1962. The country's relations with Saudi Arabia were defined by the <!--del_lnk--> Taif Agreement of 1934, which delineated the northernmost part of the border between the two kingdoms and set the framework for commercial and other intercourse. The Taif Agreement has been renewed periodically in 20-year increments, and its validity was reaffirmed in <!--del_lnk--> 1995. Relations with the British colonial authorities in <!--del_lnk--> Aden and the south were usually tense.<p>The Soviet and Chinese Aid Missions established in <!--del_lnk--> 1958 and <!--del_lnk--> 1959 were the first important non-Muslim presence in north Yemen. Following the September <!--del_lnk--> 1962 revolution, the <!--del_lnk--> Yemen Arab Republic became closely allied with and heavily dependent upon Egypt. Saudi Arabia aided the royalists in their attempt to defeat the Republicans and did not recognize the Yemen Arab Republic until <!--del_lnk--> 1970. Subsequently, Saudi Arabia provided Yemen substantial budgetary and project support. At the same time, Saudi Arabia maintained direct contact with Yemeni tribes, which sometimes strained its official relations with the Yemeni Government. Hundreds of thousands of Yemenis found employment in Saudi Arabia during the late <!--del_lnk--> 1970s and <!--del_lnk--> 1980s.<p>In February <!--del_lnk--> 1989, north Yemen joined <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, and <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in forming the <!--del_lnk--> Arab Cooperation Council (ACC), an organization created partly in response to the founding of the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Cooperation Council, and intended to foster closer economic cooperation and integration among its members. After unification, the Republic of Yemen was accepted as a member of the ACC in place of its YAR predecessor. In the wake of the Gulf crisis, the ACC has remained inactive. Yemen is not a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council.<p>British authorities left southern Yemen in November <!--del_lnk--> 1967 in the wake of an intense rebellion. The <!--del_lnk--> People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, the successor to British colonial rule, had diplomatic relations with many nations, but its major links were with the Soviet Union and other <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> countries. Relations between it and the conservative Arab states of the Arabian Peninsula were strained. There were military clashes with Saudi Arabia in 1969 and 1973, and the PDRY provided active support for the <!--del_lnk--> Dhofar rebellion against the Sultanate of Oman. The PDRY was the only Arab state to vote against admitting new Arab states from the Persian Gulf area to the United Nations and the Arab League. The PDRY provided sanctuary and material support to various insurgent groups around the Middle East.<p>Yemen is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference. Yemen participates in the nonaligned movement. The Republic of Yemen accepted responsibility for all treaties and debts of its predecessors, the YAR and the PDRY. Yemen has acceded to the nuclear nonproliferation treaty. The Gulf crisis dramatically affected Yemen's foreign relations. As a member of the UN Security Council (UNSC) for <!--del_lnk--> 1990 and <!--del_lnk--> 1991,Yemen abstained on a number of UNSC resolutions concerning Iraq and Kuwait and voted against the "use of force resolution." Western and Gulf Arab states reacted by curtailing or canceling aid programs and diplomatic contacts. At least 850,000 Yemenis returned from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf.<p>Subsequent to the liberation of <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, Yemen continued to maintain high-level contacts with Iraq. This hampered its efforts to rejoin the Arab mainstream and to mend fences with its immediate neighbors. In 1993, Yemen launched an unsuccessful diplomatic offensive to restore relations with its Persian Gulf neighbors. Some of its aggrieved neighbors actively aided the south during the 1994 civil war. Since the end of that conflict, tangible progress has been made on the diplomatic front in restoring normal relations with Yemen's neighbors. The Omani-Yemeni border has been officially demarcated. In the summer of 2000, Yemen and Saudi Arabia signed an International Border Treaty settling a fifty year-old dispute over the location of the border between the two countries. Yemen settled its dispute with <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> over the <!--del_lnk--> Hanish Islands in 1998.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28582.jpg.htm" title="Yemeni men at market."><img alt="Yemeni men at market." height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yemenite_merchants.jpg" src="../../images/285/28582.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28582.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yemeni men at market.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28583.jpg.htm" title="A Yemeni schoolboy."><img alt="A Yemeni schoolboy." height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yemeni_child.jpg" src="../../images/285/28583.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28583.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Yemeni schoolboy.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Unlike most other people of the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Peninsula who have historically been nomads or semi-nomads, Yemenis are almost entirely sedentary and live in small villages and towns scattered throughout the highlands and coastal regions.<p>Yemenis are divided into two principal Islamic religious groups: 42% Shi'a and 55% Sunni. This is broken up as: 30-35% of the Zaidi order of Shi'a Islam, 7-12% of the Ja'fari and Isma'ili orders of Shi'a Islam, and 55% of the Shafi'i order of Sunni Islam.<p>The Shi'is are predominantly in the north and northwest of Yemen whilst the Sunnis are predominantly in the south and southeast, although there are mixed communities in the larger cities. Most of the <!--del_lnk--> Yemenite Jews immigrated to <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>. The Yemenite Jews make up less than 1% of the population.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Yemenite Jews once formed a sizeable <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> minority in Yemen with a distinct culture. This community now consists of only a few hundred individuals, following the <!--del_lnk--> Jewish exodus from Arab lands and <!--del_lnk--> Operation Magic Carpet (Yemen).<p>Yemenis are mainly of Arab origin. Arabic is the official language, although <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> is increasingly understood by citizens in major cities. In the <!--del_lnk--> Mahra area (the extreme east) and the island <!--del_lnk--> Soqatra, several ancient south-Arabic languages are spoken. When the former states of north and south Yemen were established, most resident minority groups departed.<p>The country has one of the world's highest birth rates; the average Yemeni woman bears seven children. Although this is similar to the rate in <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> to the south, it is roughly twice as high as that of Saudi Arabia and nearly three times as high as those in the more modernized Persian Gulf states.<p><a id="Languages" name="Languages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Languages</span></h2>
<p>While the national language is Arabic (spoken in several regional dialects), Yemen is one of the main homelands of the <!--del_lnk--> South Semitic family of languages, which includes the non-Arabic language of the ancient Sabaean Kingdom. Its modern Yemeni descendants are closely related to the modern Semitic languages of <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> (Tigrinya) and <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> (Amharic). However, only a small remnant of those languages exists in modern Yemen, notably on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Socotra and in the back hills of the <!--del_lnk--> Hadhramaut coastal region. Modern <!--del_lnk--> South Arabian languages spoken in Yemen include <!--del_lnk--> Mehri, with 70,643 speakers, <!--del_lnk--> Soqotri, with an estimated 43,000 speakers (2004 census) mainly on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Socotra, and <!--del_lnk--> Bathari (with an estimated total of only 200 speakers).<p><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> is taught as a foreign language in public schools from grade seven on, though the quality of public school instruction is low. Private schools using a British or American system teach English and produce the proficient speakers, but Arabic is the dominant language of communication. The number of English speakers in Yemen is small compared to other Arab countries such as Egypt, Lebanon, the UAE and Saudi Arabia.<p><a id="Holidays" name="Holidays"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Holidays</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th>Holiday</th>
<th>Notes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> January 1</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> New Year's Day</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 22</td>
<td>National Unity</td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">Celebrates the unification of the Republic of Yemen</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 26 </td>
<td>1962 Revolution Day </td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">Celebrates the revolution against the northern Imams</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 14</td>
<td>1967 Revolution Day</td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">Celebrates the revolution against the British in the south</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 30</td>
<td>Independence Day</td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">Independence from the British</span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Dates_following_the_lunar_Islamic_calendar" name="Dates_following_the_lunar_Islamic_calendar"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dates following the <!--del_lnk--> lunar <!--del_lnk--> Islamic calendar</span></h3>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Date</th>
<th>Holiday/Festival</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dhul Hijjah 10 </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eid al-Adha</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shawwal 1</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eid al-Fitr</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Muharram 1</td>
<td>(Islamic New Year)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geographic locale</span></h2>
<p>
<br clear="all" />
<table class="toccolours" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; text-align:center; width: 80%;">
<tr>
<td rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; !important" width="5%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/510.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Armillary_sphere.png" src="../../images/5/510.png" width="50" /></a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%">
</td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/3/390.png.htm" title="Flag of Saudi Arabia"><img alt="Flag of Saudi Arabia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg" src="../../images/3/390.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/4/401.png.htm" title="Flag of Oman"><img alt="Flag of Oman" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Oman_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/4/401.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a></td>
<td rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; !important" width="5%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/510.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Armillary_sphere.png" src="../../images/5/510.png" width="50" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/4/407.png.htm" title="Flag of Eritrea"><img alt="Flag of Eritrea" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg" src="../../images/4/407.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> <a class="image" href="../../images/5/515.png.htm" title="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation West.png"><img alt="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation West.png" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_West.png" src="../../images/5/515.png" width="17" /></a> <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/513.png.htm" title="North"><img alt="North" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_North.png" src="../../images/5/513.png" width="17" /></a></td>
<td rowspan="3" style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%">
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td nowrap style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/515.png.htm" title="West"><img alt="West" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_West.png" src="../../images/5/515.png" width="17" /></a> <b><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18743.png.htm" title="Flag of Yemen"><img alt="Flag of Yemen" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Yemen.svg" src="../../images/3/392.png" width="22" /></a> <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></b> <a class="image" href="../../images/5/516.png.htm" title="East"><img alt="East" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_East.png" src="../../images/5/516.png" width="17" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/517.png.htm" title="South"><img alt="South" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_South.png" src="../../images/5/517.png" width="17" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/4/405.png.htm" title="Flag of Djibouti"><img alt="Flag of Djibouti" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Djibouti.svg" src="../../images/4/405.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> <a class="image" href="../../images/5/515.png.htm" title="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation West.png"><img alt="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation West.png" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_West.png" src="../../images/5/515.png" width="17" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Bab-el-Mandeb</td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Aden<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/5/517.png.htm" title="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation South.png"><img alt="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation South.png" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_South.png" src="../../images/5/517.png" width="17" /></a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><!--del_lnk--> Arabian Sea</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br />
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<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em">
<p><a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/p/Palestinian_territories.htm" title="Palestinian territories">Palestinian territories</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> <small>(<!--del_lnk--> <i>disputed</i>)</small><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#eee; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><!--del_lnk--> Countries in <!--del_lnk--> Southwest Asia</b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em">
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> • <a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijan.htm" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> • <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> • <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> • <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> • <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> • <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> • <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> • <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> • <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> • <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></div>
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<p><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijan.htm" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> <sup>1</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/b/Bhutan.htm" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/b/Brunei.htm" title="Brunei">Brunei</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/c/Cambodia.htm" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> <sup>2</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/e/East_Timor.htm" title="East Timor">East Timor</a> <sup>3</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> <sup>1</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> <sup>3</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> <sup>1</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/k/Kyrgyzstan.htm" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/l/Laos.htm" title="Laos">Laos</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/n/Nepal.htm" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> <sup>1</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/t/Tajikistan.htm" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> <sup>1</sup> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/t/Turkmenistan.htm" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/u/Uzbekistan.htm" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> •</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap;"><strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></span><p>For dependent and other territories, see <!--del_lnk--> Dependent territory and <!--del_lnk--> List of unrecognized countries.<p><sup>1</sup> Partly in Europe. <sup>2</sup> The <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_China.htm" title="Republic of China">Republic of China (Taiwan)</a> not officially recognized by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>; see <!--del_lnk--> Political status of Taiwan. <sup>3</sup> Partly or wholly reckoned in <a href="../../wp/o/Oceania.htm" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>.</div>
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<p><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17939.png.htm" title="Flag of India"><img alt="Flag of India" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg" src="../../images/6/607.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/187/18780.png.htm" title="Flag of Iran"><img alt="Flag of Iran" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Iran.svg" src="../../images/5/518.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/6/608.png.htm" title="Flag of Maldives"><img alt="Flag of Maldives" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Maldives.svg" src="../../images/6/608.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/401.png.htm" title="Flag of Oman"><img alt="Flag of Oman" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Oman_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/4/401.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/6/610.png.htm" title="Flag of Pakistan"><img alt="Flag of Pakistan" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg" src="../../images/6/610.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/182/18224.png.htm" title="Flag of Sri Lanka"><img alt="Flag of Sri Lanka" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sri_Lanka.svg" src="../../images/6/611.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/187/18743.png.htm" title="Flag of Yemen"><img alt="Flag of Yemen" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Yemen.svg" src="../../images/3/392.png" width="22" /></a> <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></div>
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<p><a class="image" href="../../images/4/405.png.htm" title="Flag of Djibouti"><img alt="Flag of Djibouti" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Djibouti.svg" src="../../images/4/405.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/72/7234.png.htm" title="Flag of Egypt"><img alt="Flag of Egypt" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt.svg" src="../../images/3/386.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/407.png.htm" title="Flag of Eritrea"><img alt="Flag of Eritrea" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg" src="../../images/4/407.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/6/614.png.htm" title="Flag of Israel"><img alt="Flag of Israel" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/614.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/72/7232.png.htm" title="Flag of Jordan"><img alt="Flag of Jordan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Jordan.svg" src="../../images/3/388.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/390.png.htm" title="Flag of Saudi Arabia"><img alt="Flag of Saudi Arabia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg" src="../../images/3/390.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> •<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/3/394.png.htm" title="Flag of Sudan"><img alt="Flag of Sudan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sudan.svg" src="../../images/3/394.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/187/18743.png.htm" title="Flag of Yemen"><img alt="Flag of Yemen" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Yemen.svg" src="../../images/3/392.png" width="22" /></a> <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></div>
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<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Eurasia</b>: <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> • <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Christmas_Island.htm" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Cocos_%2528Keeling%2529_Islands.htm" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> • <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> • <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> • <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> • <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> • <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> • <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> • <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong><p><b><a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a></b>: <a href="../../wp/c/Comoros.htm" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> • <a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> • <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> • <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Mayotte.htm" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Somaliland • <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> • <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a><p><b><a href="../../wp/o/Oceania.htm" title="Oceania">Oceania</a></b>: <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Christmas_Island.htm" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Cocos_%2528Keeling%2529_Islands.htm" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a><p><b>Islands</b>: <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Christmas_Island.htm" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Cocos_%2528Keeling%2529_Islands.htm" title="Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Mayotte.htm" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#eee; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></b></div>
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<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18741.png.htm" title="Flag of the League of Arab States"><img alt="Flag of the League of Arab States" height="25" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_League_of_Arab_States.svg" src="../../images/4/408.png" width="50" /></a></span></div>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> • <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> • <a href="../../wp/c/Comoros.htm" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> • <a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> • <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> • <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> • <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> • <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> • <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> • <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> • <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> • <!--del_lnk--> State of Palestine • <a href="../../wp/q/Qatar.htm" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> • <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> • <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> • <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> • <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#eee; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><!--del_lnk--> Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)</b></div>
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<p><b><a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Maltese</b><p><a class="image" href="../../images/3/398.png.htm" title="Flag of Algeria"><img alt="Flag of Algeria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Algeria_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/3/398.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/399.png.htm" title="Flag of Bahrain"><img alt="Flag of Bahrain" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bahrain_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/3/399.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/72/7234.png.htm" title="Flag of Egypt"><img alt="Flag of Egypt" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt.svg" src="../../images/3/386.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/387.png.htm" title="Flag of Iraq"><img alt="Flag of Iraq" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Iraq.svg" src="../../images/3/387.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/72/7232.png.htm" title="Flag of Jordan"><img alt="Flag of Jordan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Jordan.svg" src="../../images/3/388.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/397.png.htm" title="Flag of Kuwait"><img alt="Flag of Kuwait" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg" src="../../images/3/397.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/6/615.png.htm" title="Flag of Lebanon"><img alt="Flag of Lebanon" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg" src="../../images/3/389.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/393.png.htm" title="Flag of Libya"><img alt="Flag of Libya" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Libya.svg" src="../../images/3/393.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/10/1028.png.htm" title="Flag of Malta"><img alt="Flag of Malta" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Malta_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/10/1028.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Malta.htm" title="Malta">Malta</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/402.png.htm" title="Flag of Mauritania"><img alt="Flag of Mauritania" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mauritania.svg" src="../../images/4/402.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/395.png.htm" title="Flag of Morocco"><img alt="Flag of Morocco" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Morocco.svg" src="../../images/3/395.png" width="22" /></a> 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longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg" src="../../images/3/390.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/394.png.htm" title="Flag of Sudan"><img alt="Flag of Sudan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sudan.svg" src="../../images/3/394.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/41/4115.png.htm" title="Flag of Syria"><img alt="Flag of Syria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Syria.svg" src="../../images/3/391.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/396.png.htm" title="Flag of Tunisia"><img alt="Flag of Tunisia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg" src="../../images/3/396.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/0/12.png.htm" title="Flag of United Arab Emirates"><img alt="Flag of United Arab Emirates" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg" src="../../images/0/12.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/10/1029.png.htm" title="Flag of Western Sahara"><img alt="Flag of Western Sahara" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Western_Sahara.svg" src="../../images/10/1029.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/187/18743.png.htm" title="Flag of Yemen"><img alt="Flag of Yemen" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Yemen.svg" src="../../images/3/392.png" width="22" /></a> <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong><p>
<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Northwest Semitic (<!--del_lnk--> Aramaic and <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>)</b><p><a class="image" href="../../images/3/387.png.htm" title="Flag of Iraq"><img alt="Flag of Iraq" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Iraq.svg" src="../../images/3/387.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/6/614.png.htm" title="Flag of Israel"><img alt="Flag of Israel" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/614.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/41/4115.png.htm" title="Flag of Syria"><img alt="Flag of Syria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Syria.svg" src="../../images/3/391.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a><p>
<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> South Semitic</b><p><a class="image" href="../../images/4/407.png.htm" title="Flag of Eritrea"><img alt="Flag of Eritrea" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg" src="../../images/4/407.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/10/1030.png.htm" title="Flag of Ethiopia"><img alt="Flag of Ethiopia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg" src="../../images/10/1030.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/401.png.htm" title="Flag of Oman"><img alt="Flag of Oman" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Oman_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/4/401.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/o/Oman.htm" title="Oman">Oman</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/187/18743.png.htm" title="Flag of Yemen"><img alt="Flag of Yemen" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Yemen.svg" src="../../images/3/392.png" width="22" /></a> <strong class="selflink">Yemen</strong></div>
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| ['Arabic language', 'List of countries by system of government', 'Currency', 'Time zone', 'Arabic language', 'Middle East', 'Red Sea', 'Oman', 'Saudi Arabia', 'East Africa', 'Anno Domini', 'Ancient Rome', '7th century', '11th century', '16th century', '19th century', 'Ottoman Empire', 'Egypt', 'Communist', "Qur'an", "Qur'an", "Qur'an", 'Capital', 'Middle East', 'Red Sea', 'Oman', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Red Sea', 'France', 'Thailand', 'California', 'Malaria', 'Sorghum', 'Cotton', 'Fruit', 'Mango', 'Irrigation', 'Wheat', 'Barley', 'Asia', 'Drought', 'Coffee', 'Indonesia', 'India', 'East Africa', 'United Kingdom', 'United States', 'Soviet Union', 'China', 'Suez Canal', 'Natural gas', 'Iraq', 'Jordan', 'Egypt', 'Marxism', 'Kuwait', 'Eritrea', 'Israel', 'Judaism', 'English language', 'Somalia', 'Eritrea', 'Ethiopia', 'English language', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Oman', 'Eritrea', 'Red Sea', 'Djibouti', 'Somalia', 'List of countries', 'Middle East', 'Bahrain', 'Cyprus', 'Egypt', 'Iran', 'Iraq', 'Israel', 'Jordan', 'Kuwait', 'Lebanon', 'Oman', 'Palestinian territories', 'Qatar', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Syria', 'Turkey', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Armenia', 'Azerbaijan', 'Bahrain', 'Cyprus', 'Georgia (country)', 'Iran', 'Iraq', 'Israel', 'Jordan', 'Kuwait', 'Lebanon', 'Oman', 'Qatar', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Syria', 'Turkey', 'United Arab Emirates', 'List of countries', 'Asia', 'Afghanistan', 'Armenia', 'Azerbaijan', 'Bahrain', 'Bangladesh', 'Bhutan', 'Brunei', 'Cambodia', "People's Republic of China", 'Cyprus', 'East Timor', 'Georgia (country)', 'India', 'Indonesia', 'Iran', 'Iraq', 'Israel', 'Japan', 'Jordan', 'Kazakhstan', 'Kuwait', 'Kyrgyzstan', 'Laos', 'Lebanon', 'Malaysia', 'Maldives', 'Mongolia', 'Myanmar', 'Nepal', 'North Korea', 'Oman', 'Pakistan', 'Philippines', 'Qatar', 'Russia', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Singapore', 'South Korea', 'Sri Lanka', 'Syria', 'Tajikistan', 'Thailand', 'Turkey', 'Turkmenistan', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Uzbekistan', 'Vietnam', 'Republic of China', 'United Nations', 'Oceania', 'List of countries', 'India', 'Iran', 'Maldives', 'Oman', 'Pakistan', 'Somalia', 'Sri Lanka', 'List of countries', 'Red Sea', 'Djibouti', 'Egypt', 'Eritrea', 'Israel', 'Jordan', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Somalia', 'Sudan', 'List of countries', 'Indian Ocean', 'Bahrain', 'Bangladesh', 'Christmas Island', 'Cocos (Keeling) Islands', 'India', 'Indonesia', 'Iran', 'Iraq', 'Israel', 'Kuwait', 'Malaysia', 'Maldives', 'Myanmar', 'Oman', 'Pakistan', 'Qatar', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Sri Lanka', 'Thailand', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Africa', 'Comoros', 'Djibouti', 'Eritrea', 'Kenya', 'Madagascar', 'Mauritius', 'Mayotte', 'Mozambique', 'Seychelles', 'Somalia', 'South Africa', 'Sudan', 'Tanzania', 'Oceania', 'Australia', 'Christmas Island', 'Cocos (Keeling) Islands', 'Bahrain', 'Christmas Island', 'Cocos (Keeling) Islands', 'Madagascar', 'Maldives', 'Mauritius', 'Mayotte', 'Seychelles', 'Sri Lanka', 'Arab League', 'Algeria', 'Bahrain', 'Comoros', 'Djibouti', 'Egypt', 'Iraq', 'Jordan', 'Kuwait', 'Lebanon', 'Libya', 'Mauritania', 'Morocco', 'Oman', 'Qatar', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Somalia', 'Sudan', 'Syria', 'Tunisia', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Afghanistan', 'Albania', 'Algeria', 'Azerbaijan', 'Bahrain', 'Bangladesh', 'Benin', 'Burkina Faso', 'Brunei', 'Cameroon', 'Chad', 'Comoros', "Côte d'Ivoire", 'Djibouti', 'Egypt', 'Gabon', 'Guinea', 'Guinea-Bissau', 'Guyana', 'Indonesia', 'Iran', 'Iraq', 'Jordan', 'Kuwait', 'Kazakhstan', 'Kyrgyzstan', 'Lebanon', 'Libya', 'Maldives', 'Malaysia', 'Mali', 'Mauritania', 'Morocco', 'Mozambique', 'Niger', 'Nigeria', 'Oman', 'Pakistan', 'Qatar', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Senegal', 'Sierra Leone', 'Somalia', 'Sudan', 'Syria', 'Tajikistan', 'Turkey', 'Tunisia', 'Togo', 'Turkmenistan', 'Uganda', 'Uzbekistan', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Bosnia and Herzegovina', 'Central African Republic', 'Russia', 'Thailand', 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus', 'United Nations', 'Arabic language', 'Algeria', 'Bahrain', 'Egypt', 'Iraq', 'Jordan', 'Kuwait', 'Lebanon', 'Libya', 'Malta', 'Mauritania', 'Morocco', 'Oman', 'Qatar', 'Saudi Arabia', 'Sudan', 'Syria', 'Tunisia', 'United Arab Emirates', 'Western Sahara', 'Hebrew language', 'Iraq', 'Israel', 'Syria', 'Eritrea', 'Ethiopia', 'Oman'] |
Yenisei_River | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yenisei River</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.htm">Geography of Asia</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger; background-color: #CEDEFF;">Yenisei River</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height: 1.2; border-bottom: 1px solid #CEDEFF;">
<div style="border: 1px solid #CEDEFF;"><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28584.png.htm" title="The Yenisei basin, including Lake Baikal"><img alt="The Yenisei basin, including Lake Baikal" height="392" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yenisei_basin_7.png" src="../../images/285/28584.png" width="288" /></a></div>
<center>The Yenisei basin, including <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Baikal.htm" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a></center>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Origin</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></td>
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<td><b>Mouth</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Basin countries</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td>5,550 km (3,449 mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Avg. <!--del_lnk--> discharge</b></td>
<td>19,600 m³/s (692,272 ft³/s)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Basin area</b></td>
<td>2,580,000 km² (996,138 mi²)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Yenisei</b> (<i>Енисе́й</i>) is the greatest <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a> system flowing to the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a>, and the fifth longest river in the world. It is slightly shorter but with 1.5 times the flow of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a>-<a href="../../wp/m/Missouri_River.htm" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a>. Rising in <a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, it follows a northerly course to the <!--del_lnk--> Kara Sea, draining a large part of central <!--del_lnk--> Siberia, the longest stream following the Yenisei-Angara-Selenga-Ider being about 5500 km. Its <!--del_lnk--> watershed, which includes the world's largest (by volume) lake, <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Baikal.htm" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a>, holds more water than any other river system.<p>The upper reaches, subject to rapids and flooding, pass through sparsely populated areas. The middle section is controlled by a series of massive hydroelectric dams fuelling significant Russian <!--del_lnk--> primary industry. Partly built by <!--del_lnk--> gulag labor in Soviet times, industrial contamination remains a serious problem in an area hard to police. Moving on through sparsely-populated <!--del_lnk--> taiga, the Yenisei swells with numerous tributaries and finally reaches the Kara Sea in desolate <!--del_lnk--> tundra where it is icebound for more than half the year. As with other Siberian rivers, the flow has increased recently, believed to be related to <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a>. A concern is that altered salinity in the Arctic may have a global impact on ocean currents.<p>
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</script><a id="Upper_Yenisei" name="Upper_Yenisei"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Upper Yenisei</span></h2>
<p>The Yenisei rises in two major headstreams: the Bolshoi (greater) Yenisei also known as the Bii-Khem (Бии-Хем) rises in the <!--del_lnk--> Tuva region on the S flank of the Eastern <!--del_lnk--> Sayan Mountains and north of the <!--del_lnk--> Tannu-Ola Mountains at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 52°20′N 97°30′E</span>; the Malyy (lesser) Yenisei also known as the Kaa-Khem (Каа-Хем) rises in the Darhat (<!--del_lnk--> rift) valley in <a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>. Recent research has shown that the narrow exit to the Darhat Valley has regularly been blocked by ice producing a lake as large as neighbouring <!--del_lnk--> Lake Khuvsgul. When the glaciers retreated (the last time 9300 years BP) as much as 500 km³ of water would have escaped, possibly catastrophically.<p>These two headstreams flow west converging at <!--del_lnk--> Kyzyl, and on meeting the east-flowing Khemchik River head north through a canyon in the Western Sayan mountains. The Yenisei emerges from the mountains onto an area of steppe where its first control is the 30m dam at Mayna. This section is around 700 km.<p><a id="Lake_Baikal_Headwaters" name="Lake_Baikal_Headwaters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Lake Baikal Headwaters</span></h2>
<p>The 320 km (partly navigable) Upper Angara feeds into the northern end of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Baikal.htm" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a> from the <!--del_lnk--> Buryat Republic but the largest inflow is from the <!--del_lnk--> Selenga which forms a delta on the south-eastern side. The longest tributaries rise on the eastern slopes of central Mongolia's <!--del_lnk--> Khangay mountains. Another tributary, the <b>Tuul</b> passes through the Mongolian capital, <!--del_lnk--> Ulaanbaatar while the <b>Egiin</b> drains <!--del_lnk--> Lake Khuvsgul.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28585.jpg.htm" title="This satellite image is 800 km across. The green area towards the top-left, containing several small lakes and bordered by the snow-capped Eastern Sayan Mountains to the north, is the source of the Bolshoi Yenisei in Tuva. The dry Darhat Valley just west of Lake Khuvsgul in the center of the image is the source of the Malyy Yenisei. These two streams can be followed to their confluence at Kyzyl at the left of the image. Lake Baikal is at the right of the image and the Angara flowing north from Irkutsk can clearly be made out. It is already widening due to the dam at Bratsk 200 km further north. The Selenga, whose headwaters include Lake Khuvsgul, flows into Lake Baikal in a delta at the extreme edge of the image. The Lena River has its source in the top right of the image."><img alt="This satellite image is 800 km across. The green area towards the top-left, containing several small lakes and bordered by the snow-capped Eastern Sayan Mountains to the north, is the source of the Bolshoi Yenisei in Tuva. The dry Darhat Valley just west of Lake Khuvsgul in the center of the image is the source of the Malyy Yenisei. These two streams can be followed to their confluence at Kyzyl at the left of the image. Lake Baikal is at the right of the image and the Angara flowing north from Irkutsk can clearly be made out. It is already widening due to the dam at Bratsk 200 km further north. The Selenga, whose headwaters include Lake Khuvsgul, flows into Lake Baikal in a delta at the extreme edge of the image. The Lena River has its source in the top right of the image." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Khuvsgul.jpg" src="../../images/285/28585.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28585.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This satellite image is 800 km across. The green area towards the top-left, containing several small lakes and bordered by the snow-capped Eastern Sayan Mountains to the north, is the source of the Bolshoi Yenisei in Tuva. The dry Darhat Valley just west of Lake Khuvsgul in the centre of the image is the source of the Malyy Yenisei. These two streams can be followed to their confluence at Kyzyl at the left of the image. Lake Baikal is at the right of the image and the Angara flowing north from Irkutsk can clearly be made out. It is already widening due to the dam at Bratsk 200 km further north. The Selenga, whose headwaters include Lake Khuvsgul, flows into Lake Baikal in a delta at the extreme edge of the image. The <!--del_lnk--> Lena River has its source in the top right of the image.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Just downstream from Mayna, the 242m <!--del_lnk--> Sayano-Shushenskaya dam at <!--del_lnk--> Sayansk powers Russia's largest hydroelectric plant completed in 1989 and producing 6400 MW for <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> production. This is the same height and five times the power of the <a href="../../wp/h/Hoover_Dam.htm" title="Hoover Dam">Hoover Dam</a>. About 100 km downstream the Yenisei is swollen by the <!--del_lnk--> Abakan river and passes <!--del_lnk--> Abakan, capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Khakassia region, on the west bank and <!--del_lnk--> Minusinsk on the east bank. It passes within 10 km of the Chulym, a tributary of the <!--del_lnk--> Ob before reaching <!--del_lnk--> Krasnoyarsk after 300 km. This halt on the <!--del_lnk--> Trans-Siberian railway is the Yenisei's largest city. Krasnoyarsk is a major port. Not far away from Krasnoyarsk is <!--del_lnk--> Krasnoyarsk hydroelectric dam.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> closed city of <!--del_lnk--> Zheleznogorsk, 70km downstream, is a secret Soviet nuclear weapons and satellite facility missing from most maps. The exact state of the enormous nuclear waste dump is unclear, but some discharges continue to pollute the Yenisei. A further 200 km downstream comes the confluence with the Angara (whose final section is also known as the Upper [Verkhnyaya] Tunguska).<p><a id="Angara_River" name="Angara_River"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Angara River</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <b>Angara</b> (<i>Ангара́</i>) river drains <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Baikal.htm" title="Lake Baikal">Lake Baikal</a> and runs 1840 km from the regional capital <!--del_lnk--> Irkutsk to converge with the Yenisei at <!--del_lnk--> Strelka (<span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 58.101° N 92.998° E</span>). It is dammed in four places to power local industry. The 44m dam at Irkutsk produces 650 MW. <!--del_lnk--> Bratsk lies 500 km downstream, where the 124 m <!--del_lnk--> dam built in the 1960s produces 4500 MW. The resultant reservoir is nicknamed <i>Dragon Lake</i> because of its outline. The tributary Oka and Iya rivers, which rise on the north slopes of the Eastern <!--del_lnk--> Sayan Mountains, form the 'jaws' and 400 km of the Angara form the 'tail'. There are newer dams almost as large at <!--del_lnk--> Ust-Ilimsk 250 km downstream (also damming the tributary Ilim river) and <!--del_lnk--> Boguchany a further 400 km downstream (not operational). Further dams are planned but the environmental consequences of completely taming the Angara are leading to protests which may prevent funding.<p><!--del_lnk--> Angarsk, the centre of the expanding Eastern Siberian oil industry and site of a huge <!--del_lnk--> Yukos-owned refinery, lies 50 km downstream of Irkutsk. A major pipeline takes oil west, and a new one is being built to carry oil east for supply to Japan from the <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Japan port of <!--del_lnk--> Nakhodka. The exact potential of Eastern Siberia is unknown, but two new major fields are the Kovyktinskoye field near Zhigalovo 200 km north of Irkutsk and the extremely remote Verkhnechonskoye field 500 km north of Irkutsk on the <!--del_lnk--> Central Siberian Plateau.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28586.jpg.htm" title="Yenisei River - As seen from the trans-Siberian railway near Krasnoyarsk"><img alt="Yenisei River - As seen from the trans-Siberian railway near Krasnoyarsk" height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bank_of_Yenisei_River.jpg" src="../../images/285/28586.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28586.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Yenisei River</b> - As seen from the trans-Siberian railway near Krasnoyarsk</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Lower_Yenisei" name="Lower_Yenisei"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Lower Yenisei</span></h2>
<p>The Great Kaz joins the Yenisei 300 km downstream of the Strelka. It is noteworthy for its connection to the <!--del_lnk--> Ob via <!--del_lnk--> Ob-Yenisei canal and Ket River. The river starts to widen, its bed being littered with islands as numerous rivers augment its flow, in particular 1800 km Stony (Podkamennaya) Tunguska, and the 3000 km Lower (Nizhnyaya) Tunguska at <!--del_lnk--> Turukhansk draining the desolate central Siberian Plateau from the east. The remote Tunguska (Тунгуска) region is most famous for the <!--del_lnk--> 1908 meteorite impact, but is now being explored for oil. Beyond Turukhansk, the river enters <!--del_lnk--> tundra.<p>The river is icebound for more than half the year, and if unchecked ice could dam the river causing major flooding. Explosives are used to keep the water flowing. The final town is <!--del_lnk--> Dudinka which is connected to Krasnoyarsk by regular passenger boat. The river widens to a 50 km estuary for its final 250 km and the shipping lanes are kept open by icebreaker.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" title="Ice age">ice age</a>, the route to the arctic was blocked by ice. Though the exact details are unclear, the Yenisei is believed to have flowed into a huge lake filling much of western Siberia, eventually flowing into the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. (See <!--del_lnk--> West Siberian Glacial Lake of the early <!--del_lnk--> Weichselian Glaciation)<p><a id="Navigation" name="Navigation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Navigation</span></h2>
<p>The first team to navigate the Yenisei's entire length, including its violent upper <!--del_lnk--> tributary in Mongolia, was an Australian-Canadian effort completed in September 2001. <!--del_lnk--> Ben Kozel, Tim Cope, <!--del_lnk--> Colin Angus and Remy Quinter were on this team. Both Kozel and Angus wrote books detailing this expedition, and a documentary was produced for National Geographic Television.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Ancient nomatic tribes such as the <!--del_lnk--> Ket people and the <!--del_lnk--> Yugh people lived along its banks. The Ket, numbering about 1000, are the only survivors today of those who originally lived throughout central southern Siberia near the river banks. Their extinct relatives included the Kotts, Assans, Arins, Baikots, and Pumpokols who lived further upriver to the south. The modern Ket lived in the eastern middle areas of the river before being assimilated politically into the Russia or Siberia during the 17th through 19th centuries.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenisei_River"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yes Minister</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Television.htm">Television</a></h3>
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<table cellspacing="2" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%">
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 120%; background: transparent;"><i>Yes Minister /<br /> Yes, Prime Minister</i></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yes_Minister_opening_titles.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="220" /><br /><small>The title card of <i>Yes Minister</i></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Genre</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Comedy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Camera setup</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Multi-camera</td>
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<tr>
<th>Running time</th>
<td>30 minutes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Creator(s)</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Antony Jay<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Lynn</td>
</tr>
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<th>Starring</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Paul Eddington<br /><!--del_lnk--> Nigel Hawthorne<br /><!--del_lnk--> Derek Fowlds</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Opening theme</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Hazlehurst</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Country of origin</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Original channel</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BBC Two</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Original run</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 25 February <!--del_lnk--> 1980–<!--del_lnk--> 28 January <!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>No. of episodes</th>
<td>39</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i><b>Yes Minister</b></i> is a <!--del_lnk--> satirical <!--del_lnk--> British sitcom that was first transmitted by <!--del_lnk--> BBC television and <!--del_lnk--> radio between <!--del_lnk--> 1980 and <!--del_lnk--> 1984. It was followed by a sequel, <i><b>Yes, Prime Minister</b></i>, which ran from <!--del_lnk--> 1986 to <!--del_lnk--> 1988. Both series comprise a total of 38 episodes, written by <!--del_lnk--> Antony Jay and <!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Lynn, and all but one last half an hour.<p>Set in the private office in <!--del_lnk--> Whitehall of a British government cabinet minister (and later <!--del_lnk--> 10 Downing Street), the series follows the <!--del_lnk--> ministerial career of James Hacker <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">MP</a>, played by <!--del_lnk--> Paul Eddington, and his various struggles to bring in legislation against the administrative will of the <!--del_lnk--> British Civil Service, in particular his <!--del_lnk--> Permanent Secretary, Sir Humphrey Appleby, played by <!--del_lnk--> Nigel Hawthorne and his more helpful <!--del_lnk--> Principal Private Secretary played by <!--del_lnk--> Derek Fowlds. Almost every programme ends with the <!--del_lnk--> eponymous line, "Yes, Minister" (or "Yes, Prime Minister").<p>A critical and popular success, the series was the recipient of a number of awards, including several <!--del_lnk--> BAFTAs and in 2004 came sixth in <!--del_lnk--> Britain's Best Sitcom. It also gained notoriety as being the favourite television programme of the then <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">British Prime Minister</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Margaret_Thatcher.htm" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Plot" name="Plot"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plot</span></h2>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>The dominant running theme is the struggle between (<!--del_lnk--> The Rt Hon.) <!--del_lnk--> James "Jim" Hacker, the newly-appointed <!--del_lnk--> Minister in the (fictional) Department of Administrative Affairs, and his civil servants and ministerial colleagues. Chief among his officials are <!--del_lnk--> Sir Humphrey Appleby, <a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Bath.htm" title="Order of the Bath">KCB</a>, <!--del_lnk--> MVO, <!--del_lnk--> MA <!--del_lnk--> (Oxon), who is the department's Permanent Secretary, and <!--del_lnk--> Bernard Woolley, Hacker's Principal Private Secretary.<p>The different ideals and self-interested motivations of the characters are frequently contrasted. Whilst Hacker occasionally approaches an issue from a sense of idealism and a desire to be seen to improve things for the better, he ultimately sees his re-election as the only endorsement of his success. In order to achieve this he must appear to the voters as effective, and responsive to the public will. Sir Humphrey, on the other hand, genuinely believes (along with most of the other civil servants who are depicted) that it is the Civil Service who know what is best for the country, which usually translates into being what is best for the Civil Service. Most of his actions are motivated by his wish to maintain the power and influence he enjoys inside a large, bureaucratic organisation, and also to preserve the numerous perks of his position (including automatic honours, a substantial income, a fixed retirement age and a large <!--del_lnk--> index-linked pension), and the practical impossibility of a civil servant being made redundant or sacked for incompetence. It is the politicians who potentially lose <i>their</i> jobs because of civil service ineptitude, and this is another source of tension between Hacker and Appleby.<p>Hacker, then, sees his task as the initiation of reforms and economies in the department, a reduction of the level of bureaucracy and staff numbers in the Civil Service, and the government of the country according to his party's policies. To do so — or to at least look as if he has — would be a vote-winner. Conversely, Sir Humphrey sees his role as ensuring that politics is kept out of government as much as possible, and that the <i>status quo</i> is upheld as a matter of principle. He will block any move that seeks either to prevent the further expansion of the civil service or to reduce the complexity of its bureaucracy.<p>Much of the show's humour thus derives from the antagonism between <!--del_lnk--> Cabinet ministers (who believe they are in charge) and the members of the British Civil Service who really run the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">country</a>. A typical episode centres on Jim Hacker's suggesting and pursuing a reform, and Sir Humphrey's ingenious blocking of all Hacker's lines of approach. More often than not Sir Humphrey prevents him from achieving his goal, while mollifying Hacker with some positive publicity, or at least a means to cover up his failure. However, Hacker occasionally gets his way — as in "<!--del_lnk--> The Greasy Pole" (one of the few times when, of the two of them, Sir Humphrey is clearly the one with right on his side).<p>Initially Woolley naively sees his job as the disinterested implementation of the Minister's policies, but he gradually finds that this conflicts with his institutional duty to the department and sometimes, since Sir Humphrey is responsible for formally assessing Woolley's performance, his own potential career development.<p>The first series featured Frank Weisel, Hacker's political advisor, played by <!--del_lnk--> Neil Fitzwiliam. While his name is pronounced W-"eye"-sel, Sir Humphrey and Bernard persistently call him "Mr Weasel". Weisel does not appear after the first series, following his convenient acceptance of a position on a <!--del_lnk--> quango (Quasi-Autonomous Non-Governmental Organisation) tasked with investigating the appointment of other quangos. After the third series, following Sir Humphrey's promotion to <!--del_lnk--> Cabinet Secretary, Hacker becomes Prime Minister and requests that Bernard Woolley continue as his Principal Private Secretary. The first series of <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i> introduced Dorothy Wainwright (played by <!--del_lnk--> Deborah Norton) as a highly able Special Political Advisor to the Prime Minister. Her insight into many civil service tricks ensures a lasting mutual distrust between her and Sir Humphrey.<p>Hacker's home life is shown occasionally throughout the series. His wife, Annie (<!--del_lnk--> Diana Hoddinott), is clearly frustrated by the disruptions caused by her husband's political career and is at times somewhat sarcastic about her husband's politics. Meanwhile, his sociology student daughter, Lucy (<!--del_lnk--> Gerry Cowper), becomes an environmental activist in one episode (her only on-screen appearance, despite several other mentions), campaigning against one of her father's department's policies.<p>Sir Humphrey's personal characteristics include his <!--del_lnk--> complicated sentences, his cynical views on government, and his superciliousness. Hacker's attributes include occasional indecisiveness, and a tendency to launch into ludicrous <a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" title="Winston Churchill">Churchillian</a> speeches. Bernard is apt to linguistic pedantry. Sir Humphrey often discusses matters with other Permanent Secretaries, who appear similarly sardonic and jaded, and the Cabinet Secretary (whom he will eventually succeed in <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i>), Sir Arnold Robinson — played by <!--del_lnk--> John Nettleton — an archetype of cynicism, haughtiness and conspiratorial expertise. This fairly counter-intuitive view of government administration is not only Sir Humphrey's: it is completely taken for granted by the civil service.<p>The <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i> episode "<!--del_lnk--> The Bishop's Gambit" parodied <!--del_lnk--> liberal theology and politics in the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Anglican church</a>. Hacker thought that the church is a Christian institution, but Sir Humphrey gleefully informed him that most of the <!--del_lnk--> bishops do not believe in <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>, and that a <!--del_lnk--> theologian's job is partly to explain why an <!--del_lnk--> agnostic or <!--del_lnk--> atheist can be a church leader.<p>Almost all the episodes end with one of the characters (usually Sir Humphrey) saying "Yes, Minister" or "Yes, Prime Minister". Each episode of the former series was more or less self-contained, but <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i> had a loose <!--del_lnk--> story arc.<p><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
<p>The writers placed Hacker at the centre of the political spectrum, and were careful to identify his party headquarters as "Central House" (a combination of <!--del_lnk--> Conservative Central Office and Labour's Transport House). The terms '<!--del_lnk--> Labour' and '<!--del_lnk--> Conservative' are thoroughly avoided throughout the series, favouring terms such as "the party" and "the opposition". The series clearly intended to satirise politics and government in general, rather than any specific party. The one exception to this rule occurs very briefly in "<!--del_lnk--> The National Education Service", when Sir Humphrey explains to Bernard how the policy of <!--del_lnk--> comprehensive education is retained through successive governments, using different arguments according to which party is in power.<p>Despite this, the overall thrust of the early episodes was in a <!--del_lnk--> libertarian direction: casting government reduction in a more favourable light than government expansion. The episode "<!--del_lnk--> Jobs for the Boys", for example, rejected <!--del_lnk--> corporatism. Jay was personally sympathetic to the economically liberal elements of Thatcherism, and served as a part-time speech writer to <!--del_lnk--> Nigel Lawson. Lynn was, even initially, less sympathetic to Thatcher and as the decade progressed Thatcher's personality came to eclipse the policy agenda. This partnership produced episodes such as "<!--del_lnk--> Man Overboard", which satirised the <!--del_lnk--> Westland affair.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Trollopian style, certain minor characters in the series were apparently drawn from identifiable real-world originals. The acerbic <!--del_lnk--> nationalised industry chairman, Sir Wally McFarland, was an affectionate caricature of <!--del_lnk--> Sir Monty Finniston (of <!--del_lnk--> British Steel); the Prime Minister's special advisor in <i>Yes Minister</i>, Sir Mark Spencer, was a reference to Derek Rayner who joined the first <a href="../../wp/m/Margaret_Thatcher.htm" title="Margaret Thatcher">Thatcher</a> Government from the chain store group <!--del_lnk--> Marks & Spencer; and the journalists John Pilgrim and Alex Andrews were evident references to <!--del_lnk--> John Pilger and Andrew Alexander. Billy Fraser, a tough uncompromising Scottish trade unionist, was based on Jamie Morris, who had led the strike at Westminster Hospital during the <!--del_lnk--> Winter of Discontent, and Ben Stanley was a reference to the controversial former leader of the <!--del_lnk--> GLC, <!--del_lnk--> Ken Livingstone. By contrast, Hacker's Prime Ministerial special advisor, Dorothy Wainwright, predated the arrival of <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Hogg (who bore her some resemblance) as <!--del_lnk--> John Major's advisor some years later.<p>The pilot was produced in 1979 but not transmitted until 1980 in fear that it could influence the results of the <!--del_lnk--> 1979 UK General Election.<p><a id="Inspirations" name="Inspirations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inspirations</span></h2>
<p>In a programme screened by the BBC in early 2004, paying tribute to the series, it was revealed that Jay and Lynn had drawn on information provided by two insiders from the governments of <a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Wilson.htm" title="Harold Wilson">Harold Wilson</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/James_Callaghan.htm" title="James Callaghan">James Callaghan</a>, namely <!--del_lnk--> Marcia Williams and Bernard Donoughue. The name of Hacker's ministry was partly derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Department for Economic Affairs, which had existed in the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s, created and abolished by Wilson. The fundamental plot of a minister being frustrated by the Civil Service was inspired by the published diaries of <!--del_lnk--> Richard Crossman after <!--del_lnk--> 1964, which are dominated by Crossman's constant struggle with Dame Evelyn Sharp, the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. The title was probably suggested by Crossman's entry for <!--del_lnk--> October 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1964, less than a week after he had been appointed:<blockquote>
<p>"Already I realise the tremendous effort it requires not to be taken over by the Civil Service. My Minister's room is like a padded cell, and in certain ways I am like a person who is suddenly certified a lunatic and put safely into this great, vast room, cut off from real life and surrounded by male and female trained nurses and attendants. When I am in a good mood they occasionally allow an ordinary human being to come and visit me; but they make sure that I behave right, and that the other person behaves right; and they know how to handle me. Of course, they don't behave <i>quite</i> like nurses because the Civil Service is profoundly deferential — 'Yes, Minister! No, Minister! If you wish it, Minister!'"</blockquote>
<p>Some of the material for the episodes is clearly derived from or based on part of <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Sampson's book <i><!--del_lnk--> Anatomy of Britain</i> (Hodder and Stoughton, 1962). The episode entitled "<!--del_lnk--> The Moral Dimension", in which Hacker and his staff engage in the scheme of secretly consuming <!--del_lnk--> alcohol on a trade mission to the fictional <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islamic</a> state of <!--del_lnk--> Qumran, was revealed to have been based on a real incident that took place in <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. The reference in "<!--del_lnk--> A Diplomatic Incident" (<i>Yes, Prime Minister</i>) to opportunities for diplomacy at a "working funeral" (in light of his predecessor's death) may have been inspired by the discussions between <a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Wilson.htm" title="Harold Wilson">Harold Wilson</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Rhodesian Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Ian Smith at the funeral of Winston Churchill, which came at a time when each was refusing to travel to see the other.<p><a id="Episodes" name="Episodes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Episodes</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>A total of thirty-eight episodes were made: all are of 30 minutes' duration except one. As was standard BBC practice for situation comedies at the time, they were videotaped in front of a studio audience with film inserts of any location sequences. Some shots of Hacker travelling in his car were achieved by means of <!--del_lnk--> chroma key. Each instalment usually comprised around six scenes.<p><i>Yes Minister</i> ran for three series, each of seven episodes, between 1980 and <!--del_lnk--> 1982. These were followed by two <!--del_lnk--> Christmas specials: one 10-minute sketch as part of an anthology presented by <!--del_lnk--> Frank Muir, and then the hour-long "<!--del_lnk--> Party Games", in 1984. The latter's events led to Hacker's elevation to Prime Minister, dovetailing into the sequel, <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i>. This ran for two series, each of eight episodes, from 1986 to 1988.<p>In a <i><!--del_lnk--> Radio Times</i> interview to promote the second series of <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i>, the producer, Sydney Lotterby, stated that he always tried to give Eddington and Hawthorne extra time to rehearse as their scenes invariably featured lengthy dialogue exchanges.<p><a id="Other_characters" name="Other_characters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other characters</span></h2>
<p>The series featured a cast of recurring characters. Frank Weisel, played by Neil Fitzwiliam, was Hacker's political advisor in the first series. It wasn't until <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i> that another such character appeared regularly: Dorothy Wainwright, special advisor to the Prime Minister, who was played by Deborah Norton. Hacker also had a Press Secretary, Bill Pritchard, played by Antony Carrick. Meanwhile, Sir Humphrey's civil service colleagues were regularly featured. They included Sir Arnold Robinson (played by John Nettleton), Cabinet Secretary in <i>Yes Minister</i> and later President of the Campaign for <!--del_lnk--> Freedom of Information; Sir Frederick Stewart (played by <!--del_lnk--> John Savident), Permanent Secretary of the <!--del_lnk--> Foreign and Commonwealth Office, who is known as "Jumbo" to his friends; and Sir Frank Gordon (played by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Cellier), Permanent Secretary to the <!--del_lnk--> Treasury, who appeared in both series. Sir Humphrey also had an old acquaintance: Sir Desmond Glazebrook (played by <!--del_lnk--> Richard Vernon), who was Board member, then Chairman, of Bartlett's Bank. He became Governor of the <!--del_lnk--> Bank of England in the <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i> episode "<!--del_lnk--> A Conflict of Interest".<p>Hacker's chaffeur, George (<!--del_lnk--> Arthur Cox), appeared in five episodes. He is a character who is always more in touch with current events than the Minister. This often irritates Hacker, who when asking George where he got the information, is usually told that it is common knowledge among the Whitehall drivers.<p>Hacker's family comprised his wife, Annie (played by <!--del_lnk--> Diana Hoddinott), who appeared in many episodes, and his daughter, Lucy (played by Gerry Cowper), who only featured on-screen in one: "<!--del_lnk--> The Right to Know".<p>Well known broadcasters who played themselves included <!--del_lnk--> Robert McKenzie, <!--del_lnk--> Ludovic Kennedy and <!--del_lnk--> Sue Lawley. The late <!--del_lnk--> Robert Dougall regularly played a newsreader — his own real life profession.<p><a id="Opening_titles_and_music" name="Opening_titles_and_music"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Opening titles and music</span></h2>
<p>The opening titles were drawn by artist <!--del_lnk--> Gerald Scarfe, who provided distinctive <!--del_lnk--> caricatures of Eddington, Hawthorne and Fowlds in their respective roles. He <a href="../../wp/a/Animation.htm" title="Animation">animated</a> them as 'self-drawing' by positioning the camera above his paper, adding parts of lines, and then photographing two frames at a time. The sequence ended with the title of the episode superimposed on a blank 'government memo'. Scarfe created a second set of graphics for <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i>, featuring different artwork for each episode title card. Derek Fowlds wanted to buy an original drawing but was unable to afford it.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> theme music was composed by <!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Hazlehurst and is largely based on the <!--del_lnk--> Westminster Quarters: the chimes of <!--del_lnk--> Big Ben. When asked in an interview about its <a href="../../wp/p/Palace_of_Westminster.htm" title="Palace of Westminster">Westminster</a> influence, Hazlehurst replied, "That's all it is. It's the easiest thing I've ever done."<p>Scarfe's and Hazlehurst's work was not used for the first episode, "<!--del_lnk--> Open Government". The final version of the titles and music had yet to be agreed, and both differ substantially from those used for subsequent instalments. The opening and closing title caption cards feature drawings of most of the cast, but are less exaggerated than those of Scarfe, while the uncredited music is a more up-tempo piece for <!--del_lnk--> brass band. The Scarfe and Hazelhurst credits were used for some repeat broadcasts of the first episode, but the original pilot credits were retained for the DVD release.<p>The series' performance credits typically did not feature the names of characters — only those of the actors who appeared in the particular episode.<p><a id="Critical_reception" name="Critical_reception"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Critical reception</span></h2>
<p><i>Yes Minister</i> won the <!--del_lnk--> BAFTA award for Best Comedy Series for <!--del_lnk--> 1980, <!--del_lnk--> 1981 and <!--del_lnk--> 1982, and the "Party Games" special was nominated in the Best Light Entertainment Programme category for 1984. <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i> was shortlisted for Best Comedy Series for both <!--del_lnk--> 1986 and <!--del_lnk--> 1987.<p>Nigel Hawthorne's portrayal of Sir Humphrey Appleby won the BAFTA Award for Best Light Entertainment Performance four times: in the awards for 1981, 1982, 1986 and 1987. Eddington was also nominated on all four occasions. <p><i>Yes Minister</i> came sixth in a <!--del_lnk--> 2004 <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> poll to find '<!--del_lnk--> Britain's Best Sitcom'. In a list of the <!--del_lnk--> 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the <!--del_lnk--> British Film Institute in <!--del_lnk--> 2000, voted by industry professionals, <i>Yes Minister</i> and <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i> were jointly placed ninth.<p>The series have been cited by <a href="../../wp/p/Political_science.htm" title="Political science">political scientists</a> for their accurate and sophisticated portrayal of the relationships between civil servants and politicians. The shows were very popular in government circles, and they were the favourite programme of then Prime Minister, <a href="../../wp/m/Margaret_Thatcher.htm" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>. Indeed, during her premiership, and of <!--del_lnk--> John Major's, the resident <!--del_lnk--> cat of 10 Downing Street was called <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey after Hawthorne's character. <p>With the help of <!--del_lnk--> Bernard Ingham, Thatcher wrote a four-minute sketch which she performed with the show's two principal actors (with their reluctant acquiescence). The sketch was performed on <!--del_lnk--> 20 January <!--del_lnk--> 1984 at a ceremony where the writers were presented with an award from <!--del_lnk--> Mary Whitehouse's <!--del_lnk--> NVLA. Accepting the award, Lynn thanked Thatcher "for taking her rightful place in the field of situation comedy." Everyone, except the Prime Minister, laughed.<p>When Paul Eddington visited Australia during the 1980s, he was treated as a visiting British PM by the then Australian leader, <!--del_lnk--> Bob Hawke, who was obviously a great fan of the show. At a rally, Hawke said "You don't want to be listening to me; you want to be listening to the real Prime Minister," forcing Eddington to improvise.<p>In an interview to promote the first series of <i>Yes, Prime Minister</i>, Derek Fowlds offered this reason for the series' popularity with both politicians and Whitehall officials:<blockquote>
<p>"Both political sides believe that it satirises their opponents, and civil servants love it because it depicts them as being more powerful than either. And of course, they love it because it's all so authentic."</blockquote>
<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<p><a id="Remakes" name="Remakes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Remakes</span></h3>
<p>The show has been remade several times. The first was the <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canadian</a> remake in <!--del_lnk--> 1987 <i><!--del_lnk--> Not My Department</i>, which only lasted one season. <i>Rosenbaddarna</i> (from 1990) was the <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> unofficial remake. The title of the <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> remake, <i>Sim, Sr. Ministro</i> (from 1996), could cause confusion when shown alongside the British version since it was also the direct translation of the original's title. <i><!--del_lnk--> Ji, Mantriji</i> (2001) was the official remake in <a href="../../wp/h/Hindi.htm" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> (with the BBC's permission) by <!--del_lnk--> Star Plus, <!--del_lnk--> Rupert Murdoch's <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> satellite TV channel.<p><a id="Influence" name="Influence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influence</span></h3>
<p>There have been several comedies and dramas with similar themes. <i><!--del_lnk--> House of Cards</i> was a mini-series first broadcast in 1990, about the <!--del_lnk--> Machiavellian struggle of <!--del_lnk--> Chief Whip <!--del_lnk--> Francis Urquhart to become Prime Minister. His story was later continued in <i><!--del_lnk--> To Play the King</i> in 1993 and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Final Cut</i> in 1995.<p>A computer game version of <i>Yes Minister</i> was released in 1987 for the <a href="../../wp/c/Commodore_64.htm" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Amstrad CPC and <a href="../../wp/z/ZX_Spectrum.htm" title="ZX Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</a>. The premise was to survive one week in office as Jim Hacker. <p>In 2005, <!--del_lnk--> BBC Four launched <i><!--del_lnk--> The Thick of It</i>. Director <!--del_lnk--> Armando Iannucci described it as "<i>Yes Minister</i> meets <i><!--del_lnk--> Larry Sanders</i>", and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Telegraph</i> called it "a <i>Yes, Minister</i> for the <!--del_lnk--> New Labour years."<p><a id="Radio" name="Radio"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Radio</span></h2>
<p>Sixteen episodes of <i>Yes Minister</i> were adapted and re-recorded for broadcast by <!--del_lnk--> BBC Radio 4, with the principal cast reprising their roles. They were broadcast across two seasons, each with eight episodes. The first series aired <!--del_lnk--> 18 October to <!--del_lnk--> 7 December <!--del_lnk--> 1983, with the second originally transmitted <!--del_lnk--> 8 October to <!--del_lnk--> 27 November <!--del_lnk--> 1984. The complete set was released on cassette in February 2000, and on compact disc in October 2002.<p>In 1997, Derek Fowlds reprised the role of Bernard Woolley to read Antony Jay's <i>How To Beat Sir Humphrey: Every Citizen's Guide To Fighting Officialdom</i>. It was broadcast in three daily parts by Radio 4 from 29 September to 1 October 1997 and released by BBC Audiobooks on cassette in October 1997.<p><a id="Merchandise" name="Merchandise"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Merchandise</span></h2>
<p><a id="Video_and_DVD_releases" name="Video_and_DVD_releases"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Video and DVD releases</span></h3>
<p>The BBC issued some episodes of <i>Yes Minister</i>, and all of <i>Yes Prime Minister</i> on VHS. They were rereleased and repackaged at various points.<p>The complete collection was released by BBC Warner on Region 1 DVD in October 2003. Warner appears to have added <!--del_lnk--> RCE to the individual release of the second series of <i>Yes Minister</i>, but there are no similar reported problems on playing the complete collection.<p>The BBC, through 2 Entertain Video, have issued several Region 2 DVDs:<ul>
<li><i>Yes Minister: Series One</i> (BBCDVD1047), released <!--del_lnk--> 1 October <!--del_lnk--> 2001<li><i>Yes Minister: Series Two</i> (BBCDVD1120), released <!--del_lnk--> 30 September <!--del_lnk--> 2002<li><i>Yes Minister: Series Three & "Party Games"</i> (BBCDVD1188), released <!--del_lnk--> 29 September <!--del_lnk--> 2003<li><i>The Complete Yes Minister</i> (BBCDVD1462), released <!--del_lnk--> 15 November <!--del_lnk--> 2004<li><i>Yes, Prime Minister: Series One</i> (BBCDVD1365), released <!--del_lnk--> 4 October <!--del_lnk--> 2004<li><i>Yes, Prime Minister: Series Two</i> (BBCDVD1729), released <!--del_lnk--> 9 May <!--del_lnk--> 2005<li><i>The Complete Yes Minister & Yes, Prime Minister</i>, released <!--del_lnk--> 16 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006</ul>
<p><a id="Books" name="Books"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Books</span></h3>
<p>Several books have been published surrounding the series. The scripts were edited and transformed into prose, and published by BBC Books in the form of diaries. Scenes that did not involve Hacker took the form of private memos between civil servants, or 'interviews' and written correspondence from other characters.<p>The three series of <i>Yes Minister</i> were published as paperbacks in 1981, 1982 and 1983 respectively before being combined into a revised hardback omnibus edition, <i>The Complete Yes Minister: The Diaries of a Cabinet Minister</i>, in 1984.<p><i>Yes, Prime Minister: The Diaries of the Right Hon. James Hacker</i> were published as two volumes in 1986 and 1987 respectively, before also receiving an omnibus edition in 1988.<p>Both series were published as omnibus paperback editions in 1989:<ul>
<li><i>The Complete Yes Minister</i> <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0563206659<li><i>The Complete Yes, Prime Minister</i> <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0563207736</ul>
<p>Antony Jay's <i>How to Beat Sir Humphrey: Every Citizen's Guide to Fighting Officialdom</i> was published in April 1997. It was illustrated by Gerald Scarfe and Shaun Williams. It was read by Derek Fowlds on Radio 4 later that year.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yes_Minister"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yeti</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Myths.htm">Myths</a></h3>
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<p>The <b>Yeti</b> is an apelike <!--del_lnk--> cryptid said to inhabit the <a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalayas">Himalaya</a> region of <a href="../../wp/b/Bhutan.htm" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nepal.htm" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>. The names <i>Yeti</i> and <i>Meh-Teh</i> are commonly used by the people indigenous to the region, and are part of their history and <a href="../../wp/m/Mythology.htm" title="Mythology">mythology</a>.<p>Most mainstream <!--del_lnk--> scientists, explorers and writers consider current evidence of the Yeti's existence to be weak and better explained as <!--del_lnk--> hoax, <!--del_lnk--> legend or misidentification of known species. Even today, the Yeti remains one of the most famous creatures of <!--del_lnk--> cryptozoology. As such, the Yeti can be considered an arctic version of the <!--del_lnk--> Sasquatch.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p><a id="Name_variations" name="Name_variations"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Name variations</span></h3>
<p>The name Yeti is derived from the Tibetan <i>yeh-teh</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Tibetan: གཡའ་དྲེད་; <!--del_lnk--> Wylie: <i>g.ya' dred</i>), a compound of the words <i>yeh</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Tibetan: གཡའ་; <!--del_lnk--> Wylie: <i>g.ya'</i>) meaning "rocky" or "rocky place" and <i>ti</i>, <i>te</i> or <i>teh</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Tibetan: དྲེད་; <!--del_lnk--> Wylie: <i>dred</i>) which translates as "bear", the full name being "rock bear".<p>Pranavananda goes on to illustrate the root of the words "ti", "te" and "teh" in that they are derived from the spoken word 'tre' (spelled "dred"), Tibetan for bear, with the 'r' softly pronounced as to be almost inaudible, thus making it "te" or "teh".<p>Other terms used by <a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> peoples do not translate exactly the same, but refer to legendary and indigenous wildlife.<ul>
<li><b>Meh-teh</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Tibetan: མི་དྲེད་; <!--del_lnk--> Wylie: <i>mi dred</i>) translates as "man-bear"<li><b>Dzu-teh</b> - 'dzu' translates as "cattle" and the full meaning translates as "cattle bear" and is the <!--del_lnk--> Himalayan Red Bear.<li><b>Migoi</b> or <b>Mi-go</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Tibetan: མི་རྒོད་; <!--del_lnk--> Wylie: <i>mi rgod</i>) (pronounced mey-goo) translates as "Wild Man" (.<li><b>Mirka</b> - another name for "wild-man", however as local legend has it "anyone who sees one dies or is killed". The latter is taken from a written statement by <!--del_lnk--> Frank Smythe's sherpas in <!--del_lnk--> 1937.<li><b>Kang Admi</b> - "Snow Man"<li><b>Jo-bran</b> - "Man-beast"</ul>
<p><a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> wildlife attributed to the Yeti sightings include the <!--del_lnk--> Chu-Teh, a <!--del_lnk--> Langur monkey <!--del_lnk--> living at lower altitudes, the Tibetan <!--del_lnk--> Blue Bear, the <!--del_lnk--> Himalayan Brown Bear and the <!--del_lnk--> Dzu-Teh (commonly known as the <!--del_lnk--> Himalayan Red Bear).<!--del_lnk--> <p>The term <i>Yeti</i> is often used to describe various reported creatures:<ul>
<li>A large apelike biped (that some suggest could be a <i><!--del_lnk--> Gigantopithecus</i>)<li>Human-sized <!--del_lnk--> bipedal apes (the <!--del_lnk--> Almas and the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese wildman)<li>Dwarflike creatures (such as the <!--del_lnk--> Orang Pendek).</ul>
<p>The term is often used to refer to creatures fitting any of the aforementioned descriptions. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> fear liath has been dubbed as the "Scottish Yeti".<p><a id="The_.22Abominable_Snowman.22" name="The_.22Abominable_Snowman.22"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The "Abominable Snowman"</span></h3>
<p>The appellation "Abominable Snowman" was not coined until <!--del_lnk--> 1921, the same year Lieutenant-Colonel <!--del_lnk--> Charles Howard-Bury led the Royal Geographical Society's "Everest Reconnaissance Expedition" which he chronicled in <i>Mount Everest The Reconnaissance, 1921</i> In the book, Howard-Bury includes an account of crossing the "Lhakpa-la" at 21,000 feet (6400 meter) where he found footprints that he believed "were probably caused by a large 'loping' grey wolf, which in the soft snow formed double tracks rather like a those of a barefooted man". He adds that his Sherpa guides "at once volunteered that the tracks must be that of "The Wild Man of the Snows", to which they gave the name "metoh-kangmi". "Metoh" translates as "man-bear" and "Kang-mi" translates as "snowman".<p>A bit of confusion exists between Howard-Bury's recitation of the term "metoh-kangmi" and the term used in <!--del_lnk--> H.W. Tilman's book <i>Mount Everest, 1938</i> where Tilman had used the words "metch" (which may not exist in the Tibetan language) and "kangmi" when relating the coining of the term "Abominable Snowman". Further evidence of "metch" being a misnomer is provided by Tibetan language authority Professor David Snellgrove from the School of Oriental Studies in London (ca. 1956), who dismissed the word "metch" as impossible to conjoin the consonants "t-c-h" in the Tibetan language." Documentation suggests that the term "metch-kangmi" is derived from one source (from the year 1921). It has been suggested that "metch" is simply a misspelling of "metoh".<p>Like the legend itself, the origin of the term "Abominable Snowman" is rather colorful. It began when Mr Henry Newman, a longtime contributor to <i><!--del_lnk--> The Statesman</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Calcutta (using the pen name "Kim") interviewed the porters of the "Everest Reconnaissance expedition" upon their return to Darjeeling,. Newman mistranslated the word "metoh" as "filthy" or "dirty", substituting the term "abominable", perhaps out of artistic license. As author <!--del_lnk--> H.W. Tilman's recounts, "[Newman] wrote long after in a letter to <i>The Times</i>: The whole story seemed such a joyous creation I sent it to one or two newspapers'".<p>Tilman continues, "Whatever effect Mr Newman intended, from 1921 onwards the Yeti... became saddled with the description "Abominable Snowman," an appellation which can only appeal to the music-hall mind than to mammalogists, a fact which has seriously handicapped earnest seekers of the truth", a view supported by<!--del_lnk--> Sanderson "It cannot be denied however that Mr Newman put the Yeti 'on the map'. During the twenties and thirties, sightings...of prints and of the animal itself occurred right across the Himalaya from the Burmese frontier to the Karakoram, not all of them by credulous witnesses."<p><a id="Events_.26_Studies" name="Events_.26_Studies"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Events & Studies</span></h2>
<p><a name="19th_century"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">19th century</span></h3>
<p>In 1832, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Journal of the Asiatic society of Bengal</i> published trekker <!--del_lnk--> B. H. Hodgson's account of the Yeti in northern <a href="../../wp/n/Nepal.htm" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>. His native guides spotted a tall, bipedal creature covered with long dark hair, which seemed to flee in fear. Hodgson did not see the creature, but concluded it was an <!--del_lnk--> orangutan.<p>An early record of reported <!--del_lnk--> footprints appeared in 1889 in <!--del_lnk--> L.A. Waddell's <i><!--del_lnk--> Among the Himalayas</i>. Waddell reported his guide's description of a large apelike creature that left the prints, which Waddell concluded were actually made by a <a href="../../wp/b/Bear.htm" title="Bear">bear</a>. Waddell heard stories of bipedal, apelike creatures, but wrote that of the many witnesses he questioned, none "could ever give ... an authentic case. On the most superficial investigation it always resolved into something that somebody had heard of." <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Early_20th_century" name="Early_20th_century"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Early 20th century</span></h3>
<p>The frequency of reports increased during the early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, when Westerners began making determined attempts to scale the many <!--del_lnk--> mountains in the area and occasionally reported seeing odd creatures or strange tracks.<p>In 1925, <!--del_lnk--> N.A. Tombazi, a <!--del_lnk--> photographer and member of the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Geographical_Society.htm" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a>, allegedly saw a creature at about 15,000 ft (4572 meter) near Zemu <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">Glacier</a>. Tombazi later wrote that he observed the creature from about 200 or 300 <!--del_lnk--> yards, for about a minute. "Unquestionably, the figure in outline was exactly like a human being, walking upright and stopping occasionally to pull at some <!--del_lnk--> dwarf <!--del_lnk--> rhododendron <!--del_lnk--> bushes. It showed up dark against the snow, and as far as I could make out, wore no clothes." About two hours later, Tombazi and his companions descended the mountain, and saw what they assumed to be the creature's prints, described as "similar in shape to those of a man, but only six to seven inches long by four inches wide... The prints were undoubtedly those of a biped."<p><a id="The_Pangboche_Scalp" name="The_Pangboche_Scalp"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">The Pangboche Scalp</span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/202/20286.jpg.htm" title="The Pangboche Hand and Yeti "Scalp", 1954"><img alt="The Pangboche Hand and Yeti "Scalp", 1954" class="thumbimage" height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1954-lowres-JAJ-daily-mail-pangboche-scalp-%2Bhand.jpg" src="../../images/202/20286.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/202/20286.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Pangboche Hand and Yeti "Scalp", <!--del_lnk--> 1954</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/202/20288.jpg.htm" title="Dr. Biswamoy Biswas examining the Pangboche Yeti scalp during the Daily Mail Snowman Expedition of 1954"><img alt="Dr. Biswamoy Biswas examining the Pangboche Yeti scalp during the Daily Mail Snowman Expedition of 1954" class="thumbimage" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pangcboche-19534-John-Jackson.jpg" src="../../images/202/20288.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/202/20288.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Dr. Biswamoy Biswas examining the Pangboche Yeti scalp during the <!--del_lnk--> Daily Mail Snowman Expedition of <!--del_lnk--> 1954</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Daily Mail "Snowman Expedition" of <!--del_lnk--> 1954, on March 19 printed an article which described expedition teams obtaining hair specimens from a scalp found in Pangboche monastery. The hair was analysed by Professor <!--del_lnk--> Frederic Wood Jones, F.R.S, D.Sc., (who died on September 29 1954) and an expert in human and comparative anatomy.<p>The research consisted of taking microphotographs of the hairs and comparing them with hairs from known animals such as bears and orangutans. Professor Woods-Jones concluded that the hairs of the Pangboche scalp were not actually from a scalp. He contended that some animals do have a ridge of hair extending from the pate to the back, but no animals have a ridge (as in the Pangboche relic) running from the base of the forehead across the pate and ending at the nape of the neck.<p>The hairs were black to dark brown in colour in dim light, and fox red in sunlight. None of the hairs had been dyed and were probably exceedingly old. During the study, the hairs were bleached, cut into sections and analysed microscopically. Wood-Jones was unable to pinpoint the animal from which the Pangboche hairs were taken. He was, however, convinced that the hairs were not of a bear or anthropoid ape. He suggested that the hairs were not from the head of a coarse-haired hoofed animal, but from its shoulder..<p><a id="Late_20th_century" name="Late_20th_century"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Late 20th century</span></h3>
<p>Western interest in the Yeti peaked dramatically in the 1950s. While attempting to scale Mount Everest in 1951, <!--del_lnk--> Eric Shipton took <!--del_lnk--> photographs of a number of large prints in the snow, at about 6,000 m (19,685 ft) above <!--del_lnk--> sea level. These photos have been subject to intense scrutiny and debate. Some argue they are the best evidence of Yeti's existence, while others contend the prints to be from a mundane creature, and have been distorted by the melting <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a>.<p>In 1953, <a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Hillary.htm" title="Edmund Hillary">Sir Edmund Hillary</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tenzing_Norgay.htm" title="Tenzing Norgay">Tenzing Norgay</a> reported seeing large footprints while scaling <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Everest.htm" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a>. But Hillary would later discount Yeti reports as unreliable.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Daily Mail <b>Snowman Expedition</b> of 1954, the largest search of its kind, the mountaineering leader <!--del_lnk--> John Angelo Jackson, made the first trek from <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Everest.htm" title="Mount Everest">Everest</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Kangchenjunga during which he photographed symbolic paintings of the Yeti at <!--del_lnk--> Thyangboche Gompa. Jackson tracked and photographed many footprints in the snow, most of which were identifiable. However, there were many large footprints which could not be identified. The flattened footprint-like indentations were attributed to erosion and subsequent widening of the original footprint by wind and particles.<p>Beginning in 1957, wealthy <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oilman</a> <!--del_lnk--> Tom Slick funded a few missions to investigate Yeti reports. In 1959, supposed Yeti <!--del_lnk--> feces were collected by Slick's expedition; fecal analysis found a <!--del_lnk--> parasite which could not be classified. <!--del_lnk--> Bernard Heuvelmans wrote, "Since each animal has its own parasites, this indicated that the host animal is equally an unknown animal." <p>In 1959, <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actor</a> <a href="../../wp/j/James_Stewart_%2528actor%2529.htm" title="James Stewart (actor)">Jimmy Stewart</a>, while visiting <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, reportedly smuggled remains of a supposed Yeti, the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Pangboche Hand, by concealing it in his luggage when he flew from India to <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>.<p>In 1960, Sir Edmund Hillary mounted an expedition to collect and analyse physical evidence of the Yeti. He sent a Yeti "<!--del_lnk--> scalp" from the <!--del_lnk--> Khumjung <!--del_lnk--> monastery to the West for testing, whose results indicated the scalp to be manufactured from the skin of the <!--del_lnk--> serow, a goat-like Himalayan antelope. But some disagreed with this analysis. Shackley said that the "hairs from the scalp look distinctly monkey-like, and that it contains parasitic mites of a species different from that recovered from the serow."<p>In 1970, British mountaineer <!--del_lnk--> Don Whillans claims to have witnessed a creature when scaling <!--del_lnk--> Annapurna. While scouting for a campsite, Whillans heard some odd cries which his Sherpa guide attributed to a Yeti's call. That very night, Whillans saw a dark shape moving near his camp. The next day, he observed a few human-like footprints in the snow, and that evening, viewed with <a href="../../wp/b/Binoculars.htm" title="Binoculars">binoculars</a> a bipedal, apelike creature for 20 minutes as it apparently searched for food not far from his camp.<p><a id="In_Shamanism" name="In_Shamanism"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">In Shamanism</span></h2>
<p>In South America, the Yeti is known not as a creature, but as a shamanist god by the name of Banjankri. The Yeti is encountered only in a trance state.<p><a id="Analysis" name="Analysis"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Analysis</span></h2>
<p>In his book <i>Bigfoot: The Yeti and Sasquatch in Myth and Reality</i>, primatologist <!--del_lnk--> John Napier provides firsthand reports and analysis on the subject, and argues that amongst the evidence for the Yeti, "unlike the Sasquatch, there is little uniformity of pattern, and what uniformity there is incriminates the bear."<p>In 2003, Japanese mountaineer <!--del_lnk--> Makoto Nebuka published the results of his twelve year <!--del_lnk--> linguistic study postulating that the word "Yeti" is actually a corruption of the word "meti", a regional dialect term for "bear". As in other traditional cultures, the ethnic Tibetans fear and worship the bear as a supernatural being. Nebuka's claims were subject to almost immediate criticism, and was accused of linguistic carelessness. Dr Raj Kumar Pandey, who has researched both Yetis and mountain languages, said "it is not enough to blame tales of the mysterious beast of the Himalayas on words that rhyme but mean different things."<p>After reviewing eyewitness accounts and physical evidence, many <!--del_lnk--> cryptozoologists have concluded that Yeti reports are misidentification of mundane creatures. Well-financed expeditions have turned up little positive evidence of its existence, although one expedition to Bhutan did retrieve a hair sample that, after DNA analysis, could not be matched to any known animal.<p>In 1997, South Tyrolean mountaineer <!--del_lnk--> Reinhold Messner claimed to have a face-to-face encounter with a Yeti. He has since written a book, <i>My Quest for the Yeti</i>, and claims to have actually killed one. According to Messner, the Yeti is actually the endangered <!--del_lnk--> Himalayan Brown Bear, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ursus arctos <!--del_lnk--> isabellinus</i>, that can walk upright or on all fours.<p>Enthusiasts speculate that these reported creatures could be present-day specimens of the <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinct</a> giant <a href="../../wp/a/Ape.htm" title="Ape">ape</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Gigantopithecus</i>, as the only evidence recovered from <i>Gigantopithecus</i> (other than teeth) are jawbone remains indicating a skull atop a vertical spinal column (as in <!--del_lnk--> hominines and other <!--del_lnk--> bipedal apes such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Oreopithecus</i>). However, while the Yeti is generally described as bipedal, most scientists believe <i>Gigantopithicus</i> to be <!--del_lnk--> quadrupedal, and so massive that, unless it evolved specifically as a bipedal ape (like <i>Oreopithecus</i> and the hominids), walking upright would have been even more difficult for the now extinct primate than it is for its extant quadrupedal relative, the <!--del_lnk--> orangutan.<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
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<p>The Yeti has become a cultural icon, appearing in movies, books and video games. The creature is usually depicted as the scary "Abominable Snowman", but is occasionally used as comic relief. In 2006, Disney opened a ride called "Expedition Everest" in Walt Disney World's Animal Kingdom. Inside the waiting area is a Yeti museum, complete with "Yeti-damaged" items and cement-cast footprints.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeti"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yom Kippur War</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Military_History_and_War.htm">Military History and War</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Yom Kippur War</th>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 6 – <!--del_lnk--> October 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1973</td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sinai Peninsula, <!--del_lnk--> Golan Heights, and surrounding regions of the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a></td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Result</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UNSC Res. 338: cease-fire leading to <!--del_lnk--> Geneva Conference</td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;"><i><!--del_lnk--> Casus belli</i></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> launched a surprise attack against <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> on the <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> holiday of <!--del_lnk--> Yom Kippur.</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Combatants</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/6/614.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/614.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28587.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt_1972.svg" src="../../images/285/28587.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28587.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt_1972.svg" src="../../images/285/28587.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/72/7232.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Jordan.svg" src="../../images/3/388.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/285/28588.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Iraq_%281963-1991%29.svg" src="../../images/285/28588.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Commanders</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Moshe Dayan<br /><!--del_lnk--> David Elazar<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Ariel_Sharon.htm" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Shmuel Gonen<br /><!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Peled<br /><!--del_lnk--> Israel Tal<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rehavam Zeevi<br /><!--del_lnk--> Aharon Yariv<br /><!--del_lnk--> Yitzhak Hofi<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rafael Eitan<br /><!--del_lnk--> Abraham Adan<br /><!--del_lnk--> Yanush Ben Gal</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Saad El Shazly<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ahmad Ismail Ali<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hosni Mubarak<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mohammed Aly Fahmy<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anwar Sadat<br /><!--del_lnk--> Abdel Ghani el-Gammasy<br /><!--del_lnk--> Abdul Munim Wassel<br /><!--del_lnk--> Abd-Al-Minaam Khaleel<br /><!--del_lnk--> Abu Zikry<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mustafa Tlass<!--del_lnk--> , <!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Strength</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">415,000 troops; 1,500 tanks, 3,000 armored carriers; 945 artillery units; 561 airplanes, 84 helicopters; 38 warships.</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><b>Egypt</b>: 800,000 troops (300,000 deployed); 2,400 tanks, 2,400 armored carriers; 1,120 artillery units; 690 airplanes, 161 helicopters; 104 warships<br /><b>Syria</b>: 150,000 troops (60,000 deployed); 1,400 tanks, 800-900 armored carriers; 600 artillery units; 350 airplanes, 36 helicopters; 21 warships<br /><b>Iraq</b>: 60,000 troops; 700 tanks; 500 armored carriers; 200 artillery units; 73 airplanes<br /><i><b>see also <!--del_lnk--> Other participants</b></i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Casualties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">2,656 killed<br /> 7,250 wounded<br /> 400 tanks destroyed<br /> 600 damaged/returned to service<br /> 102 planes shot down</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">8,528 killed<br /> 19,540 wounded<br /> (Western analysis)<br /> 15,000 dead<br /> 35,000 wounded<br /> (Israeli analysis)<br /> 2,250 tanks destroyed or captured<br /> 432 planes destroyed </td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;">
<tr style="background: lightsteelblue;">
<th><strong class="selflink">Yom Kippur War</strong></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hizayon - <!--del_lnk--> <i>Abiray-Lev</i> - <!--del_lnk--> Latakia<br />
<p><b>Related U.S. Operations</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> <i>Nickel Grass</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;">
<tr style="background: lightsteelblue;">
<th><a href="../../wp/a/Arab-Israeli_conflict.htm" title="Arab-Israeli conflict">Arab-Israeli conflict</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1920 riots · <!--del_lnk--> Jaffa riots · <!--del_lnk--> 1929 Palestine riots · <!--del_lnk--> 1936-1939 Arab revolt · <!--del_lnk--> 1948 Arab-Israeli War · <!--del_lnk--> Suez Crisis · <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War · <!--del_lnk--> War of Attrition · <strong class="selflink">Yom Kippur War</strong> · <!--del_lnk--> 1978 South Lebanon conflict · <!--del_lnk--> 1982 Lebanon War · <!--del_lnk--> 1982-2000 South Lebanon conflict · <!--del_lnk--> First Intifada · <!--del_lnk--> Gulf War · <!--del_lnk--> al-Aqsa Intifada · <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Yom Kippur War</b>, <b>Ramadan War</b> or <b>October War</b> (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" xml:lang="he">מלחמת יום הכיפורים</span>; <!--del_lnk--> transliterated: <i>Milkhemet Yom HaKipurim</i> or מלחמת יום כיפור, <i>Milkhemet Yom Kipur</i>; <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span dir="rtl" lang="ar" style="white-space: nowrap;" xml:lang="ar">حرب أكتوبر</span>‎; <!--del_lnk--> transliterated: <i>ħarb October</i> or حرب تشرين, <i>ħarb Tishrin</i>), also known as the <b>1973 Arab-Israeli War</b> and the <b>Fourth Arab-Israeli War</b>, was fought from <!--del_lnk--> October 6 to <!--del_lnk--> October 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, between <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> and a coalition of Arab nations led by <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>. The war began on the Jewish holiday of <!--del_lnk--> Yom Kippur with a surprise joint attack by Egypt and Syria crossing the cease-fire lines in the <!--del_lnk--> Sinai and <!--del_lnk--> Golan Heights, respectively, which had been captured by Israel in 1967 during the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War.<p>The Egyptians and Syrians advanced during the first 24–48 hours, after which momentum began to swing in Israel's favour. By the second week of the war, the Syrians had been pushed entirely out of the Golan Heights. In the Sinai to the south, the Israelis struck at the "seam" between two invading <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian armies, crossed the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> (where the old <!--del_lnk--> ceasefire line had been), and cut off an entire Egyptian army just as a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> cease-fire came into effect.<p>The war had far-reaching implications for many nations. The <!--del_lnk--> Arab world, which had been humiliated by the lopsided defeat of the Egyptian-Syrian-Jordanian alliance during the Six-Day War, felt psychologically vindicated by its string of victories early in the conflict. This vindication paved the way for the peace process that followed, as well as liberalizations such as Egypt's <!--del_lnk--> infitah policy. The <!--del_lnk--> Camp David Accords, which came soon after, led to normalized relations between Egypt and Israel—the first time any Arab country had recognized the Israeli state. Egypt, which had already been drifting away from the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, then left the Soviet <!--del_lnk--> sphere of influence almost entirely.<p>
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</script><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
<p><a id="Casus_belli" name="Casus_belli"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Casus belli</span></h3>
<p>This war was part of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arab-Israeli_conflict.htm" title="Arab-Israeli conflict">Arab-Israeli conflict</a>, a conflict which has included many battles and wars since 1948. During the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War six years earlier, the Israelis had captured the Sinai clear to the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, which had become the cease-fire line. The Israelis had also captured roughly half of the Golan Heights from Syria.<p>In the years following that war, Israel erected lines of fortification in both the Sinai and the Golan Heights. In 1971 Israel spent $500 million fortifying its positions on the Suez Canal, a chain of fortifications and gigantic earthworks known as the <!--del_lnk--> Bar Lev Line, named after Israeli General <!--del_lnk--> Chaim Bar-Lev.<p>Nonetheless, according to <!--del_lnk--> Chaim Herzog,<dl>
<dd><i>On <!--del_lnk--> June 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1967, the <!--del_lnk--> National Unity Government [of Israel] voted unanimously to return the Sinai to Egypt and the Golan Heights to Syria in return for peace agreements. The Golans would have to be demilitarized and special arrangement would be negotiated for the <!--del_lnk--> Straits of Tiran. The government also resolved to open negotiations with King Hussein of Jordan regarding the Eastern border.</i></dl>
<p>The Israeli decision was to be conveyed to the Arab nations by the United States. The US was informed of the decision, but not that it was to transmit it. There is no evidence of receipt from Egypt or Syria, who thus apparently never received the offer. The decision was kept a closely-guarded secret within Israeli government circles and the offer was withdrawn in October, 1967.<p>Egypt and Syria both desired a return of the land lost in the Six-Day War. However, the <!--del_lnk--> Khartoum Arab Summit issued the "three nos," resolving that there would be "no peace, no recognition and no negotiation with Israel."<p>President <!--del_lnk--> Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt died in September 1970. He was succeeded by <!--del_lnk--> Anwar Sadat, who resolved to fight Israel and win back the territory lost in the Six-Day War. In 1971, Sadat, in response to an initiative by UN intermediary <!--del_lnk--> Gunnar Jarring, declared that if Israel committed itself to "withdrawal of its armed forces from Sinai and the <a href="../../wp/g/Gaza_Strip.htm" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a>" and to implementation of other provisions of <!--del_lnk--> UN Security Council Resolution 242 as requested by Jarring, Egypt would then "be ready to enter into a peace agreement with Israel." Israel responded that it would not withdraw to the pre-<!--del_lnk--> June 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1967 lines.<p>Sadat hoped that by inflicting even a limited defeat on the Israelis, the status quo could be altered. <!--del_lnk--> Hafiz al-Assad, the head of Syria, had a different view. He had little interest in negotiation and felt the retaking of the Golan Heights would be a purely military option. Since the Six-Day War, Assad had launched a massive military build up and hoped to make Syria the dominant military power of the Arab states. With the aid of Egypt, Assad felt that his new army could win convincingly against the Israeli army and thus secure Syria's role in the region. Assad only saw negotiations beginning once the Golan Heights had been retaken by force, which would induce Israel to give up the <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Gaza, and make other concessions.<p>Sadat also had important domestic concerns in wanting war. "The three years since Sadat had taken office… were the most demoralized in Egyptian history… A desiccated economy added to the nation's despondency. War was a desperate option." In his biography of Sadat, Raphael Israeli argued that Sadat felt the root of the problem was in the great shame over the Six-Day War, and before any reforms could be introduced he felt that shame had to be overcome. Egypt's economy was in shambles, but Sadat knew that the deep reforms that he felt were needed would be deeply unpopular among parts of the population. A military victory would give him the popularity he needed to make changes. A portion of the Egyptian population, most prominently university students who launched wide protests, strongly desired a war to reclaim the <!--del_lnk--> Sinai and was highly upset that Sadat had not launched one in his first three years in office.<p>The other Arab states showed much more reluctance to fully commit to a new war. <!--del_lnk--> King Hussein of <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> feared another major loss of territory as had occurred in the Six-Day War, during which Jordan was halved in population. Sadat was also backing the claim of the <!--del_lnk--> PLO to the territories (<a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Gaza) and in the event of a victory promised <!--del_lnk--> Yasser Arafat that he would be given control of them. Hussein still saw the <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> as part of Jordan and wanted it restored to his kingdom. Moreover, during the <!--del_lnk--> Black September crisis of 1970 a near civil war had broken out between the PLO and the Jordanian government. In that war Syria had intervened militarily on the side of the PLO, leaving Assad and Hussein estranged.<p>Iraq and Syria also had strained relations, and the Iraqis refused to join the initial offensive. <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, which shared a border with Israel, was not expected to join the Arab war effort due to its small army and already evident instability. The months before the war saw Sadat engage in a diplomatic offensive to try to win support for the war. By the fall of 1973 he claimed the backing of more than a hundred states. These were most of the countries of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Non-Aligned Movement, and <!--del_lnk--> Organization of African Unity. Sadat had also worked to curry favour in Europe and had some success before the war. Britain and France had for the first time sided with the Arab powers against Israel on the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Security Council.<p><a id="Events_leading_up_to_the_war" name="Events_leading_up_to_the_war"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Events leading up to the war</span></h3>
<p>Anwar Sadat in 1972 publicly stated that Egypt was committed to going to war with Israel, and that they were prepared to "sacrifice one million Egyptian soldiers." From the end of 1972, Egypt began a concentrated effort to build up its forces, receiving <!--del_lnk--> MiG-21s, <!--del_lnk--> SA-2, <!--del_lnk--> SA-3, <!--del_lnk--> SA-4, (Returned to the Soviet Union prior to the war), <!--del_lnk--> SA-6 and <!--del_lnk--> SA-7 <!--del_lnk--> Surface-to-air missiles (SAM), <!--del_lnk--> RPG-7s, <!--del_lnk--> T-55 and <!--del_lnk--> T-62 Tanks, and especially the <!--del_lnk--> AT-3 Sagger <!--del_lnk--> anti-tank guided missile from the Soviet Union and improving its <!--del_lnk--> military tactics, based on Soviet doctrines. Political generals, who had in large part been responsible for the rout in 1967, were replaced with competent ones.<p>The role of the great powers, too, was a major factor in the outcome of the two wars. The policy of the Soviet Union was one of the causes of Egypt's military weakness. President Nasser was only able to obtain the material for an anti-aircraft <!--del_lnk--> missile defense wall after visiting <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and pleading with the Kremlin leaders. He claimed that if supplies were not given, he would have to return to Egypt and tell the Egyptian people Moscow had abandoned them, and then relinquish power to one of his peers who would be able to deal with the Americans. The Americans would then have the upper hand in the region, which Moscow could not permit.<p>One of Egypt's undeclared objectives of the <!--del_lnk--> War of Attrition was to force the Soviet Union to supply Egypt with more advanced arms and war <!--del_lnk--> materiel. Egypt felt the only way to convince the Soviet leaders of the deficiencies of most of the aircraft and air defense weaponry supplied to Egypt following 1967 was to put the Soviet weapons to the test against the advanced weaponry the United States supplied to Israel.<p>Nasser's policy following the 1967 defeat conflicted with that of the Soviet Union. The Soviets sought to avoid a new conflagration between the Arabs and Israelis so as not to be drawn into a confrontation with the United States. The reality of the situation became apparent when the superpowers met in <a href="../../wp/o/Oslo.htm" title="Oslo">Oslo</a> and agreed to maintain the status quo. This was unacceptable to Egyptian leaders, and when it was discovered that the Egyptian preparations for crossing the canal were being leaked, it became imperative to expel the Russians from Egypt. In July 1972 Sadat expelled almost all of the 20,000 Soviet military advisors in the country and reoriented the country's foreign policy to be more favorable to the United States.<p>The Soviets thought little of Sadat's chances in any war. They warned that any attempt to cross the heavily fortified Suez would incur massive losses. The Soviets, who were then pursuing <!--del_lnk--> détente, had no interest in seeing the Middle East destabilized. In a June 1973 meeting with U.S. President <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, Soviet leader <!--del_lnk--> Leonid Brezhnev had proposed Israel pull back to its 1967 border. Brezhnev said that if Israel did not, "we will have difficulty keeping the military situation from flaring up"—an indication that the Soviet Union had been unable to restrain Sadat's plans.<p>In an interview published in <i><!--del_lnk--> Newsweek</i> (<!--del_lnk--> April 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1973), President Sadat again threatened war with Israel. Several times during 1973, Arab forces conducted large-scale exercises that put the Israeli military on the highest level of alert, only to be recalled a few days later. The Israeli leadership already believed that if an attack took place, the <!--del_lnk--> Israeli Air Force would be able to repel it.<p>Almost a full year before the war, in an <!--del_lnk--> October 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1972, meeting with his Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, Sadat declared his intention to go to war with Israel even without proper Soviet support. Planning was done in absolute secrecy—even the upper-echelon commanders were not told of war plans until less than a week prior to the attack, and the soldiers were not told until a few hours beforehand. The plan to attack Israel in concert with Syria was code-named Operation Badr (the <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> word for "<a href="../../wp/f/Full_moon.htm" title="Full moon">full moon</a>"), after the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Badr.htm" title="Battle of Badr">Battle of Badr</a>, in which Muslims under <a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> defeated the <!--del_lnk--> Quraish tribe of Mecca.<p><a id="Lead_up_to_the_surprise_attack" name="Lead_up_to_the_surprise_attack"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lead up to the surprise attack</span></h3>
<p>The IDF's <!--del_lnk--> Directorate of Military Intelligence's (abbreviated as "Aman") <!--del_lnk--> Research Department was responsible for formulating the nation's intelligence estimate. Their assessments on the likelihood of war were based on several assumptions. First, it was assumed correctly that Syria would not go to war with Israel unless Egypt went to war as well. Second, they learned from a high-ranking Egyptian informant (who remains confidential to this day, known only as "The Source") that Egypt wanted to regain all of the Sinai, but would not go to war until the Soviets had supplied Egypt with <!--del_lnk--> fighter-bombers to neutralize the Israeli Air Force, and <!--del_lnk--> Scud missiles to be used against Israeli cities as a deterrent against Israeli attacks on Egyptian infrastructure. Since the Soviets had not yet supplied the fighter bombers, and the Scud missiles had only arrived in Egypt in late August, and in addition it would take four months to train the Egyptian ground crews, Aman predicted war with Egypt was not imminent. This assumption about Egypt's strategic plans, known as "the concept," strongly prejudiced their thinking and led them to dismiss other war warnings.<p>The Egyptians did much to further this misconception. Both the Israelis and the Americans felt that the expulsion of the Soviet military observers had severely reduced the effectiveness of the Egyptian army. The Egyptians ensured that there was a continual stream of false information on maintenance problems and a lack of personnel to operate the most advanced equipment. The Egyptians made repeated misleading reports about lack of spare parts that also made their way to the Israelis. Sadat had so long engaged in <!--del_lnk--> brinkmanship, that his frequent war threats were being ignored by the world. In May and August 1973 the Egyptian army had engaged in exercises by the border and mobilizing in response both times had cost the Israeli army some $10 million.<p>For the week leading up to Yom Kippur, the Egyptians staged a week-long training exercise adjacent to the Suez Canal. Israeli intelligence, detecting large troop movements towards the canal, dismissed these movements as more training exercises. Movements of Syrian troops towards the border were puzzling, but not a threat because, Aman believed, they would not attack without Egypt and Egypt would not attack until the Soviet weaponry arrived.<p>The obvious reason for choosing the <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> holiday of <!--del_lnk--> Yom Kippur for staging a surprise attack on Israel was that on this specific day (unlike any other holiday) the country comes to a complete standstill. On Yom Kippur, the holiest day for Jews, not only observant, but most secular Jews <!--del_lnk--> fast, abstain from any use of fire, electricity, engines, communications, etc., and all road traffic comes to a standstill. Many soldiers leave military facilities for home during the holiday and Israel is most vulnerable, especially with much of its army demobilized. The war also coincided with the Muslim holiday of <!--del_lnk--> Ramadan, meaning that many of the Muslim soldiers were also fasting. Many others believe that the attack on Yom Kippur surprisingly <i>helped</i> Israel to easily recruit reserves from their homes and synagogues.<p>Despite refusing to participate, <!--del_lnk--> King Hussein of <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> <i>"had met with Sadat and</i> [Syrian President] <i><!--del_lnk--> Assad in Alexandria two weeks before. Given the mutual suspicions prevailing among the Arab leaders, it was unlikely that he had been told any specific war plans. But it was probable that Sadat and Assad had raised the prospect of war against Israel in more general terms to feel out the likelihood of Jordan joining in."</i> On the night of <!--del_lnk--> September 25, Hussein secretly flew to <a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a> to warn Israeli Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Golda Meir of an impending Syrian attack. <i>"Are they going to war without the Egyptians, asked Mrs. Meir. The king said he didn't think so. 'I think they</i> [Egypt] <i>would cooperate'"</i>. Surprisingly, this warning fell on deaf ears. Aman concluded that the king had not told it anything it did not already know. <i>"Eleven warnings of war were received by Israel during September from well placed sources. But</i> [<!--del_lnk--> Mossad chief] <i><!--del_lnk--> Zvi Zamir continued to insist that war was not an Arab option. Not even Hussein's warnings succeeded in stirring his doubts"</i> (Rabinovich, 56). He would later remark that <i>"We simply didn't feel them capable [of War]"</i><p>Finally, Zvi Zamir personally went to Europe to meet with the Source (the high-ranking Egyptian official), at midnight on October 5th/6th. At that meeting, The Source informed him that a joint Syrian-Egyptian attack on Israel was imminent. It was this warning in particular, combined with the large number of other warnings, that finally goaded the Israeli high command into action. Just hours before the attack began, orders went out for a partial call-up of the Israeli <!--del_lnk--> reserves. Ironically, calling up the reserves proved to be easier than usual, as almost all of the troops were at <!--del_lnk--> synagogue or at home for the holiday.<p><a id="Lack_of_an_Israeli_pre-emptive_attack" name="Lack_of_an_Israeli_pre-emptive_attack"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lack of an Israeli pre-emptive attack</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28592.jpg.htm" title="Upon learning of the impending attack, Prime Minister of Israel Golda Meir made the controversial decision not to launch a pre-emptive strike."><img alt="Upon learning of the impending attack, Prime Minister of Israel Golda Meir made the controversial decision not to launch a pre-emptive strike." height="198" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Golda_Meir%2C_bw_photo_portrait%2C_head_and_shoulders%2C_facing_right%2C_March_1%2C_1973.jpg" src="../../images/285/28592.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28592.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Upon learning of the impending attack, <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Israel <!--del_lnk--> Golda Meir made the controversial decision not to launch a pre-emptive strike.</div>
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<p>The Israeli strategy was, for the most part, based on the precept that if war was imminent, Israel would launch a <!--del_lnk--> pre-emptive strike. It was assumed that Israel's intelligence services would give, at the worst case, about 48 hours notice prior to an Arab attack.<p><!--del_lnk--> Golda Meir, <!--del_lnk--> Moshe Dayan, and Israeli general <!--del_lnk--> David Elazar met at 8:05 a.m. the morning of Yom Kippur, 6 hours before the war was to begin. Dayan began the meeting by arguing that war was not a certainty. Elazar then presented his argument, in favour of a pre-emptive attack against Syrian airfields at noon, Syrian missiles at 3:00 p.m., and Syrian ground forces at 5:00 p.m. <i>"When the presentations were done, the prime minister hemmed uncertainly for a few moments but then came to a clear decision. There would be no preemptive strike. Israel might be needing American assistance soon and it was imperative that it not be blamed for starting the war. 'If we strike first, we won't get help from anybody', she said."</i> European nations, under threat of an Arab <!--del_lnk--> oil embargo and <!--del_lnk--> trade <!--del_lnk--> boycott, had stopped supplying Israel with <!--del_lnk--> munitions. As a result, Israel was totally dependent on the United States to resupply its army, and was particularly sensitive to anything that might endanger that relationship.<p>Some claim that in restrospect the decision not to strike first was actually a sound one. While <!--del_lnk--> Operation Nickel Grass, the American <!--del_lnk--> airlift of supplies during the war which began <!--del_lnk--> October 13, did not immediately replace Israel's losses in equipment, it did allow Israel to expend what it did have more freely. Had they struck first, according to <!--del_lnk--> Henry Kissinger, they would not have received "so much as a nail".<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28593.gif.htm" title="Operation Nickel Grass was the American airlift of supplies to Israel. Shown here, an American C-5 Galaxy unloads an M-60 Patton Tank at Ben Gurion International Airport."><img alt="Operation Nickel Grass was the American airlift of supplies to Israel. Shown here, an American C-5 Galaxy unloads an M-60 Patton Tank at Ben Gurion International Airport." height="106" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Operation_Nickel_Grass.gif" src="../../images/285/28593.gif" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28593.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Operation Nickel Grass was the American airlift of supplies to Israel. Shown here, an American <!--del_lnk--> C-5 Galaxy unloads an <!--del_lnk--> M-60 Patton Tank at <!--del_lnk--> Ben Gurion International Airport.</div>
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<p><a id="Combat_operations" name="Combat_operations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Combat operations</span></h2>
<p><a id="In_the_Sinai" name="In_the_Sinai"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In the Sinai</span></h3>
<p>The Egyptian units would not advance beyond a shallow strip for fear of losing protection of their <!--del_lnk--> SAM missile batteries. In the Six-Day War, the Israeli Air Force had pummelled the defenseless Arab armies. Egypt (and Syria) had heavily fortified their side of the cease-fire lines with SAM batteries, against which the Israeli Air Force had no effective <!--del_lnk--> countermeasures. Israel, which had invested much of its defense budget building the region's strongest air force, would see its air force rendered almost useless by the presence of the SAM batteries.<p>Anticipating a swift Israeli armored counterattack, the Egyptians had armed their first wave with unprecedented numbers of man-portable <!--del_lnk--> anti-tank weapons—<!--del_lnk--> Rocket propelled grenades and the more devastating <!--del_lnk--> Sagger missiles. One in every three Egyptian soldiers had an anti-tank weapon. "Never before had such intensive anti-tank fire been brought to bear on the battlefield." In addition, the ramp on the Egyptian side of the canal had been increased to twice the height of the Israeli ramp, giving them an excellent vantage point from which to fire down on the Israelis, as well as any approaching tanks.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28594.jpg.htm" title="The 1973 War in the Sinai, October 6-15."><img alt="The 1973 War in the Sinai, October 6-15." height="307" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1973_sinai_war_maps.jpg" src="../../images/285/28594.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28594.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The 1973 War in the Sinai, October 6-15.</div>
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<p>The Egyptian army surprised many by breaching the Israeli defenses (which were undermanned due to Yom Kippur). The large barricades were built primarily from sand, and the Egyptian forces used water-cannons loaded with water from the Suez Canal. These water-cannons effectively blasted away the Israeli barricades. Troops then crossed the Suez Canal in small personnel-carrier boats and inflatable rafts, in what became known as <!--del_lnk--> The Crossing, capturing or destroying all but one of the Bar-Lev forts. In a meticulously rehearsed operation, the Egyptian forces advanced approximately 15 km into the <!--del_lnk--> Sinai desert with the combined forces of two army corps. The Israeli battalion garrisoning the Bar-Lev forts was vastly outnumbered, and was overwhelmed. Only one fortification, code named Budapest (the northernmost Bar-Lev fort), would remain in Israeli control through the end of the war.<p>The Egyptian forces consolidated their initial positions. On <!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> Shmuel Gonen, commander of the Israeli Southern front—who had only taken the position 3 months before at the retirement of <a href="../../wp/a/Ariel_Sharon.htm" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a>—ordered a counterattack by Gabi Amir's <!--del_lnk--> brigade against entrenched Egyptian forces at <!--del_lnk--> Hizayon, where approaching tanks could be easily destroyed by Saggers fired from the Egyptian ramp. Despite Amir's reluctance, the attack proceeded, and the result was a disaster for the Israelis. Towards nightfall, a counterattack by the Egyptians was stopped by Ariel Sharon's 143rd Armoured Division—Sharon had been reinstated as a division commander at the outset of the war. The fighting subsided, with neither side wanting to mount a large attack against the other.<p>Following the disastrous Israeli attack on the 8th, both sides adopted defensive postures and hoped for the other side to attack. Elazar replaced Gonen, who had proven to be out of his depth, with <!--del_lnk--> Chaim Bar-Lev, brought out of retirement. Because it was considered dangerous to <!--del_lnk--> morale to replace the front commander during the middle of a battle, rather than being sacked, Gonen was made chief of staff to the newly appointed Bar-Lev.<p>After several days of waiting, Sadat, wanting to ease pressure on the Syrians, ordered his chief generals (<!--del_lnk--> Saad El Shazly and <!--del_lnk--> Ahmad Ismail Ali chief among them) to attack. The Egyptian forces brought across their reserves and began their counterattack on <!--del_lnk--> 14 October. <i>"The attack, the most massive since the initial Egyptian assault on Yom Kippur, was a total failure, the first major Egyptian reversal of the war. Instead of concentrating forces of maneuvering, except for the <!--del_lnk--> wadi thrust, they had expended them in head-on attack against the waiting Israeli brigades. Egyptian losses for the day were estimated at between 150 and 250 tanks."</i> <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28595.jpg.htm" title="The 1973 War in the Sinai, October 15-24."><img alt="The 1973 War in the Sinai, October 15-24." height="307" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1973_sinai_war_maps2.jpg" src="../../images/285/28595.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28595.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The 1973 War in the Sinai, October 15-24.</div>
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</div>
<p>The following day, <!--del_lnk--> October 15, the Israelis launched Operation Abiray-Lev ("Valiant" or "Stouthearted Men")—the counterattack against the Egyptians and crossing of the Suez Canal. The attack was a tremendous change of tactics for the Israelis, who had previously relied on air and tank support—support that had been decimated by the well-prepared Egyptian forces. Instead, the Israelis used infantry to infiltrate the positions of the Egyptian SAM and anti-tank batteries, which were unable to cope as well with forces on foot.<p>A division led by Major General <a href="../../wp/a/Ariel_Sharon.htm" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a> attacked the Egyptian line just north of <!--del_lnk--> Bitter Lake, in the vicinity of <!--del_lnk--> Ismailiya. The Israelis struck at a weak point in the Egyptian line, the "seam" between the Egyptian Second Army in the north and the Egyptian Third Army in the south. In some of the most brutal fighting of the war in and around the Chinese Farm (an irrigation project east of the canal and north of the crossing point), the Israelis opened a hole in the Egyptian line and reached the Suez Canal. A small force crossed the canal and created a bridgehead on the other side. For over 24 hours, troops were ferried across the canal in light inflatable boats, with no armor support of their own. They were well supplied with American-made <!--del_lnk--> M72 LAW rockets, negating the threat of Egyptian armor. Once the anti-aircraft and anti-tank defences of the Egyptians had been neutralized, the infantry once again was able to rely on overwhelming tank and air support.<p>Prior to the war, fearing an Israeli crossing of the canal, no Western nation would supply the Israelis with bridging equipment. They were able to purchase and refurbish obsolete modular <!--del_lnk--> pontoon bridging equipment from a French <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">WWII</a> scrap lot. The Israelis also constructed a rather sophisticated indigenous "roller bridge" but logistical delays involving heavy congestion on the roads leading to the crossing point delayed its arrival to the canal for several days. Deploying the pontoon bridge on the night of <!--del_lnk--> October 16/17, <!--del_lnk--> Avraham "Bren" Adan's division crossed and raced south, intent on cutting off the Egyptian third Army before it could retreat west back into Egypt. At the same time, it sent out raiding forces to destroy Egyptian SAM missile batteries east of the canal. By October 19 the Israelis managed to construct four separate bridges just north of the Great Bitter Lake under heavy Egyptian bombardment. By the end of the war the Israelis were well within Egypt, reaching a point 101 kilometers from its capital, <a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>.<p><a id="On_the_Golan_Heights" name="On_the_Golan_Heights"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">On the Golan Heights</span></h3>
<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Golan Heights, the Syrians attacked the Israeli defenses of two brigades and eleven artillery batteries with five divisions and 188 batteries. At the onset of the battle, 188 Israeli tanks faced off against approximately 2,000 Syrian tanks. Every Israeli tank deployed on the Golan Heights was engaged during the initial attacks. Syrian <!--del_lnk--> commandos dropped by <!--del_lnk--> helicopter also took the most important Israeli stronghold at <i>Jabal al Shaikh</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Mount Hermon), which had a variety of surveillance equipment.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28597.jpg.htm" title="Golan heights campaign"><img alt="Golan heights campaign" height="307" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1973_Yom_Kippur_War_-_Golan_heights_theater.jpg" src="../../images/285/28597.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28597.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Golan heights campaign</div>
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</div>
<p>Fighting in the Golan Heights was given priority by the Israeli High Command. The fighting in the Sinai was sufficiently far away that Israel was not immediately threatened; should the Golan Heights fall, the Syrians could easily advance into Israel proper. Reservists were directed to the Golan as quickly as possible. They were assigned to tanks and sent to the front as soon as they arrived at army depots, without waiting for the crews they trained with to arrive, without waiting for machine guns to be installed on their tanks, and without taking the time to calibrate their tank guns (a time-consuming process known as <!--del_lnk--> bore-sighting).<p>As the Egyptians had in the Sinai, the Syrians on the Golan Heights took care to stay under cover of their SAM missile batteries. Also as in the Sinai, the Syrians made use of Soviet anti-tank weapons (which, because of the uneven terrain, were not as effective as in the flat Sinai desert).<p>The Syrians had expected it would take at least 24 hours for Israeli reserves to reach the front lines; in fact, Israeli reserve units began reaching the battle lines only fifteen hours after the war began.<p>By the end of the first day of battle, the Syrians (who at the start outnumbered the Israelis in the Golan 9 to 1) had achieved moderate success. Towards the end of the day, <i>"A Syrian tank brigade passing through the Rafid Gap turned northwest up a little-used route known as the <!--del_lnk--> Tapline Road, which cut diagonally across the Golan. This roadway would prove one of the main strategic hinges of the battle. It led straight from the main Syrian breakthrough points to Nafah, which was not only the location of Israeli divisional headquarters but the most important crossroads on the Heights."</i> During the night, Lieutenant <!--del_lnk--> Zvika Greengold, who had just arrived to the battle unattached to any unit, fought them off with his single tank until help arrived. <i>"For the next 20 hours, Zvika Force, as he came to be known on the radio net, fought running battles with Syrian tanks—sometimes alone, sometimes as part of a larger unit, changing tanks half a dozen times as they were knocked out. He was wounded and burned but stayed in action and repeatedly showed up at critical moments from an unexpected direction to change the course of a skirmish."</i> For his actions, Zvika became a national hero in Israel.<p>During over four days of fighting, the Israeli <!--del_lnk--> 7th Armored Brigade in the north (commanded by <!--del_lnk--> Yanush Ben Gal) managed to hold the rocky hill line defending the northern flank of their headquarters in <!--del_lnk--> Nafah. For some as-yet-unexplained reason, the Syrians were close to conquering <!--del_lnk--> Nafah, yet they stopped the advance on Nafah's fences, letting Israel assemble a defensive line. The most reasonable explanation for this is that the Syrians had calculated estimated advances, and the commanders in the field didn't want to digress from the plan. To the south, however, the <!--del_lnk--> Barak Armored Brigade, bereft of any natural defenses, began to take heavy casualties. Brigade Commander Colonel Shoham was killed during the second day of fighting, along with his second in command and their Operations Officer (each in a separate tank), as the Syrians desperately tried to advance towards the <a href="../../wp/s/Sea_of_Galilee.htm" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a> and Nafah. At this point, the Brigade stopped functioning as a cohesive force, although the surviving tanks and crewmen continued fighting independently.<p>The tide in the Golan began to turn as the arriving Israeli reserve forces were able to contain and, starting on <!--del_lnk--> 8 October, push back the Syrian offensive. The tiny Golan Heights were too small to act as an effective territorial buffer, unlike the Sinai Peninsula in the south, but it proved to be a strategic geographical stronghold and was a crucial key in preventing the Syrian army from bombing the cities below. By Wednesday, <!--del_lnk--> October 10, the last Syrian unit in the Central sector had been pushed back across the <!--del_lnk--> Purple Line, that is, the pre-war border (Rabinovich, 302).<p>A decision now had to be made—whether to stop at the 1967 border, or to continue into Syrian territory. Israeli High Command spent the entire October 10 debating this well into the night. Some favored disengagement, which would allow soldiers to be redeployed to the Sinai (Shmuel Gonen's defeat at Hizayon in the Sinai had happened two days earlier). Others favored continuing the attack into Syria, towards <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, which would knock Syria out of the war; it would also restore Israel's image as the supreme military power in the Middle East and would give them a valuable bargaining chip once the war ended. Others countered that Syria had strong defenses—antitank ditches, <!--del_lnk--> minefields, and strongpoints—and that it would be better to fight from defensive positions in the Golan Heights (rather than the flat terrain of Syria) in the event of another war with Syria. However, Prime Minister Meir realized the most crucial point of the whole debate—<i>"It would take four days to shift a division to the Sinai. If the war ended during this period, the war would end with a territorial loss for Israel in the Sinai and no gain in the north—an unmitigated defeat. This was a political matter and her decision was unmitigating—to cross the purple line… The attack would be launched tomorrow, Thursday, October 11"</i> (Rabinovich, 304).<p>From <!--del_lnk--> 11 October to <!--del_lnk--> 14 October, the Israeli forces pushed into Syria, conquering a further twenty-square-mile box of territory in the <!--del_lnk--> Bashan. From there they were able to shell the outskirts of Damascus, only 40 km away, using heavy artillery.<p><i>"As Arab position on the battlefields deteriorated, pressure mounted on King Hussein to send his Army into action. He found a way to meet these demands without opening his kingdom to Israeli air attack. Instead of attacking Israel from their common border, he sent an <!--del_lnk--> expeditionary force into Syria. He let Israel know of his intentions, through US intermediaries, in the hope that it</i> [Israel] <i>would accept that this was not a <!--del_lnk--> casus belli justifying an attack into Jordan… Dayan declined to offer any such assurance, but Israel had no intention of opening another front"</i> (Rabinovich, 433).<p>Iraq also sent an expeditionary force to the Golan, consisting of some 30,000 men, 500 tanks, and 700 <!--del_lnk--> APCs (Rabinovich, 314). The Iraqi divisions were actually a strategic surprise for the IDF, which expected a 24-hour-plus advance intelligence of such moves. This turned into an operational surprise, as the Iraqis attacked the exposed southern flank of the advancing Israeli armor, forcing its advance units to retreat a few kilometers, in order to prevent encirclement.<p>Combined Syrian, Iraqi and Jordanian counterattacks prevented any further Israeli gains. However, they were also unable to push the Israelis back from the Bashan <!--del_lnk--> salient.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 22 October, the <!--del_lnk--> Golani Brigade and <!--del_lnk--> Sayeret Matkal commandos recaptured the outpost on Mount Hermon, after sustaining very heavy casualties from entrenched Syrian <!--del_lnk--> snipers strategically positioned on the mountain. An attack two weeks before had cost 25 dead and 67 wounded, while this second attack cost an additional 55 dead and 79 wounded (Rabinovich, 450). An Israeli <!--del_lnk--> D9 bulldozer with Israeli infantry breached a way to the peak, preventing the peak from falling into Syrian hands after the war. A <!--del_lnk--> paratrooper brigade took the corresponding Syrian outposts on the mountain.<p><a id="At_sea" name="At_sea"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">At sea</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28599.jpg.htm" title="Diagram of the Battle of Latakia"><img alt="Diagram of the Battle of Latakia" height="162" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BattleLatakia_en.jpg" src="../../images/285/28599.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/285/28599.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram of the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Latakia</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Latakia, a revolutionary naval battle between the Syrians and the Israelis, took place on <!--del_lnk--> October 7, the second day of the war, resulting in a resounding Israeli victory that proved the potency of small, fast missile boats equipped with advanced <!--del_lnk--> ECM packages. This battle was the world's first battle between <!--del_lnk--> missile boats equipped with <!--del_lnk--> surface-to-surface missiles. The battle also established the <!--del_lnk--> Israeli Navy, long derided as the "<!--del_lnk--> black sheep" of the Israeli services, as a formidable and effective force in its own right. Following this and other smaller naval battles, the Syrian and Egyptian navies stayed at their <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> ports throughout most of the war, enabling the Mediterranean <!--del_lnk--> sea lanes to Israel to remain open. This enabled uninterrupted resupply of the IDF by American ships (96% of all resupply tonnage was shipborne, not airlifted, contrary to public perception).<p>However, the Israeli navy was less successful in breaking the <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian Navy's blockade of the <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> for Israeli or Israel-bound shipping, thus hampering Israel's oil resupply via the port of <!--del_lnk--> Eilat. Israel did not possess enough missile boats in Red Sea ports to enable breaking the blockade, a fact it regretted in hindsight.<p>Several other times during the war, the Israeli navy mounted small assault raids on Egyptian ports. Both <!--del_lnk--> Fast Attack Craft and <!--del_lnk--> Shayetet 13 naval <!--del_lnk--> commandos were active in these assaults. Their purpose was to destroy boats that were to be used by the Egyptians to ferry their own commandos behind Israeli lines. The overall effect of these raids on the war was relatively minor.<p><a id="Participation_by_other_states" name="Participation_by_other_states"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Participation by other states</span></h3>
<p>Besides Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq, several other Arab nations were involved in this war, providing additional weapons and financing. The amount of support is uncertain.<p><a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> gave financial aid and sent some token forces to join in the battle. <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> sent three brigades to the front lines; the <!--del_lnk--> Palestinians sent troops as well (Rabinovich, 464). <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> sent sixteen pilots.<p>From 1971 to 1973, <!--del_lnk--> Muammar al-Qaddafi of <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a> sent <!--del_lnk--> Mirage fighters and gave Egypt around $1 billion to arm for war. <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> sent squadrons of fighters and bombers, armored brigades, and dozens of tanks. <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> sent over 1,000 soldiers, who worked with Egyptian forces in the <!--del_lnk--> Nile delta, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> sent 3,500 soldiers.<p>Uganda radio reported that <!--del_lnk--> Idi Amin sent <a href="../../wp/u/Uganda.htm" title="Uganda">Ugandan</a> soldiers to fight against Israel. <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> also sent approximately 1,500 troops including tank and helicopter crews who reportedly also engaged in combat operations against the IDF.<p><a id="Weapons" name="Weapons"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Weapons</span></h3>
<p>The Arab armies were equipped with predominantly Soviet-made weapons while Israel's armaments were mostly Western-made. The Arab armies' T-62s were equipped with night vision equipment, which the Israeli tanks lacked, giving them an added advantage on the battlefield during the fighting that took part at night. The older IS-3 'Stalin' tank, mounting a powerful 122 mm main gun, still proved its use on the battlefield, giving long-range anti-tank support to the Egyptian Army's T55/T62 tanks.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Arab armies</th>
<th>IDF</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Tanks</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> T-34/85, <!--del_lnk--> IS-3, <!--del_lnk--> T-10, <!--del_lnk--> T-54, <!--del_lnk--> T-55, <!--del_lnk--> T-62, and <!--del_lnk--> PT-76, as well as 100's of <!--del_lnk--> SU-100/<!--del_lnk--> 122 (WWII vintage) Self propelled antitank guns.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Super Sherman, <!--del_lnk--> M48, <!--del_lnk--> M60, <!--del_lnk--> Centurion, <!--del_lnk--> AMX 13, also about 200 of T-54, T-55 captured during the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War, and later upgraded with <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <!--del_lnk--> 105 mm L7 gun.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>APC's/IFV's</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BTR-40, <!--del_lnk--> BTR-152, <!--del_lnk--> BTR-50, <!--del_lnk--> BTR-60 APC's & <!--del_lnk--> BMP 1 IFV's</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> M2<!--del_lnk--> /M3 Half-track, <!--del_lnk--> M113</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Artillery</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2A18, <!--del_lnk--> M1937 Howitzer, <!--del_lnk--> BM-21</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> M101 howitzer, <!--del_lnk--> M114 howitzer, <!--del_lnk--> M109, <!--del_lnk--> M110</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Aircraft</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MiG-21, <!--del_lnk--> MiG-19, <!--del_lnk--> MiG-17, <!--del_lnk--> Su-7B, <!--del_lnk--> Tu-16, <!--del_lnk--> Il-28, <!--del_lnk--> Il-18, <!--del_lnk--> Il-14, <!--del_lnk--> An-12</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> A-4 Skyhawk, <a href="../../wp/f/F-4_Phantom_II.htm" title="F-4 Phantom II">F-4 Phantom II</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Dassault Mirage III, <!--del_lnk--> Dassault Mystère IV, <!--del_lnk--> IAI Nesher, <!--del_lnk--> Sud Aviation Vautour</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Helicopters</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mi-6, <!--del_lnk--> Mi-8</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Super Frelon, <!--del_lnk--> CH-53, <!--del_lnk--> S-58, <!--del_lnk--> AB-205, <!--del_lnk--> MD500 Defender</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Small Arms</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carl Gustav M/45, <a href="../../wp/a/AK-47.htm" title="AK-47">AK-47</a>, <!--del_lnk--> RPK, <!--del_lnk--> RPD, <!--del_lnk--> DShK</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UZI, <!--del_lnk--> FN FAL, <!--del_lnk--> FN MAG, <!--del_lnk--> M2 Browning</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="The_cease-fire_and_immediate_aftermath" name="The_cease-fire_and_immediate_aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Long-term effects of the war</span></h2>
<p>The peace discussion at the end of the war was the first time that Arab and Israeli officials met for direct public discussions since the aftermath of the 1948 war.<p>For the Arab nations (and Egypt in particular), the psychological trauma of their defeat in the Six-Day War had been healed. In many ways, it allowed them to negotiate with the Israelis as equals. However, given that the war had started about as well as the Arab leaders could have wanted, at the end they had made only limited territorial gains in the Sinai front, while Israel gained more territory on the Golan Heights than it held before the war; also given the fact that Israel managed to gain a foothold on <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> soil west of the canal, the war helped convince many in the Arab world that Israel could not be defeated militarily, thereby strengthening peace movements.<p>The war had a stunning effect on the population in Israel. Following their victory in the Six-Day War, the Israeli military had become complacent. The shock and sudden defeats that occurred at the beginning of the war sent a terrible psychological blow to the Israelis, who had thought they had military supremacy in the region. (Rabinovich, 497–498) However, in time, they began to realize what an astounding, almost unprecedented, turnaround they had achieved: <i>"Reeling from a surprise attack on two fronts with the bulk of its army still unmobilized, and confronted by staggering new battlefield realities, Israel's situation was one that could readily bring strong nations to their knees. Yet, within days, it had regained its footing and within less than two weeks it was threatening both enemy capitals, an achievement having few historical parallels."</i> (Rabinovich, 498). However, in Israel, the casualty rate was high. Proportionately, Israel suffered three times as many casualties in 3 weeks of fighting as the United States did during almost a decade of <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">fighting in Vietnam</a>. (Rabinovich, 498)<p>In response to U.S. support of Israel, <!--del_lnk--> OAPEC nations, the Arab members of <!--del_lnk--> OPEC, led by <a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, decided to reduce <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> production by 5% per month on <!--del_lnk--> October 17, and threatened an embargo. President Nixon then appealed to Congress on October 18th for $2.2 billion for arms shipments to Israel. On October 20th, in the midst of the war, Saudi Arabia declared an embargo against the United States, later joined by other oil exporters and extended against the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and other states, causing the <!--del_lnk--> 1973 energy crisis. Though widely believed to be a reaction to the war, it now appears that the embargo had been coordinated in a secret visit of <!--del_lnk--> Anwar Sadat to Saudi Arabia in August.<p>The initial success greatly increased Sadat's popularity, giving him much firmer control of the Egyptian state and the opportunity to initiate many of the reforms he felt were necessary. In later years this would fade, and in the destructive anti-government food <!--del_lnk--> riot of 1977 in <a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> had the slogan <i>"Hero of the crossing, where is our breakfast?"</i> ("يا بطل العبور، فين الفطور؟", "Yā batl al-`abūr, fēn al-futūr?").<p><a id="Fallout_in_Israel" name="Fallout_in_Israel"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fallout in Israel</span></h3>
<p>A protest against the Israeli government started four months after the war ended. It was led by <!--del_lnk--> Motti Ashkenazi, commander of Budapest, the northernmost of the Bar-Lev forts and the only one during the war not to be captured by the Egyptians (Rabinovich, 499). Anger against the Israeli government (and Dayan in particular) was high. <!--del_lnk--> Shimon Agranat, President of the <!--del_lnk--> Israeli Supreme Court, was asked to lead an <!--del_lnk--> inquiry, the <!--del_lnk--> Agranat Commission, into the events leading up to the war and the setbacks of the first few days (Rabinovich, 501).<p>The Agranat Commission published its preliminary findings on <!--del_lnk--> April 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1974. Six people were held particularly responsible for Israel's failings:<ul>
<li>IDF <!--del_lnk--> Chief of Staff <!--del_lnk--> David Elazar was recommended for dismissal, after the Commission found he bore "personal responsibility for the assessment of the situation and the preparedness of the IDF."<li>Intelligence Chief, <!--del_lnk--> Aluf <!--del_lnk--> Eli Zeira, and his deputy, head of Research, <!--del_lnk--> Brigadier-General <!--del_lnk--> Aryeh Shalev, were recommended for dismissal.<li>Lt. Colonel Bandman, head of the Aman desk for Egypt, and Lt. Colonel Gedelia, chief of intelligence for the Southern Command, were recommended for transfer away from intelligence duties.<li><!--del_lnk--> Shmuel Gonen, commander of the Southern front, was recommended by the initial report to be relieved of active duty (Rabinovich, 502). He was forced to leave the army after the publication of the Commission's final report, on <!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1975, which found that <i>"he failed to fulfill his duties adequately, and bears much of the responsibility for the dangerous situation in which our troops were caught."</i></ul>
<p>Rather than quieting public discontent, the report—which <i>"had stressed that it was judging the ministers' responsibility for security failings, not their parliamentary responsibility, which fell outside its mandate"</i>—inflamed it. Although it had cleared Meir and Dayan of all responsibility, public calls for their resignation (especially Dayan's) became more vociferous (Rabinovich, 502).<p>Finally, on <!--del_lnk--> April 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1974, Golda Meir resigned. Her cabinet followed suit, including Dayan, who had previously offered to resign twice and was turned down both times by Meir. <!--del_lnk--> Yitzhak Rabin, who had spent most of the war as an advisor to Elazar in an unofficial capacity (Rabinovich, 237), became head of the new Government, which was seated in June.<p>In 1999, the issue was revisited by Israel's political leadership, and in order to correct the shortcomings of the war from being repeated, the <!--del_lnk--> Israeli National Security Council was created to help in better coordinating between the different <!--del_lnk--> security and <!--del_lnk--> intelligence bodies, and between these and the political branch.<p><a id="Camp_David_Accords" name="Camp_David_Accords"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Camp David Accords</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Rabin's government was hamstrung by a pair of scandals, and he was forced to step down in 1977. The <!--del_lnk--> right-wing <!--del_lnk--> Likud party, under the prime ministership of <!--del_lnk--> Menachem Begin, won the elections that followed. This marked a historic change in the Israeli political landscape as for the first time since Israel's founding, a coalition not led by the <!--del_lnk--> Labour party was in control of the government.<p>Sadat, who had entered the war in order to recover the Sinai, grew frustrated at the slow pace of the peace process. In November 1977, he took the unprecedented step of visiting Israel, becoming the first Arab leader to do so (and implicitly recognizing Israel's right to exist).<p>The act jump-started the peace process. United States President <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> invited both Sadat and Begin to a summit at <!--del_lnk--> Camp David to negotiate a final peace. The talks took place from September 5–17, 1978. Ultimately, the talks succeeded, and Israel and Egypt signed the <!--del_lnk--> Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty in 1979. Israel withdrew its troops and settlers from the Sinai, in exchange for normal relations with Egypt and a lasting peace.<p>Many in the Arab community were outraged at Egypt's peace with Israel. Egypt was expelled from the <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>. Until then, Egypt had been "at the helm of the Arab world" (Karsh, 86).<p>Anwar Sadat was assassinated two years later, on <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, while attending a parade marking the eighth anniversary of the start of the war, by army members who were outraged at his negotiations with Israel.<p><a id="Commemorations" name="Commemorations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Commemorations</span></h3>
<p>Yom Kippur is the holiest day for Jews. Apart from the usual ceremonies of the holiday and the fasting, in Israel Yom Kippur also commemorates the war of 1973. This is very apparent in the Israeli media.<p><!--del_lnk--> October 6 is a <!--del_lnk--> national holiday in Egypt called <!--del_lnk--> Armed Forces Day.<p>In commemoration of the war, many places in Egypt were named after the October 6 date and <!--del_lnk--> Ramadan 10, its equivalent in the <!--del_lnk--> Islamic calendar (<!--del_lnk--> 6th of October city and <!--del_lnk--> 10th of Ramadan city).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">York</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<table cellpadding="3" class="infobox bordered" width="250">
<caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>City of York</b></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: white;"><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14906.png.htm" title="Image:EnglandYork.png"><img alt="Image:EnglandYork.png" height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EnglandYork.png" src="../../images/149/14906.png" width="200" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Geography</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th width="45%">Status</th>
<td>Unitary, <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Region</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire and the Humber</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial county</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> North Yorkshire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Traditional county</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-weight: normal;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b><br /> - Total</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 166th<br /><!--del_lnk--> 271.94 <!--del_lnk--> km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Admin. HQ</th>
<td>York</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> ONS code</th>
<td>00FF</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Demographics</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-weight: normal;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b>:<br /> - Total (2005 est.)<br /> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 76th<br /> 186,800<br /> 687 / km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ethnicity</th>
<td>97.8% White</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Politics</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Image:York_City_Council.png" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:York_City_Council.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="276" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Arms of City of York Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> http://www.york.gov.uk/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Leadership</th>
<td>Leader & Cabinet</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Executive</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_Democrats.htm" title="Liberal Democrats">Liberal Democrats</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> MPs</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hugh Bayley (<!--del_lnk--> City of York), <!--del_lnk--> John Greenway (<!--del_lnk--> Ryedale), <!--del_lnk--> John Grogan (<!--del_lnk--> Selby), <!--del_lnk--> Anne McIntosh (<!--del_lnk--> Vale of York)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>York</b> is a <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Northern <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, at the confluence of the Rivers <!--del_lnk--> Ouse and <!--del_lnk--> Foss. The York urban area has a population of <!--del_lnk--> 137,505 whilst the entire <!--del_lnk--> unitary authority (see below) has a population of <!--del_lnk--> 184,900. Its <!--del_lnk--> geographic coordinates are <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 53°57′N 1°05′W</span>.<p>York is the traditional <!--del_lnk--> county town of <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire, to which it lends its name. However, it did not form part of any of the three historic divisions of Yorkshire; known as <!--del_lnk--> ridings.<p>Traditionally the term <i>City of York</i> was reserved for the area within the city walls (a small area outside of the walls, the <!--del_lnk--> Ainsty, was often associated with the City, resulting in the term <i>the City and Ainsty of York</i>), but the modern <b>City of York</b>, created on <!--del_lnk--> April 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1996, is much larger. It is a <!--del_lnk--> unitary authority, and apart from York itself, includes several neighbouring parishes which formerly belonged to the surrounding districts of <!--del_lnk--> Harrogate, <!--del_lnk--> Ryedale and <!--del_lnk--> Selby. It borders on <!--del_lnk--> North Yorkshire and the <!--del_lnk--> East Riding of Yorkshire.<p>York is home to the <!--del_lnk--> University of York founded in 1963, and <!--del_lnk--> York St John University which gained university status in 2006.<p>The city often suffers from <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flooding</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The name 'York' has <!--del_lnk--> an interesting etymological history, ultimately deriving from the Latin name for the city, <b>Eboracum</b>. The city was founded in AD <!--del_lnk--> 71, and has a rich <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" title="Roman Britain">Roman</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a> <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a>, acting as capital of the Roman province of <!--del_lnk--> Britannia Inferior. It later became the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> Archbishop of York, whose <!--del_lnk--> province of York covers northern England, and acted as the centre for the Viking kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Jorvik.<p>The historical aspects of York attract a great deal of <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a>, the jewel in the crown being the city's historic <!--del_lnk--> cathedral church, <!--del_lnk--> York Minster.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>York lies within the <!--del_lnk--> Vale of York, and is generally said to be a fairly flat area of land with an unusual amount of green space. The <i>ings</i> are flood meadows along the River Ouse, while the <i><!--del_lnk--> strays</i> are scattered around the city in marshy, low-lying places; the <!--del_lnk--> Knavesmire is part of Micklegate Stray.<p>York is situated at the confluence of two rivers, the Ouse and the Foss. During Roman times, the land surrounding the rivers was very marshy, making it easier to defend. The city is prone to severe <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flooding</a> from the River Ouse, and has an extensive (but not always effective) network of flood defences. These include walls along the Ouse, and a barrier across the <!--del_lnk--> River Foss where it joins the Ouse. The floods of late October and early November 2000, which were the highest for over 350 years, caused much damage, but the water did not breach the (sandbag reinforced) flood walls. Much land within the city has always been too flood-prone for development.<p><!--del_lnk--> York railway station is situated on the <!--del_lnk--> East Coast, <!--del_lnk--> Cross Country and <!--del_lnk--> Transpennine mainlines.<table style="margin: 1em; border: 1px solid #aaa; background: #FFF; font-size:100%; float:right; border-collapse:collapse;">
<tr>
<td align="center" style="background: #ececec;"><small>Part of a <!--del_lnk--> series of articles on</small><br /><big><b><!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire</b></big></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><a class="image" href="../../images/121/12106.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yorkshire_rose.svg" src="../../images/149/14908.png" width="150" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b>County Town:</b> <strong class="selflink">York</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b>The <!--del_lnk--> ridings:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> East • <!--del_lnk--> North • <!--del_lnk--> West</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial counties</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><!--del_lnk--> East Riding of Yorkshire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><!--del_lnk--> North Yorkshire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><!--del_lnk--> South Yorkshire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><!--del_lnk--> West Yorkshire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b>Further information</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> Accent & Dialect</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> Cricket</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> Famous People</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> History</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> Places</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> White Rose</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire Day <i><!--del_lnk--> 1 August</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">[]</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>The population of York stands at 184,900 <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of York at current basic prices <!--del_lnk--> published (pp.240-253) by <i>Office for National Statistics</i> with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Year</th>
<th>Regional Gross Value Added</th>
<th>Agriculture</th>
<th>Industry</th>
<th>Services</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1995</td>
<td><b>2,052</b></td>
<td>30</td>
<td>579</td>
<td>1,443</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2000</td>
<td><b>2,963</b></td>
<td>13</td>
<td>782</td>
<td>2,168</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2003</td>
<td><b>3,299</b></td>
<td>16</td>
<td>779</td>
<td>2,505</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>York's economy is based largely on tourism and other service-based industries. This is very different from the position as recently as the 1950s, when York's prosperity was based on chocolate manufacturing and the railways. Most of the industry around the railway has gone, including the carriage works which once employed some 22,000 men. Major employers now include <!--del_lnk--> City of York Council, <!--del_lnk--> Norwich Union, <!--del_lnk--> Card Protection Plan and <!--del_lnk--> Nestlé, amongst others.<p>York is the headquarters of the confectionery manufacturer <!--del_lnk--> Nestlé <!--del_lnk--> Rowntree, and home to the <i><!--del_lnk--> KitKat</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Smarties</i> and eponymous <!--del_lnk--> <i>Yorkie</i> bar chocolate brands. <!--del_lnk--> Terry's chocolate factory, makers of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Chocolate Orange</i>, was also located in the city; but it closed on <!--del_lnk--> 30 September <!--del_lnk--> 2005, when production was moved by its owners, <!--del_lnk--> Kraft Foods, to Poland. However, the historic factory building can still be seen, situated next to the Knavesmire racecourse.<p>On the edge of York, the University of York and its Science Park contribute heavily to the skilled-work sector of the economy.<p><a id="Job_losses_in_2006" name="Job_losses_in_2006"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Job losses in 2006</span></h3>
<p>It was announced on the <!--del_lnk--> 20 September <!--del_lnk--> 2006 that <!--del_lnk--> Nestlé would be cutting 645 jobs at the <!--del_lnk--> Rowntree's chocolate factory in York.<!--del_lnk--> This came after a number of other job losses in the city at <!--del_lnk--> Norwich Union, <!--del_lnk--> British Sugar and Terry's chocolate factory.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Law_and_government" name="Law_and_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Law and government</span></h2>
<p>York is an ancient <!--del_lnk--> borough, and was one of the boroughs reformed by the <!--del_lnk--> Municipal Corporations Act 1835 to form a <!--del_lnk--> municipal borough. It gained the status of a <!--del_lnk--> county borough in <!--del_lnk--> 1889, under the <!--del_lnk--> Local Government Act 1888, and existed so until 1974, when, under the <!--del_lnk--> Local Government Act 1972, it became a <!--del_lnk--> non-metropolitan district in the county of <!--del_lnk--> North Yorkshire.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> 1990s UK local government reform, York became one of the many boroughs to regain unitary status, but was the only one to see a substantial alteration in its borders, taking in parts of <!--del_lnk--> Selby and <!--del_lnk--> Harrogate districts, and about half the population of <!--del_lnk--> Ryedale district. Unsurprising this caused tension with its neighbours. Ironically, this boundary had not been the intention of the council and it was only floated after the council's preferred option of a unitary bounded by the A64/A1237 ringroad was rejected by the central Government.<p>York has 22 <!--del_lnk--> wards, which elect between 1 and 3 councillors each, for a total of 47 councillors. The council is controlled by the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrats, who have 29 councillors. There are 15 <!--del_lnk--> Labour Party councillors, 2 <!--del_lnk--> Greens, and one independent. <!--del_lnk--> <p>The city has its own magistrates and crown courts. It is home to the North Yorkshire Police Force.<p>York is twinned with:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Dijon, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1542.png.htm" title="Ghana"><img alt="Ghana" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ghana.svg" src="../../images/15/1542.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Fanteakwa, <a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Münster, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></ul>
<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of York, on the edge of the city, is regularly placed in the top 10 UK Universities. Until 2006 it was York's only institution with university status, when York St John University College, formerly an autonomous college of University of Leeds, attained full university status as <!--del_lnk--> York St John University. The city also hosts a branch of <!--del_lnk--> the College of Law.<p>The city has two major Further Education institutions: one, York College, which is currently in the process of being moved to a brand new site, and a second at <!--del_lnk--> Askham Bryan.<p><!--del_lnk--> York College is an amalgamation of York Technical College and York Sixth Form College. Students there study a very wide range of academic and vocational courses, and range from school leavers and sixth formers to people training to make career moves. It also runs many courses in the community.<p><!--del_lnk--> Askham Bryan College offers many further education course, foundation and honours degrees, specialising in more vocational subjects such as <!--del_lnk--> Horticulture, <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a>, Animal Management and even Golf Course Management.<p>There are over <!--del_lnk--> 55 schools in the City of York area. The <!--del_lnk--> Local Education Authority is the City of York Council, who manage most Primary and Secondary Schools within the city. About 40 Primary schools cover education from ages 5-11, with some offering early years education from age three. From 11-16 education is then provided by 11 Secondary school, four of which offer additional education up to age 18.<p>York also has several private schools. <!--del_lnk--> St Peter's is famous for schooling the infamous Guy Fawkes (so they never put the <!--del_lnk--> guy on <i>their</i> bonfire!). Two others have Quaker origins, <!--del_lnk--> Bootham School is co-ed and <!--del_lnk--> The Mount is all-girls. On the outskirts of the city is <!--del_lnk--> Queen Margarets School.<p><a id="Sites_of_interest" name="Sites_of_interest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sites of interest</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14909.jpg.htm" title="Cliffords Tower"><img alt="Cliffords Tower" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CLIFFOR1.JPG" src="../../images/149/14909.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14909.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Cliffords Tower</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14910.jpg.htm" title="Looking towards the Minster from the city walls"><img alt="Looking towards the Minster from the city walls" height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:York_city.jpg" src="../../images/149/14910.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14910.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Looking towards the Minster from the <!--del_lnk--> city walls</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> York Minster, the historic cathedral church stands at the city's centre. The city centre is nearly surrounded by walls, pictured. To walk the entire circuit (including parts where walls never existed) is about 3 miles.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14911.jpg.htm" title="A panoramic view of York as it seen from the top of Cliffords tower"><img alt="A panoramic view of York as it seen from the top of Cliffords tower" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:York_Walls_25-02-06_031.jpg" src="../../images/149/14911.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14911.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A panoramic view of York as it seen from the top of Cliffords tower</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> The Shambles is perhaps York's most iconic street. Formerly the lamb-butchers district, it retains an historic feel. It contains the shrine of <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Clitherow, and many gift shops. York has many other narrow streets and passages, commonly known as <!--del_lnk--> Snickelways.<p>The city has many museums, including the <!--del_lnk--> Castle Museum, <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire Museum & Gardens, <!--del_lnk--> Richard III Museum and the York Dungeon. The <!--del_lnk--> National Railway Museum is situated just behind the station, and is home to the largest static collection of railway locomotives in the world, including the world's fastest steam locomotive <!--del_lnk--> LNER 4468 Mallard.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14912.jpg.htm" title="The Kings Arms pub during floods"><img alt="The Kings Arms pub during floods" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kingsarams_flood.JPG" src="../../images/149/14912.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14912.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Kings Arms pub during floods</div>
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<p>York is also a major venue for <!--del_lnk--> horse racing at <!--del_lnk--> York Racecourse in the <!--del_lnk--> Knavesmire area, and every year, thousands flock to the city for the Ebor Handicap Meeting in August.<p>York is also noted for its wealth of <!--del_lnk--> churches and <!--del_lnk--> pubs. Many of the remaining churches in York are from the medieval period. The York area is said to contain one pub for every day of the year, and that in York there is no point within the city walls where one can stand and not be able to see at least one pub and at least one church. These claims although commonly quoted are exaggerated.<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h2>
<p>The City's <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> team is <!--del_lnk--> York City F.C. who play in the <!--del_lnk--> Nationwide Conference. York also has a <!--del_lnk--> rugby league side, <!--del_lnk--> York City Knights and an open rowing club (York city rowing club) located underneath Lendal Bridge. The most notable sportsmen to come form York in recent years are footballers <!--del_lnk--> Marco Gabbiadini and <!--del_lnk--> Steve McClaren, who both attended <!--del_lnk--> Nunthorpe Grammar School. Steve McClaren has since gone onto Football management at several clubs including Middlesbrough and has been appointed to the post of England Manager in 2006.<p>
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<p><b>Nightlife in York</b>.<p>York has a large and vibrant nightlife with many people, including many stag and hen parties from the north east choosing to a night on the town in York. With its close proximity to Newcastle, Leeds and with the huge crowds that come to the races, most bars and clubs are full most nights.There are eight night clubs, many many bars and over 200 pubs in the city centre. The night caters for all ages and there are many student places for the students of the two universities to enjoy.<p>
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<p><a id="People_associated_with_York" name="People_associated_with_York"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">People associated with York</span></h2>
<p>Many notable people have made their homes in York. At the present time, arguably the most famous living resident of the city is the actress <!--del_lnk--> Dame Judi Dench. Also resident is TV Chef (and dancer) <!--del_lnk--> James Martin<p><a id="Individuals" name="Individuals"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Individuals</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mark Addy (b. 1964) (actor)<li><!--del_lnk--> Alcuin (c. 735-804) (Christian scholar)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kate Atkinson (b. 1951) (author)<li><!--del_lnk--> W. H. Auden (1907–1973) (poet)<li><!--del_lnk--> Victoria Bage (1942-2003) (<!--del_lnk--> Sarah Coggles fashion chain)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Barry (b. 1933) (composer)<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward Bairstow (1847-1956) (minster organist)<li><!--del_lnk--> David Bradley (b. 1942) (actor)<li><!--del_lnk--> Michael Burns (actor)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vincent Cable (b. 1943) (politician)<li><!--del_lnk--> Margaret Clitherow d.1586 (Catholic martyr)<li><!--del_lnk--> Constantine the Great (272-337) (Emperor of Rome)<li><!--del_lnk--> Judi Dench (b. 1934) (actress)<li><!--del_lnk--> Frank Dobson (b. 1940) (politician)<li><!--del_lnk--> Keith Drinkel (b. 1944) (actor)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Earle (c. 1601–1665) (clergyman and author)<li><!--del_lnk--> William Etty (1787–1849) (painter)<li><!--del_lnk--> Guy Fawkes (1570–1606) (Catholic conspirator involved in the <!--del_lnk--> Gunpowder Plot)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Flaxman (1755–1826) (sculptor and draughtsman)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dustin Gee (1942–1986) (comedian, one half of duo with <!--del_lnk--> Les Dennis)<li><!--del_lnk--> Harry Gration (BBC Yorkshire News Presenter)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mark Herman (Film Director)<li><!--del_lnk--> Christopher Hill (1912–2003) (Marxist historian)<li><!--del_lnk--> Frankie Howerd (1917–1992) (comedy actor)<li><!--del_lnk--> George Hudson (1800-1871) (Railway Pioneer, Mayor of York and MP)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ivar the Boneless (794-872) (Viking Chieftain)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sheelagh Kelly (author)<li><!--del_lnk--> Steve McClaren (b. 1961) (football manager)<li><!--del_lnk--> Francis Mason (1799–1874) (American missionary)<li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Morton (1564–1659) (clergyman)<li><!--del_lnk--> Xavier Pick (b. 1972) (artist)<li><!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree (1871–1954) (chocolate entrepreneur and social reformer)<li><!--del_lnk--> Joseph Rowntree (1836–1925) (chocolate entrepreneur and philanthropist)<li><!--del_lnk--> Laura Sayers (b. 1978) (assistant producer on Scott Mills show, minor celebrity)<li><a href="../../wp/j/John_Sentamu.htm" title="John Sentamu">John Sentamu</a> (b. 1949) (Archbishop of York)<li><!--del_lnk--> Siward, Earl of Northumbria (d. 1055) (army commander)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Snow (1813–1858) (pioneer of <!--del_lnk--> epidemiology and <!--del_lnk--> anaesthesia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Silvanus P. Thompson (1851–1916) (author and <a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineer</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> William Hepworth Thompson (1810–1886) (classical scholar)<li><!--del_lnk--> Henry Scott Tuke (1858–1929) (painter)<li><!--del_lnk--> James Hack Tuke (1819–1896) (campaigner for famine relief and social reform in Ireland)<li><!--del_lnk--> William Tuke (1732–1822), <!--del_lnk--> Henry Tuke (1755–1814), <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Tuke (1784–1857) and <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Hack Tuke (1827–1895) (campaigners for the humane treatment of the insane)<li><!--del_lnk--> Annie Waller (author)<li><!--del_lnk--> Steve Webster MBE (Ten times sidecar World Champion)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rick Witter (b. 1972) (Lead vocalist of local band <!--del_lnk--> Shed Seven)</ul>
<p><a id="Groups" name="Groups"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Groups</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Farrah (<!--del_lnk--> indie pop/rock group)<li><!--del_lnk--> The Guard (Powerpop/Rock band of the 1980's)<li><!--del_lnk--> The Mood (1980s band)<li><!--del_lnk--> The Redskins<li><!--del_lnk--> Shed Seven (indie rock group)<li><!--del_lnk--> St. Christopher (band) (indiepop group)<li><!--del_lnk--> Strange Days (band) (1980's band)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zoot and the Roots (1980's band)</ul>
<p><a id="Members_of_the_Royal_Family" name="Members_of_the_Royal_Family"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Members of the Royal Family</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Duke of York<li><!--del_lnk--> Prince Andrew, Duke of York<li><!--del_lnk--> Princess Beatrice of York<li><!--del_lnk--> Princess Eugenie of York</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Quaker involvement in the city</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14913.jpg.htm" title="St Williams College near the Minster"><img alt="St Williams College near the Minster" height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Williams_College.jpg" src="../../images/149/14913.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14913.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> St Williams College near the Minster</div>
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<p>York has a long association with the <a href="../../wp/r/Religious_Society_of_Friends.htm" title="Religious Society of Friends">Religious Society of Friends</a>. The York-born Quaker chocolate entrepreneurs and social reformers <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Rowntree and <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Seebohm Rowntree left an indelible mark on the city, through both their business interests and their philanthropy. They built the village of <!--del_lnk--> New Earswick to provide quality affordable housing for their employees. They also founded two Quaker schools, <!--del_lnk--> Bootham School and The Mount, and contributed in large part to the building of <i>York Public Library</i> and the creation of <!--del_lnk--> Rowntree Park. The four <!--del_lnk--> Rowntree trusts, funded from the Rowntree legacies, are based in York.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> The Retreat</i> is a large Quaker mental hospital, situated in the east of the city outside the <!--del_lnk--> city walls. It was founded in <!--del_lnk--> 1796 by <!--del_lnk--> William Tuke; over the next century his son <!--del_lnk--> Henry Tuke, grandson <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Tuke and great-grandson <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Hack Tuke also devoted themselves to mental health reform, continuing to reform The Retreat and publishing a number of works on the subject. Another notable York Quaker was the sculptor <!--del_lnk--> Austin Wright.<p><a id="City_areas_and_surrounding_villages" name="City_areas_and_surrounding_villages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">City areas and surrounding villages</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14914.jpg.htm" title="Lendal Tower on the River Ouse, put up for sale as a property in 2006"><img alt="Lendal Tower on the River Ouse, put up for sale as a property in 2006" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lendal_Tower.jpg" src="../../images/149/14914.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14914.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lendal Tower on the River Ouse, put up for sale as a property in 2006</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14915.jpg.htm" title="Barkers Tower on the Ouse at Lendal Bridge."><img alt="Barkers Tower on the Ouse at Lendal Bridge." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Barkers_Tower.jpg" src="../../images/149/14915.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14915.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Barkers Tower on the Ouse at Lendal Bridge.</div>
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<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Acaster Malbis, <!--del_lnk--> Acomb, <!--del_lnk--> Askham Bryan, <!--del_lnk--> Askham Richard<li><!--del_lnk--> Bishopthorpe, <!--del_lnk--> Bootham<li><!--del_lnk--> Cawood, <!--del_lnk--> Clifton, <!--del_lnk--> Copmanthorpe, <!--del_lnk--> Crockey Hill<li><!--del_lnk--> Deighton<li><!--del_lnk--> Derwenthorpe (proposed new village)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dringhouses<li><!--del_lnk--> Dunnington<li><!--del_lnk--> Elvington<li><!--del_lnk--> Escrick<li><!--del_lnk--> Fishergate, <!--del_lnk--> Fulford<li><!--del_lnk--> The Groves<li><!--del_lnk--> Haxby, <!--del_lnk--> Heslington, <!--del_lnk--> Hessay, <!--del_lnk--> Heworth, <!--del_lnk--> Holgate, <!--del_lnk--> Holtby, <!--del_lnk--> Huntington<li><!--del_lnk--> Kexby, <!--del_lnk--> Knapton<li><!--del_lnk--> Layerthorpe<li><!--del_lnk--> Middlethorpe, <!--del_lnk--> Moor End, <!--del_lnk--> Murton<li><!--del_lnk--> Naburn, <!--del_lnk--> Nether Poppleton, <!--del_lnk--> New Earswick<li><!--del_lnk--> Osbaldwick<li><!--del_lnk--> Rawcliffe, <!--del_lnk--> Rufforth<li><!--del_lnk--> Skelton, <!--del_lnk--> Stockton-on-the-Forest, <!--del_lnk--> Strensall, <!--del_lnk--> South Bank<li><!--del_lnk--> Tang Hall, <!--del_lnk--> Towthorpe<li><!--del_lnk--> Upper Poppleton<li><!--del_lnk--> West Huntington, <!--del_lnk--> Wheldrake, <!--del_lnk--> Wigginton, <!--del_lnk--> Woodthorpe</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yorkshire Dales</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14916.jpg.htm" title="Stone houses in Hawes, a typical example of Dales architecture"><img alt="Stone houses in Hawes, a typical example of Dales architecture" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hawes_house_01.JPG" src="../../images/149/14916.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14916.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Stone houses in <!--del_lnk--> Hawes, a typical example of Dales architecture</div>
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<p>The <b>Yorkshire Dales</b> are an area of high ground in <!--del_lnk--> North Yorkshire, <!--del_lnk--> West Yorkshire, and <!--del_lnk--> Cumbria, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. They constitute one of the twelve <a href="../../wp/n/National_parks_of_England_and_Wales.htm" title="National parks of England and Wales">National parks of England and Wales</a><p>Although many <!--del_lnk--> valleys all over <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire are called "(name of river)+<!--del_lnk--> dale", such as <!--del_lnk--> Airedale or <!--del_lnk--> Calderdale, the Yorkshire Dales are usually deemed to be those valleys north of the <!--del_lnk--> Wharfe. Exceptions to the naming rule are <!--del_lnk--> Wensleydale, which is named after the town of Wensley rather than the River Ure, and Arkengarthdale, which was formed by Arkle Beck.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14917.jpg.htm" title="Limestone hills and dry-stone walls in the west of the Yorkshire Dales. This part of the national park is popular with walkers due to the presence of the Yorkshire three peaks."><img alt="Limestone hills and dry-stone walls in the west of the Yorkshire Dales. This part of the national park is popular with walkers due to the presence of the Yorkshire three peaks." height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dry_stone_wall_20.JPG" src="../../images/149/14917.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14917.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Limestone hills and <!--del_lnk--> dry-stone walls in the west of the Yorkshire Dales. This part of the national park is popular with walkers due to the presence of the <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire three peaks.</div>
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<p>The characteristic scenery is green upland pastures separated by <!--del_lnk--> dry-stone walls and grazed by <!--del_lnk--> sheep and <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> dales themselves are 'U' and 'V' shaped valleys, which were enlarged and shaped by <!--del_lnk--> glaciers, mainly in the most recent, <!--del_lnk--> Devensian <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" title="Ice age">ice age</a>. The underlying rock is principally <a href="../../wp/c/Carboniferous.htm" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> <!--del_lnk--> limestone (which results in a number of areas of <!--del_lnk--> limestone pavement) in places interspersed with <!--del_lnk--> shale and <!--del_lnk--> sandstone and topped with <!--del_lnk--> millstone grit. However, to the north of the Dent fault, the hills are principally older <a href="../../wp/s/Silurian.htm" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> and <a href="../../wp/o/Ordovician.htm" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> rocks, which make up the <!--del_lnk--> Howgill Fells.<p>Many of the upland areas consist of <!--del_lnk--> heather <!--del_lnk--> moorland, used for <!--del_lnk--> grouse <!--del_lnk--> shooting in the months following <!--del_lnk--> August 12 each year (the '<!--del_lnk--> Glorious Twelfth').<p><a id="Yorkshire_Dales_National_Park" name="Yorkshire_Dales_National_Park"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Yorkshire Dales National Park</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14918.png.htm" title="Yorkshire Dales National Park (in green) within North Yorkshire"><img alt="Yorkshire Dales National Park (in green) within North Yorkshire" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yorkshire_Dales_National_Park.png" src="../../images/149/14918.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14918.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yorkshire Dales National Park (in green) within <!--del_lnk--> North Yorkshire</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14919.jpg.htm" title="Yorkshire Dales National Park Entrance Sign"><img alt="Yorkshire Dales National Park Entrance Sign" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:YorkshireDalesSign.jpg" src="../../images/149/14919.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14919.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yorkshire Dales National Park Entrance Sign</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1954 an area of <!--del_lnk--> 1,770 km² was designated the <b>Yorkshire Dales National Park</b>. Most of the <!--del_lnk--> National Park is in <!--del_lnk--> North Yorkshire, but thanks to local government reforms in <!--del_lnk--> 1974 a small part now lies in <!--del_lnk--> Cumbria. Over 20,000 residents live and work in the park, which attracts over eight million visitors every year.<p>Places and sights within the National Park include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aysgarth Falls<li><!--del_lnk--> Clapham<li><!--del_lnk--> Cautley Spout waterfall<li><!--del_lnk--> Gaping Gill<li><!--del_lnk--> Grassington<li><!--del_lnk--> Hardraw Force<li><!--del_lnk--> Hawes<li><!--del_lnk--> Horton in Ribblesdale<li><!--del_lnk--> Kisdon Force waterfall in <!--del_lnk--> Swaledale<li><!--del_lnk--> Malham<li><!--del_lnk--> Reeth<li><!--del_lnk--> Sedbergh<li><!--del_lnk--> Settle<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire three peaks</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">List of Dales</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14920.jpg.htm" title="Janet's Foss, near Malham"><img alt="Janet's Foss, near Malham" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Janet%27s_Foss_2.jpg" src="../../images/149/14920.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14920.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Janet's Foss, near <!--del_lnk--> Malham</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.General_Literature.htm">General Literature</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22967.jpg.htm" title="Utagawa Kuniyoshi's portrait of Oiwa."><img alt="Utagawa Kuniyoshi's portrait of Oiwa." height="367" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kuniyoshi_oiwa.jpg" src="../../images/229/22967.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><i><b>Yotsuya Kaidan</b></i> (四谷怪談), the story of Oiwa and Iemon<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_iemon"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>, is a tale of betrayal, murder and <!--del_lnk--> ghostly revenge. Arguably the most famous <!--del_lnk--> Japanese ghost story of all time, it has been adapted for film over 30 times, and continues to be an influence on <!--del_lnk--> Japanese horror today.<p>Written in 1825 by <!--del_lnk--> Tsuruya Nanboku IV as a <!--del_lnk--> kabuki play, the original title was <i>Tōkaidō Yotsuya Kaidan</i> (東海道四谷怪談). It is now generally shortened, and loosely translates as <i>Ghost Story of Yotsuya <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_yotsuya"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> .</i><p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>First staged in July of 1825, <i>Yotsuya Kaidan</i> appeared at the Nakamuraza theatre as a <!--del_lnk--> double-feature with the immensely popular <i><!--del_lnk--> Kanadehon Chushingura.</i> Normally, with a Kabuki double-feature, the first play is staged in its entirety, followed by the second play. However, in the case of Yotsuya Kaidan it was decided to interweave the two dramas, with a full staging on two days: the first day started with <i>Kanadehon Chushingura</i> from Act I to Act VI, followed by <i>Tōkaidō Yotsuya Kaidan</i> from Act I to Act III. The following day started with the the Onbo canal scene, followed by <i>Kanadehon Chushingura</i> from Act VII to Act XI, then came Act IV and Act V of <i>Tōkaidō Yotsuya Kaidan</i> to conclude the program.<p>The play was incredibly successful, and forced the producers to schedule extra out-of-season performances to meet demand. The story tapped into people’s fears by bringing the ghosts of Japan out of the temples and aristocrats' mansions and into the home of common people, the exact type of people who were the audience of his theatre.<p><a id="The_Story" name="The_Story"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Story</span></h2>
<p>As the most-adapted Japanese ghost story, the details of <i>Yotsuya Kaidan</i> have been altered over time, often bearing little resemblance to the original kabuki play, and sometimes removing the ghostly element all together. However, the base story usually remains the same, and recognizable.<p><a id="Historical_Basis" name="Historical_Basis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Historical Basis</span></h3>
<p>Nanboku incorporated two sensational and real-life murders into <i>Yotsuya Kaidan,</i> combining fact and fiction in a manner that resonated with audiences. The first involved two servants who had murdered their respective masters. They were caught and executed on the same day. The second murder was from a <!--del_lnk--> samurai who discovered his <!--del_lnk--> concubine was having an affair with a servant. The samurai had the faithless concubine and servant nailed to a wooden board and thrown into the <!--del_lnk--> Kanda River.<p><a id="Oiwa_and_Iemon" name="Oiwa_and_Iemon"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Oiwa and Iemon</span></h3>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>The story opens with a murder. Iemon, an unemployed <!--del_lnk--> ronin, has killed the father of his wife Oiwa, because her father was aware of Iemon's evil past deeds. Penniless, Iemon has been forced to make his living as an oilpaper umbrella maker in order to support his delicate wife and new child. This situation has lead him to resent Oiwa.<p>Iemon is lured into a scheme to marry the beautiful granddaughter of a well-to-do neighbor, who is in love with him. In order to clear the path for the new marriage, Iemon and the neighbour plot to murder Oiwa. Iemon slips her <!--del_lnk--> poison disguised as "blood-road medicine," intended to bring back her strength. The poison does not kill her, but instead disfigures her, causing her hair to fall out and her eye to droop. When a mirror is held in front of her, her despair at her disfigurement and the knowledge of her husband's betrayal causes her to die.<p>When a faithful servant, Kobote Kohei, becomes aware of the murder, Iemon accuses him of theft and has him killed. He then has Kohei and Oiwa's bodies <!--del_lnk--> crucified on two sides of a wooden door, which is then flung into a nearby river.<p>Thinking his troubles are over, Iemon plans his new marriage. On his wedding day to his new bride, Iemon lifts her veil to see Oiwa’s ruined face. He instantly <!--del_lnk--> beheads her, only to discover he has killed his new bride. Horrified, he flees to the neighbor's house to confess, where he is confronted by Kohei's ghost. Slashing at the ghost, Iemon finds he has killed his neighbour, his new father-in-law.<p>From there the haunting continues, with the <!--del_lnk--> vengeful spirit of Oiwa pursuing Iemon. Everywhere he goes, he sees her ruined face, even projecting from an overhead lantern. Seeking escape, he retreats to the mountains and goes fishing. Instead of fish, he hooks the board with the corpses of Oiwa and Kohei. He then flees to a cabin in Hebiyama, where the ropes and vines of the cabin transform into snakes and the smoke from the fire transform into Oiwa's hair.<p>Fleeing the cabin, he runs into his brother-in-law, who kills Iemon and avenges all of the murders.<div class="notice metadata spoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div>
<p><a id="Popularity" name="Popularity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Popularity</span></h3>
<p><i>Yotsuya Kaidan's</i> popularity is often accounted for by the way it fit the mood of its time, as well as its use of <!--del_lnk--> universal themes. The <!--del_lnk--> Bunsei era was a time of social unrest, and the repressed position of women in society was severe. The exchange of power for powerlessness was something audiences could relate to. Oiwa went from a delicate victim to a powerful avenger, while Iemon transforms from tormentor to tormented.<p>Also, Oiwa is much more direct in her <!--del_lnk--> vengeance than <!--del_lnk--> Okiku, another popular kabuki ghost, and she is much more brutal. This added level of violence thrilled audiences, who were seeking more and more violent forms of entertainment.<p>In addition, the performance of <i>Yotsuya Kaidan</i> was filled with fantastic <!--del_lnk--> special effects, with her ruined face projecting magnificently from an onstage lantern, and her hair falling out in impossible amounts.<p><a id="The_Ghost_of_Oiwa" name="The_Ghost_of_Oiwa"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Ghost of Oiwa</span></h2>
<p>Oiwa is an <!--del_lnk--> onryō, a ghost who seeks vengeance. Her strong passion for revenge allows her to bridge the gap back to Earth. She shares most of the common traits of this style of Japanese ghost, including the white dress representing the burial kimono she would have worn, the long, ragged hair and white/indigo face that marks a ghost in kabuki theatre. There are specific traits to Oiwa that set her apart physically from other onryo.<p>Most famous is her right eye, which droops down her face due to poison given her by Iemon. This feature is exaggerated in kabuki performances to give Oiwa a distinct appearance.<p>She is often shown as partially bald, another effect of the poison. In a spectacular scene in the kabuki play, the living Oiwa sits before a mirror and combs her hair, which comes falling out due to the poison. The hair piles up to tremendous heights, achieved by a stage hand who sits under the stage and pushes more and more hair up through the floor while Oiwa is combing.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:157px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22968.gif.htm" title="Hokuei's image of Oiwa emerging from the Lantern."><img alt="Hokuei's image of Oiwa emerging from the Lantern." height="232" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hokuei_oiwa_lantern.gif" src="../../images/229/22968.gif" width="155" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22968.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hokuei's image of Oiwa emerging from the Lantern.</div>
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<p><a id="Yotsuya_Kaidan_and_ukiyo-e" name="Yotsuya_Kaidan_and_ukiyo-e"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Yotsuya Kaidan</i> and ukiyo-e</span></h2>
<p>Being a popular Kabuki play, Yotsuya Kaidan soon became a popular subject for <!--del_lnk--> ukiyo-e artists as well. In 1826, the same year the play opened at Sumiza Theatre in <a href="../../wp/o/Osaka.htm" title="Osaka">Osaka</a>, Shunkosai Hokushu produced <i>The Ghost of Oiwa</i>. She is recognizable by her drooping eyes and partial baldness.<p>A unusual image featuring a still-living Otsuya was depicted as one of the <i>New Forms of Thirty-Six Ghosts</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Tsukioka Yoshitoshi.<p><!--del_lnk--> Shunkosai Hokuei created the most famous image of Oiwa, titled <i>The Lantern Ghost of Oiwa,</i> showing her face emerging from a swinging lantern while Iemon turns to meet the apparition, drawing his sword. The lantern scene is a favorite, also being carved into <!--del_lnk--> netsuke.<p><!--del_lnk--> Utagawa Kuniyoshi illustrated the scene at Hebiyama, showing a still-lantern-headed Oiwa coming for Iemon, surrounded by snakes and smoke.<p><a id="Film_Adaptations" name="Film_Adaptations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Film Adaptations</span></h2>
<p>Yotsuya Kaidan has been adapted for film more than any other Japanese story. The exact number of adaptations is unknown, due to the large scale destruction of Japanese films by the <!--del_lnk--> Allied forces during the <!--del_lnk--> Occupation. However, there are estimated to be over 30 versions.<p>The first film adaptation was in 1912, and it was filmed some 18 times between 1913 and 1937. A notable adaptation was <i>Shinpan Yotsuya Kaidan</i> by Itoi Daisuke, one of the foremost Japanese directors of his time. A 1949 adaptation <i>Yotsuya Kaidan I & II</i> by Kinoshita Keisuke removed the ghostly elements and presented Oiwa as an apparition of her husband's guilty psyche.<p>The seminal adaptation is considered to be <!--del_lnk--> Nakagawa Nobuo's 1959 <i>Tōkaidō Yotsuya Kaidan</i>, which is a very faithful version of the original story, updated only to take advantage of modern special effects.<p>In 1994, <!--del_lnk--> Kinji Fukasaku returned to the Kabuki roots and combined the stories of Chushingura and <i>Yotsuya Kaidan</i> into the single <i>Chushingura gaiden yotsuya kaidan</i> (<i>Crest of Betrayal</i>)<p><a id="Influences" name="Influences"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Influences</span></h3>
<p>It is hard to measure Oiwa's influence on modern <!--del_lnk--> Japanese Horror films. Many of her traits are standard to the onryō, including her costume of white burial kimono, white and indigo face, and long, disheveled hair. In this sense, her influence is no greater than any other in the same genre.<p>However, Sadako from the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Ringu</i> is a clear <!--del_lnk--> homage to Oiwa. Her final appearance is a direct adaptation of Oiwa, including the cascading hair and drooping, malformed eye. Also, Sadako's use of the television to manifest could be considered analogous to Oiwa's use of the lantern.<p><a id="Miscellanea" name="Miscellanea"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Miscellanea</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Oiwa is supposedly buried at a temple, <!--del_lnk--> Myogyo-ji, in <!--del_lnk--> Yotsuya, a neighbourhood of <a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>. The date of her death is listed as February 22, 1636.<li>Several productions of <i>Yotsuya Kaidan,</i> including television and movie adaptations, have reported mysterious accidents, injuries and even deaths. It is now a tradition, before staging an adaptation of Yotsuya Kaidan, for the principal actors and the director to make a pilgrimage to Oiwa's grave at and ask her permission and blessing for their production. This is considered especially important of the actor assuming the role of Oiwa.<li>It is said that if you only visit the grave out of curiosity, then your right eye will become swollen and droop, just like hers.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yotsuya_Kaidan"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Musical_Recordings_and_compositions.htm">Musical Recordings and compositions</a></h3>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;">"You're Still the One"</th>
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<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt=""You're Still the One" cover" height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ysto.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></td>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Single by <!--del_lnk--> Shania Twain</th>
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<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">from the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Come on Over</i></th>
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<tr>
<td><b>Released</b></td>
<td colspan="2">January 1998 <small>(Country)</small><br /><!--del_lnk--> February 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1998 <small>(UK)</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Format</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Radio Single<br /><!--del_lnk--> Maxi Single<br /> 5" <!--del_lnk--> CD Single</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Recorded</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1997</td>
</tr>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Country, <!--del_lnk--> Pop</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td colspan="2">3:19</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Mercury</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Producer(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Mutt Lange</td>
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<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Certification</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Platinum <small>(U.S., Australia)</small></td>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Chart positions</th>
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<li>#1 <small>(Australia)</small><li>#2 <small>(U.S., Canada)</small><li>#10 <small>(UK, Netherlands)</small></ul>
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<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki;">North American singles chronology</th>
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<tr style="text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;">
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top">"<!--del_lnk--> Don't Be Stupid (You Know I Love You)"<br /> (1997)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="center">"You're Still the One"<br /> (1998)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top">"<!--del_lnk--> From This Moment On"<br /> (1998) <p>
<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki;">International singles chronology</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;">
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top">
</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="center">"You're Still the One"<br /> (1998)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top">"<!--del_lnk--> When"<br /> (1998)</td>
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<p>"<b>You're Still the One</b>" is a <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Award winning song by <!--del_lnk--> Canadian singer <!--del_lnk--> Shania Twain. It was the third country single from <!--del_lnk--> Shania Twain's 1997 album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Come on Over</i>, while it was the first to be released to pop and international markets. Released in <!--del_lnk--> 1998, the single peaked at number two becoming Twain's first top ten hit on the <!--del_lnk--> Billboard Hot 100. Although it never topped the chart, the song is recognized as Twain's most successful crossover single, and is one of her most successful singles at country radio. The song was written by Twain and <!--del_lnk--> Mutt Lange and produced by Lange.<p>"You're Still the One" was nominated for four <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards in 1999, and won two. It won <!--del_lnk--> Best Country Song and <!--del_lnk--> Best Female Country Vocal Performance and lost <!--del_lnk--> Record of the Year and <!--del_lnk--> Song of the Year to <a href="../../wp/c/Celine_Dion.htm" title="Celine Dion">Celine Dion</a>'s "<!--del_lnk--> My Heart Will Go On". <p>
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</script><a id="Song_information" name="Song_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Song information</span></h2>
<p>Unlike many of her other singles, "You're Still the One" is based on the true story of the romantic times and trials between her and Lange, and how the relationship was able to survive. When Twain and Lange had become romantically involved in the mid <!--del_lnk--> 1990s, there was criticism of their relationship: claims that the age difference was extreme, and that Twain was solely using him to further her career. In essence, the critics did not expect their relationship to last. However, the relationship has been able to survive, Twain disagreed with these criticisms and wanted to address them in public and this led to her writing "You're Still the One". In this ode to the union between her and Lange, Twain explains how she is glad they did not listen to the critics, as if they had done, look at what they could have been missing. However, that is not to say that their romance is dead just because they are married now. If anything Twain believes that the romance is just as strong as it was before, causing her to belt, "You're still the one I run to, the one that I belong to, you're the one I want for life". <p><a id="Music_video" name="Music_video"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Music video</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> music video for "You're Still the One" was shot in <!--del_lnk--> Malibu and <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> completely in black and white. It was directed by David Hogan and shot on <!--del_lnk--> December 4 and <!--del_lnk--> 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1997. It was released on <!--del_lnk--> January 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1998. It depicts Twain on a beach at night and features model John Devoe, who later appeared in her video for "<!--del_lnk--> That Don't Impress Me Much". The video received heavy rotation, it was Twain's first video to be played on non-country specific stations such as <!--del_lnk--> MTV, <!--del_lnk--> VH1, and <!--del_lnk--> MuchMusic. The video won awards at the Billboard Music Video Awards, VH1 Viewer's Choice Awards, and was nominated for an <!--del_lnk--> MTV Video Music Award. Two versions of the video were made, one with the 'Original Album Version', released to country channels, and the 'International Version' released to pop and international stations. The 'International Version' of the video is available on Twain's DVD <i><!--del_lnk--> The Platinum Collection</i>. <a id="Chart_performance" name="Chart_performance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Chart performance</span></h2>
<p>"You're Still the One" debuted on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart the week of <!--del_lnk--> January 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1998 at number 75. The single spent 24 weeks on the chart, her longest stay at the time, and climbed to a peak position of number-one on <!--del_lnk--> May 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1998, where it remained for one week. The single became Twain's sixth number-one single, seventh top ten single and her ninth top twenty. "You're Still the One" spent 22 weeks atop the Country Singles Sales chart and 2 weeks at number-one on the Hot Country Recurrents chart.<p>At <!--del_lnk--> adult contemporary radio, "You're Still the One" debuted number 26, for the week ending <!--del_lnk--> February 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1998. The single spent 81 weeks on the chart and quickly climbed to a peak position of number one on <!--del_lnk--> June 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1998, where it remained for eight non-consecutive weeks. As it was Twain's first release to this format, "You're Still the One" was her first number one, top ten and top twenty single. It also topped the Adult Contemporary Recurrents chart for two weeks, and remained on the chart for 166 weeks.<p>Twain's most successful single on the <!--del_lnk--> Billboard Hot 100 is "You're Still the One". It debuted on <!--del_lnk--> February 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1998, <!--del_lnk--> Valentine's Day, at number 51. It spent 42 weeks on the chart and peaked at number two for nine non-consecutive weeks starting <!--del_lnk--> May 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1998. <!--del_lnk--> Next's "<!--del_lnk--> Too Close", <!--del_lnk--> Mariah Carey's "<!--del_lnk--> My All", and <!--del_lnk--> Brandy and <!--del_lnk--> Monica's "<!--del_lnk--> The Boy Is Mine" all held the number one spot while "You're Still the One" stalled at number two, due to depleted stock of physical singles.<p>Internationally, "You're Still the One" became Twain's first top ten single in the UK. It debuted, at it's peak, on <!--del_lnk--> February 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1998 at number ten. It remained on the chart for ten weeks. In Australia, it became her first, and to date, only number one. It also hit the top ten in the Netherlands and Taiwan.<p><a id="Audio_versions" name="Audio_versions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Audio versions</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Original Album Version (3:34)<li>International Version (3:34)<li>Original Album Version Radio Edit (3:19)<li>International Version Single Mix (3:19)<li>Soul Solution Dance Radio Edit (4:03)<li>Soul Solution Extended Club Mix (8:42)<li>Soul Solution Percapella Dance Mix (3:35)<li>Doug Beck Pleasure Dub (6:09)<li>Kano Dub (7:46)<li>Live from Dallas (3:21)<li>Live from <i><!--del_lnk--> Up! Close and Personal</i> (3:28)<li>Live from <i><!--del_lnk--> Divas Live</i> (3:37)</ul>
<p><a id="Track_listings" name="Track_listings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Track listings</span></h2>
<p>These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of "You're Still the One".<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="" style="background-color: transparent; width: 100%">
<tr>
<td align="left" valign="top" width="50%"><b>International Maxi CD Single</b><ol>
<li>"You're Still the One" (Single Mix)<li>"I'm Outta Here!" (Mutt Lange Mix)<li>"You Win My Love" (Mutt Lange Mix)<li>"You're Still the One" (LP Version)</ol>
<p><b>Canadian Maxi CD Single</b><ol>
<li>"You're Still The One" (Radio Edit)<li>"You're Still The One" (Album Version)<li>"Don't Be Stupid" (Extended Dance Mix)</ol>
</td>
<td align="left" valign="top" width="50%"><b>U.S. CD Single</b><ol>
<li>"You're Still the One" (Radio Edit)<li>"Don't Be Stupid" (International Version)</ol>
<p><b>Dance Mixes Maxi CD</b><ol>
<li>"You're Still the One" (Soul Solution's Radio Mix)<li>"You're Still the One" (Soul Solution Extended Club Mix)<li>"You're Still the One" (Kano Dub)<li>"You're Still the One" (Soul Solution Percapella Dance Mix)<li>"You're Still the One" (Radio Edit)</ol>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Charts" name="Charts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Charts</span></h2>
<table width="0%">
<tr valign="top">
<td width="50%">
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th align="left">Chart</th>
<th align="left">Peak<br /> position</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Australian <!--del_lnk--> ARIA Charts</td>
<td align="center">1 <small>(4 wks)</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Canadian Singles Chart</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">French Singles Chart</td>
<td align="center">51</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">German Singles Chart</td>
<td align="center">68</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Netherlands Singles Chart</td>
<td align="center">10</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Swiss Singles Chart</td>
<td align="center">26</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">Taiwan's Singles Chart</td>
<td align="center">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> UK Singles Chart</td>
<td align="center">10</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Hot Country Singles & Tracks</td>
<td align="center">1 <small>(1 wk)</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> Country Singles Sales</td>
<td align="center">1 <small>(22 wks)</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Adult Contemporary</td>
<td align="center">1 <small>(8 wks)</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td width="50%">
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th align="left">Chart</th>
<th align="center">Peak<br /> position</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Hot 100</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Hot 100 Singles Sales</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Hot 100 Airplay</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Hot Dance Singles Sales</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Top 40 Mainstream</td>
<td align="center">3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Adult Top 40</td>
<td align="center">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Rhythmic Top 40</td>
<td align="center">20</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> <!--del_lnk--> Hot Latin Tracks</td>
<td align="center">37</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> Latin Pop Airplay</td>
<td align="center">12</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <i>Billboard</i> Latin Tropical Airplay</td>
<td align="center">15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left">U.S. <!--del_lnk--> ARC Weekly Top 40</td>
<td align="center">2</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="white" colspan="31">Billboard Country Singles trajectory</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #white;">
<th align="center">Week</th>
<th>01</th>
<th>02</th>
<th>03</th>
<th>04</th>
<th>05</th>
<th>06</th>
<th>07</th>
<th>08</th>
<th>09</th>
<th>10</th>
<th>11</th>
<th>12</th>
<th>13</th>
<th>14</th>
<th>15</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" style="background-color: #white;">Chart position</th>
<td>75</td>
<td>68</td>
<td>58</td>
<td>52</td>
<td>43</td>
<td>33</td>
<td>23</td>
<td>20</td>
<td>17</td>
<td>14</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>
<center>6</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>5</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>2</center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="white" colspan="31">Billboard AC Singles trajectory</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #white;">
<th align="center">Week</th>
<th>01</th>
<th>02</th>
<th>03</th>
<th>04</th>
<th>05</th>
<th>06</th>
<th>07</th>
<th>08</th>
<th>09</th>
<th>10</th>
<th>11</th>
<th>12</th>
<th>13</th>
<th>14</th>
<th>15</th>
<th>16</th>
<th>17</th>
<th>18</th>
<th>19</th>
<th>20</th>
<th>21</th>
<th>22</th>
<th>23</th>
<th>24</th>
<th>25</th>
<th>26</th>
<th>27</th>
<th>28</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" style="background-color: #white;">Chart position</th>
<td>26</td>
<td>22</td>
<td>20</td>
<td>19</td>
<td>14</td>
<td>13</td>
<td>11</td>
<td>
<center>9</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>7</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>6</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>5</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>5</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>4</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>2</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>2</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>2</center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center>2</center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>1</b></center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="white" colspan="31">Billboard Hot 100 Singles trajectory</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #white;">
<th align="center">Week</th>
<th>01</th>
<th>02</th>
<th>03</th>
<th>04</th>
<th>05</th>
<th>06</th>
<th>07</th>
<th>08</th>
<th>09</th>
<th>10</th>
<th>11</th>
<th>12</th>
<th>13</th>
<th>14</th>
<th>15</th>
<th>16</th>
<th>17</th>
<th>18</th>
<th>19</th>
<th>20</th>
<th>21</th>
<th>22</th>
<th>23</th>
<th>24</th>
<th>25</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" style="background-color: #white;">Chart position</th>
<td>51</td>
<td>39</td>
<td>27</td>
<td>26</td>
<td>24</td>
<td>20</td>
<td>19</td>
<td>15</td>
<td>14</td>
<td>
<center>5</center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>4</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center>3</center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>2</b></center>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i>(Above trajectories from debut to peak, and does not include decline)</i><table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th align="center" bgcolor="white" colspan="31">UK Singles trajectory</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background-color: #white;">
<th align="center">Week</th>
<th>01</th>
<th>02</th>
<th>03</th>
<th>04</th>
<th>05</th>
<th>06</th>
<th>07</th>
<th>08</th>
<th>09</th>
<th>10</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" style="background-color: #white;">Chart position</th>
<td><b>10</b></td>
<td>14</td>
<td>14</td>
<td>19</td>
<td>26</td>
<td>26</td>
<td>34</td>
<td>41</td>
<td>55</td>
<td>69</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Awards" name="Awards"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards</span></h2>
<p>The following are awards which have been won by "You're Still the One". Due to the success of the single, it kept winning awards from when it was released in 1998, straight through to 2000. The song was named both the pop and country songs of the year at the 1999 BMI Songwriter Awards.<br />
<ul>
<li>1998: <!--del_lnk--> Billboard Music Awards - Best Selling Country Single<li>1998: <!--del_lnk--> Billboard Music Video Awards - Best Country Video<li>1998: Canadian Country Music Awards - Single of the Year<li>1998: <!--del_lnk--> CMT Latin America Awards - Video of the Year<li>1998: <!--del_lnk--> VH1 Viewer's Choice Awards - Sexiest Video<li>1999: <!--del_lnk--> Blockbuster Entertainment Awards - Favorite Single<li>1999: <!--del_lnk--> BMI Country Songwriter Awards - Song of the Year<li>1999: BMI Country Songwriter Awards - One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year<li>1999: BMI Pop Songwriter Awards - Song of the Year<li>1999: BMI Pop Songwriter Awards - One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year<li>1999: <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards - <!--del_lnk--> Best Country Song<li>1999: Grammy Awards - <!--del_lnk--> Best Female Country Vocal Performance<li>1999: <!--del_lnk--> SOCAN Awards - One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year<li>2000: BMI Pop Songwriter Awards - One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year<li>2000: SOCAN Awards - One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year<li>2006: BMI Million-Air Awards - 6 Million Plays in the U.S.</ul>
<p><b>Notable Nominations</b><ul>
<li>1998: <!--del_lnk--> MTV <!--del_lnk--> Video Music Awards - Best Female Video*<li>1999: Grammy Awards - <!--del_lnk--> Record of the Year<li>1999: Grammy Awards - <!--del_lnk--> Song of the Year</ul>
<p>*This nomination made Shania the first country artist and only female country artist, to date, to ever be nominated for an MTV Video Music Award.<p><b>Other Achievements</b><ul>
<li>To date, the physical commercial single of "You're Still the One" has sold over 1 000 000 copies in America. As a result, the single has been certified <!--del_lnk--> platinum by the <!--del_lnk--> RIAA for shipments of at least 1 000 000 copies. </ul>
<p><a id="Covers" name="Covers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Covers</span></h2>
<p>A Christian pop-punk band, <!--del_lnk--> Roper, covered "You're Still the One" in 2004.<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="margin:0px auto;">
<tr style="background:#lightgreen;">
<th align="center"><big><b><!--del_lnk--> Shania Twain</b></big></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Discography | <!--del_lnk--> Singles | <!--del_lnk--> Albums | <!--del_lnk--> Awards | <!--del_lnk--> Videos<br /><!--del_lnk--> Come on Over Tour | <!--del_lnk--> Up! Tour</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br />
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You%27re_Still_the_One"</div>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14921.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yb-TableImage.png" src="../../images/149/14921.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffbfff; color:black">General</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>ytterbium, Yb, 70</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> lanthanides</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> n/a, <!--del_lnk--> 6, <!--del_lnk--> f</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>silvery white<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14922.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yb%2C70.jpg" src="../../images/149/14922.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 173.04<!--del_lnk--> (3) g/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/x/Xenon.htm" title="Xenon">Xe</a>] 4f<sup>14</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 32, 8, 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffbfff; color:black">Physical properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>6.90 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>6.21 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>1097 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (824 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 1515 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>1469 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (1196 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 2185 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>7.66 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>159 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 26.74 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
<tr align="center">
<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>736</td>
<td>813</td>
<td>910</td>
<td>1047</td>
<td>(1266)</td>
<td>(1465)</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffbfff; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>cubic face centered</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>2,3<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> basic oxide)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td> ? 1.1 (Pauling scale)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 603.4 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2nd: 1174.8 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 2417 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 175 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 222 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffbfff; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>no data</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> r.t.) (β, poly)<br /> 0.250 µΩ·m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 38.5 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> r.t.) (β, poly)<br /> 26.3 µm/(m·K)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(20 °C) 1590 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Young's modulus</td>
<td>(β form) 23.9 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shear modulus</td>
<td>(β form) 9.9 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bulk modulus</td>
<td>(β form) 30.5 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Poisson ratio</td>
<td>(β form) 0.207</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vickers hardness</td>
<td>206 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brinell hardness</td>
<td>343 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-64-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffbfff; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of ytterbium</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>166</sup>Yb</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 56.7 h</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>0.304</td>
<td><sup>166</sup><a href="../../wp/t/Thulium.htm" title="Thulium">Tm</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>168</sup>Yb</td>
<td>0.13%</td>
<td colspan="4">Yb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 98 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>169</sup>Yb</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 32.026 d</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>0.909</td>
<td><sup>169</sup><a href="../../wp/t/Thulium.htm" title="Thulium">Tm</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>170</sup>Yb</td>
<td>3.05%</td>
<td colspan="4">Yb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 100 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>171</sup>Yb</td>
<td>14.3%</td>
<td colspan="4">Yb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 101 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>172</sup>Yb</td>
<td>21.9%</td>
<td colspan="4">Yb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 102 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>173</sup>Yb</td>
<td>16.12%</td>
<td colspan="4">Yb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 103 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>174</sup>Yb</td>
<td>31.8%</td>
<td colspan="4">Yb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 104 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>175</sup>Yb</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>4.185 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.470</td>
<td><sup>175</sup><a href="../../wp/l/Lutetium.htm" title="Lutetium">Lu</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>176</sup>Yb</td>
<td>12.7%</td>
<td colspan="4">Yb is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 106 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>177</sup>Yb</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>1.911 <!--del_lnk--> h</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>1.399</td>
<td><sup>177</sup><a href="../../wp/l/Lutetium.htm" title="Lutetium">Lu</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffbfff; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Ytterbium</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ɪˈtɛː(r)biəm/</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Yb</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 70. A soft silvery metallic element, ytterbium is a <!--del_lnk--> rare earth of the <!--del_lnk--> lanthanide series and is found in the minerals <!--del_lnk--> gadolinite, <!--del_lnk--> monazite, and <!--del_lnk--> xenotime. The element is sometimes associated with <a href="../../wp/y/Yttrium.htm" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a> or other related elements and is used in certain <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steels</a>. Natural ytterbium is a mix of seven stable <!--del_lnk--> isotopes.<p>
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</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Ytterbium is a soft, <!--del_lnk--> malleable and rather <!--del_lnk--> ductile element that exhibits a bright silvery <!--del_lnk--> luster. A rare earth element, it is easily attacked and dissolved by <!--del_lnk--> mineral acids, slowly <!--del_lnk--> reacts with <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> oxidizes in air.<p>Ytterbium has three <!--del_lnk--> allotropes which are called alpha, beta and gamma and whose transformation points are at −13 °<!--del_lnk--> C and 795 °C. The beta form exists at room temperature and has a face-centered <!--del_lnk--> crystal structure while the high-temperature gamma form has a body-centered crystal structure.<p>Normally, the beta form has a <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metallic</a>-like <!--del_lnk--> electrical conductivity, but becomes a <a href="../../wp/s/Semiconductor.htm" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> when exposed to around 16,000 <!--del_lnk--> atm (1.6 <!--del_lnk--> GPa). Its <a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_resistance.htm" title="Electrical resistance">electrical resistance</a> is tenfold larger at about 39,000 atm (3.9 GPa) but then dramatically drops to around 10% of its room temperature resistivity value at 40,000 atm (4 GPa).<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p>One ytterbium <!--del_lnk--> isotope has been used as a <!--del_lnk--> radiation source substitute for a portable <!--del_lnk--> X-ray machine when <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> was not available. Its metal could also be used to help improve the grain refinement, strength, and other mechanical properties of <!--del_lnk--> stainless steel. Some ytterbium <!--del_lnk--> alloys have been used in <!--del_lnk--> dentistry. There are few other uses of this element, e.g. in the form of <!--del_lnk--> ions in <!--del_lnk--> active laser media.<p>The price for Ytterbium is $875(U.S. Dollars)for 1kg<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Ytterbium was <!--del_lnk--> discovered by the Swiss chemist <!--del_lnk--> Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in <!--del_lnk--> 1878. Marignac found a new component in the earth then known as <!--del_lnk--> erbia and named it ytterbia (after <!--del_lnk--> Ytterby, the Swedish town where he found the new erbia component). He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element he called ytterbium.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1907, the French chemist <!--del_lnk--> Georges Urbain separated Marignac's ytterbia into two components, neoytterbia and lutecia. Neoytterbia would later become known as the element ytterbium and lutecia would later be known as the element <a href="../../wp/l/Lutetium.htm" title="Lutetium">lutetium</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Auer von Welsbach independently isolated these elements from ytterbia at about the same time but called them aldebaranium and cassiopeium.<p>The chemical and physical properties of ytterbium could not be determined until <!--del_lnk--> 1953 when the first nearly pure ytterbium was produced.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>Ytterbium is found with other <!--del_lnk--> rare earth elements in several rare <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">minerals</a>. It is most often recovered commercially from <!--del_lnk--> monazite sand (~0.03% ytterbium). The element is also found in <!--del_lnk--> euxenite and <!--del_lnk--> xenotime. Ytterbium is normally difficult to separate from other rare earths but <!--del_lnk--> ion-exchange and <!--del_lnk--> solvent extraction techniques developed in the late <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> have simplified separation. Known <!--del_lnk--> compounds of ytterbium are rare—they haven't been well characterized yet.<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>Naturally occurring ytterbium is composed of 7 stable <!--del_lnk--> isotopes, Yb-168, Yb-170, Yb-171, Yb-172, Yb-173, Yb-174, and Yb-176, with Yb-174 being the most abundant (31.8% <!--del_lnk--> natural abundance). 22 <!--del_lnk--> radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being Yb-169 with a <!--del_lnk--> half-life of 32.026 days, Yb-175 with a half-life of 4.185 days, and Yb-166 with a half life of 56.7 hours. All of the remaining <!--del_lnk--> radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 2 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 20 minutes. This element also has 6 <!--del_lnk--> meta states, with the most stable being Yb-169m (<i>t</i><sub>½</sub> 46 seconds).<p>The isotopes of ytterbium range in <!--del_lnk--> atomic weight from 150.955 <!--del_lnk--> u (Yb-151) to 179.952 u (Yb-180). The primary <!--del_lnk--> decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, Yb-174 is <!--del_lnk--> electron capture, and the primary mode after is <!--del_lnk--> beta emission. The primary <!--del_lnk--> decay products before Yb-174 are element 69 (<a href="../../wp/t/Thulium.htm" title="Thulium">thulium</a>) isotopes, and the primary products after are element 71 (<a href="../../wp/l/Lutetium.htm" title="Lutetium">lutetium</a>) isotopes. Of interest to modern <!--del_lnk--> quantum optics, the different ytterbium isotopes follow either <!--del_lnk--> Bose-Einstein statistics or <!--del_lnk--> Fermi-Dirac statistics, leading to interesting behaviour in <!--del_lnk--> optical lattices.<p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<p>Although ytterbium is fairly stable, it nevertheless should be stored in closed containers to protect it from air and moisture. All compounds of ytterbium should be treated as highly <!--del_lnk--> toxic although initial studies appear to indicate that the danger is limited. Ytterbium compounds are, however, known to cause <!--del_lnk--> skin and <a href="../../wp/e/Eye.htm" title="Eye">eye</a> irritation and may be <!--del_lnk--> teratogenic. Metallic ytterbium dust poses a <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fire</a> and <!--del_lnk--> explosion hazard.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ytterbium"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yttrium</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">39</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/s/Strontium.htm" title="Strontium">strontium</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">yttrium</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/z/Zirconium.htm" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a></span></td>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/s/Scandium.htm" title="Scandium">Sc</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Y</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/l/Lutetium.htm" title="Lutetium">Lu</a></span></td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14923.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="73" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Y-TableImage.png" src="../../images/149/14923.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">General</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>yttrium, Y, 39</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> transition metals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 3, <!--del_lnk--> 5, <!--del_lnk--> d</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>silvery white<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14924.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Y%2C39.jpg" src="../../images/149/14924.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 88.90585<!--del_lnk--> (2) g/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">Kr</a>] 4d<sup>1</sup> 5s<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 9, 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Physical properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>4.472 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>4.24 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>1799 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (1526 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 2779 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>3609 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (3336 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 6037 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>11.42 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>365 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 26.53 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
<tr align="center">
<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>1883</td>
<td>2075</td>
<td>(2320)</td>
<td>(2627)</td>
<td>(3036)</td>
<td>(3607)</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>hexagonal</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>3<br /> (weakly <!--del_lnk--> basic oxide)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>1.22 (Pauling scale)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 600 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2nd: 1180 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 1980 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 180 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 212 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 162 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>no data</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> r.t.) (α, poly) 596 nΩ·m</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 17.2 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> r.t.) (α, poly)<br /> 10.6 µm/(m·K)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(20 °C) 3300 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Young's modulus</td>
<td>63.5 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shear modulus</td>
<td>25.6 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bulk modulus</td>
<td>41.2 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Poisson ratio</td>
<td>0.243</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brinell hardness</td>
<td>589 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-65-5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of yttrium</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>87</sup>Y</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2">3.35 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>-</td>
<td><sup>87</sup><a href="../../wp/s/Strontium.htm" title="Strontium">Sr</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> γ</td>
<td>0.48, 0.38<!--del_lnk--> D</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>88</sup>Y</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2">106.6 d</td>
<td>ε</td>
<td>-</td>
<td><sup>88</sup><a href="../../wp/s/Strontium.htm" title="Strontium">Sr</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>γ</td>
<td>1.83, 0.89</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>89</sup>Y</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td colspan="4">Y is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 50 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>90</sup>Y</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2">2.67 d</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>2.28</td>
<td><sup>90</sup><a href="../../wp/z/Zirconium.htm" title="Zirconium">Zr</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>γ</td>
<td>2.18</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>91</sup>Y</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2">58.5 d</td>
<td>β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>1.54</td>
<td><sup>91</sup><a href="../../wp/z/Zirconium.htm" title="Zirconium">Zr</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>γ</td>
<td>1.20</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Yttrium</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ɪˈtriəm/</span>), is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Y</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 39. A silvery metallic <!--del_lnk--> transition metal, yttrium is common in <!--del_lnk--> rare-earth minerals and two of its compounds are used to make the red colour <!--del_lnk--> phosphors in <!--del_lnk--> cathode ray tube displays, such as those used for <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">televisions</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Notable_Characteristics" name="Notable_Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable Characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Yttrium is a silver-metallic, lustrous <!--del_lnk--> rare earth <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metal</a> that is relatively stable in air and chemically resembles the <!--del_lnk--> lanthanides. Shavings or <!--del_lnk--> turnings of the metal can ignite in air when they exceed 400 °<!--del_lnk--> C. When yttrium is finely divided it is very unstable in air. The metal has a low <!--del_lnk--> neutron cross-section for nuclear capture. The common <!--del_lnk--> oxidation state of yttrium is +3.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Yttrium(III) oxide is the most important yttrium compound and is widely used to make Y<a href="../../wp/v/Vanadium.htm" title="Vanadium">V</a><a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">O</a><sub>4</sub>:<a href="../../wp/e/Europium.htm" title="Europium">Eu</a> and Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>:<a href="../../wp/e/Europium.htm" title="Europium">Eu</a> <!--del_lnk--> phosphors that give the red colour in <!--del_lnk--> colour television picture tubes. Other uses;<ul>
<li>Yttrium oxide is also used to make <!--del_lnk--> yttrium iron garnets which are very effective <!--del_lnk--> microwave <!--del_lnk--> filters.<li>Yttrium iron, <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, and <a href="../../wp/g/Gadolinium.htm" title="Gadolinium">gadolinium</a> garnets (e.g. Y<sub>3</sub>Fe<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub> and Y<sub>3</sub>Al<sub>5</sub>O<sub>12</sub>) have interesting <a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">magnetic</a> properties. <!--del_lnk--> Yttrium iron garnet is very efficient as an acoustic energy transmitter and transducer. <!--del_lnk--> Yttrium aluminium garnet has a hardness of 8.5 and is also used as a <!--del_lnk--> gemstone (simulated <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamond</a>).<li>Small amounts of the element (0.1 to 0.2%) have been used to reduce grain size of <a href="../../wp/c/Chromium.htm" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Molybdenum.htm" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, and <a href="../../wp/z/Zirconium.htm" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>. It is also used to increase the <!--del_lnk--> strength of aluminium and <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> alloys.<li>Used as a <!--del_lnk--> catalyst for <!--del_lnk--> ethylene <!--del_lnk--> polymerization.<li>Yttrium aluminium garnet, <!--del_lnk--> yttrium lithium fluoride, and <!--del_lnk--> yttrium vanadate are used in combination with <!--del_lnk--> dopants such as <a href="../../wp/n/Neodymium.htm" title="Neodymium">neodymium</a> or <a href="../../wp/e/Erbium.htm" title="Erbium">erbium</a> in <!--del_lnk--> infrared <!--del_lnk--> lasers.<li>This metal can be used to deoxidize <a href="../../wp/v/Vanadium.htm" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a> and other nonferrous metals.<li>Yttrium is also used in the manufacture of <!--del_lnk--> gas mantles for <!--del_lnk--> propane <!--del_lnk--> lanterns, as a replacement for <a href="../../wp/t/Thorium.htm" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, which is slightly <!--del_lnk--> radioactive.<li><a href="../../wp/c/Cerium.htm" title="Cerium">Cerium</a>-<!--del_lnk--> doped <!--del_lnk--> yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG:Ce) crystals are used as <!--del_lnk--> phosphors to make white <!--del_lnk--> LEDs.<li>Yttrium was used as a "secret" element in a <!--del_lnk--> superconductor developed at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Houston, <!--del_lnk--> YBaCuO. This superconductor operated above 90K, an amazing feat because it can operate at above <!--del_lnk--> liquid nitrogen's boiling point. (Y<sub>1.2</sub>Ba<sub>0.8</sub>CuO<sub>4</sub>). The matter created was a multi-crystal multi-phase mineral, of which were black and green.</ul>
<p>Yttrium has been studied for possible use as a nodulizer in the making of <!--del_lnk--> nodular cast iron which has increased <!--del_lnk--> ductility (the <!--del_lnk--> graphite forms compact nodules instead of flakes to form nodular cast iron). Potentially, yttrium can be used in <!--del_lnk--> ceramic and <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> formulas, since yttrium oxide has a high <!--del_lnk--> melting point and imparts <!--del_lnk--> shock resistance and low <!--del_lnk--> thermal expansion characteristics to glass.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Yttrium (named for <i><!--del_lnk--> Ytterby</i>, a Swedish village near <!--del_lnk--> Vaxholm) was discovered by Finnish chemist, physicist and mineralogist <!--del_lnk--> Johan Gadolin in <!--del_lnk--> 1794 and isolated by <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Wohler in <!--del_lnk--> 1828 as an impure extract of <!--del_lnk--> yttria through the reduction of yttrium anhydrous <!--del_lnk--> chloride (Y<a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">Cl</a><sub>3</sub>) with <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">potassium</a>. Yttria (Y<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) is the oxide of yttrium and was discovered by Johan Gadolin in <!--del_lnk--> 1794 in a <!--del_lnk--> gadolinite mineral from Ytterby.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1843, the great Swedish chemist <!--del_lnk--> Carl Mosander was able to show that yttria could be divided into the oxides (or earths) of three different elements. "Yttria" was the name used for the most <!--del_lnk--> basic one and the others were re-named erbia and terbia.<p>A quarry is located near the village of Ytterby that yielded many unusual minerals that contained <!--del_lnk--> rare earths and other elements. The elements <a href="../../wp/e/Erbium.htm" title="Erbium">erbium</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Terbium.htm" title="Terbium">terbium</a>, <a href="../../wp/y/Ytterbium.htm" title="Ytterbium">ytterbium</a>, and yttrium have all been named after this same small village.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>This element is found in almost all <!--del_lnk--> rare-earth minerals and in <a href="../../wp/u/Uranium.htm" title="Uranium">uranium</a> <!--del_lnk--> ores but is never found in nature as a free element. Yttrium is commercially recovered from <!--del_lnk--> monazite sand (3% content, [(<a href="../../wp/c/Cerium.htm" title="Cerium">Ce</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lanthanum.htm" title="Lanthanum">La</a>, etc.)<!--del_lnk--> PO<sub>4</sub>]) and from <!--del_lnk--> bastnäsite (0.2% content, [(Ce, La, etc.)(<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">C</a>O<sub>3</sub>)<a href="../../wp/f/Fluorine.htm" title="Fluorine">F</a>]). It is commercially produced by reducing yttrium <!--del_lnk--> fluoride with <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">calcium</a> metal but it can also be produced using other techniques. It is difficult to separate from other rare earths and when extracted, is a dark gray powder.<p><!--del_lnk--> Lunar Rock samples from the <!--del_lnk--> Apollo program have a relatively high yttrium content.<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>Natural yttrium is composed of only one <!--del_lnk--> isotope (Y-89). The most stable <!--del_lnk--> radioisotopes are Y-88 which has a <!--del_lnk--> half life of 106.65 days and Y-91 with a half life of 58.51 days. All the other isotopes have half lifes of less than a day except Y-87 which has a half life of 79.8 hours. The dominant <!--del_lnk--> decay mode below the stable Y-89 is <!--del_lnk--> electron capture and the dominant mode after it is <!--del_lnk--> beta emission. Twenty six unstable isotopes have been characterized.<p>Y-90 exists in equilibrium with its parent isotope <a href="../../wp/s/Strontium.htm" title="Strontium">strontium</a>-90, which is a product of <!--del_lnk--> nuclear explosions.<p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<p>Compounds that contain this element are rarely encountered by most people but should be considered to be highly toxic even though many compounds pose little risk. Yttrium salts may be <!--del_lnk--> carcinogenic. This element is not normally found in human tissue and plays no known biological role.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Yugoslavia. For more information see <a href="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Yugoslavia">SOS Children in Yugoslavia</a></div>
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<dl>
<dd><span class="boilerplate seealso"><i>See also: <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Yugoslavia, <!--del_lnk--> Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia</i></span></dl>
<p><b>Yugoslavia</b> (<i>Jugoslavija</i> in <!--del_lnk--> South Slavic languages, <i>Југославија</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Serbian, <!--del_lnk--> Macedonian <!--del_lnk--> Cyrillic): "Land of the <!--del_lnk--> South Slavs") describes three separate political entities that existed on the <!--del_lnk--> Balkan Peninsula in Europe, during most of the 20th century.<p>The <b>Kingdom of Yugoslavia</b> (<!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1918–<!--del_lnk--> April 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1941), also known as the <!--del_lnk--> First Yugoslavia, was a <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> formed as the "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes" after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> and re-named on <!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1929 by <!--del_lnk--> Alexander I of Yugoslavia. It was invaded on <!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1941 by the <!--del_lnk--> Axis powers and capitulated eleven days later.<p>The <b>Second Yugoslavia</b> (c.1943-), a <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialist</a> successor state to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, existed under various names, including the "Democratic Federation of Yugoslavia (DFY)" (1943), the "Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY)" (1946), and the "<!--del_lnk--> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY)" (1963). It disintegrated following the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav Wars, which led to the secession of most of the constituent elements of the SFRY.<p>The <b>Federal Republic of Yugoslavia</b> (FRY) (1992) was a <!--del_lnk--> federation on the <!--del_lnk--> territory of the two remaining republics of <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> (including the autonomous provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Vojvodina and <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo and Metohija">Kosovo and Metohija</a>) and <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> February 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, the state transformed into a loose commonwealth called <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia_and_Montenegro.htm" title="Serbia and Montenegro">Serbia and Montenegro</a> and officially abolished the name "Yugoslavia." On <!--del_lnk--> June 3 and <!--del_lnk--> June 5, 2006, Montenegro and Serbia respectively declared their independence, thereby ending the last remnants of the former Yugoslav federation.<p>
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<p><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
<p><a id="Southern_Slavic_State" name="Southern_Slavic_State"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Southern Slavic State</span></h3>
<p>The first idea of a state for all South Slavs emerged in the late 17th century, a product of visionary thinking of Croat writers and philosophers who believed that the only way for southern Slavs to regain lost freedom after centuries of occupation under the <!--del_lnk--> Austro-Hungarian Empire and <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> would be to unite and free themselves of tyrannies and dictatorships. They gave it the name Ilirski Pokret (Illyric Movement) and gathered many prominent Croatian intellectuals and politicians around the new idea, but the movement started gaining large momentum only at the end of the 19th century, mainly because of the harsh policies against any freedom movements occupied southern Slavs could possibly have, practiced by both Austrian and Hungarian dictators. As the Ottoman Empire grew weaker and Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece grew stronger after the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Congress, hope for sovereignty of the South Slavic peoples in the <!--del_lnk--> Habsburg Empire (Austria-Hungary) increased and the idea of a union between them became stronger.<p>During the early period of the World War I (which started in 1914), a number of prominent political figures, including <!--del_lnk--> Ante Trumbić, <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Meštrović, <!--del_lnk--> Nikola Stojanović and others, from South Slavic lands under the Habsburg Empire, fled to London where they began work on forming Yugoslav Committee and their mission was to represent the south Slavs of the empire. They chose London as their headquarters.<p><a id="The_Yugoslav_Committee" name="The_Yugoslav_Committee"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Yugoslav Committee</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav Committee (<i>Jugoslavenski odbor</i>) was officially formed on <!--del_lnk--> April 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1915 in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, and it began to raise funds, especially among South Slavs living in the Americas. Because of their stature, the members of the Yugoslav Committee were able to make their views known to the Allied governments, which began to take them increasingly seriously, especially as the fate of <!--del_lnk--> Austro-Hungarian Empire looked more uncertain.<p>While the committee's basic aim was the unification of the Habsburg south Slav lands with Serbia (which was independent at the time), its more immediate concern was to head off Italian claims in <!--del_lnk--> Istria and <!--del_lnk--> Dalmatia, which was a very real concern. In 1915, the Allies had lured the Italians into the war with promise of substantial territorial gains in exchange. According to the secret <!--del_lnk--> London Pact, these included Istria and large parts of Dalmatia, where relatively substantial numbers of Italians lived in the coastal cities, compared to the surrounding Slavs.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14926.png.htm" title="Lands offered to Serbia by the Allies in 1915."><img alt="Lands offered to Serbia by the Allies in 1915." height="246" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LandsForSerbia.PNG" src="../../images/149/14926.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14926.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lands offered to Serbia by the Allies in 1915.</div>
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<p>Although in 1915 the Serbian Assembly had pledged itself to work for the liberation of all <!--del_lnk--> Serbs, <!--del_lnk--> Croats and <!--del_lnk--> Slovenes, non-Serb members of the Yugoslav Committee became alarmed when the Allies offered Serbia lands that had not been reserved for Italians. These included Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slavonia, <!--del_lnk--> Bačka and parts of Dalmatia. Croat members of the Committee feared a carve-up of Croat lands between Serbia and Italy. There were also quarrels about the designation and command of units of south Slav POWs in Russia now being mobilised to fight with the Allies. The Yugoslav Committee wanted them to fight in the Yugoslav name, while <!--del_lnk--> Nikola Pašić (Prime Minister of Serbia) seeing in this a "Croat Army", wanted them to fight under the Serbian flag.<p><a id="Corfu_agreement" name="Corfu_agreement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Corfu agreement</span></h3>
<p>However, during June and July 1917, the Yugoslav committee met with the Serbian Government in Corfu and on <!--del_lnk--> 20 July a declaration that laid foundation of the post-war state was issued. The preamble stated that the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were "the same by blood, by language, by the feelings of their unity, by the continuity and integrity of the territory which they inhabit undividedly, and by the common vital interests of their national survival and manifold development of their moral and material life". The future state was to be called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and was to be constitutional monarchy under the Karađorđević dynasty.<p><a id="The_unification_of_South_Slavs" name="The_unification_of_South_Slavs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The unification of South Slavs</span></h3>
<p>As the Habsburg Empire dissolved, a National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs took power in Zagreb on <!--del_lnk--> 6 October <!--del_lnk--> 1918. On <!--del_lnk--> 29 October, the Croatian Sabor or parliament declared independence and vested its sovereignty in the new <!--del_lnk--> State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The Yugoslav Committee was given the task of representing the new state abroad. However quarrels broke out immediately about the terms of the proposed union with Serbia. Svetozar Pribićević, a Croatian Serb, a leader of the Croatian-Serbian Coalition and vice-precedent of the state, wanted an immediate and unconditional union. Others (non-Serbs), who favoured a federal Yugoslavia were more hesitant. They feared that Serbia would simply annex the former Habsburg territories. The National Council's authority was limited and the Italians were moving to take more territory than they had been allotted in an agreement with the Yugoslav Committee. Political opinion was divided and Serbian ministers said that if Croats insisted on their own republic or sort of independence, then Serbia would simply take areas inhabited by the Serbs and already occupied by the Serbian Army. After much debate the National Council agreed to unification with Serbia, although its declaration stated that the final organization of the state should be left to the future Constituent Assembly. The most prominent opponent of this decision was Stjepan Radić, the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party (Hrvatska Seljačka Stranka, HSS). However, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was declared on 1 December 1918 in Belgrade.<p><a id="Kingdom_of_Serbs.2C_Croats_and_Slovenes" name="Kingdom_of_Serbs.2C_Croats_and_Slovenes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14927.jpg.htm" title="Map showing banovinas in 1929"><img alt="Map showing banovinas in 1929" height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Banovine_kj.jpg" src="../../images/149/14927.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14927.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map showing <!--del_lnk--> banovinas in 1929</div>
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<p><a id="King_Alexander.27s_dictatorship" name="King_Alexander.27s_dictatorship"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">King Alexander's dictatorship</span></h3>
<p>Following this, <!--del_lnk--> King Aleksandar I banned national political parties in 1929, assumed executive power and renamed the country Yugoslavia. He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions. However, the balance of power changed in international relations: in <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">Fascists</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> rose to power, and <a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a> became the absolute ruler in the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. None of these three states favoured the policy pursued by Aleksandar I. In fact, the first two wanted to revise the international treaties signed after World War I, and the Soviets were determined to regain their positions in Europe and pursue a more active international policy. Yugoslavia was an obstacle for these plans and King Aleksandar I was the pillar of the Yugoslav policy.<p>Alexander attempted to create a genuine Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavia's historic regions and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas. The banovinas were named after rivers. Many politicians were jailed or kept under tight police surveillance. The effect of Alexander's dictatorship was to further alienate the non-Serbs of the idea of unity.<p>During an official visit to France in 1934, the king was assassinated in <a href="../../wp/m/Marseille.htm" title="Marseilles">Marseilles</a> by an experienced <!--del_lnk--> marksman from <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Mihailov's <!--del_lnk--> IMRO in the cooperation of the <!--del_lnk--> Ustaše, a Croatian separatist organization that pursued <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> policies. Alexander was succeeded by his eleven year old son <!--del_lnk--> Peter II and a regency council headed by his cousin Prince Paul.<p><a id="The_1930s_in_Yugoslavia" name="The_1930s_in_Yugoslavia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The 1930s in Yugoslavia</span></h3>
<p>The international political scene in the late 1930s was marked by growing intolerance between the principal figures, by the aggressive attitude of the <!--del_lnk--> totalitarian regimes and by the certainty that the order set up after World War I was losing its strongholds and its sponsors were losing their strength. Supported and pressured by <!--del_lnk--> Fascist Italy and <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, Croatian leader <!--del_lnk--> Vlatko Maček and his party managed the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Croatian banovina (administrative province) in 1939. The agreement specified that Croatia was to remain part of Yugoslavia, but it was hurriedly building an independent political identity in international relations.<p>Prince Paul submitted to the fascist pressure and signed the <!--del_lnk--> Tripartite Treaty in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> on <!--del_lnk--> March 25th, <!--del_lnk--> 1941, hoping to still keep Yugoslavia out of the war. But this was at the expense of popular support for Paul's regency. Senior military officers were also opposed to the treaty and launched a <!--del_lnk--> coup d'état when the king returned on <!--del_lnk--> March 27th. Army General <!--del_lnk--> Dušan Simović seized power, arrested the Vienna delegation, exiled Paul, and ended the regency, giving 17 year old <!--del_lnk--> King Peter full powers.<p><a id="The_beginning_of_World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia" name="The_beginning_of_World_War_II_in_Yugoslavia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The beginning of World War II in Yugoslavia</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> then decided to attack Yugoslavia on <!--del_lnk--> April 6 1941, followed immediately by an invasion of <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> where <a href="../../wp/b/Benito_Mussolini.htm" title="Benito Mussolini">Mussolini</a> had previously been repelled. (As a result, the launch of <!--del_lnk--> Operation Barbarossa was delayed by four weeks, which proved to be a costly decision.)<p><a id="Yugoslavia_during_the_Second_World_War" name="Yugoslavia_during_the_Second_World_War"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Yugoslavia during the Second World War</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_invasion_of_Yugoslavia" name="The_invasion_of_Yugoslavia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The invasion of Yugoslavia</span></h3>
<p>At 5:15 a.m. on <!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1941, <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">German</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Italian, <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a>, and <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgarian</a> forces attacked Yugoslavia. The <a href="../../wp/l/Luftwaffe.htm" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> bombed <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade and other major Yugoslav cities. On <!--del_lnk--> April 17th, representatives of Yugoslavia's various regions signed an armistice with Germany at Belgrade, ending eleven days of resistance against the invading German Wehrmacht. More than three hundred thousand Yugoslav officers and soldiers were taken prisoners.<p><a id="The_Independent_State_of_Croatia" name="The_Independent_State_of_Croatia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Independent State of Croatia</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14928.jpg.htm" title="In the Independent State of Croatia, Serbs, Jews and Gypsies were marched to the Jasenovac concentration camp"><img alt="In the Independent State of Croatia, Serbs, Jews and Gypsies were marched to the Jasenovac concentration camp" height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jasenovac1.jpg" src="../../images/149/14928.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14928.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In the <!--del_lnk--> Independent State of Croatia, <!--del_lnk--> Serbs, <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Gypsies were marched to the <!--del_lnk--> Jasenovac concentration camp</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Axis Powers occupied Yugoslavia and split it up. The <!--del_lnk--> Independent State of Croatia was established as a Nazi puppet-state, ruled by the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">fascist</a> militia known as the <!--del_lnk--> Ustaše that came into existence in 1929, but was relatively limited in its activities until 1941. German troops occupied <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> as well as part of <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>, while other parts of the country were occupied by <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>.<p><a id="Resistance_movements" name="Resistance_movements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Resistance movements</span></h3>
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<p>Yugoslavs opposing the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> organized resistance movement. Those inclined towards supporting the old Kingdom of Yugoslavia joined the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland, also known as the Chetniks, a multiethnic, though largely Serb, royalist guerilla army led by <!--del_lnk--> Dragoljub "Draža" Mihailović. Those inclined towards supporting the <!--del_lnk--> Communist Party (<i>Komunistička partija</i>), and were against the King, joined the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav National Liberation Army Narodno Oslobodilacka Vojska (NOV), led by <!--del_lnk--> Josip Broz Tito .<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14929.jpg.htm" title="Children in Jasenovac"><img alt="Children in Jasenovac" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jasenovac6.jpg" src="../../images/149/14929.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14929.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Children in Jasenovac</div>
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<p>The NOV initiated a <!--del_lnk--> guerrilla campaign which was developed into the largest resistance army in occupied Western and Central Europe. The Chetniks initially made notable incursions and were supported by the exiled royal government as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Allies, but were soon restrained from taking wider actions due to German reprisals against the Serb civilian population.<p>For every killed soldier, the Germans executed 100 civilians, and for each wounded, they killed 50. Regarding the human cost as too high, the Chetniks' terminated war activities against the Germans, and the Allies eventually switched to support the NOV.<p>However, NOV carried on its guerrilla warfare. The <!--del_lnk--> demographic loss is estimated at 1,027,000 individuals by <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Žerjavić and <!--del_lnk--> Bogoljub Kočović, an estimate accepted by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, while the official Yugoslav authorities claimed 1,700,000 casualties. Very high losses were among <!--del_lnk--> Serbs who lived in Bosnia and Croatia, as well as <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Roma minorities, high also among all other non-<!--del_lnk--> collaborating population.<p>During the war, the <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communist</a>-led <!--del_lnk--> partisans were <i>de facto</i> rulers on the liberated territories, and the NOV organized <!--del_lnk--> people's committees to act as civilian government. In Autumn of 1941, the partisans established the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Užice in the liberated territory of western <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>. In November 1941, the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> troops occupied this territory again, while the majority of partisan forces escaped towards Bosnia.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1942, the <!--del_lnk--> Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia (<i>Antifašističko Vijeće Narodnog Oslobođenja Jugoslavije</i>) was convened in <!--del_lnk--> Bihać. The council reconvened on <!--del_lnk--> November 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1943 in <!--del_lnk--> Jajce and established the basis for post-war organisation of the country, establishing a federation (this date was celebrated as Republic Day after the war).<p><a id="The_liberation_of_Yugoslavia" name="The_liberation_of_Yugoslavia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The liberation of Yugoslavia</span></h3>
<p>The NOV was able to expel the Axis from Serbia in 1944 and the rest of Yugoslavia in 1945. The <!--del_lnk--> Red Army aided in liberating <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade as well as some other territories, but withdrew after the war was over. In May 1945, NOV met with allied forces outside former Yugoslav borders, after taking over also <!--del_lnk--> Trieste and parts of <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> southern provinces <!--del_lnk--> Styria and <!--del_lnk--> Carinthia. This was the territory populated predominantly by <!--del_lnk--> Slovenes (and <!--del_lnk--> Croats in <!--del_lnk--> Istria). However, the NLA withdrew from Trieste in June of the same year.<p>Westerner attempts to reunite the partisans, who denied supremacy of the old government of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and the emigration loyal to the king, led to the <!--del_lnk--> Tito-Šubašić Agreement in June 1944, however Tito was seen as a national hero by the citizens, so he gained the power in post-war independent <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communist</a> state, starting as a <!--del_lnk--> prime minister.<p><a id="The_Second_Yugoslavia" name="The_Second_Yugoslavia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Second Yugoslavia</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14931.png.htm" title="Numbered map of Yugoslav republics and provinces"><img alt="Numbered map of Yugoslav republics and provinces" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SFRYugoslaviaNumbered.png" src="../../images/149/14931.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14931.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Numbered map of Yugoslav republics and provinces</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1946 the new <!--del_lnk--> constitution of <!--del_lnk--> Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, modeling the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, established six Socialist Republics, a Socialist Autonomous Province, and a Socialist Autonomous District that were part of SR Serbia. The federal capital was <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade. Republics and provinces were (in alphabetical order):<ol>
<li>Socialist republic of <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, with the capital in <a href="../../wp/s/Sarajevo.htm" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>,<li>Socialist republic of <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, with the capital in <!--del_lnk--> Zagreb,<li>Socialist republic of <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Macedonia.htm" title="Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a>, with the capital in <!--del_lnk--> Skopje,<li>Socialist republic of <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, with the capital in <!--del_lnk--> Titograd (now Podgorica),<li>Socialist republic of <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, with the capital in <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade, which also contained:<br /> 5a. Socialist autonomous district of <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> and Metohija, with the capital in <!--del_lnk--> Priština<br /> 5b. Socialist autonomous province of <!--del_lnk--> Vojvodina, with the capital in <!--del_lnk--> Novi Sad<li>Socialist republic of <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>, with the capital in <!--del_lnk--> Ljubljana.</ol>
<p>In 1974, the two provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo-Metohija (for the latter had by then been upgraded to the status of a province), as well as the republics of Bosnia & Herzegovina and Montenegro, were granted greater autonomy to the point that Albanian and Hungarian became nationally recognised minority languages and the Serbo-Croat of Bosnia and Montenegro altered to a form based on the speech of the local people and not on the standards of Zagreb and Belgrade.<p><!--del_lnk--> Vojvodina and <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>-Metohija form a part of the Republic of <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>. The country distanced itself from the Soviets in 1948 (cf. <!--del_lnk--> Cominform and <!--del_lnk--> Informbiro) and started to build its own way to <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialism</a> under strong political leadership of <!--del_lnk--> Josip Broz Tito. The country criticized both <!--del_lnk--> Eastern bloc and <a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" title="NATO">NATO</a> nations and, together with other countries, started the <!--del_lnk--> Non-Aligned Movement in 1961, which remained the official affiliation of the country until it dissolved.<p><a id="The_economy" name="The_economy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The economy</span></h3>
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<p>Although rigorously socialist in developing its industrial base, Yugoslavia allowed a certain amount of capitalist incursions, in the spirit of pluralism. This openness to western investment, however, sowed the seeds of the federation's demise. Meanwhile, Yugoslavia enjoyed stability and peace. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, the growth of Yugoslavia's <!--del_lnk--> gross domestic product averaged 6.1%. There was 91% literacy and an average life expectancy of 72 years. The state provided housing, health care, education, and child care. Citizens lived well on a per capita income of $3,000 a year (in 1980 dollars), with one month paid vacation, plus a year's maternity leave, if needed. Respect for workers was a central concern of government and society.<p><a id="The_government" name="The_government"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The government</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14932.jpg.htm" title="1968. Yugoslav Communist Party celebration"><img alt="1968. Yugoslav Communist Party celebration" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Proslavatito.jpg" src="../../images/149/14932.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1963 the nation changed its official name to <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and <!--del_lnk--> Tito was named <!--del_lnk--> President for life.<p>In SFRY, each republic and province had its own constitution, supreme court, parliament, president and prime minister. At the top of the Yugoslav government were the President (Tito), the federal Prime Minister, and the federal Parliament (a collective Presidency was formed after Tito's death in 1980).<p>Also important were the <!--del_lnk--> Communist Party presidents for each republic and province, and the president of Central Committee of the Communist Party.<p>Josip Broz Tito was the most powerful person in the country, followed by republican and provincial premiers and presidents, and Communist Party presidents. A wide variety of people suffered from his disfavor. Slobodan Penezić Krcun, Tito's chief of secret police in Serbia, fell victim to a dubious traffic incident after he started to complain about Tito's politics. The Interior Minister <!--del_lnk--> Aleksandar Ranković lost all of his titles and rights after a major disagreement with Tito regarding state politics. Sometimes ministers in government, such as <!--del_lnk--> Edvard Kardelj or <!--del_lnk--> Stane Dolanc, were more important than the Prime Minister.<p>The suppression of national identities escalated with the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Croatian Spring of 1970-1971, when students in <!--del_lnk--> Zagreb organized demonstrations for greater civil liberties and greater <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatian</a> autonomy. The regime stifled the public protest and incarcerated the leaders, but many key Croatian representatives in the Party silently supported this cause, so a new <!--del_lnk--> Constitution was ratified in 1974 that gave more rights to the individual republics in Yugoslavia and provinces in Serbia.<p><a id="Ethnic_tensions_and_the_economic_crisis" name="Ethnic_tensions_and_the_economic_crisis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ethnic tensions and the economic crisis</span></h3>
<p>The post-<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> Yugoslavia was in many respects a model of how to build a multinational state. The Federation was constructed against a double background: an inter-war Yugoslavia which had been dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> Serbian ruling class; and a war-time slaughter in which the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazis">Nazis</a> made use of the earlier Serbian oppression to use <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatian</a> <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">fascism</a> for barbarous acts against the Serbs and also exploited anti-Serb sentiment amongst the <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovar</a> <!--del_lnk--> Albanians - and some elements in the <!--del_lnk--> Bosnian Muslim - population to bolster their rule.<p>There has been one structural element in the post-World War II Yugoslav state's stability: the joint concern of the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> to maintain the integrity of Yugoslavia as a neutral state on the frontiers of the super-power confrontation in Europe.<p>The economic crisis was the product of disastrous errors by Yugoslav governments in the 1970s, borrowing vast amounts of Western capital in order to fund growth through exports. Western economies then entered recession, blocked Yugoslav exports and created a huge debt problem. The Yugoslav government then accepted the <!--del_lnk--> IMF's conditionalities which shifted the burden of the crisis onto the Yugoslav working class. Simultaneously, strong social groups emerged within the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav Communist Party, allied to Western business, banking and state interests and began pushing towards <!--del_lnk--> neoliberalism, to the delight of the US. It was the <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> administration which, in 1984, had adopted a "<!--del_lnk--> Shock Therapy" proposal to push Yugoslavia towards a capitalist restoration.<p>This, naturally, undermined a central pillar of the state: the socialist link between the Communist Party and the working class. The forms and effects of this varied in different parts of Yugoslavia. First in Kosovo in 1981, where the links between Yugoslav communism and the population had always been the weakest and where the economic crisis was most intense, there was an uprising demanding full republican status for Kosovo, as well as unification with <a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" title="Albania">Albania</a>.<p>In 1989 <!--del_lnk--> Jeffrey Sachs was in Yugoslavia helping the Federal government under <!--del_lnk--> Ante Marković prepare the IMF/<a href="../../wp/w/World_Bank_Group.htm" title="World Bank Group">World Bank</a> "<!--del_lnk--> Shock Therapy" package, which was then introduced in 1990 just at the time when the crucial parliamentary elections were being held in the various republics.<p>One aspect of Yugoslavia's "<!--del_lnk--> Shock Therapy" programme was both unique within the region and of great political importance in 1989-90. The bankruptcy law to liquidate state enterprises was enacted in the 1989 Financial Operations Act which required that if an enterprise was insolvent for 30 days running, or for 30 days within a 45 day period, it had to settle with its creditors either by giving them ownership or by being liquidated, in which case workers would be sacked, normally without severance payments.<p>In 1989, according to official sources, 248 firms were declared bankrupt or were liquidated and 89,400 workers were laid off. During the first nine months of 1990 directly following the adoption of the IMF programme, another 889 enterprises with a combined work-force of 525,000 workers suffered the same fate. In other words, in less than two years "the trigger mechanism" (under the Financial Operations Act) had led to the lay off of more than 600,000 workers out of a total industrial workforce of the order of 2.7 million. A further 20% of the work force, or half a million people, were not paid wages during the early months of 1990 as enterprises sought to avoid bankruptcy. The largest concentrations of bankrupt firms and lay-offs were in <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Macedonia.htm" title="Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a> and <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>. Real earnings were in a free fall, social programmes had collapsed creating within the population an atmosphere of social despair and hopelessness. This was a critical turning point in the Yugoslav tragedy.<p>In the spring of 1990, Marković was by far the most popular politician, not only in Yugoslavia as a whole, but in each of its constituent republics. He should have been able to rally the population for Yugoslavism against the particularist nationalisms of <!--del_lnk--> Milošević in <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Tuđman in <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> and he should have been able to count on the obedience of the armed forces. He was supported by 83% of the population in Croatia, by 81% in Serbia and by 59% in Slovenia and by 79% in Yugoslavia as a whole. This level of support showed how much of the Yugoslav population remained strongly committed to the state's preservation.<p>But Marković had coupled his Yugoslavism with the IMF "<!--del_lnk--> Shock Therapy" programme and EC conditionality and it was this which gave the separatists in the North West and the nationalists in Serbia their opening. The appeal of the separatists in <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> and Croatia to their electorates involved offering to repudiate the Marković-IMF austerity and by doing so help their republics prepare to leave Yugoslavia altogether and "join Europe". The appeal of Milošević in Serbia was based around the idea that the West was acting against the Serbian people's interests. These <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> appeals were ultimately successful: in every republic, beginning with Slovenia and Croatia in the spring, governments ignored the monetary restrictions of Marković's stabilisation programme in order to win votes.<p>The newly elected regional government then turned their efforts to the break-up of the country. They were aided by the US government's stance of sidelining Yugoslav cohesion in favour of pushing ahead with the "<!--del_lnk--> Shock Therapy" programme. Indeed, it is likely that the internal dynamics towards Yugoslav collapse into civil war may have been inadvertently accelerated by the actions of the <a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush</a> administration. The few European states with strategic interests in the Yugoslav theatre tended to favour fragmentation.<p>It would be wrong, of course, to suggest that there were no other, specifically Yugoslav, structural flaws which helped to generate the collapse. For instance, many would argue that the decentralised Market Socialism was a disastrous experiment for a state in Yugoslavia's geopolitical situation. The 1974 Constitution, though better for the Kosovar Albanians, had given increased power to the republics, whilst dampening the institutional and material power of the federal government. Tito's authority substituted for this weakness until his death in 1980, after which the state and <!--del_lnk--> Communist Party became increasingly paralyzed and thrown into crisis.<p><a id="Breakup" name="Breakup"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Breakup</span></h3>
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<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14934.gif.htm" title="An animated series of maps showing the breakup of the second Yugoslavia; The different colors represent the areas of control Key: ██ Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro, Serbia ██ Slovenia ██ Croatia ██ Republic of Macedonia ██ Bosnia and Herzegovina ██ Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina ██ Republika Srpska ██ Brčko District ██ Kosovo ██ Montenegro"><img alt="An animated series of maps showing the breakup of the second Yugoslavia; The different colors represent the areas of control Key: ██ Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro, Serbia ██ Slovenia ██ Croatia ██ Republic of Macedonia ██ Bosnia and Herzegovina ██ Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina ██ Republika Srpska ██ Brčko District ██ Kosovo ██ Montenegro" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Breakup_of_Yugoslavia.gif" src="../../images/149/14934.gif" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14934.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An animated series of maps showing the breakup of the second Yugoslavia; The different colors represent the areas of control<br /> Key:<br /><span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#FE0000; color:#FE0000;">██</span> Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro, Serbia</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#FFFF00; color:#FFFF00;">██</span> <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#0000FE; color:#0000FE;">██</span> <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#800080; color:#800080;">██</span> <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Macedonia.htm" title="Republic of Macedonia">Republic of Macedonia</a></span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#008000; color:#008000;">██</span> <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#8080FF; color:#8080FF;">██</span> <!--del_lnk--> Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#FF80FF; color:#FF80FF;">██</span> <!--del_lnk--> Republika Srpska</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#00FE00; color:#00FE00;">██</span> <!--del_lnk--> Brčko District</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#C00000; color:#C00000;">██</span> <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a></span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#D3AE3B; color:#D3AE3B;">██</span> <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a></span></div>
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<p>After Tito's death on <!--del_lnk--> May 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1980, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethnic_group.htm" title="Ethnic group">ethnic</a> <!--del_lnk--> tensions grew in Yugoslavia, bolstered by open support from a number of western countries, listed in the next paragraphs. They all used the legacy of the <!--del_lnk--> Constitution of 1974 to throw the system of decision-making into a state of paralysis, all the more hopeless as the conflict of interests, fueled and icited by external supporters of the break-up between the republics, had become irreconcilable. The constitutional crisis that inevitably followed played in favour of Slovenia and Croatia and their strongly expressed demands for looser ties within Federation.<p>The collapse of Yugoslavia was the result of both internal and external factors. Assigning comparative weight to the external as against the internal factors in the generalised crisis that shook Yugoslavia in 1990-1991 is definitely a very simple matter. Without understanding the roles of the Western powers in helping to produce and channel the crisis, it is difficult to understand the disintegration of Yugoslavia. The fundamental cause of the Yugoslav collapse was not an economic crisis. This was barely a pretext used by social groups in Yugoslavia and their tutors in the West to undermine the collectivised core of the economy and push Yugoslavia towards a "capitalist restoration" which inevitably led to disastrous war and hundreds of thousands of innocent people being murdered in order to save the face of dying and collapsing capitalism. Many <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> governments had their interests and wanted the break-up of Yugoslavia, something not true in the case of any other part of <!--del_lnk--> East <!--del_lnk--> Central Europe at that time. Their pressure thus combined with the general Western drive for capitalism to speed the break-up during 1989-90. On one side were a number of European states eager to gain "independence" for <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>; on the other side was the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, eager only to ensure that Yugoslavia paid its debts to Western banks and "globalised" its political economy through "Shock Therapy" in order to ensure a regime in the country open for the Western multinationals. Whether decimated or not.<p>The forces eager to see the break-up of Yugoslavia through independence for Slovenia and Croatia were the <!--del_lnk--> Vatican, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> US and more ambivalently <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>. Italy which had its own crisis of identity and looked at speeding up "democratic processes" as a way of diverting similar sentiments seeking independence for <!--del_lnk--> northern Italy. Through graphic pictures of the drama unfolding in the neighbouring Yugoslavia attracted attention from countries such as the <!--del_lnk--> UK, <!--del_lnk--> the Netherlands, <a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" title="Albania">Albania</a> and even such distant countries as <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Saudi-Arabia, <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Al-Qaida's Afghan-tested <!--del_lnk--> Mujaheedins. Since the mid-1980s, the Vatican and Austria had started an active campaign in East Central and Eastern Europe to rebuild their influence there and by 1989-90 the Vatican was openly championing independence for Slovenia and Croatia. The real goal of Austrian policy was to expand Austria's regional influence since it "<i>saw the Yugoslav crisis as an auspicious moment for self-assertion</i>".<p>In the summer of 1991 the <!--del_lnk--> European Council was finally prompted to warn Austria that if it continued its energetic efforts to break up Yugoslavia it would be excluded from eventual EC membership but even that threat did not stop Austrian efforts.<p>The <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> government of <!--del_lnk--> József Antall, elected in the Spring of 1990, adopted a policy very much in line with that of Austria, but with additional Hungarian goals <!--del_lnk--> vis-à-vis Serbia's <!--del_lnk--> Vojvodina Province.<p>These manoeuvres by Austria and Hungary to break up Yugoslavia were, of course, then overshadowed by the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> government's drive to derecognise Yugoslavia through giving recognition to Slovenia and Croatia. The German government's open championing of Yugoslavia's break-up did not occur until the late Spring of 1991, but long before that both Slovenia and Croatia were getting encouragement from <!--del_lnk--> Bonn for their efforts.<p>Germany was only happy to help disappearance of the country it still owed almost hundred billions of US dollars in the name of World War II reparations. It was the money that helped Germany to be born twice. First, when Jugoslav President Tito offered Germany to repay the debt when it recovers from the repaying other countries, and then when Germans realised that if Jugoslavia disappears, Germany could finance, otherwise disastrous, re-unification with East Germany. If Jugoslavia did not breakup, Germany would not have been able to finance its own re-union.<p>There was thus a focused and co-ordinated coalition involving Austria, Germany, Hungary and the Vatican all pushing for the same goal: Yugoslavia's break up.<p>This campaign on the surface, was not supported by the United States, which championed Yugoslav unity as did <!--del_lnk--> Britain and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>. But for the US unity was not the main thing: its policy was principally governed by its concern to ensure the imposition of "Shock Therapy" on the country as a whole via the IMF. As they always did, they kept the posture of trying to help, when in the background, through their vasals, US was pushing hard for the breakup, looking greedily at real estate and strategic positions around the country, along the long ago proposed highway to Turkey.<p>The only European states which did have a strategic interest in the Yugoslav theatre tended to want to break it up. It would be wrong, of course, to suggest that there were no other, specifically Yugoslav, structural flaws which helped to generate the collapse. Many so-called "experts" would argue that the decentralised Market Socialism was a disastrous experiment for a state in Yugoslavia's geopolitical situation. Nothing could have been further from the truth, as the stellar growth and rapid industrialisation have demonstrated. So external enemies had to play through the system in order to destabilise the country and make it look like it was crumbling under its own problems. Economy and the political system, being socialist one, were the great excuses for imperialist capitalism. The 1974 Constitution, though better for the <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovar</a> <!--del_lnk--> Albanians, gave too much to the republics, crippling the institutional and material power of the Federal government. <!--del_lnk--> Tito's authority substituted for this weakness until his death in 1980, after which the state and Communist Party became increasingly paralyzed and thrown into crisis. In 1990-1991, then, Yugoslavia was in the grip of a dynamic towards break-up despite the fact that the overwhelming majority of its population did not favour such a course.<p>In 1986, the <!--del_lnk--> Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts drafted a memorandum addressing some burning issues concerning position of <!--del_lnk--> Serbs as the most numerous people in Yugoslavia. Although the largest Yugoslav republic in territory and population, Serbia had been dispossessed of its attributes of statehood by the new 1974 Constitution. Because its two autonomous provinces had de facto prerogatives of full-fledged republics, Serbia found that its hands were tied, for the republican government could not take nor carry out decisions that would apply to the provinces. Since the provinces had a vote in the Federal Presidency Council, they even entered into coalition with other republics, thus outvoting Serbia. Serbia's political impotence made it possible for others to exert pressure on 2 million Serbs (20% of total Serbian population) living outside Serbia.<p>Serbian <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communist">communist</a> leader <!--del_lnk--> Slobodan Milošević sought to restore pre-1974 Serbian sovereignty, which republics of Slovenia and Croatia denounced as the revival of great Serbian <!--del_lnk--> hegemonism. Autonomy of <!--del_lnk--> Vojvodina and of <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo and Metohija</a> was reduced, though both entities retained a vote in the Yugoslav Presidency Council.<p>As a result, the <!--del_lnk--> ethnic Albanian miners in <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a> organized strikes, which dovetailed into ethnic conflict between the Albanians and the non-Albanians in the province. At 77% of the population of Kosovo in the 1980's, ethnic- Albanians were the majority. The number of <!--del_lnk--> Slavs in Kosovo (mainly Serbs) was falling fast due to ever increasing violence of albanians against Serbian population, and by <!--del_lnk--> 1999 they formed as little as 10% of the total population. Far cry from the days when it was the other way around, not even hundred years ago.<p>Meanwhile <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a>, under the presidency of <!--del_lnk--> Milan Kučan, along with <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> openly supported Albanian miners, and initial strikes turned into widespread demonstrations demanding Kosovo republic. This angered Serbia's leadership who proceeded to use police to restrain the violence. As police was insufficient force, the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Army was rightly ordered by the Yugoslav Presidency to restore order.<p>In January 1990, the extraordinary 14th Congress of the <!--del_lnk--> League of Communists of Yugoslavia was convened. For the most time, the Slovenian and Serbian delegations were arguing over the future of the League of Communists and Yugoslavia. The Serbian delegation, led by Milošević, insisted on a policy of "<i>one person, one vote</i>", which would empower the majority population, the <!--del_lnk--> Serbs. In turn, the Slovenians, supported by Croatians, sought to reform Yugoslavia as to devolve power even more to republics, but were voted down. As a result, the Slovenian, and eventually Croatian delegation left the Congress, and the all-Yugoslav Communist party was dissolved.<p>Following the fall of <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a> in the rest of <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe, each of the republics held multi-party elections in 1990. The unresolved issues remained. In particular, Slovenia and Croatia elected governments oriented towards independence (under <!--del_lnk--> Milan Kučan and <!--del_lnk--> Franjo Tuđman, respectively), while <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> elected candidates who favoured Yugoslav unity. In Croatia there was growing advocacy of "<i>Croatian state and historical rights</i>", the Serbs were stripped of their <!--del_lnk--> national and <!--del_lnk--> constitutional rights, thus becoming demoted from a constituent nation of Croatia to national minority. Following this, the Serbs proclaimed the emergence of Serbian Autonomous Areas (known later as <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Serb Krajina) in Croatia. Croatia embarked upon illegal importation of arms, mainly from <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>, and were caught red-handed when Yugoslav Counter Intelligence (<i>KOS, Kontra-obavještajna Služba</i>) showed a <!--del_lnk--> video of a secret meeting between Croatian Defence Minister Martin Špegelj and two men. Špegelj announced that they were at war with the army and gave instructions about arms smuggling as well as methods of dealing with the Yugoslav Army's officers stationed in Croatian cities.<p>In March 1990, during the demonstrations in <!--del_lnk--> Split (Croatia), a young <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav conscript was pushed off the tank after driving it through people. Also guns were fired from army bases through Croatia. Elsewhere, tensions were running high.<p>In the same month, the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav People's Army (<i>Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija, JNA</i>) met with the Presidency of Yugoslavia (an eight member council composed of representatives from six republics and two autonomous provinces) in an attempt to get them to declare a <!--del_lnk--> state of emergency which would allow for the army to take control of the country. The representatives of <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo and Metohija">Kosovo and Metohija</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Vojvodina voted for the decision, while Croatia (<!--del_lnk--> Stipe Mesić), Slovenia (<!--del_lnk--> Janez Drnovšek), Macedonia (<!--del_lnk--> Vasil Tupurkovski) and Bosnia and Hercegovina (<!--del_lnk--> Bogić Bogićević) voted against. The tie delayed an escalation of conflicts, but not for long.<p>Following the first multi-party election results, the republics of Slovenia and Croatia, further seeking to provoke the JNA into declaring a <!--del_lnk--> state of emergency, proposed transforming Yugoslavia into a loose <!--del_lnk--> confederation of six republics in the autumn of 1990, however <!--del_lnk--> Milošević rejected all such proposals, arguing that like Slovenes and Croats, the Serbs should also have a right to self-determination.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1991 demonstrations were held against Slobodan Milošević in <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade, but the police and the military were deployed in the streets in order to restore order, killing two people. In late March 1991, the <!--del_lnk--> Plitvice Lakes incident was one of the first sparks of open war in Croatia. The <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) maintained an impression of being neutral, but as time went on, it was becoming more and more involved in state politics.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1991, Slovenia and Croatia became the first republics to declare illegal <!--del_lnk--> independence from Yugoslavia. In Slovenia, Slovenian people's defence (paramilitary force) seized the Yugoslav border posts with Austria and Italy taking down the <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav and raising the <!--del_lnk--> Slovenian flag. Following day (<!--del_lnk--> June 26), the Federal Executive Council speifically ordered the army to take control of the internationally recognized borders.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Yugoslav People's Army forces based in barracks in Slovenia and Croatia, attempted to carry out the task within next 48 hours. However, due to the misinformation given to the Yugoslav Army conscripts, and the fact that the majority of them did not wish to engage in a war on their home soil, the Slovene territorial defence forces retook most of the posts within several days with only minimal loss of life on both sides. Recently the <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> <!--del_lnk--> ORF TV station showed <!--del_lnk--> footage of several young Yugoslav soldiers at Holmec (border crossing with Austria), carrying a white cloth and raising their hands in the air, apparently to surrender to the Slovenian territorial defence, before gunfire was heard and the troops were seen falling down. However, none were killed in the incident. Ceasefire was agreed on. In the <!--del_lnk--> Brioni Agreement, agreed upon by representatives of all republics, the international community pressured Slovenia and Croatia to place a three-month <!--del_lnk--> moratorium on their illegal independence declarations. During these three months, the Yugoslav Army completed its pull-out of Slovenia, but in Croatia, a bloody <!--del_lnk--> war broke out in the autumn of 1991. Ethnic <!--del_lnk--> Serbs, who had created the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Serbian Krajina in heavily Serb-populated regions resisted the forces of the republic of Croatia who were trying to bring that breakaway region back under Croatian jurisdiction. In some places, the Yugoslav Army acted as a buffer zone, in others it was protecting the Serbs from new and illegal Croatian Army disguised as police force.<div class="thumb tright">
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<p>In September 1991, the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Macedonia.htm" title="Republic of Macedonia">Republic of Macedonia</a> also declared independence illegaly, becoming the only former republic to gain sovereignty without resistance from the Belgrade based Yugoslav authorities. 500 U.S. soldiers were then deployed under the U.N. banner to monitor Macedonia's northern borders with the Republic of Serbia, Yugoslavia. Macedonia's first president, <!--del_lnk--> Kiro Gligorov, maintained good relations with Belgrade and the other breakaway republics and there have to date been no problems between Macedonian and Serbian border police even though small pockets of Kosovo and the <!--del_lnk--> Preševo valley complete the northern reaches of the historical region known as Macedonia, which would otherwise create a border dispute if ever Macedonian nationalism should resurface (<i>see <!--del_lnk--> IMORO</i>).<p>As a result of the conflict, the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted <!--del_lnk--> UN Security Council Resolution 721 on <!--del_lnk--> November 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1991, which paved the way to the establishment of <!--del_lnk--> peacekeeping operations in Yugoslavia.<p>In <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a> in November 1991, the Bosnian Serbs held a referendum which resulted in an overwhelming vote in favour of staying in a common state with <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> January 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1992 the Bosnian Serb assembly proclaimed a separate "Republic of the Serb people of Bosnia and Herzegovina". The referendum and creation of SARs were proclaimed <!--del_lnk--> unconstitutional by the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and declared illegal and invalid. However, in February-March 1992 the government held a national referendum on Bosnian independence from Yugoslavia. That referendum was in turn declared contrary to the BiH and Federal constitution by the federal Constitution court and newly established Bosnian Serb government; it was largely boycotted by the Bosnian Serbs. The turnout was somewhere between 64-67% and 98% of the voters voted for independence. It was unclear what the two-thirds majority requirement actually meant and whether it was satisfied . The republic's government declared its independence on <!--del_lnk--> 5 April, and since that decision was made without the consent of all three nations living in Bosnia (the votes of Serbs were ignored, though such decision should be supported by all Bosnian nations), the Serbs immediately declared the independence of Republika Srpska to protect their rights. The <!--del_lnk--> war in Bosnia followed shortly thereafter. The so-called Badinter Commission formed by the <!--del_lnk--> European Community triumphantly, to delight of the countries and enemies of Jugoslavia that worked so hard towards its destuction, declared in early 1992 that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had "dissolved".<p><a id="The_end_of_the_Second_Yugoslavia" name="The_end_of_the_Second_Yugoslavia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The end of the Second Yugoslavia</span></h4>
<p>Various dates are considered as the end of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> June 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1991, when Croatia and Slovenia declared independence<li><!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1991, when the <!--del_lnk--> July 9th moratorium on Slovenian and Croatian secession was ended and Croatia restated its illegal independence in Croatian Parliament (that day is celebrated as Independence Day in Croatia)<li><!--del_lnk--> January 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1992, when Slovenia and Croatia were internationally recognized<li><!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1992, full recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s independence by the United States and most European countries<li><!--del_lnk--> April 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1992, the formation of FRY (see below)</ul>
<p><a id="Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" name="Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Federal Republic of Yugoslavia</span></h2>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) was formed on <!--del_lnk--> April 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1992, and it consisted of the former Socialist Republics of Serbia and Montenegro.<p>The war in the western parts of former Yugoslavia ended in 1995 with <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a>-sponsored peace talks in <!--del_lnk--> Dayton, Ohio, which resulted in the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Dayton Agreement.<p>In <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>, throughout the 1990s, the leadership of the Albanian population had been pursuing tactics of non-violent resistance in order to achieve independence for the province. In 1996, radical Albanians formed the <!--del_lnk--> Kosovo Liberation Army which carried out armed actions in the southern Serbian province. The Yugoslav reaction involved the indiscriminate use of force against civilian populations, and caused many ethnic-Albanians to flee their homes. Following the <!--del_lnk--> Racak incident and unsuccessful <!--del_lnk--> Rambouillet Agreement in the early months of 1999, NATO proceeded to bombard Serbia and Montenegro for more than two months, until the Milošević's government submitted to their demands and withdrew its forces from Kosovo. See <!--del_lnk--> Kosovo War for more information. Since June 1999, the province has been governed by peace-keeping forces from NATO and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, although all parties continue to recognize it as a part of Serbia.<p>Milošević's rejection of claims of a first-round opposition victory in new elections for the Federal presidency in September 2000 led to mass demonstrations in Belgrade on October 5 and the collapse of the regime's authority. The opposition's candidate, <!--del_lnk--> Vojislav Koštunica took office as Yugoslav president on <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2000. On Saturday, <!--del_lnk--> March 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, Milošević surrendered to Yugoslav security forces from his home in Belgrade, following a recent warrant for his arrest on charges of abuse of power and corruption. On <!--del_lnk--> June 28 he was driven to the Yugoslav-Bosnian border where shortly after he was placed in the custody of <!--del_lnk--> SFOR officials, soon to be extradited to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <!--del_lnk--> International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. His trial on charges of <!--del_lnk--> genocide in Bosnia and war crimes in Croatia and in Kosovo and Metohija began at <a href="../../wp/t/The_Hague.htm" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> on <!--del_lnk--> February 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, and he died there on <!--del_lnk--> 11 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006, while his trial was still ongoing. On <!--del_lnk--> April 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, the Yugoslav parliament passed a law allowing extradition of all persons charged with war crimes by the International Criminal Tribunal.<p>In March 2002, the Governments of Serbia and Montenegro agreed to reform the FRY in favour of a new, much weaker form of cooperation called <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia_and_Montenegro.htm" title="Serbia and Montenegro">Serbia and Montenegro</a>. By order of the Yugoslav Federal Parliament on <!--del_lnk--> February 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, Yugoslavia, at least nominally, ceased to exist. A federal government remained in place in Belgrade but assumed largely ceremonial powers. The individual governments of Serbia and of Montenegro conducted their respective affairs almost as though the two republics were independent. Furthermore, customs were established along the traditional border crossings between the two republics.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, 86 percent of eligible Montenegrin voters turned out for a special referendum on the independence of Montenegro from the state union with Serbia. They voted 55.5% in favour of independence, recognised as above the 55% threshold set by the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> for formal recognition of the independence of Montenegro. On <!--del_lnk--> June 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Montenegro officially declared its independence, with Serbia following suit two days later, effectively dissolving the last vestige of the former Yugoslavia.<p><a id="Further_reading" name="Further_reading"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<p>The present-day countries created from the former parts of Yugoslavia are:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a><li><a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a><li><a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a><li><a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Macedonia.htm" title="Republic of Macedonia">Republic of Macedonia</a><li><a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a><li><a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></ul>
<p>The first former Yugoslav republic to join the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> was Slovenia, which applied in 1996 and became a member in 2004. Croatia applied for membership in 2003, and could join before 2010. Republic of Macedonia applied in 2004, and will probably join by 2010–2015. The remaining three republics have yet to apply so their acceptance generally isn't expected before 2015. <i>See also: <!--del_lnk--> Enlargement of the European Union</i><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslavia"</div>
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<!-- NEWS --><div id="news"><span class="boxtop"></span><dl><dt>SOS Yugoslavia News</dt><dd><span>05/02/2007</span> <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo_050207.htm">Providing support to families in Kosovo</a></dd></dl><span class="boxbot"></span></div><!-- ENDNEWS -->
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<h2>SOS Children in Serbia and Montenegro</h2>
<img src="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia_Sponsorship_Locations.gif" width="348" height="405" alt="yugoslavia sponsorship locations" class="left" /><p>The union of Serbia and Montenegro was voted into existence by the Yugoslav parliament in February 2003 and Yugoslavia formally ceased to exist. Years of conflict and international isolation have left the government with huge challenges in coping with its social caseload. Household poverty has been increasing and family support systems have been under extreme pressure. </p><p>The charity began working in the former Yugoslavia in 1975 when an SOS Children’s Village was built in Sremska Kamenica near the border with Croatia, The SOS Children's Novi Sad site is in a park on the slopes of the Fruska Gora Mountain on the banks of the river Danube which separates the community from the city of Novi Sad. It has thirteen family houses which are home to over 150 children. The houses have been built in a circle around a fountain, and every house has its own garden which is tended by the SOS family. For the older children who have grown up in the village, SOS youth facilities have been established in Novi Sad where they can take their first guided steps towards an independent life outside the village. </p><p>During the war, the village youth house was used as a temporary home for children with disabilities enabling them to attend a nearby special needs school. This was later handed over to the local authorities who converted it into a social centre for children and young people. The village also suffered damage from the bombing and was later renovated.</p><p>In 2003, construction work began on a new community in Kraljevo in Central Serbia.</p><h3>Local Contact</h3>
<p>SOS Decje selo Novi Sad, Sremska Kamenica, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia and Montenegro tel +381/21/46 1177 e-mail [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Yugoslavia Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia_A.htm">Zambia</a></p>
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<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
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<br /><b>Yungay</b> is a town in the <!--del_lnk--> Ancash Region in north central <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>.<p><a id="Location" name="Location"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Location</span></h2>
<p>Yungay is located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">09°08′22″S,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">77°44′42″W</span></span> in the <!--del_lnk--> Callejón de Huaylas on <!--del_lnk--> Río Santa at an elevation of 2,500 m, 450 km north of <a href="../../wp/l/Lima.htm" title="Lima">Lima</a>, the country's capital. East of the small town there are the mountain ridges of snow-covered <!--del_lnk--> Cordillera Blanca, with <!--del_lnk--> Huascarán, Peru's highest mountain, no more than 15 km east of Yungay.<p>Yungay is the capital of <!--del_lnk--> Yungay Province, as well as the main town in the <!--del_lnk--> Yungay District. Yungay Province has a population of 60,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 2000 estimate). The Province of Yungay occupies part of the <!--del_lnk--> Callejón de Huaylas, the <!--del_lnk--> Conchucos Valley (Yanama), the coast of Ancash (Quillo) and the <!--del_lnk--> Huascarán National Park.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The "Restoration" army, an invading Chilean expedition during the <!--del_lnk--> War of the Confederation, defeated the army of the <!--del_lnk--> Peru-Bolivian Confederation during the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Yungay on <!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1839, marking the dissolution of the short-lived confederacy.<p>A remarkable event of the <!--del_lnk--> history of Peru happened in Yungay, where in the <!--del_lnk--> Guitarrero Cave US archeologist Thomas F. Lynch (University of Cornell, USA, 1969) discovered very old cultural vestiges from circa 10,000 <!--del_lnk--> BCE, making this place "one of the great testimonies of the origin of agriculture in América".<p><a id="Ancash_Earthquake" name="Ancash_Earthquake"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ancash Earthquake</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1970 a <!--del_lnk--> landslide caused by the <!--del_lnk--> 1970 Ancash earthquake buried the whole town, killing more than 20,000 persons. Only 400 people survived, most of whom were in the cemetery and stadium at the time of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a>, as these zones were the highest in town.<p>The Peruvian government has forbidden excavation in the area where the old town of Yungay is buried, declaring it a national cemetery.<!--
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yuri Gagarin</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_transport.htm">Space transport</a></h3>
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<table cellpadding="3" class="infobox bordered" style="width:20em; font-size:90%; text-align:left;">
<caption style="font-size:140%;"><b>Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin</b></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Yuri Gagarin" height="293" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yuri_Gagarin_official_portrait.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br />
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead; text-align:center;">Cosmonaut</th>
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<tr>
<th style="width:7em;"> Nationality</th>
<td style="padding-left:0.5em;"><a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a></td>
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<tr>
<th style="vertical-align:middle;"> Born</th>
<td style="padding-left:0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> March 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1934<br /><!--del_lnk--> Klushino, <!--del_lnk--> USSR</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align:middle;"> Died</th>
<td style="padding-left:0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1968<br /><!--del_lnk--> Kirzhach, <!--del_lnk--> USSR</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align:middle;"> Occupation<sup><small>1</small></sup></th>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; padding-left:0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Pilot</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align:middle;"> Rank</th>
<td style="padding-left:0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Soviet Air Force <!--del_lnk--> Colonel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th> Space time</th>
<td style="padding-left:0.5em;">1 hour, 48 minutes</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="vertical-align:middle;"> Selection</th>
<td style="padding-left:0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Air Force Group 1</td>
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<tr>
<th style="vertical-align:middle;"> Mission(s)</th>
<td style="padding-left:0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Vostok 1</td>
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<tr>
<th style="vertical-align:middle; padding-left:0.5em;">Mission insignia</th>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; padding-left:0.5em;"><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14939.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="36" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vostok1patch.png" src="../../images/149/14939.png" width="30" /></a></td>
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<td colspan="2"> <sup><small>1</small></sup> previous or current</td>
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<p><b>Colonel Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin</b> (<a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Ю́рий Алексе́евич Гага́рин</span>, <i>Jurij Alekseevič Gagarin</i>; <!--del_lnk--> March 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1934 – <!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1968), was a <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> <!--del_lnk--> cosmonaut who in <!--del_lnk--> 1961 became the first human in space and the first human to orbit the Earth.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Yuri Gagarin was born in <!--del_lnk--> Klushino near <!--del_lnk--> Gzhatsk, a region west of <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, on March 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1934. The town would be renamed <!--del_lnk--> Gagarin in <!--del_lnk--> 1968 to honour Yuri. His parents worked on a collective farm. While <i>manual labourers</i> are described in official reports as "peasants," this may be an oversimplification if applied to his parents - his mother was reportedly a voracious reader, and his father a skilled <!--del_lnk--> carpenter. Yuri was the third of four children, and his elder sister helped raise him while his parents worked. Like millions of people in the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the Gagarin family suffered great hardship in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. His two elder siblings were "taken away" to <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, apparently as conscripts, in <!--del_lnk--> 1943, and did not return until after the war. His teachers described Gagarin as intelligent and hard-working, if occasionally mischievous. His mathematics teacher flew in the <!--del_lnk--> Red Army <!--del_lnk--> Air Force during the war, which presumably made some substantial impression on young Gagarin.<p>After starting an apprenticeship in a metalworks as a foundryman, Gagarin was selected for further training at a high technical school in <!--del_lnk--> Saratov. While there, he joined the "AeroClub," and learned to fly a light aircraft, a hobby that would take up an increasing proportion of his time. Through dint of effort, rather than brilliance, he reportedly mastered both; in <!--del_lnk--> 1955, after completing his technical schooling, he entered military flight training at the <!--del_lnk--> Orenburg Pilot's School. While there he met <!--del_lnk--> Valentina Goryacheva, whom he married in <!--del_lnk--> 1957, after gaining his pilot's wings in a <!--del_lnk--> MiG-15. Post-graduation, he was assigned to an airbase in the <!--del_lnk--> Murmansk region, near the <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norwegian border</a>, where terrible weather made flying risky. As a full-grown man, Gagarin was 5 feet 2 inches (approx. 157.5cm) tall.<p>
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<p><a id="Career_in_Soviet_space_program" name="Career_in_Soviet_space_program"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Career in Soviet space program</span></h2>
<p><a id="Selection_and_training" name="Selection_and_training"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Selection and training</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1960, an extensive search and selection process saw Yuri Gagarin, as one of 20 cosmonauts, selected for the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet space program. Along with the other prospective cosmonauts, he had been subjected to a punishing series of experiments designed to test his physical and psychological endurance, as well as training related to the upcoming flight. Out of the 20 selected, the eventual choices for the first launch were Gagarin and <!--del_lnk--> Gherman Titov, because of their excellent performance in training, as well as their physical characteristics - space was at a premium in the small <!--del_lnk--> Vostok cockpit. Gagarin's last-minute assignment, approved at the highest levels of the <!--del_lnk--> CPSU, to take the historic flight, may have been due to Gagarin's modest upbringing and genial, outgoing personality, as opposed to the middle-class and somewhat aloof demeanor of Titov. Soviet officials weighed other factors as well in selecting Yuri: his appearance, his capacity to handle media attention, his Russian heritage and even the name "Gagarin" which was also a family name associated with Tsarist aristocracy.<p><a id="Space_flight" name="Space_flight"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Space flight</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1961, Gagarin became the first human to travel into <!--del_lnk--> space in <i>Vostok 3KA-2</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Vostok 1). His call sign in this flight was <!--del_lnk--> Cedar (<a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Кедр). According to international media, from orbit Gagarin made the comment, "I don't see any God up here." There are, however, no such words in the full verbatim record of Gagarin's conversations with the Earth during the spaceflight .<p>He is also known in Russian history as <i><b>"The Columbus of the Cosmos."</b></i><p>While in orbit Gagarin was promoted "in the field" from the lowly rank of Senior <!--del_lnk--> Lieutenant to <!--del_lnk--> Major - and this was the rank at which <!--del_lnk--> TASS announced him in its triumphant statement during the flight. At the time the Soviet authorities thought it was more likely he would perish during his descent than survive.<p>During his flight, Gagarin famously whistled the tune <i><b>"The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows"</b></i> (<a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: "Родина слышит, Родина знает"). The first two lines of the song are: <i><b>"The Motherland hears, the Motherland knows/Where her son flies in the sky"</b></i>. This patriotic song was written by <!--del_lnk--> Dmitri Shostakovich in 1951 (opus 86), with words by Dolmatovsky.<p>Safely returned, <!--del_lnk--> Nikita Khrushchev rushed to his side and Gagarin issued a statement praising the <!--del_lnk--> Communist Party of the Soviet Union as the "organiser of all our victories." Khrushchev saw Gagarin's achievement as a vindication of his policy of strengthening the Soviet Union's missile forces at the expense of conventional arms. This policy antagonized the Soviet military establishment and contributed to Khrushchev's eventual downfall.<p>After the flight, Gagarin became an instant, worldwide celebrity, touring widely with appearances in Italy, Germany, Canada, and Japan to promote the Soviet achievement.<p>From 1962 he served as a deputy to the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Soviet, but later returned to "<!--del_lnk--> Star City", the cosmonaut facility, where he worked on designs for a reusable spacecraft.<p><a id="Death_and_legacy" name="Death_and_legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Death and legacy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14940.jpg.htm" title="40-meter monument to Yuri Gagarin in Moscow, made of titanium. It was erected in the USSR in July 1980. "><img alt="40-meter monument to Yuri Gagarin in Moscow, made of titanium. It was erected in the USSR in July 1980. " height="249" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Monument_to_Yuri_Gagarin_in_Moscow.jpg" src="../../images/149/14940.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14940.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 40-meter monument to Yuri Gagarin in <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, made of <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a>. It was erected in the <!--del_lnk--> USSR in July 1980.</div>
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</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14941.jpg.htm" title="Yuri Gagarin Memorial Plaque - presented to the USSR on January 21, 1971. Accepting the plaque at the Moscow ceremony was Soviet Gen. Kuznetsov, commander of the USSR's Star City space base, where cosmonauts have been training since 1960. Gagarin, who made history with his 1 hour and 48 minute flight, lost his life in a training accident on March 27, 1968."><img alt="Yuri Gagarin Memorial Plaque - presented to the USSR on January 21, 1971. Accepting the plaque at the Moscow ceremony was Soviet Gen. Kuznetsov, commander of the USSR's Star City space base, where cosmonauts have been training since 1960. Gagarin, who made history with his 1 hour and 48 minute flight, lost his life in a training accident on March 27, 1968." height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yuri_Gagarin_Memorial_Plaque.jpg" src="../../images/149/14941.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14941.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Yuri Gagarin Memorial Plaque - presented to the USSR on January 21, 1971. Accepting the plaque at the Moscow ceremony was Soviet Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Kuznetsov, commander of the USSR's <!--del_lnk--> Star City space base, where cosmonauts have been training since 1960. Gagarin, who made history with his 1 hour and 48 minute flight, lost his life in a training accident on March 27, 1968.</div>
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<p>Gagarin then became deputy training director of <!--del_lnk--> Star City. At the same time, he began to requalify as a fighter pilot. On <!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1968 he and his instructor died in a <!--del_lnk--> MiG-15UTI on a routine training flight near <!--del_lnk--> Kirzhach. It is uncertain what caused the crash, but a <!--del_lnk--> 1986 inquest suggests that the turbulence from a <!--del_lnk--> Su-11 interceptor airplane using its <!--del_lnk--> afterburners may have caused Gagarin's plane to go out of control. Weather conditions were also poor, which probably contributed to the inability of Gagarin and the instructor to correct before they crashed.<p>In his book "Two Sides of the Moon" <!--del_lnk--> Alexei Leonov recounts that he was flying a helicopter in the same area on that day when he heard "two loud booms in the distance". Corroborating the above hypothesis, his conclusion is that a Sukhoi jet (which he identifies as a <!--del_lnk--> Su-15), flying below its minimum allowed altitude, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov believes the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier, and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.<p>A new theory, advanced by the original crash investigator in 2005, hypothesises that a cabin vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, thus leading to <!--del_lnk--> oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft.<p>Many figures in his life published memoirs involving Yuri including his mother and his wife in 1983. <p>There were two <!--del_lnk--> commemorative coins issued in the Soviet Union to commemorate 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: 1 ruble coin (1981, copper-nickel) and 3 ruble coin (1991, silver). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>:2 ruble coin (copper-nickel), 3 ruble coin (silver), 10 ruble coin (brass-copper, nickel), 100 ruble coin (silver). <p><a id="Gagarin.27s_name" name="Gagarin.27s_name"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gagarin's name</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> FAI Gold Medal, awarded since 1968 is named after Gagarin . A <!--del_lnk--> crater on the <!--del_lnk--> far side of the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a>, and an <!--del_lnk--> asteroid <!--del_lnk--> 1772 Gagarin are named after him. In Russia Gzhatsk was renamed <!--del_lnk--> Gagarin in 1968, a square in <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> featuring a large monument to Gagarin is named after him. <!--del_lnk--> Cosmonauts Training Centre in <!--del_lnk--> Star City bears his name since 1968. There are also numerous streets, avenues and squares bearing Gagarin's name in Russian towns.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Yuri Knorosov</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Historians_chroniclers_and_history_books.htm">Historians, chroniclers and history books</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<p><b>Yuri Valentinovich Knorosov</b> (alternatively, <b>Knorozov</b>; in <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <i>Юрий Валентинович Кнорозов</i>; b. <!--del_lnk--> November 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1922 — d. <!--del_lnk--> March 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1999) was a <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Russian</a> <a href="../../wp/l/Linguistics.htm" title="Linguistics">linguist</a>, <!--del_lnk--> epigrapher and <!--del_lnk--> ethnographer, who is particularly renowned for the pivotal role his research played in the decipherment of the <!--del_lnk--> Maya script, the <!--del_lnk--> writing system used by the <!--del_lnk--> pre-Columbian <a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Mesoamerica.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Knorosov was born in a village near <!--del_lnk--> Kharkov in present-day <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, at that time the capital of the newly-formed <!--del_lnk--> Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. His parents were <!--del_lnk--> Russian intellectuals, and his paternal grandmother had been a stage actress of national repute in <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>.<p>At school, the young Yuri was a difficult and somewhat eccentric student, who made indifferent progress in a number of subjects and was almost expelled for poor and wilful behaviour. However, it became clear that he was academically bright with an inquisitive temperament; he was an accomplished violinist, wrote romantic poetry and could draw with accuracy and attention to detail.<p>In 1940 at the age of 17, Knorosov left Kharkov for <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> where he commenced undergraduate studies in the newly-created Department of <!--del_lnk--> Ethnology at <!--del_lnk--> Moscow State University's faculty of History. He initially specialised in <!--del_lnk--> Egyptology.<p><a id="Military_service_and_the_.22Berlin_Affair.22" name="Military_service_and_the_.22Berlin_Affair.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Military service and the "Berlin Affair"</span></h2>
<p>Knorosov's study plans were soon interrupted by the outbreak of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> hostilities along the Eastern Front in mid-1941. From 1943 to 1945 Knorosov served his term in the Soviet Union's "<!--del_lnk--> Great Patriotic War" in the <!--del_lnk--> Red Army as an <!--del_lnk--> artillery spotter.<p>At the closing stages of the war in May of 1945, Knorosov and his unit supported the push of the Red Army vanguard into <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. It was here, sometime in the aftermath of the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Berlin, that Knorosov is supposed to have by chance retrieved a book which would spark his later interest in and association with deciphering the <!--del_lnk--> Maya script. In their retelling the details of this episode have acquired a somewhat folkloric quality ("...one of the greatest legends of the history of Maya research"; Kettunen 1998b).<p>According to the version of the anecdote which became widely-reproduced (particularly following the 1992 publication of Michael Coe's <i>Breaking the Maya Code</i> ), while stationed in Berlin he came across the National Library while it was ablaze. Somehow Knorosov managed to retrieve from the burning library a book, which remarkably enough turned out to be a rare edition containing reproductions of the three <!--del_lnk--> Maya codices which were then known (the <!--del_lnk--> Dresden, <!--del_lnk--> Madrid and <!--del_lnk--> Paris codices). Knorosov is said to have taken this book back with him to Moscow at the end of the war, where its examination would form the basis for his later pioneering research into the Maya script.<p>However, in an interview conducted a year before his death, Knorosov provided a different version of the anecdote. He explained (Kettunen 1998a, 1998b) that:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22976.jpg.htm" title="Inner courtyard of the Preußischen Staatsbibliothek (2005)"><img alt="Inner courtyard of the Preußischen Staatsbibliothek (2005)" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:StabiMitte_2a.jpg" src="../../images/229/22976.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22976.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Inner courtyard of the <i>Preußischen Staatsbibliothek</i> (2005)</div>
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<blockquote>
<p>"Unfortunately it was a misunderstanding: I told about it [finding the books in the library in Berlin] to my colleague Michael Coe, but he didn't get it right. There simply wasn't any fire in the library. And the books that were in the library, were in boxes to be sent somewhere else. The fascist command had packed them, and since they didn't have time to move them anywhere, they were simply taken to Moscow. I didn't see any fire there."</blockquote>
<p>The "National Library" mentioned in these accounts is not specifically identified by name, but at the time the library then known as the <i>Preußischen Staatsbibliothek</i> (Prussian State Library) had that function. Situated on <!--del_lnk--> Unter den Linden and today known as the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin State Library (<i>Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin</i>), this was the largest scientific library of Germany. During the war, most of its collection had been dispersed over some 30 separate storage places across the country for safe-keeping. After the war much of the collection was returned to the library, however a substantial number of volumes which had been sent for storage in the eastern part of the country were never recovered, with upwards of 350,000 volumes destroyed and a further 300,000 missing. Of these, many ended up in Soviet and Polish library collections, and in particular at the <!--del_lnk--> Russian State Library in Moscow.<p><a id="Resumption_of_studies" name="Resumption_of_studies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Resumption of studies</span></h2>
<table align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" style="border: 2px solid #aaa; font-size: 90%; padding: 4px; margin: 0 1em; margin-[[:Template:Align]]:0; background-color: #f9f9f9;clear:right;" width="30%">
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<td align="center"><i>any possible system made by a man can be solved or cracked by a man.</i><br /> —Yuri Knorosov (1998), St. Petersburg. Interview published in <i>Revista Xamana</i> (Kettunen 1998a)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In the autumn of 1945 after the war, Knorosov returned to Moscow State University to complete his undergraduate courses at the department of Ethnography. He resumed his research into <!--del_lnk--> Egyptology, and also undertook comparative cultural studies in other fields such as <!--del_lnk--> Sinology. He displayed a particular interest and aptitude for the study of ancient languages and <!--del_lnk--> writing systems, especially <!--del_lnk--> hieroglyphs, and he also read in medieval Japanese and Arabic literature.<p>While still an undergraduate at MSU, Knorosov found work at the <!--del_lnk--> N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology (or IEA), part of the prestigious <!--del_lnk--> Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Knorosov's later research findings would be published by the IEA under its imprint.<p>As part of his ethnographic curriculum Knorosov spent several months as a member of a field expedition to the <!--del_lnk--> Central Asian Russian republics of the <!--del_lnk--> Uzbek and <!--del_lnk--> Turkmen SSRs (what had formerly been the <!--del_lnk--> Khorezm SSR, and would much later become the independent nations of <a href="../../wp/u/Uzbekistan.htm" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Turkmenistan.htm" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> following the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union). On this expedition his ostensible focus was to study the effects of Russian expansionary activities and "modern" developments upon the nomadic ethnic groups, of what was a far-flung frontier world of the Soviet state.<p>At this point the focus of his research had not yet been drawn on the Maya script. This would change in 1947, when at the instigation of his professor, Knorosov wrote his dissertation on the "<!--del_lnk--> de Landa alphabet", a record produced by the <!--del_lnk--> 16th Century Spanish <!--del_lnk--> Bishop Diego de Landa in which he claimed to have transliterated the Spanish alphabet into corresponding Maya hieroglyphs, based on input from <!--del_lnk--> Maya informants. De Landa, who during his posting to <!--del_lnk--> Yucatán had overseen the destruction of all the codices from the <a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> he could find, reproduced his alphabet in a work (<i>Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán</i>) intended to justify his actions once he had been placed on trial when recalled to Spain. The original document had disappeared, and this work was unknown until <!--del_lnk--> 1862 when an abridged copy was discovered in the archives of the Spanish Royal Academy by the French scholar, <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Etienne_Brasseur_de_Bourbourg.htm" title="Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg">Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg</a>.<p>Since de Landa's "alphabet" seemed to be contradictory and unclear (e.g., multiple variations were given for some of the letters, and some of the symbols were not known in the surviving inscriptions), previous attempts to use this as a key for deciphering the Maya writing system had not been successful.<p><a id="Key_research" name="Key_research"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Key research</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22977.jpg.htm" title="the page from Diego de Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán (1853 edition by Brasseur de Bourbourg), which contained description of the de Landa alphabet which Knorosov relied upon for his breakthrough."><img alt="the page from Diego de Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán (1853 edition by Brasseur de Bourbourg), which contained description of the de Landa alphabet which Knorosov relied upon for his breakthrough." height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:De_Landa_alphabet.jpg" src="../../images/229/22977.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22977.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> the page from <!--del_lnk--> Diego de Landa's <i>Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán</i> (1853 edition by <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Etienne_Brasseur_de_Bourbourg.htm" title="Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg">Brasseur de Bourbourg</a>), which contained description of the <i><!--del_lnk--> de Landa alphabet</i> which Knorosov relied upon for his breakthrough.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1952 Knorosov published a paper which was later to prove to be a seminal work in the field (<i>Drevnyaya pis’mennost’ Tsentral’noy Ameriki</i>, or "Ancient Writing of Central America".) The general thesis of this paper put forward the observation that early <!--del_lnk--> scripts such as <!--del_lnk--> ancient Egyptian and <!--del_lnk--> Cuneiform which were generally or formerly thought to be predominantly <!--del_lnk--> logographic or even purely <!--del_lnk--> ideographic in nature, in fact contained a significant <!--del_lnk--> phonetic component. That is to say, rather than the <!--del_lnk--> symbols representing only or mainly whole words or concepts, many symbols in fact represented the sound elements of the language in which they were written, and had <a href="../../wp/a/Alphabet.htm" title="Alphabet">alphabetic</a> or <!--del_lnk--> syllabic elements as well, which if understood could further their <!--del_lnk--> decipherment. By this time, this was largely known and accepted for several of these, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs (the decipherment of which was famously commenced by <!--del_lnk--> Jean-François Champollion in <!--del_lnk--> 1822 using the tri-lingual <a href="../../wp/r/Rosetta_Stone.htm" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a> artefact); however the prevailing view was that Mayan did not have such features. Knorosov's studies in comparative linguistics drew him to the conclusion that the Mayan script should be no different from the others, and that purely logographic or ideographic scripts were not actually so.<p>Knorosov's key insight was to treat the Maya glyphs represented in de Landa's alphabet not as an alphabet, but rather as a syllabary. He was perhaps not the first to propose a syllabic basis for the script, but his arguments and evidence were the most compelling to date. He maintained that when de Landa had commanded of his informant to write the equivalent of the Spanish letter "b" (for example), the Maya scribe actually produced the glyph which corresponded to the <i>syllable</i>, /bay/, as spoken by de Landa. Knorosov did not actually put forward many new transcriptions based on his analysis, nevertheless he maintained that this approach was the key to understanding the script. In effect, the de Landa "alphabet" was to become almost the "Rosetta stone" of Mayan decipherment.<p>A further critical principle put forward by Knorosov was that of <!--del_lnk--> synharmony. According to this, Mayan words or syllables which had the form consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) were often to be represented by two glyphs, each representing a CV-syllable (i.e., CV-CV). In the reading, the vowel of the second was meant to be ignored, leaving the reading (CVC) as intended. The principle also stated that when choosing the second CV glyph, it would be one where the vowel sound matched that of the first glyph syllable. Later analysis has proved this to be largely correct.<p><a id="Critical_reactions_to_his_work" name="Critical_reactions_to_his_work"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Critical reactions to his work</span></h2>
<p>Upon the publication of this work from a then hardly-known scholar, Knorosov and his thesis came under some severe and at times dismissive criticism. <!--del_lnk--> J. Eric S. Thompson, the noted British scholar regarded by all as the leading <!--del_lnk--> Mayanist of his day, led the attack. Thompson's views at that time were solidly anti-phonetic, and his own large body of detailed research had already fleshed-out a view that the Maya inscriptions did not record their actual history, and that the glyphs were founded on <!--del_lnk--> ideographic principles. His view was the prevailing one in the field, and many other scholars followed suit.<p>The situation was further complicated by Knorosov's paper appearing during the height of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, and many were able to dismiss his paper as being founded on misguided <!--del_lnk--> Marxist-<!--del_lnk--> Leninist ideology and polemic. Indeed, in keeping with the mandatory practices of the time, Knorosov's paper was prefaced by a foreword written by the journal's editor which contained digressions and propagandist comments extolling the State-sponsored approach by which Knorosov had succeeded where Western scholarship had failed. However, despite claims to the contrary by several of Knorosov's detractors, Knorosov himself never did include such polemic in his writings.<p>Knorosov persisted with his publications in spite of the criticism and rejection of many Mayanists of the time. He was perhaps shielded to some extent from the ramifications of peer disputation, since his position and standing at the institute was not adversely influenced by criticism from Western academics.<p><a id="Progress_of_decipherment" name="Progress_of_decipherment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Progress of decipherment</span></h2>
<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s, other Mayanists and researchers began to expand upon Knorosov's ideas. Their further field-work and examination of the extant inscriptions began to indicate that actual Maya history was recorded in the <!--del_lnk--> stelae inscriptions, and not just <!--del_lnk--> calendric and <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> information. The Russian-born but American-resident scholar <!--del_lnk--> Tatiana Proskouriakoff was foremost in this work, eventually convincing Thompson and other doubters that historical events were recorded in the script.<p>Other early supporters of the phonetic approach championed by Knorosov included <!--del_lnk--> Michael D. Coe and <!--del_lnk--> David Kelley, and whilst initially they were in a clear minority, more and more supporters came to this view as further evidence and research progressed.<p>Through the rest of the decade and into the next, Proskouriakoff and others continued to develop the theme, and utilising Knorosov's results and other approaches began to piece together some decipherments of the script. A major breakthrough came during the first round table or <!--del_lnk--> Mesa Redonda conference at the Maya site of <!--del_lnk--> Palenque in <!--del_lnk--> 1973, when using the syllabic approach those present (mostly) deciphered what turned out to be a list of former rulers of that particular Maya city-state.<p>Subsequent decades saw many further such advances, to the point now where quite a significant portion of the surviving inscriptions can be read. Most Mayanists and accounts of the decipherment history apportion much of the credit to the impetus and insight provided by Knorosov's contributions, to a man who had not as yet set foot outside of his native Russia, but had still been able to make important contributions to the understanding of this distant, ancient civilisation.<p><a id="Later_life" name="Later_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later life</span></h2>
<p>As his theories became more widely known, Knorosov was in 1956 granted leave to attend an international convention of Mesoamerican scholars in <a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen.htm" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>. This was to be his one and only venture outside the Soviet Union for quite some time, since as a <!--del_lnk--> Soviet academic, Knorosov was subject to the usual restrictions placed on travel outside of the Soviet Union. Over subsequent years western Mayanists needed to travel to Leningrad to meet up with him. It was not until <!--del_lnk--> 1990 that he was eventually able to leave Russia again and finally visit the ancient Maya homelands and archaeological sites in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>. This was at the invitation of the Guatemalan President <!--del_lnk--> Marco Vinicio Cerezo Arévalo, at a time of improved diplomatic relations between the two countries. Cerezo presented him with an honorary medal, and Knorosov was able to extend his stay in the region, visiting several of the important Maya sites such as <!--del_lnk--> Tikal. However, shortly after Vinicio Cerezo left office, Knorosov received threats from suspected right-wing militarist groups who were antagonistic to the indigenous Mayan peoples, and was forced to go into hiding and then leave the country.<p>Knorosov had broad interest in, and contributed to, other investigative fields such as archaeology, semiotics, human migration to the Americas and the evolution of the mind. However, it is his contributions to the field of Maya studies for which he is best remembered.<p>In his very last years, Knorosov is also known to have pointed to a place in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">United States</a> as the likely location of <!--del_lnk--> Chicomoztoc, the ancestral land from which --according to ancient documents and accounts considered <a href="../../wp/m/Mythology.htm" title="Mythology">mythical</a> by a sizable number of scholars-- Indian peoples now living in Mexico are said to have come.<p>Knorosov died in St. Petersburg on March 31, 1999, of <a href="../../wp/p/Pneumonia.htm" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> in the corridors of a city hospital, just before he was due to receive the honorary <!--del_lnk--> Proskouriakoff Award from <!--del_lnk--> Harvard University.<p><a id="List_of_publications" name="List_of_publications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">List of publications</span></h2>
<p>An incomplete listing of Knorosov's papers, conference reports and other publications, divided by subject area and type. Note that several of those listed are re-editions and/or translations of earlier papers.<p><a id="Maya-related" name="Maya-related"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Maya-related</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Conference papers</dl>
<ul>
<li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1955) "A brief summary of the studies of the ancient Maya hieroglyphic writing in the Soviet Union". <i>Reports of the Soviet Delegations at the 10th International Congress of Historical Science in Rome</i>, (Authorized English translation), Moscow: Akademia Nauk SSSR.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1956) "Kratkie itogi izucheniia drevnei pis'mennosti malia v Sovetskom Soiuze". <i>Proceedings of the International Congress of Historical Sciences (Rome, 1955)</i>, pp.343–364.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1958) "New data on the Maya written language". <i>Proc. 32nd International Congress of Americanists, (Copenhagen, 1956)</i>, pp.467–475.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1959) "La lengua de los textos jeroglificos mayas". <i>Proceedings of the International Congress of Americanists (33rd session, San José, 1958)</i>, pp.573–579.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1970) "Le Panthéon des anciens Maya". <i>Proceedings of the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (7th session, Moscow, 1964).</i>, pp.126–232.</cite></ul>
<dl>
<dt>Journal articles</dl>
<ul>
<li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1952) "<i>Drevnyaya pis’mennost’ Tsentral’noy Ameriki.</i> (Ancient Writings of Central America)". <i>Sovetskaya Etnografiya</i> <b>3</b> (2): pp.100–118.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1955) "<i>Pis'mennost drevnikh maiia.</i> (Written Language of the Ancient Maya)". <i>Sovetskaya Etnografiya</i> <b>1</b>: pp.94–125.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1956) "New data on the Maya written language". <i>Journal de la Société des Américanistes de Paris</i> <b>45</b>: pp.209–217.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1958) "<i>Estudio de los jeroglíficos mayas en la U.R.S.S.</i> (The Study of Maya hieroglyphics in the USSR)". <i>Khana, Revista municipal de artes y letras (La Paz, Bolivia)</i> <b>2</b> (17-18): pp.183–189.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1958) "The problem of the study of the Maya hieroglyphic writing". <i>American Antiquity</i> <b>23</b> (3): pp.248–291.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1962) "Problem of deciphering Mayan writing". <i>Diogènes (Montreal)</i> <b>40</b>: pp.122-128.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1963) "Machine decipherment of Maya script". <i>Soviet Anthropology and Archeology</i> <b>1</b> (3): pp.43-50.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1963) "<i>Aplicación de las matematicas al estudio lingüistico</i> (Application of mathematics to linguistic studies)". <i>Estudios de Cultura Maya (Mexico City)</i> <b>3</b>: pp.169-185.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1965) "<i>Principios para descifrar los escritos mayas.</i> (Principles for deciphering Maya writing)". <i>Estudios de Cultura Maya (Mexico City)</i> <b>5</b>: pp.153-188.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1968) "<i>Investigación formal de los textos jeroglíficos mayas.</i> (Formal investigations of Maya hieroglyphic texts)". <i>Estudios de Cultura Maya (Mexico City)</i> <b>7</b>: pp.153-188.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1973) "Zametki o kaldare Maia: 365-dnevnyi god". <i>Sovetskaya Etnografiya</i> <b>1</b>: pp.70–80.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1974) "Notas sobre el calendario maya; el monumento E de Tres Zapotes". <i>América Latina; estudios de científicos soviéticos</i> <b>3</b>: pp.125–140.</cite><li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1986) "Acerca de las relaciones precolombinas entre América y el Viejo Mundo". <i>América Latina; estudios de científicos soviéticos</i> <b>1</b>: pp.84–98.</cite></ul>
<dl>
<dt>Books</dl>
<ul>
<li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1954) <i>La antigua escritura de los pueblos de America Central</i>. Fondo de Cultura Popular.</cite><li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1955) <i>Sistema Pis'ma Drevnikh Maiia</i>. Moscow: Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR.</cite><li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1956) <i>Diego de Landa: Soobshchenie o delakh v Yukatani, 1566</i>. Moscow: Akademia Nauk USSR.</cite> (Knorosov's doctoral dissertation)<li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1963) <i>Pis'mennost Indeitsev Maiia</i>. Moscow-Leningrad: Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR.</cite><li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1967) “The Writing of the Maya Indians”, <!--del_lnk--> Tatiana Proskouriakoff (Ed.): <i>Russian Translation Series 4</i>, Sophie Coe (trans.), Cambridge MA.: <!--del_lnk--> Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.</cite><li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1975) <i>Ieroglificheskie Rukopisi Maiia</i>. Leningrad: Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR.</cite><li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1982) <i>Maya Hieroglyphic Codices</i>, Sophie Coe (trans.), Albany NY.: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies.</cite><li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1999) “Comendio Xcaret de la escritura jeroglifica maya descifrada por Yuri V. Knorosov”, <i>Promotora Xcaret</i>. Mexico City: Universidad de Quintana Roo.</cite><li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(2001) “New data on the Maya written language”, Stephen Houston, Oswaldo Chinchilla Mazariegos and David Stuart, eds: <i>The Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing</i>. Norman OK.: University of Oklahoma Press, pp.144-152.</cite></ul>
<p><a id="Others" name="Others"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Others</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1957) "Preliminary Report on the Study of the Written Language of Easter Island". <i>Journal of the Polynesian Society</i> <b>66</b> (1): pp.5–17.</cite> (on the <!--del_lnk--> Rongorongo script, with N.A. Butinov)<li><cite class="book" style="font-style:normal">(1965) Yuri Knorosov (ed.): <i>Predvaritel’noe soobshchenie ob issledovanii protoindiyskikh textov</i>. Moscow: Institut Etnografii, Akademia Nauk USSR.</cite> (Collated results of a research team under Knorosov investigating the <!--del_lnk--> Harappan script, with the use of computers)<li><cite style="font-style:normal">(1981) "<i>Protoindiyskie nadpisi (k probleme deshifrovki)</i>". <i>Sovetskaya Etnografiya</i> <b>5</b> (2): pp.47–71.</cite> (on the <!--del_lnk--> Harappan script of the <!--del_lnk--> Indus Valley civilization)</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Knorosov"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.IT.Computing_hardware_and_infrastructure.htm">Computing hardware and infrastructure</a></h3>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/215/21573.jpg.htm" title="The original 1982 ZX Spectrum."><img alt="The original 1982 ZX Spectrum." height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZXSpectrum48k.jpg" src="../../images/229/22978.jpg" width="280" /></a></td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2">ZX Spectrum</th>
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<td style="background-color:#ddeeff" width="50px"><b>Type</b></td>
<td style="background-color:#E7EBF5" width="228px"><!--del_lnk--> Home computer</td>
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<td style="background-color:#ddeeff"><b>Released</b></td>
<td style="background-color:#E7EBF5">April 1982</td>
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<td style="background-color:#ddeeff"><b>Discontinued</b></td>
<td style="background-color:#E7EBF5">December 1990</td>
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<td style="background-color:#ddeeff"><b>Processor</b></td>
<td style="background-color:#E7EBF5"><!--del_lnk--> Z80 @ 3.5 MHz and equivalent</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background-color:#ddeeff"><b>Memory</b></td>
<td style="background-color:#E7EBF5">16 kB / 48 kB / 128 kB</td>
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<td style="background-color:#ddeeff"><b>OS</b></td>
<td style="background-color:#E7EBF5"><!--del_lnk--> Sinclair BASIC</td>
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<p>The <b>ZX Spectrum</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> home computer released in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in 1982 by <!--del_lnk--> Sinclair Research Ltd. Originally dubbed the <i>ZX82</i>, the machine was later renamed the <i>ZX Spectrum</i> by Sinclair to highlight the machine's colour display, compared to the black-and-white of its predecessor, the <!--del_lnk--> Sinclair ZX81.<p>The Spectrum was the first mainstream audience home computer in the UK, similar in significance to the <a href="../../wp/c/Commodore_64.htm" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a> in the USA; the C64 was the main rival to the Spectrum in the UK market during the early <!--del_lnk--> 1980s.<p>In 1980–82 the UK <!--del_lnk--> Department of Education and Science had begun the <!--del_lnk--> Microelectronics Education Programme to introduce microprocessing concepts and educational materials. In 1982 through to 1986, the Department of Industry (DoI) allocated funding to assist UK local education authorities to supply their schools with a range of computers, with the ZX Spectrum proving useful for the control projects.<p>
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</script><a id="Hardware" name="Hardware"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Hardware</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22979.jpg.htm" title="ZX Spectrum 48K motherboard (Issue 3B — 1983)"><img alt="ZX Spectrum 48K motherboard (Issue 3B — 1983)" height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZXspectrum_mb.jpg" src="../../images/229/22979.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22979.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ZX Spectrum 48K motherboard (Issue 3B — 1983)</div>
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<p>The Spectrum's hardware was designed by Richard Altwasser of Sinclair Research. Sinclair's industrial designer <!--del_lnk--> Rick Dickinson was responsible for the machine's outward appearance.<p>Based on a <!--del_lnk--> Zilog Z80A <a href="../../wp/c/Central_processing_unit.htm" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a> running at 3.5 <!--del_lnk--> MHz, the original Spectrum came with either 16 <!--del_lnk--> kB or 48 kB of <!--del_lnk--> RAM. Both units had 16 kB of ROM.<p>The Spectrum's video output was through an <!--del_lnk--> RF modulator and was designed for use with contemporary <!--del_lnk--> portable television sets, for a simple colour graphic display. Text could be displayed using 32 columns × 24 rows of characters from the <!--del_lnk--> ZX Spectrum character set, with a choice of 8 colours in either normal or bright mode, which gave 15 shades (black was the same in both modes). The <!--del_lnk--> image resolution was 256×192 with the same colour limitations. The Spectrum had an interesting method of handling colour; the colour attributes were held in a 32×24 grid, separate from the text or graphical data, but was still limited to only two colours in any given character cell, both of which had to be either bright or non-bright. This led to what was called <i>colour clash</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> attribute clash</i> with some bizarre effects in arcade style games. This problem became a distinctive feature of the Spectrum and an in-joke among Spectrum users, as well as a point of derision by advocates of other systems. Other machines available around the same time, for example the <!--del_lnk--> Amstrad CPC, did not suffer from this problem. The <a href="../../wp/c/Commodore_64.htm" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a> used colour attributes, but hardware <!--del_lnk--> sprites and <!--del_lnk--> scrolling were used to avoid attribute clash.<p>Sound output was through a beeper on the machine itself. This was capable of producing one channel with 10 octaves over ten semitones. The machine also included an <!--del_lnk--> expansion bus <!--del_lnk--> edge connector and audio in/out ports for the connection of a <!--del_lnk--> cassette recorder for loading and saving programs and data.<p>The machine's software was written by <!--del_lnk--> Steve Vickers on contract from Nine Tiles Ltd, the authors of <!--del_lnk--> Sinclair BASIC. The Spectrum's <!--del_lnk--> chiclet keyboard (on top of a membrane, similar to calculator keys) was marked with Sinclair BASIC keywords, so that, for example, pressing "G" when in programming mode would insert the BASIC command <!--del_lnk--> GO TO.<p><a id="Models" name="Models"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Models</span></h2>
<p><a id="Sinclair_Research_models" name="Sinclair_Research_models"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sinclair Research models</span></h3>
<p>The original <b>ZX Spectrum</b> is remembered for its rubber keyboard and diminutive size. It was originally released in 1982 with 16 kB of RAM for <a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">GB£</a>125 or with 48 kB for £175; these prices were later reduced to £99 and £129 respectively. Owners of the 16 kB model could purchase an internal 32 kB RAM upgrade <!--del_lnk--> daughterboard, which consists of 8 <!--del_lnk--> dynamic RAM chips and a few <!--del_lnk--> TTL chips. Users could mail their 16K Spectrums to Sinclair to be upgraded to 48 kB versions. To reduce the price, the 32 kB extension actually comprised eight faulty 64 <!--del_lnk--> kilobit chips with only one half of their capacity working and/or available. External 32 kB RAMpacks that mounted in the rear expansion slot were also available from third parties. As with the ZX81, "RAMpack wobble" caused by poor connection with the expansion was a frequent problem for many users, causing instant crashes and sometimes <!--del_lnk--> ULA or CPU burnout. Both machines had 16kB of onboard ROM.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22980.jpg.htm" title="ZX Spectrum+"><img alt="ZX Spectrum+" height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg" src="../../images/229/22980.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22980.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ZX Spectrum+</div>
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<p>Planning of the <b>ZX Spectrum+</b> started in June 1984, and was released in October the same year. This 48 kB Spectrum (development code-name <i>TB</i>) introduced a new <!--del_lnk--> QL-style enclosure with a much needed injection-moulded keyboard and a reset button, retailing for £179.95. A DIY conversion-kit for older machines was also available. Early on, the machine outsold the rubber-key model 2:1; however, some retailers reported very high failure rates.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22981.jpg.htm" title="ZX Spectrum 128"><img alt="ZX Spectrum 128" height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg" src="../../images/229/22981.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22981.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ZX Spectrum 128</div>
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<p>Sinclair developed the <b>ZX Spectrum 128</b> (code-named <i>Derby</i>) in conjunction with their Spanish distributor <!--del_lnk--> Investrónica. Investrónica had helped adapt the ZX Spectrum+ to the Spanish market after the Spanish government introduced a special tax on all computers with 64 kB RAM or less which did not support the Spanish alphabet (including <!--del_lnk--> ñ) and show messages in Spanish.<p>New features included 128 kB RAM, three-channel audio via the <!--del_lnk--> AY-3-8912 chip, <!--del_lnk--> MIDI compatibility, an <!--del_lnk--> RS-232 serial port, an <!--del_lnk--> RGB monitor port, 32 kB of ROM including an improved BASIC editor and an external keypad.<p>The machine was simultaneously presented for the first time and launched in September 1985 at the <!--del_lnk--> SIMO '85 trade show in Spain, with a price of 44.250 <!--del_lnk--> pesetas (<a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">€</a>266). Because of the large amount of unsold Spectrum+ models, Sinclair decided not to start selling in the UK until January 1986 at a price of £179.95. No external keypad was available for the UK release, although the ROM routines to utilise it and the port itself, which was hastily renamed "AUX", remained.<p>The Z80 processor used in the Spectrum has a 16-bit address bus, which means only 64 kB of memory can be addressed. To facilitate the extra 80 kB of RAM the designers utilised a <!--del_lnk--> bank switching technique so that the new memory would be available as six pages of 16 kB at the top of the address space. The same technique was also used to page between the new 16 kB editor ROM and the original 16 kB BASIC ROM at the bottom of the address space.<p>The new sound chip and <!--del_lnk--> MIDI out abilities were exposed to the BASIC programming language with the command <i>PLAY</i> and a new command <i>SPECTRUM</i> was added to switch the machine into 48K mode. To enable BASIC programmers to access the additional memory, a RAM disk was created where files could be stored in the additional 80 kB of RAM. The new commands took the place of two existing user-defined-character spaces causing compatibility issues with some BASIC programs.<p>The Spanish version had the "128K" <!--del_lnk--> logo (right, bottom of the computer) in white colour while the English one had the same logo in red colour.<p><a id="Amstrad_models" name="Amstrad_models"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Amstrad models</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22982.jpg.htm" title="ZX Spectrum +2"><img alt="ZX Spectrum +2" height="77" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZX_Spectrum_Plus2.jpeg" src="../../images/229/22982.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22982.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ZX Spectrum +2</div>
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</div>
<p>The <b>ZX Spectrum +2</b> was <!--del_lnk--> Amstrad's first Spectrum, coming shortly after their <!--del_lnk--> purchase of the Spectrum range and "Sinclair" brand in 1986. The machine featured an all-new grey enclosure featuring a spring-loaded keyboard, dual joystick ports, and a built-in cassette recorder dubbed the "Datacorder" (like the <!--del_lnk--> Amstrad CPC 464), but was (in all user-visible respects) otherwise identical to the ZX Spectrum 128. Production costs had been reduced and the retail price dropped to £139–£149.<p>The new keyboard did not include the BASIC keyword markings that were found on earlier Spectrums, except for the keywords <i>LOAD</i>, <i>CODE</i> and <i>RUN</i> which were useful for loading software. However, the layout remained identical to that of the 128.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22983.jpg.htm" title="ZX Spectrum +3"><img alt="ZX Spectrum +3" height="81" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg" src="../../images/229/22983.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22983.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ZX Spectrum +3</div>
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<p>The <b>ZX Spectrum +3</b> looked similar to the +2 but featured a built-in 3-inch <a href="../../wp/f/Floppy_disk.htm" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drive (like the Amstrad CPC 6128) instead of the tape drive. It was launched in 1987, initially retailed for £249 and then later £199 and was the only Spectrum capable of running the <!--del_lnk--> CP/M operating system without additional hardware.<p>The +3 saw the addition of two more 16 kB ROMs, now physically implemented as two 32 kB chips. One was home to the second part of the reorganised 128 ROM and the other hosted the +3's disk operating system. This was a modified version of Amstrad's <!--del_lnk--> AMSDOS, called +3DOS. To facilitate the new ROMs and CP/M, the bank-switching was further improved, allowing the ROM to be paged out for another 16 kB of RAM.<p>Such core changes brought incompatibilities:<ul>
<li>Removal of several lines on the expansion bus edge connector (video, power, ROMCS and IORQGE); caused many external devices problems; some such as the VTX5000 modem could be used via the "FixIt" device<li>Reading a non-existent I/O port no longer returned the last attribute; caused some games such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Arkanoid</i> to be unplayable<li>Memory timing changes; some of the RAM banks were now contended causing high-speed colour-changing effects to fail<li>The keypad scanning routines from the ROM were removed</ul>
<p>Some older 48K, and a few older 128K, games were incompatible with the machine.<p>The +3 was the final official model of the Spectrum to be manufactured, remaining in production until December 1990. Although still accounting for one third of all home computer sales at the time, production of the model was ceased by Amstrad in an attempt to transfer customers to their CPC range.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22985.png.htm" title="ZX Spectrum +2A."><img alt="ZX Spectrum +2A." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spectrum_128-2.png" src="../../images/229/22985.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22985.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ZX Spectrum +2A.</div>
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<p>The <b>ZX Spectrum +2A</b> was produced to homogenise Amstrad's range in 1987. Although the case reads "ZX Spectrum +2", the +2A/B is easily distinguishable from the original +2 as the case was restored to the standard Spectrum black.<p>The +2A was derived from Amstrad's +3 4.1 ROM model, using a new motherboard which vastly reduced the chip count, integrating many of them into a new <!--del_lnk--> ASIC. The +2A replaced the +3's disk drive and associated hardware with a tape drive, as in the original +2. Originally, Amstrad planned to introduce an additional disk interface, but this never appeared. If an external disk drive was added, the "+2A" on the system OS menu would change to a +3. As with the ZX Spectrum +3, some older 48K, and a few older 128K, games were incompatible with the machine.<p>The <b>ZX Spectrum +2B</b> signified a manufacturing move from Hong Kong to Taiwan later in 1987.<p><a id="Clones" name="Clones"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Clones</span></h3>
<p>Sinclair licensed the Spectrum design to <!--del_lnk--> Timex Corporation in the United States. An enhanced version of the Spectrum with better sound, graphics and other modifications was marketed in the USA by Timex as the <!--del_lnk--> Timex Sinclair 2068. Timex's derivatives were largely incompatible with Sinclair systems. However, some of the Timex innovations were later adopted by Sinclair Research. A case in point was the abortive <i>Pandora</i> portable Spectrum, whose <!--del_lnk--> ULA had the high resolution video mode pioneered in the TS2068. <i>Pandora</i> had a flat-screen monitor and Microdrives and was intended to be Sinclair's business portable until <!--del_lnk--> Alan Sugar bought the computer side of Sinclair, when he took one look at it and ditched it (a conversation with UK computer journalist <!--del_lnk--> Guy Kewney went thus: AS: "Have you seen it?" GK: "Yes" AS: "Well then.").<p>In the UK, Spectrum peripheral vendor <!--del_lnk--> Miles Gordon Technology (MGT) released the <!--del_lnk--> SAM Coupé as a potential successor with some Spectrum compatibility. However, by this point, the <!--del_lnk--> Commodore Amiga and <!--del_lnk--> Atari ST had taken hold of the market, leaving MGT in eventual receivership.<p>Many unofficial Spectrum clones were produced, especially in <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Bloc nations and <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> (e.g. Microdigital <!--del_lnk--> TK 90X). In Russia for example, ZX Spectrum clones were assembled by thousands of small start-ups and distributed though poster ads and street stalls. Over 50 such clone models existed. Some of them are still being produced, such as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Sprinter</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> ATM Turbo</i>.<p><a id="Peripherals" name="Peripherals"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Peripherals</span></h2>
<p>Several peripherals for the Spectrum were marketed by Sinclair: the <!--del_lnk--> ZX Printer was already on the market, as the ZX Spectrum expansion <!--del_lnk--> bus was <!--del_lnk--> backwards-compatible with that of the ZX81.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> ZX Interface 1 add-on module included 8 kB of ROM, an <!--del_lnk--> RS-232 serial port, a proprietary <!--del_lnk--> LAN interface (called ZX Net), and an interface for the connection of up to eight <!--del_lnk--> ZX Microdrives — somewhat unreliable but speedy tape-loop cartridge storage devices released in July 1983. These were later used in a revised version on the <!--del_lnk--> Sinclair QL, whose storage format was electrically compatible but logically incompatible with the Spectrum's. Sinclair also released the <!--del_lnk--> ZX Interface 2 which added two joystick ports and a ROM cartridge port.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22986.jpg.htm" title="Kempston joystick interface."><img alt="Kempston joystick interface." height="95" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg" src="../../images/229/22986.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/229/22986.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Kempston joystick interface.</div>
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<p>There were also a plethora of third-party hardware addons. The better known of these included the <!--del_lnk--> Kempston joystick interface, the <!--del_lnk--> Morex Peripherals <!--del_lnk--> Centronics/RS-232 interface, the <!--del_lnk--> Currah Microspeech unit (speech synthesis), <!--del_lnk--> Videoface Digitiser, RAM pack, and <!--del_lnk--> Cheetah Marketing SpecDrum (Drum machine), and the <!--del_lnk--> Multiface (snapshot and disassembly tool), from Romantic Robot.<p>There were numerous disk drive interfaces, including the <!--del_lnk--> Abbeydale Designers/<!--del_lnk--> Watford Electronics SPDOS, Abbeydale Designers/<!--del_lnk--> Kempston KDOS and Opus Discovery. The SPDOS and KDOS interfaces were the first to come bundled with Office productivity software (<i><!--del_lnk--> Tasword</i> Word Processor, <i>Masterfile</i> database and <i><!--del_lnk--> OmniCalc</i> spreadsheet). This bundle, together with OCP's Stock Control, Finance and Payroll systems, introduced many small businesses to a streamlined, computerised operation. The most popular floppy disk systems (except in East Europe) were the <!--del_lnk--> DISCiPLE and <!--del_lnk--> +D systems released by <!--del_lnk--> Miles Gordon Technology in 1987 and 1988 respectively. Both systems had the ability to store memory images onto disk <i>snapshots</i> could later be used to restore the Spectrum to its exact previous state. They were also both compatible with the Microdrive command syntax, which made porting existing software much simpler.<p>During the mid-<!--del_lnk--> 1980s, the company <!--del_lnk--> Micronet800 launched a service allowing users to connect their ZX Spectrums to a network known as <!--del_lnk--> Micronet hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Prestel. This service had some similarities to the <a href="../../wp/i/Internet.htm" title="Internet">Internet</a>, but was proprietary and fee-based.<p><a id="Software" name="Software"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Software</span></h2>
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<dd>
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<p>The Spectrum enjoys a vibrant, dedicated fan-base. Since it was cheap and simple to learn to use and program, the Spectrum was the starting point for many programmers and technophiles who remember it with nostalgia. The hardware limitations of the Spectrum imposed a special level of creativity on game designers, and for this reason, many Spectrum games are very creative and playable even by today's standards.<p>The Spectrum family enjoyed a very large software library of at least 13,000 titles. Though Spectrum hardware was limited by modern standards, its software library was very diverse, including programming language implementations, databases (eg: VU-File), word processors (eg: Tasword II), <!--del_lnk--> spreadsheets (eg: VU-Calc), drawing and painting tools (eg: <!--del_lnk--> James Hutchby's <i><!--del_lnk--> OCP Art Studio</i>, Artist, Paintbox, Melbourne Draw), even 3D modelling. A huge quantity of games were released for the system.<p><a id="Distribution" name="Distribution"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution</span></h3>
<p>Most Spectrum software was originally distributed on <!--del_lnk--> audio cassette tapes. The Spectrum was intended to work with almost any cassette tape player, and despite differences in audio reproduction fidelity, the software loading process was quite reliable.<p>While the ZX Microdrive quickly became quite popular with the Spectrum user base due to the low cost of the drives, the actual media was very expensive for software publishers to use for mass market releases (by a factor of 10× compared to tape duplication). Furthermore, the cartridges themselves acquired a reputation for unreliability, and publishers were reluctant to <!--del_lnk--> QA each and every item shipped. Hence the main use became to complement tape releases, usually utilities and niche products like the <i>Tasword</i> <!--del_lnk--> word processing software and the aforementioned <i>Trans Express</i>. No games are known to be exclusively released on Microdrive.<p>Despite the popularity of the DISCiPLE and +D systems, most software released for them took the form of utility software. The ZX Spectrum +3 enjoyed much more success when it came to commercial software releases on floppy disk. More than 700 titles were released on 3-inch disk from 1987 to 1997.<p>Software was also distributed through print media, fan magazines and books. The prevalent language for distribution was the Spectrum's BASIC dialect <!--del_lnk--> Sinclair BASIC. The reader would type the software into the computer by hand, run it, and save it to tape for later use. The software distributed in this way was in general simpler and slower than its <!--del_lnk--> assembly language counterparts, and lacked graphics. But soon, magazines were printing long lists of <!--del_lnk--> checksummed <!--del_lnk--> hexadecimal digits with machine code games or tools. There was a vibrant scientific community built around such software, ranging from <!--del_lnk--> satellite dish alignment programs to school classroom scheduling programs.<p>Another, unusual, software distribution method was to broadcast the audio stream from the cassette on another medium and have users record it onto an audio cassette themselves. In radio or television shows in e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Belgrade (<!--del_lnk--> Ventilator 202), <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia, <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a> or <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, the host would describe a program, instruct the audience to connect a cassette tape recorder to the radio or TV and then broadcast the program over the airwaves in audio format. Some magazines distributed <!--del_lnk--> 7" 33⅓ rpm "flexidisc" records, a variant of regular <!--del_lnk--> vinyl records, which could be played on a standard <!--del_lnk--> record player. These disks were known as "<!--del_lnk--> floppy ROMs".<p><a id="Copying_and_backup_software" name="Copying_and_backup_software"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Copying and backup software</span></h3>
<p>Most copier software available for the Spectrum was designed for <!--del_lnk--> copyright infringement of software through tape duplication. Copiers were developed to copy programs from audio tape to microdrive tapes, and later on diskettes. Complex loaders with unusual speeds or encoding were the basis of the Spectrum's <!--del_lnk--> copy prevention schemes, although other methods were used including asking for a particular word from the documentation included with the game — often a novella — or another physical device distributed in the software box. As protection became more complex it was almost impossible to use copiers to copy tapes, and the loaders had to be cracked by hand, to produce unprotected versions. Special hardware such as Romantic Robot's <!--del_lnk--> Multiface was able to dump a copy of the ZX Spectrum RAM to disk/tape at the press of a button, entirely circumventing the copy protection systems.<p>Most Spectrum software has been digitized in recent years and is available for download in digital form. One popular program for digitizing Spectrum software is <i>Taper</i>: it allows connecting a cassette tape player to the <!--del_lnk--> line in port of a <!--del_lnk--> sound card or, through a simple home-built device, to the <!--del_lnk--> parallel port of a PC. Once in digital form, the software can be executed on one of many existing emulators, on virtually any platform available today. Today, the largest on-line archive of ZX Spectrum software is <!--del_lnk--> World of Spectrum, with more than 12,000 titles. The legality of this practice is still in question. However, it seems unlikely that any action will ever be taken over such so-called <!--del_lnk--> abandonware.<p><a id="Famous_Spectrum_developers" name="Famous_Spectrum_developers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Famous Spectrum developers</span></h3>
<p>A number of current leading games developers and development companies began their careers on the ZX Spectrum, including <!--del_lnk--> Peter Molyneux (ex-<!--del_lnk--> Bullfrog Games), <!--del_lnk--> David Perry of <!--del_lnk--> Shiny Entertainment, and <!--del_lnk--> Ultimate Play The Game (now known as <!--del_lnk--> Rare, maker of many famous titles for <a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo.htm" title="Nintendo">Nintendo</a> game consoles). Other prominent games developers include <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Smith (<i><!--del_lnk--> Manic Miner</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/j/Jet_Set_Willy.htm" title="Jet Set Willy">Jet Set Willy</a></i>), and <!--del_lnk--> Jon Ritman (<i><!--del_lnk--> Match Day</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Head Over Heels</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> Sid Meier (<!--del_lnk--> <i>Silent Service</i>)<p><a id="Screenshots" name="Screenshots"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Screenshots</span></h2>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> 3D Deathchase</i></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/229/22988.png.htm" title="Image:ZX Rebelstar 2.png"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/229/22988.png" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Rebelstar</i></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> All or Nothing</i></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Rainbow Islands</i></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Chase HQ</i></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> RoboCop</i></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Elite</i></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Manic Miner</i></div>
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<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zachary Taylor</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width:23em; font-size:90%; text-align:left; padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em;">
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Zachary Taylor</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14945.jpg.htm" title="Zachary Taylor"><img alt="Zachary Taylor" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ztaylor.jpg" src="../../images/149/14945.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:110%;">
<hr />
<div style="background:lavender;">12th <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1849 – <!--del_lnk--> July 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1850</td>
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<th>Vice President(s) </th>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Millard_Fillmore.htm" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a></td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/j/James_K._Polk.htm" title="James Knox Polk">James Knox Polk</a></td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Millard_Fillmore.htm" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a></td>
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<td colspan="2">
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<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1784<br /><!--del_lnk--> Barboursville, Virginia</td>
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<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1850<br /><a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Whig</td>
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<th>Spouse</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Margaret Smith Taylor</td>
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<th>Religion</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Episcopal</td>
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<th>Signature</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14946.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="24" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zachary_Taylor_signature.gif" src="../../images/149/14946.gif" width="128" /></a></td>
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<p><b>Zachary Taylor</b> (<!--del_lnk--> November 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1784 – <!--del_lnk--> July 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1850) was an <!--del_lnk--> American military leader and the twelfth <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>. Taylor had a 40-year military career in the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Army, serving in the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812, <!--del_lnk--> Black Hawk War, and <!--del_lnk--> Second Seminole War before achieving fame while leading U.S. troops to victory at several critical battles of the <!--del_lnk--> Mexican-American War. A <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_United_States.htm" title="Southern United States">Southern</a> <!--del_lnk--> slaveholder who opposed the spread of slavery to the <!--del_lnk--> territories, he was uninterested in politics but was recruited by the <!--del_lnk--> Whig Party as their nominee in the <!--del_lnk--> 1848 presidential election. In the election Taylor defeated the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic nominee, <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Cass, and became the first U.S. president never to hold any prior office.<p>As president, Taylor urged settlers in <!--del_lnk--> New Mexico and <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> to by-pass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, setting the stage for the <!--del_lnk--> Compromise of 1850.<p>Known as "Old Rough and Ready," Taylor died of acute <!--del_lnk--> gastroenteritis just 16 months into his term. <!--del_lnk--> Vice President <a href="../../wp/m/Millard_Fillmore.htm" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> became President.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life_and_family" name="Early_life_and_family"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and family</span></h2>
<p>Taylor was born on <!--del_lnk--> November 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1984, in a <!--del_lnk--> log cabin near <!--del_lnk--> Barboursville in <!--del_lnk--> Orange County, Virginia.<p>Zachary Taylor was the third of eight children of Richard Taylor and Sarah Strother. Taylor's family was aristocratic: <!--del_lnk--> James Madison was a second cousin and <!--del_lnk--> Robert E. Lee was a fourth cousin once removed. In his infancy, Taylor's family moved to <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky, where Taylor grew up on a <!--del_lnk--> plantation. He was known as "Little Zack" and was educated by private tutors. He is one of the descendants of <!--del_lnk--> King Edward III of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Taylor met <!--del_lnk--> Margaret "Peggy" Mackall Smith of <!--del_lnk--> Maryland in early 1810, and they were married on <!--del_lnk--> June 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1810. They had one son and five daughters, two of whom died in infancy. The surviving children were:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ann Taylor (born <!--del_lnk--> April 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1811)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sarah Knox "Knoxie" Taylor (born <!--del_lnk--> March 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1814)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mary Elizabeth "Betty" Taylor (born <!--del_lnk--> April 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1824)<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard "Dick" Taylor(born <!--del_lnk--> January 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1826)</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Sarah Knox Taylor married future <!--del_lnk--> Confederate president <!--del_lnk--> Jefferson Davis at age 21 over her father's strenuous objections; she died from <a href="../../wp/m/Malaria.htm" title="Malaria">malaria</a> three months after the marriage.<p><a id="Military_career" name="Military_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Military career</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14947.jpg.htm" title="Zachary Taylor"><img alt="Zachary Taylor" height="248" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zachary_Taylor.jpg" src="../../images/149/14947.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14947.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zachary Taylor</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1808, Taylor joined the U.S. Army, receiving a <!--del_lnk--> commission as a <!--del_lnk--> first lieutenant of the <!--del_lnk--> Seventh Infantry Regiment. He was ordered west into <!--del_lnk--> Indiana Territory, taking command at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Fort Harrison; he was promoted to <!--del_lnk--> captain in November 1810.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812, Taylor became known as a talented military commander. Assigned to command <!--del_lnk--> Fort Harrison on the <!--del_lnk--> Wabash River, at the northern edge of present-day <!--del_lnk--> Terre Haute, Indiana, he successfully commandeered a small force of soldiers and civilians to stave off a British-inspired attack by about 500 Native Americans between September 4 and September 15. The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Fort Harrison, as it became known, has been referred to as the "first American land victory of the War of 1812." Taylor received a <!--del_lnk--> brevet promotion to <!--del_lnk--> major on <!--del_lnk--> October 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1812. Taylor was promoted to <!--del_lnk--> lieutenant colonel on <!--del_lnk--> April 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1819, and <!--del_lnk--> colonel on <!--del_lnk--> April 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1832.<p>Taylor served in the <!--del_lnk--> Black Hawk War (May-August 1832) and the Second Seminole War (1835-1842). During the Seminole War, Taylor fought at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Lake Okeechobee and received a brevet promotion to <!--del_lnk--> brigadier general in January 1838. It was here he gained his nickname "Old Rough and Ready" for his rumpled clothes and wide-brimmed <!--del_lnk--> straw hat. On <!--del_lnk--> May 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1838, Taylor was promoted commanding general of all U.S. forces in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>.<p><a href="../../wp/j/James_K._Polk.htm" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> sent the Army of Occupation under Taylor's command to the <!--del_lnk--> Rio Grande in 1846. <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> attacked Taylor's troops and Taylor defeated them despite being outnumbered 4-to-1. Polk later declared war. In the <!--del_lnk--> Mexican-American War that followed, Taylor won additional important victories at <!--del_lnk--> Monterrey and <!--del_lnk--> Buena Vista and became a <!--del_lnk--> national hero.<p>Polk kept Taylor in northern Mexico, disturbed by his informal habits of command and his affiliation with the Whig Party. He sent an expedition under General <!--del_lnk--> Winfield Scott to capture <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_City.htm" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>. Taylor, incensed, thought that "the battle of Buena Vista opened the road to the city of Mexico and the halls of <!--del_lnk--> Montezuma, that others might revel in them."<p><a id="Election_of_1848" name="Election_of_1848"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Election of 1848</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:288px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14948.jpg.htm" title="Whig Party banner from 1848 with candidates Taylor and Fillmore"><img alt="Whig Party banner from 1848 with candidates Taylor and Fillmore" height="400" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1848whigbanner.jpg" src="../../images/149/14948.jpg" width="286" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14948.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Whig Party banner from 1848 with candidates Taylor and Fillmore</div>
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<p>He received the <!--del_lnk--> Whig nomination for President in 1848. Like many other army officers, he was nonpolitical and had never voted. His homespun ways and his status as a war hero were political assets. Taylor defeated <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Cass, the Democratic candidate, and <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Free Soil candidate.<p>To the astonishment of Whigs, Taylor ignored their platform, As historian Michael Holt explains:<blockquote>
<p>Taylor was equally indifferent to programs Whigs had long considered vital. Publicly, he was artfully ambiguous, refusing to answer queries about his views on banking, the tariff, and internal improvements. Privately, he was more forthright. The idea of a national bank "is dead, & will not be revived in my time." In the future the tariff "will be increased only for revenue"; in other words, Whig hopes of restoring the protective <!--del_lnk--> tariff of 1842 were vain. There would never again be surplus federal funds from public land sales to distribute to the states, and internal improvements "will go on in spite of presidential vetoes." In a few words, that is, Taylor pronounced an epitaph for the entire Whig economic program.</blockquote>
<p>Although Taylor won the election, he didn't know it at first. Having been a popular war general, he received many fan letters, some without <!--del_lnk--> postage. To avoid paying large sums of money, he had asked his post office to stop sending letters without postage. The letter from Washington, informing Taylor had won the election, did not have postage, and Taylor didn't receive the letter until another letter with postage had been sent.<p><a id="Presidency" name="Presidency"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Presidency</span></h2>
<p><a id="Policies" name="Policies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Policies</span></h3>
<p>Although Taylor had subscribed to <!--del_lnk--> Whig principles of legislative leadership, he was not inclined to be a puppet of Whig leaders in <!--del_lnk--> Congress. He ran his administration in the same rule-of-thumb fashion with which he had fought Indians.<p>Under Taylor's administration the <!--del_lnk--> United States Department of the Interior was organized, although the department had been activated under President Polk's last day in office.<p><a id="Compromise_of_1850" name="Compromise_of_1850"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Compromise of 1850</span></h3>
<p>The slavery issue dominated Taylor's short term. Although he owned slaves, he took a moderately anti-slavery position. Taylor urged settlers in <!--del_lnk--> New Mexico and <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> to draft constitutions and apply for statehood, bypassing the territorial stage. New Mexico was too small to act but California—which had high population growth from the <!--del_lnk--> gold rush—wrote a constitution that did not allow slavery; it was approved by the voters and a new state government took over in December 1849 without Congressional approval. Southerners were furious with Taylor (a southerner) and with California. In February 1850, Taylor held a stormy conference with southern leaders who threatened <!--del_lnk--> secession. He told them that if necessary to enforce the laws, he personally would lead the Army. Persons "taken in rebellion against the Union, he would hang ... with less reluctance than he had hanged deserters and spies in Mexico." He never wavered. <!--del_lnk--> Henry Clay then proposed a complex <!--del_lnk--> Compromise of 1850. Taylor died as it was being debated. (The Clay version failed but another version did pass under the new president, <a href="../../wp/m/Millard_Fillmore.htm" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a>.)<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14949.jpg.htm" title="Taylor postage stamp"><img alt="Taylor postage stamp" height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zachary_taylor_stamp.JPG" src="../../images/149/14949.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14949.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Taylor postage stamp</div>
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<p><a id="Administration_and_Cabinet" name="Administration_and_Cabinet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Administration and Cabinet</span></h3>
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<td align="left"><b>OFFICE</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>NAME</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>TERM</b></td>
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<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
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<td align="left"><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a></td>
<td align="left"><b>Zachary Taylor</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td>
<td align="left"><b><a href="../../wp/m/Millard_Fillmore.htm" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a></b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John M. Clayton</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Treasury</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William Meredith</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of War</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> George Crawford</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Attorney General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Reverdy Johnson</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Postmaster General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Jacob Collamer</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Navy</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William Preston</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Interior</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Ewing</b></td>
<td align="left">1849–1850</td>
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</table>
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<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Supreme_Court_appointments" name="Supreme_Court_appointments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Supreme Court appointments</span></h3>
<p><i>none</i><p><a id="States_admitted_to_the_Union" name="States_admitted_to_the_Union"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">States admitted to the Union</span></h3>
<p><i>none</i><p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14950.jpg.htm" title="Picture of Zachary Taylor"><img alt="Picture of Zachary Taylor" height="221" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zachary_Taylor.jpeg" src="../../images/149/14950.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14950.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Picture of Zachary Taylor</div>
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<p>The cause of Zachary Taylor's death is not well understood, nor is it well documented. On <!--del_lnk--> July 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1850, Taylor was diagnosed by his physicians with <i>cholera morbus</i>, a term that included <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea and <!--del_lnk--> dysentery but not true <a href="../../wp/c/Cholera.htm" title="Cholera">cholera</a>. Cholera, <!--del_lnk--> typhoid fever, and <!--del_lnk--> food poisoning have all been indicated as the source of the president's ultimately fatal gastroenteritis. More specifically, a hasty snack of iced milk, cold cherries and pickled cucumbers consumed at an <!--del_lnk--> Independence Day celebration might have been the culprit. By <!--del_lnk--> July 9, Taylor was dead.<p>In 1991, Taylor's body was exhumed, and <!--del_lnk--> Larry Robinson and <!--del_lnk--> Frank Dyer conducted an autopsy at the <!--del_lnk--> Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Investigating the possibility of assassination by means of deliberate poisoning, Dyer and Robinson detected traces of arsenic and sent the results to a Kentucky medical examiner, who determined the quantity of arsenic present -- there is a faint amount of arsenic present naturally in the human body -- was several hundred times less than there would have been, had he been poisoned with arsenic.<!--del_lnk--> Taylor is buried in <a href="../../wp/l/Louisville%252C_Kentucky.htm" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville, Kentucky</a>, at what is now the <!--del_lnk--> Zachary Taylor National Cemetery.<p>There is some strong evidence that Taylor died from complications of heat stroke. On July 4, 1850, the weather in Washington was hot and rather humid. Taylor was there to preside over ceremonies at the laying of the cornerstone of the Washington Monument. Taylor was sporting a thick coat, vest, high-collared shirt, and a top hat. Shortly after arriving, Taylor complained that he was very thirsty. He went to the reception table and downed a large amount of water directly from a pitcher.<p>Since the water was sitting in the sun, the idea of cholera is a possibility. But Taylor exhibited classic symptoms of heat stroke, particularly red, flushed skin on the face. Records also indicate that Taylor was having trouble walking and exhibiting slurred speech. At no time while outside did anyone loosen or remove Taylor's clothing. Only after returning to the White House was some of his clothing loosened. It was only a short time before Taylor collapsed.<p>At this point his clothing was removed, but internal organs had already been damaged. In fact, his doctors were mystified as to the cause of multiple organ failure. Medical sciences had not addressed heat stroke and the internal damage caused by it. According to author Charles Panati, Taylor actually awoke briefly and said- "I should not be surprised if this were to result in my death." He took a few sips of iced milk, again adding to the possibility of cholera. He lapsed again into unconsciousness and died on July 9.<p><a id="Surviving_family" name="Surviving_family"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Surviving family</span></h2>
<p>Taylor's son <!--del_lnk--> Richard became a <!--del_lnk--> Confederate Lieutenant General, while his daughter <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Knox Taylor (1814–1835) had married future <!--del_lnk--> President of the Confederate States <!--del_lnk--> Jefferson Davis three months before her death of <a href="../../wp/m/Malaria.htm" title="Malaria">malaria</a>. Taylor's brother, Joseph Pannill Taylor, was a Brigadier General in the <!--del_lnk--> Union Army during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. {Joseph P. Taylor's son <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Hancock Taylor was a Colonel in the <!--del_lnk--> US Civil War and was also a son-in-law of Union General <!--del_lnk--> Montgomery C. Meigs}. Taylor's niece Emily Ellison Taylor was the wife of Confederate General <!--del_lnk--> Lafayette McLaws.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14951.jpg.htm" title="1848 Democratic cartoon ridicules General Taylor as butcher of Mexican soldiers"><img alt="1848 Democratic cartoon ridicules General Taylor as butcher of Mexican soldiers" height="454" longdesc="/wiki/Image:%7Etaylor.jpg" src="../../images/149/14951.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14951.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1848 Democratic cartoon ridicules General Taylor as butcher of Mexican soldiers</div>
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<li>Taylor's term of service was scheduled to begin on <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1849, but as this day fell on a Sunday, Taylor refused to be sworn in until the following day. Vice President Millard Fillmore was also not sworn in on that day. As a result, it is often claimed that the previous <!--del_lnk--> president pro tempore of the Senate, <!--del_lnk--> David Rice Atchison, was "president for a day," or that the presidency was vacant. Most scholars believe that according the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">U.S. Constitution</a>, Taylor's term began on March 4, regardless of whether he had taken the oath or not.<li>Taylor always preferred old and slovenly clothes (including his unique straw hat) to <!--del_lnk--> military uniforms, leading to his nickname, "Old Rough and Ready."<li>In 1942, a <!--del_lnk--> Liberty ship named the <!--del_lnk--> SS <i>Zachary Taylor</i> was launched. The ship was scrapped in 1961.<li>Taylor had a <a href="../../wp/s/Stuttering.htm" title="Stuttering">stutter</a>.<li>Taylor was a poor writer and had difficulty <!--del_lnk--> spelling.<li>Taylor was the last Veteran of the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812 to serve as President {the others were Andrew Jackson & W.H. Harrison}; the only Veteran of the <!--del_lnk--> Seminole War as President; and the first Veteran from either the <!--del_lnk--> Black Hawk War (the other was Abraham Lincoln) or the Mexican-American War (the others were <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_Pierce.htm" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Ulysses Grant) to become President.<li>On <i><!--del_lnk--> The Daily Show</i> for <!--del_lnk--> October 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, as part of Its "Ten Years" observance, host <!--del_lnk--> Jon Stewart showed clips from previous shows that mentioned at least in passing every one of the <!--del_lnk--> United States Presidents — except for Zachary Taylor.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zachary_Taylor"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zambezi</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.htm">African Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger; background-color: #CEDEFF;">Zambezi</th>
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<div style="border: 1px solid #CEDEFF;"><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28637.jpg.htm" title="The Zambezi and its river basin"><img alt="The Zambezi and its river basin" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zambezi_river_basin.jpg" src="../../images/286/28637.jpg" width="288" /></a></div>
<center>The Zambezi and its river basin</center>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Origin</b></td>
<td>Near <!--del_lnk--> Mwinilunga, <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a></td>
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<td><b>Mouth</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Basin countries</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></td>
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<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td>2,574 km (1,599 mi)</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Source elevation</b></td>
<td>1,500 m (4,922 ft)</td>
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<td><b>Avg. <!--del_lnk--> discharge</b></td>
<td>7,000 m³/s (247,240 ft³/s)</td>
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<td><b>Basin area</b></td>
<td>1,570,000 km² (606,177 mi²)</td>
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<p>The <b>Zambezi</b> (also spelled <b>Zambesi</b>) is the fourth-longest <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a> in <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and the largest flowing into the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. The area of its <!--del_lnk--> basin is <!--del_lnk--> 1,570,000 km² (606,000 <!--del_lnk--> miles²), slightly less than half that of the <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a>. The 2,574 km (1,600 mile) long river has its source in <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> and flows through <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, along the border of <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, Zambia and <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, to <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, where it empties into the Indian Ocean.<p>The Zambezi's most spectacular feature is <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls, the world's largest <!--del_lnk--> waterfalls. Other notable falls include the <!--del_lnk--> Chavuma Falls at the border between Zambia and Angola, and <!--del_lnk--> Ngonye Falls, near <!--del_lnk--> Sioma in Western Zambia. Over its entire course, the Zambezi is spanned by only five bridges: at <a href="../../wp/c/Chinyingi.htm" title="Chinyingi">Chinyingi</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Katima Mulilo, <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls, <!--del_lnk--> Chirundu and <!--del_lnk--> Tete.<p>There are two main sources of <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power on the river. These are the <!--del_lnk--> Kariba Dam, which provides power to Zambia and Zimbabwe and the <!--del_lnk--> Cabora-Bassa Dam in <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> which provides power to <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. There is also a smaller power station at Victoria Falls.<p>
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</script><a id="Course" name="Course"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Course</span></h2>
<h3> <span class="mw-headline">The upper river</span></h3>
<p>After flowing to the south-west for about 240 km (150 miles), the river turns south, and is joined by many <!--del_lnk--> tributaries. A few miles above <!--del_lnk--> Kakengi, the river widens from 100 to 350 metres (330 to 1,150 ft), and below Kakengi are a number of <!--del_lnk--> rapids ending in the <!--del_lnk--> Chavuma Falls, where the river flows through a rocky fissure. The first of its large tributaries to enter the Zambezi is the <!--del_lnk--> Kabompo River in the north-western province of Zambia. A little further south is the <!--del_lnk--> confluence with the much larger <!--del_lnk--> Lungwebungu River. The <!--del_lnk--> savanna through which the river has flowed gives way to a more open bush valley, studded with Borassus <!--del_lnk--> palm trees. Dense vegetation is confined to narrow strips of matted forest which skirt the first few hundred metres of the sources of the Zambezi and its tributaries during the first 160 km (100 miles) or so.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28638.jpg.htm" title="Zambezi River in North Western Zambia"><img alt="Zambezi River in North Western Zambia" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zambezi_River_near_Zambezi_Town.jpg" src="../../images/286/28638.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28638.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zambezi River in North Western Zambia</div>
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<p>From 1500 metres (4,900 ft) at the source, the river drops to about 1100 metres (3,600 ft) at Kakengi, 350 km (220 miles) downstream. From this point until the <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls, the level of the basin is very uniform, dropping only by another 180 metres (590 ft). Thirty kilometers (19 miles) below the confluence of the Lungwebungu the country becomes flat, and in the <!--del_lnk--> rainy season is largely covered by <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">floods</a>. Eighty kilometers (50 miles) further down, the <!--del_lnk--> Luanginga, which with its tributaries drains a large area to the west, joins the Zambezi. A few kilometres higher up on the east the main stream is joined by the <!--del_lnk--> Luena.<p>A short distance downstream of the confluence with the Luanginga is <!--del_lnk--> Lealui, one of the capitals of the <!--del_lnk--> Lozi people who populate the semi-<!--del_lnk--> autonomous Zambian region of <!--del_lnk--> Barotseland. The chief of the Lozi has two compounds, the other being at <!--del_lnk--> Limulunga. Limulunga is on high ground and serves as the capital during the rainy season. The annual move from Lealui to Limulunga is a major event, celebrated as one of Zambia's best known festivals, the <!--del_lnk--> Kuomboka.<p>After Lealui, the river turns to the south-east. From the east it continues to receive numerous small streams, but on the west is without tributaries for 240 km (150 miles), when the <!--del_lnk--> Cuando River joins it. Before this, the <!--del_lnk--> Ngonye Falls and subsequent rapids interrupt navigation. South of Ngonye Falls, the river briefly borders <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Caprivi Strip. The strip projects from the main body of Namibia, and results from the colonial era: it was added to <!--del_lnk--> German South-West Africa expressly to give <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> access to the Zambezi.<p>Below the junction of the Cuando and the Zambezi the river bends almost due east. Here, the river is very broad and shallow, and flows fairly slowly, but as it flows eastward towards the border of the great central plateau of Africa it reaches a chasm into which the <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls plunge.<p><a id="The_middle_Zambezi" name="The_middle_Zambezi"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The middle Zambezi</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28639.jpg.htm" title="Victoria Falls, the end of the upper Zambezi and beginning of the middle Zambezi"><img alt="Victoria Falls, the end of the upper Zambezi and beginning of the middle Zambezi" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Victoria5.jpg" src="../../images/286/28639.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28639.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Victoria Falls, the end of the upper Zambezi and beginning of the middle Zambezi</div>
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</div>
<p>The Victoria Falls are considered the boundary between the upper and middle Zambezi. Below them the river continues to flow due east for about 200 km (120 miles), cutting through perpendicular walls of <!--del_lnk--> basalt 20 to 60 metres (65 to 200 ft) apart in hills 200 to 250 metres (650 to 820 ft) high. The river flows swiftly through the gorge, the current being continually interrupted by reefs. Beyond the gorge are a succession of <!--del_lnk--> rapids which end 240 km (150 miles) below Victoria Falls. Over this distance, the river drops 250 metres (820 ft).<p>At this point, the river enters <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Kariba.htm" title="Lake Kariba">Lake Kariba</a>, created in 1959 following the completion of the <!--del_lnk--> Kariba Dam. The lake is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, and the <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power-generating facilities at the dam provide electricity to much of Zambia and <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Luangwa and the <!--del_lnk--> Kafue are the two largest left-hand tributaries of the Zambezi. The Kafue joins the main river in a quiet deep stream about 180 metres (590 ft) wide. From this point the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked and the stream continues due east. At the confluence of the Luangwa (15°37′ S) it enters <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>.<p>The middle Zambezi ends when the river enters Lake <!--del_lnk--> Cahora Bassa (also spelled Cabora Bassa). Formerly the site of dangerous rapids known as Kebrabassa, the lake was created in 1974 by the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam.<p><a id="The_lower_river" name="The_lower_river"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The lower river</span></h3>
<p>The lower Zambezi's 650 km (400 miles) from Cahora Bassa to the Indian Ocean is navigable, although the river is shallow in many places during the <!--del_lnk--> dry season. This shallowness arises as the river enters a broad valley and spreads out over a large area. Only at one point, the <!--del_lnk--> Lupata Gorge, 320 km (200 miles) from its mouth, is the river confined between high hills. Here it is scarcely 200 metres wide. Elsewhere it is from 5 to 8 km (3 to 5 miles) wide, flowing gently in many streams. The river bed is sandy, and the banks are low and reed-fringed. At places, however, and especially in the <!--del_lnk--> rainy season, the streams unite into one broad fast-flowing river.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28640.jpg.htm" title="The Zambezi's delta"><img alt="The Zambezi's delta" height="255" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zambezi_delta.jpg" src="../../images/286/28640.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28640.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Zambezi's delta</div>
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<p>About 160 km (100 miles) from the sea the Zambezi receives the drainage of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Malawi.htm" title="Lake Malawi">Lake Malawi</a> through the <!--del_lnk--> Shire River. On approaching the Indian Ocean, the river splits up into a number of branches and forms a wide <!--del_lnk--> delta. Each of the four principal mouths, Milambe, Kongone, Luabo and Timbwe, is obstructed by a sand bar. A more northerly branch, called the Chinde mouth, has a minimum depth at low water of 2 metres at the entrance and 4 metres further in, and is the branch used for navigation. 100 km (60 miles) further north is a river called the <!--del_lnk--> Quelimane, after the town at its mouth. This stream, which is silting up, receives the overflow of the Zambezi in the rainy season. The delta of the Zambezi is today about half as broad as it was before the construction of the Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams controlled the seasonal variations in the flow rate of the river.<p>The region drained by the Zambezi is a vast broken-edged plateau 900–1200 metres high, composed in the remote interior of <a href="../../wp/m/Metamorphic_rock.htm" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic</a> beds and fringed with the <!--del_lnk--> igneous rocks of the Victoria Falls. At <!--del_lnk--> Shupanga, on the lower Zambezi, thin strata of grey and yellow <!--del_lnk--> sandstones, with an occasional band of <!--del_lnk--> limestone, crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and these persist beyond <!--del_lnk--> Tete, where they are associated with extensive seams of <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a>. Coal is also found in the district just below the Victoria Falls. <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">Gold</a>-bearing rocks occur in several places.<p><a id="Tributaries" name="Tributaries"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tributaries</span></h2>
<p>The Zambezi has numerous tributaries. Some of the more important ones are described here, in order from source to sea.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Kabompo rises in the high land which forms the eastern watershed between the Zambezi and <a href="../../wp/c/Congo_River.htm" title="Congo River">Congo</a> systems. It is formed itself by the confluence of the upper Kabompo and the somewhat larger <!--del_lnk--> Lunga River, and flows into the Zambezi north of the town of <!--del_lnk--> Lukulu. The <!--del_lnk--> Lungwebungu, which enters the Zambezi from the west just south of the confluence with the Kabompo River, is 200 metres wide in its upper course, flowing in a valley bordered by white sand covered in thin forest, its floor forming at times an inundated plain 2 to 3 miles wide.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Cuando River, largest of the river's western tributaries, has the ruined capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Makololo people on its lower reaches. It rises in <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, and forms the border between Zambia and Angola for part of its course, before curving to the south, then flowing east into the Zambezi. In this eastward stretch the Cuando flows through a vast reedy <!--del_lnk--> swamp studded with alluvial islands for 110 km (70 miles), and at its most southern bend is joined by the <!--del_lnk--> Magwekwana, which in time of flood receives some of the surplus water of the <!--del_lnk--> Okavango. This surplus water, received after most of the flood water of the Cuando has passed, raises the level of the lake and holds up the waters of the Cuando for some miles above it.<p>The largest tributary of the middle Zambezi, the <!--del_lnk--> Kafue, rises in Zambia's <!--del_lnk--> Copperbelt Province near the border with <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Republic of Congo at an elevation of 1350 metres in thick forest country. The main headstream is later joined by the <!--del_lnk--> Lunga River or Luanga. The <!--del_lnk--> Itezhi-Tezhi Dam is an important source of <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power from the Kafue River, and the river also supports a great deal of wildlife, which is protected by Zambia's largest <!--del_lnk--> national park, <!--del_lnk--> Kafue National Park. The lower Kafue has a series of <!--del_lnk--> waterfalls and cataracts, dropping several hundred feet in 25 km (15 miles).<p>The next large tributary to the east is the <!--del_lnk--> Luangwa, which rises near the north-west corner of <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Malawi.htm" title="Lake Malawi">Lake Malawi</a> and in its upper course runs parallel to its western shores. The Luangwa flows in a generally level valley, bounded by steep plateau escarpments, and is generally shallow and rapid, though fairly wide. Its tributaries the <!--del_lnk--> Lunsemfwa River and <!--del_lnk--> Lukasashi River drain a large area of the western plateau of Zambia. The Luangwa joins the Zambezi a little above the town of <!--del_lnk--> Zumbo. The Luangwa Valley is an important wildlife conservation area, and contains <!--del_lnk--> North Luangwa National Park and <!--del_lnk--> South Luangwa National Park. The Luangwa defines the border between Zambia and Mozambique for about 75 km before it joins the Zambezi.<p>From the south the middle Zambezi receives various rivers which water northern <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>—the <!--del_lnk--> Shangani, <!--del_lnk--> Sanyati, and <!--del_lnk--> Hanyani, besides minor streams. The <!--del_lnk--> Mazoe, which rises in <!--del_lnk--> Mashonaland, joins the Zambezi below the Cahora Bassa Dam.<p><a id="Exploration_of_the_river" name="Exploration_of_the_river"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Exploration of the river</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28641.jpg.htm" title="Satellite image showing Victoria Falls and subsequent series of zigzagging gorges"><img alt="Satellite image showing Victoria Falls and subsequent series of zigzagging gorges" height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Satellite_view_of_Victoria_Falls.jpg" src="../../images/286/28641.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28641.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image showing <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls and subsequent series of zigzagging gorges</div>
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<p>The Zambezi region was known to <!--del_lnk--> medieval geographers as the <!--del_lnk--> Empire of Monomotapa, and the course of the river, as well as the position of <!--del_lnk--> Lakes Ngami and <!--del_lnk--> Nyasa, were given broadly accurately in early maps. These were probably constructed from <!--del_lnk--> Arab information.<p>The first European to visit the upper Zambezi was <a href="../../wp/d/David_Livingstone.htm" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a> in his exploration from <!--del_lnk--> Bechuanaland between 1851 and 1853. Two or three years later he descended the Zambezi to its mouth and in the course of this journey discovered the Victoria Falls. During 1858–60, accompanied by <!--del_lnk--> John Kirk, Livingstone ascended the river by the Kongone mouth as far as the Falls, and also traced the course of its tributary the Shire and reached Lake Malawi.<p>For the next 35 years very little exploration of the river took place, but in 1889 the Chinde channel north of the main mouths of the river was discovered. Two expeditions led by Major <!--del_lnk--> A. St Hill Gibbons in 1895 to 1896 and 1898 to 1900 continued the work of exploration begun by Livingstone in the upper basin and central course of the river. Portuguese explorer <!--del_lnk--> Serpa Pinto examined some of the western tributaries of the river and made measurements of the Victoria Falls in 1878.<p><a id="Wildlife" name="Wildlife"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wildlife</span></h2>
<p>The river supports large populations of many animals. <a href="../../wp/h/Hippopotamus.htm" title="Hippopotamus">Hippopotamuses</a> are abundant along most of the calm stretches of the river, and many <a href="../../wp/c/Crocodile.htm" title="Crocodile">crocodiles</a> are also present. <!--del_lnk--> Monitor lizards are found in many places. <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Bird</a> life is abundant, with species including <a href="../../wp/h/Heron.htm" title="Heron">heron</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pelican, <!--del_lnk--> egret and <!--del_lnk--> African Fish Eagle present in large numbers. <!--del_lnk--> Riverine woodland also supports many large animals, such as <a href="../../wp/a/African_Buffalo.htm" title="African Buffalo">buffalo</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zebra.htm" title="Zebra">zebras</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Giraffe.htm" title="Giraffe">giraffes</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Elephant.htm" title="Elephant">elephants</a>. However, below Kariba and Cahora Bassa dams, the cessation of annual <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flooding</a> has seen the area of this habitat greatly reduced and a corresponding reduction in the populations of the large mammals.<p>The Zambezi also supports several hundred species of <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>, some of which are <!--del_lnk--> endemic to the river. Important species include <!--del_lnk--> cichlids which are fished heavily for food, as well as <!--del_lnk--> catfish, <!--del_lnk--> tigerfish, <!--del_lnk--> yellowfish and other large species. The <a href="../../wp/b/Bull_shark.htm" title="Bull shark">bull shark</a> is sometimes known as the Zambezi Shark after the river but is found around the world. It normally inhabits <!--del_lnk--> coastal waters but has been found far inland in many large rivers including the Zambezi. It is an aggressive shark which has been responsible for several attacks on humans.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28642.jpg.htm" title="The river and its floodplain near Mongu in Zambia"><img alt="The river and its floodplain near Mongu in Zambia" height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ISS009-E-7622-_Zambezi_river_near_Mongu.jpg" src="../../images/286/28642.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28642.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The river and its floodplain near Mongu in Zambia</div>
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<p>The population of the Zambezi river valley is estimated to be about 32 million. About 80% of the population of the valley is dependent on <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, and the upper river's <!--del_lnk--> flood plains provide good agricultural land.<p>Communities by the river fish extensively from it, and many people travel from far afield to fish. Some Zambian towns on roads leading to the river levy unofficial 'fish taxes' on people taking Zambezi fish to other parts of the country. As well as fishing for food, <!--del_lnk--> game fishing is a significant activity on some parts of the river. Between <!--del_lnk--> Mongu and <!--del_lnk--> Livingstone, several <!--del_lnk--> safari lodges cater for <!--del_lnk--> tourists who want to fish for exotic species, and many also catch fish to sell to <a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" title="Aquaria">aquaria</a>.<p>The river valley is rich in <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">mineral</a> deposits and <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>, and <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> mining is important in places. The <a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" title="Dam">dams</a> along its length also provide employment for many people near them, in maintaining the <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power stations and the dams themselves. Several parts of the river are also very popular tourist destinations. Victoria Falls receives over 1.5 million visitors annually, while <!--del_lnk--> Mana Pools and <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Kariba.htm" title="Lake Kariba">Lake Kariba</a> also draw substantial tourist numbers.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28643.jpg.htm" title="Victoria Falls Bridge. 1975 photo."><img alt="Victoria Falls Bridge. 1975 photo." height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Victoria_Falls_Bridge_over_Zambesi.jpg" src="../../images/286/28643.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28643.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Victoria Falls Bridge. 1975 photo.</div>
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<p>The river is frequently interrupted by <!--del_lnk--> rapids and so has never been an important long-distance transport route. However, along short stretches, it is often more convenient to travel by <!--del_lnk--> canoe along the river rather than on the unimproved roads which are often in very poor condition due to being regularly submerged in flood waters, and many small villages along the banks of the river are only accessible by boat.<p>There are only five bridges across the river along its entire course, of which one is a footbridge only. However, at many locations <!--del_lnk--> pontoons ferry people and vehicles across the river. <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls Bridge was the first to be built, and was completed in April 1905. It was initially intended as a link in <!--del_lnk--> Cecil Rhodes' scheme to build a <!--del_lnk--> railway from Cape Town to Cairo. The bridge is 250 m (820 ft) across, with a main arch spanning 150 m (490 ft), and the top of the bridge is 125 m (410 ft) above the low-water level of the river.<p>Later bridges were constructed at Chirundu in Zambia (1939, replaced in 2003), Tete in Mozambique (1960s) and Chinyingi in northern Zambia in the 1970s (footbridge only). 2004 saw the completion of a bridge crossing the river from <!--del_lnk--> Sesheke in Zambia with <!--del_lnk--> Katima Mulilo in <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, completing the <!--del_lnk--> TransCaprivi Highway and connecting <a href="../../wp/l/Lusaka.htm" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a> in Zambia with <!--del_lnk--> Walvis Bay on the Namibian coast.<p><a id="Ecology" name="Ecology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ecology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28644.jpg.htm" title="Lake Cahora Bassa in Mozambique, one of the river's major sources of hydroelectric energy"><img alt="Lake Cahora Bassa in Mozambique, one of the river's major sources of hydroelectric energy" height="245" longdesc="/wiki/Image:STS51B-51-14-_Lake_Cahora_Bassa.jpg" src="../../images/286/28644.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28644.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lake Cahora Bassa in Mozambique, one of the river's major sources of hydroelectric energy</div>
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</div>
<p>Sewage <!--del_lnk--> effluent is a major cause of water <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollution</a> around urban areas, as inadequate water treatment facilities in all the major cities of the region force them to release untreated sewage into the river. This has resulted in <!--del_lnk--> eutrophication of the river water and has facilitated the spread of diseases of poor <!--del_lnk--> hygiene such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cholera.htm" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <!--del_lnk--> typhus and <!--del_lnk--> dysentery.<p>The construction of two major dams regulating the flow of the river has had a major effect on wildlife and human populations in the lower Zambezi region. When the Cahora Bassa Dam was constructed in 1973, its managers allowed it to fill in a single flood season, going against recommendations to fill over at least two years. The drastic reduction in the flow of the river led to a 40% reduction in the coverage of <!--del_lnk--> mangroves, greatly increased <!--del_lnk--> erosion of the coastal region and a 60% reduction in the catch of <!--del_lnk--> prawns off the mouth due to the reduction in emplacement of <!--del_lnk--> silt and associate <!--del_lnk--> nutrients. <!--del_lnk--> Wetland <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems downstream of the dam shrank considerably.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Major_towns" name="Major_towns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Major towns</span></h2>
<p>Along much of the river's length, the population is sparse, but important towns and cities along its course include the following:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Katima Mulilo (Namibia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mongu, <!--del_lnk--> Lukulu, <!--del_lnk--> Livingstone, & <!--del_lnk--> Sesheke (Zambia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls & <!--del_lnk--> Kariba (Zimbabwe)<li><!--del_lnk--> Songo & <!--del_lnk--> Tete (Mozambique)</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambezi"</div>
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| ['Zambia', 'Indian Ocean', 'Zambia', 'Democratic Republic of the Congo', 'Angola', 'Namibia', 'Botswana', 'Zimbabwe', 'Mozambique', 'River', 'Africa', 'Indian Ocean', 'Nile', 'Zambia', 'Angola', 'Namibia', 'Botswana', 'Zimbabwe', 'Mozambique', 'Chinyingi', 'Mozambique', 'South Africa', 'Flood', 'Namibia', 'Germany', 'Lake Kariba', 'Zimbabwe', 'Mozambique', 'Lake Malawi', 'Metamorphic rock', 'Coal', 'Gold', 'Congo River', 'Angola', 'Lake Malawi', 'Zimbabwe', 'David Livingstone', 'Hippopotamus', 'Crocodile', 'Bird', 'Heron', 'African Buffalo', 'Zebra', 'Giraffe', 'Elephant', 'Flood', 'Fish', 'Bull shark', 'Agriculture', 'Aquaria', 'Mineral', 'Fossil fuel', 'Coal', 'Dam', 'Lake Kariba', 'Namibia', 'Lusaka', 'Pollution', 'Cholera'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zambia</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.African_Countries.htm">African Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Zambia. For more information see <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Zambia">SOS Children in Zambia</a></div>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>Republic of Zambia</b></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1557.png.htm" title="Flag of Zambia"><img alt="Flag of Zambia" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Zambia.svg" src="../../images/149/14952.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14953.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Zambia"><img alt="Coat of arms of Zambia" height="99" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Zambia.svg" src="../../images/149/14953.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: "One Zambia, One Nation"</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free</i></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14954.png.htm" title="Location of Zambia"><img alt="Location of Zambia" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationZambia.png" src="../../images/149/14954.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Lusaka.htm" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 15°25′S 28°17′E</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Republic</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Levy Mwanawasa</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> </td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Date</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1964 </td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 752,618 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 39th)<br /> 290,586 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
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<td> - July 2005 estimate</td>
<td>11,668,000<sup>1</sup> (<!--del_lnk--> 71st)</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2003 census</td>
<td>9,582,418</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>16/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 191st)<br /> 40/sq mi</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$10.792 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 133rd)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$931 (<!--del_lnk--> 168th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2004)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up.svg" src="../../images/8/808.png" width="10" /></a> 0.407 (<font color="#E0584E">low</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 165th)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Zambian kwacha (<code><!--del_lnk--> ZMK</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><i>not observed</i> (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .zm</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+260</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.</small></td>
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<p><b>Zambia</b>, officially the <b>Republic of Zambia</b>, is a landlocked country in <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Africa.htm" title="Southern Africa">southern Africa</a>. It borders the <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> to the north, <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> on the north-east, <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> on the east, <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> to the south, and <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a> on the west. Formerly <!--del_lnk--> Northern Rhodesia, the country is named after the <!--del_lnk--> Zambezi river.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>The indigenous <!--del_lnk--> Khoisan <!--del_lnk--> hunter-gatherer occupants of Zambia began to be displaced or absorbed by more technologically-advanced migrating tribes around two thousand years ago. The major waves of <a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a>-speaking immigrants – the <!--del_lnk--> Bantu expansion – began in the <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">twelfth century</a>.<p>Among them, the <!--del_lnk--> Tonga people (also called Batonga) were first to settle in Zambia and are believed to have come from the far east near the "big sea." The <!--del_lnk--> Nkoya people had also come much earlier with some suggesting that they came first into what is today called Zambia from the Luba-Lunda kingdoms in the north. Other groups followed with the greatest influx coming between the late <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">seventeenth</a> and early <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">nineteenth centuries</a>. These later migrants came primarily from the Luba and Lunda tribes of southern <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Republic of Congo and northern <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a> but were joined in the nineteenth century by <!--del_lnk--> Ngoni peoples from the south. By the later part of the nineteenth century, the various peoples of Zambia were largely established in the areas they currently occupy.<p>Except for the occasional <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> explorer, the area lay untouched by <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europeans</a> for centuries. After the mid-nineteenth century, it was penetrated by Western explorers, missionaries, and traders. In <!--del_lnk--> 1855, missionary and explorer <a href="../../wp/d/David_Livingstone.htm" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a>, became the first European to see the magnificent waterfalls on the <!--del_lnk--> Zambezi River. He named them <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls after <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>. The falls are known in Zambia as Mosi-O-Tunya (in the Lozi or Kololo dialect), "the smoke that thunders." The Zambian town, Livingstone, near the falls is named after him.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1888, <!--del_lnk--> Cecil Rhodes, spearheading British commercial and political interests in Central Africa, obtained a mineral rights concession from local chiefs. In the west of the country, which came to be known as North Western Rhodesia, the British South African Company, Cecil Rhodes’ company, obtained mineral rights for the area from The <!--del_lnk--> Litunga, the king of the <!--del_lnk--> Lozi <!--del_lnk--> . In the east, King <!--del_lnk--> Mpezeni of the <!--del_lnk--> Ngoni resisted but he was defeated in <!--del_lnk--> battle<!--del_lnk--> and that part of the country came to be known as North-Eastern Rhodesia. The two were administered as separate units until <!--del_lnk--> 1911 when they were joined to form <!--del_lnk--> Northern Rhodesia. In <!--del_lnk--> 1924, the Company ceded control to the British Government <!--del_lnk--> Colonial Office under the <!--del_lnk--> Devonshire Agreement In the same year, Southern Rhodesia (now <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>) was proclaimed to be within the British sphere of influence. Southern Rhodesia was annexed formally and granted self-government in 1923, and the administration of Northern Rhodesia was by a <!--del_lnk--> Governor appointed by the <!--del_lnk--> crown. Mining began in the <!--del_lnk--> Copperbelt in 1934.<p>In 1953, both Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, respectively) were joined with Nyasaland (now <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>) to form the <!--del_lnk--> Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Federation was established despite overwhelming opposition from Africans, who demonstrated against it in 1960-61 and campaigned for its disbandment. <!--del_lnk--> Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crisis that characterized the federation in its last years. The campaign was led initially by <!--del_lnk--> Harry Mwaanga Nkumbula's African National Congress (ANC) and later by <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Kaunda's United National Independence Party (UNIP). A two-stage election held in October and December <!--del_lnk--> 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution and a new <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. Led by <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Kaunda, on <!--del_lnk--> 31 December <!--del_lnk--> 1963, the federation was dissolved, and Northern Rhodesia became the Republic of <strong class="selflink">Zambia</strong> on <!--del_lnk--> 24 October <!--del_lnk--> 1964. At that time, Kaunda became the country's first president.<p>At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges. Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government, and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise. Abroad, three of its neighbors – Southern Rhodesia and the Portuguese colonies of Mozambique and Angola – remained under white-dominated rule. Southern Rhodesia's white-ruled government unilaterally declared independence in November, 1965. In addition, Zambia shared a border with South African-controlled South-West Africa (now <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>). Zambia's sympathies lay with forces opposing colonial or white-dominated rule, particularly in Southern Rhodesia. During the next decade, it actively supported movements such as the <!--del_lnk--> National Union for Total Independence of Angola (UNITA); the <!--del_lnk--> Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU); the <!--del_lnk--> African National Congress of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> (ANC); and the <!--del_lnk--> South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO).<p>Conflicts with Rhodesia (so renamed from Southern Rhodesia) resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, the <!--del_lnk--> Kariba hydroelectric station on the Zambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity (despite the fact that the hydro control centre was on the Rhodesian side of the border). A <!--del_lnk--> railroad to the <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzanian</a> port of <!--del_lnk--> Dar es Salaam, built with <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">Chinese</a> assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on railroad lines south to South Africa and west through an increasingly troubled Angola. Until the completion of the railroad, however, Zambia's major artery for imports and the critical export of copper was along the TanZam Road, running from Zambia to the port cities in Tanzania. Also a pipeline for oil was built from Dar-es-Salaam to <!--del_lnk--> Ndola in Zambia.<p>By the late <!--del_lnk--> 1970s, Mozambique and Angola had attained independence from Portugal. Zimbabwe achieved independence in accordance with the <!--del_lnk--> 1979 <!--del_lnk--> Lancaster House Agreement, but Zambia's problems were not solved. Civil war in the former Portuguese colonies generated an influx of <!--del_lnk--> refugees and caused continuing transportation problems. The <!--del_lnk--> Benguela railway, which extended west through Angola, was essentially closed to traffic from Zambia by the late 1970s. Zambia's strong support for the ANC, which had its external headquarters in <a href="../../wp/l/Lusaka.htm" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a>, created security problems as South Africa raided ANC targets in Zambia.<p>In the mid-1970s, the price of <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>, Zambia's principal export, suffered a severe decline worldwide. In Zambia's situation, the cost of transporting the copper great distances to market was an additional strain. Zambia turned to foreign and international lenders for relief, but, as copper prices remained depressed, it became increasingly difficult to service its growing debt. By the mid-1990s, despite limited debt relief, Zambia's per capita foreign debt remained among the highest in the world.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>Zambia's politics takes place in a framework of a <!--del_lnk--> presidential <!--del_lnk--> representative democratic <!--del_lnk--> republic, whereby the <!--del_lnk--> President of Zambia is both <!--del_lnk--> head of state and <!--del_lnk--> head of government in a pluriform multi-party system. <!--del_lnk--> Executive power is exercised by the government. <!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in both the <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> and parliament. Zambia (formerly <!--del_lnk--> Northern Rhodesia) became a <!--del_lnk--> republic immediately upon attaining <!--del_lnk--> independence in October <!--del_lnk--> 1964.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14955.png.htm" title="Map showing Zambia's provinces."><img alt="Map showing Zambia's provinces." height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZM-provinces.png" src="../../images/149/14955.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14955.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map showing Zambia's provinces.</div>
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<p>Zambia is divided into <!--del_lnk--> nine provinces, each administered by an appointed deputy minister (essentially performing the duties of a <!--del_lnk--> governor). Each province are subdivided into four to twelve districts to make a total of seventy-two districts. The provinces are:<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:transparent">
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Central<li><!--del_lnk--> Copperbelt<li><!--del_lnk--> Eastern<li><!--del_lnk--> Luapula<li><!--del_lnk--> Lusaka</ul>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Northern<li><!--del_lnk--> North-Western<li><!--del_lnk--> Southern<li><!--del_lnk--> Western</ul>
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<p>There is also popular demand for a tenth province, <!--del_lnk--> Kafue Province.<div style="clear: both">
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<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Lower_Education" name="Lower_Education"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lower Education</span></h3>
<p>Schooling usually falls into three levels: Primary (Years 1 to 7), Junior Secondary (Years 8 to 9) and Upper Secondary (Years 10 to 12). So-called "Basic" schools teach Years 1 to 9, as Year 9 is considered to be a decent level of schooling for the majority of children; however, schooling is only free up to Year 7 and most children drop out then.<p>Both government and private schools exist in Zambia. The private school system began largely as a result of Christian mission efforts during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. One of the most famous private schools is Catholic run St. Mary's Seminary located in the Msupadzi area, south of Chipata, Eastern Province. A popular public high school is Chama Secondary School located on the northern tip of the eastern province. Private schools operate under either the British or American way of schooling.<p><a id="Higher_Education" name="Higher_Education"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Higher Education</span></h3>
<p>Educational opportunities beyond high school are very limited in Zambia. There are few schools offering higher education and most Zambians cannot afford the fees. The University of Zambia is the primary institution of higher learning.<p>Several teacher training colleges offer two-year programs beyond high school, and there are several Christian schools which offer seminary-level training.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> University of Zambia <span style="font-size:90%;">(in <a href="../../wp/l/Lusaka.htm" title="Lusaka">Lusaka</a>)</span><li><!--del_lnk--> Copperbelt University <span style="font-size:90%;">(in <!--del_lnk--> Kitwe)</span><li><!--del_lnk--> Northrise University <span style="font-size:90%;">(in <!--del_lnk--> Ndola)</span></ul>
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14956.png.htm" title="Map of Zambia"><img alt="Map of Zambia" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Za-map.png" src="../../images/149/14956.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14956.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Zambia</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14957.png.htm" title="Satellite image of Zambia, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library"><img alt="Satellite image of Zambia, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library" height="151" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zambia_sat.png" src="../../images/149/14957.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14957.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image of Zambia, generated from <!--del_lnk--> raster graphics data supplied by <!--del_lnk--> The Map Library</div>
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<p>Zambia is a landlocked country in southern Africa, with a tropical climate and consists mostly of high plateau with some hills and mountains. At 290,566 sq. mi. (752,614 sq. km) it is the 39th-largest country in the world (after <a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a>) and is slightly larger than the US state of <!--del_lnk--> Texas.<p>Zambia is drained by two major river basins: the <!--del_lnk--> Zambezi River basin, in the south; and the <a href="../../wp/c/Congo_River.htm" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> basin, in the north. Of the two basins, the part of Zambia drained by the Zambezi River basin is about three-quarters of the country's total area. The part drained by the Congo River basin is about a quarter of the country's total area.<p><a id="Zambezi_River_basin" name="Zambezi_River_basin"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zambezi River basin</span></h3>
<p>In the Zambezi River basin, there are four major rivers that either run through Zambia or form the country's borders with its neighbours: the <!--del_lnk--> Kafue, the <!--del_lnk--> Luangwa, the <!--del_lnk--> Kwando and the <a href="../../wp/z/Zambezi.htm" title="Zambezi">Zambezi</a>. The last three form part of Zambia's southern borders. The Kwando River forms Zambia's southwestern border with <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, then it runs eastwards along the northern boundary of Namibia's <!--del_lnk--> Caprivi Strip before spreading into the <!--del_lnk--> Linyanti Marshes, which finally drain eastwards into the Zambezi. From its confluence with the Kwando, the Zambezi flows eastwards, forming the whole of Zambia's border with <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>. The other two rivers, Kafue and Luangwa, lie entirely within Zambia and are major tributaries of the Zambezi. Their confluences with the Zambezi are on Zambia's Zimbabwean border at Chirundu (for the Kafue) and <!--del_lnk--> Luangwa town (for the Luangwa River). Before its confluence, the Luangwa River forms part of Zambia's border with <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>. From Luangwa town, the Zambezi leaves Zambia and flows into Mozambique, and eventually spills its waters into the Indian Ocean's <!--del_lnk--> Mozambique Channel.<p>The Zambezi falls 360 <!--del_lnk--> feet (100 <!--del_lnk--> m) over the one-<!--del_lnk--> mile wide (1.6 km) <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls, located in the southwest corner of the country, subsequently filling <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Kariba.htm" title="Lake Kariba">Lake Kariba</a>.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Zambezi Valley, running along the southern border, is both deep and wide. Moving northwards the terrain shifts into a high plateau ranging from three to four thousand feet (900–1,200 m) to over six thousand feet (1,800 m) in the northern area of the Copperbelt. In the east, the <!--del_lnk--> Luangwa valley curves its way south with hills on either side until it enters the Zambezi.In the west, large plains are a key geographic feature, flooding the western plains during the annual rainy season (typically October though April).<p><a id="Congo_River_basin" name="Congo_River_basin"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Congo River basin</span></h3>
<p>Zambia hosts two major rivers from the Congo River basin: the <!--del_lnk--> Chambeshi and the <!--del_lnk--> Luapula. The latter forms part of Zambia's border with the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Republic of Congo. The Chambeshi lies entirely within Zambia and is the furthest headstream of the Congo River. It flows into the <!--del_lnk--> Bangweulu Wetlands, which provide the waters that form the Luapula River. The Luapula flows southward then westward before it turns northward until it enters <!--del_lnk--> Lake Mweru. The lake's other major tributary is the <!--del_lnk--> Kalungwishi River, which flows into it from the east. The <!--del_lnk--> Luvua River drains Lake Mweru, flowing out of the northern end.<p><a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Tanganyika.htm" title="Lake Tanganyika">Lake Tanganyika</a> is the other major hydrographic feature that belongs to the Congo River basin. The lake's southeastern end receives water from the <!--del_lnk--> Kalambo River, which forms part of Zambia's border with Tanzania. This river has Africa's second highest uninterrupted waterfall, the <!--del_lnk--> Kalambo Falls. (The continent's highest waterfalls is the <!--del_lnk--> Tugela Falls of South Africa.)<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Over 70% percent of Zambians live in poverty. Per capita annual incomes are currently at about one-half their levels at independence and, at $395, place the country among the world's poorest nations. Social indicators continue to decline, particularly in measurements of life expectancy at birth (about thirty-seven years) and maternal mortality (729 per 100,000 pregnancies). The country's rate of economic growth cannot support rapid population growth or the strain which <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> related issues (i.e. rising medical costs, decline in worker productivity) place on government resources. Zambia is also one of sub-Saharan Africa's most highly urbanized countries. Almost one-half of the country's eleven million people are concentrated in a few urban zones strung along the major transportation corridors, while rural areas are sparsely populated. Unemployment and underemployment are serious problems.<p>HIV/AIDS is the nation's greatest problem, with 17% prevalence among the adult population. HIV/AIDS will continue to ravage Zambian economic, political, cultural, and social development for the foreseeable future.<p>Once a middle-income country, Zambia began to slide into poverty in the 1970s when copper prices declined on world markets. The socialist government made up for falling revenue with several abortive attempts at <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund <!--del_lnk--> structural adjustment programmes (SAPs), which ended after popular outcries from the people. After democratic multi-party elections, the Chiluba government (1991-2001) came to power in November 1991 committed to an economic reform program. The government <!--del_lnk--> privatized most of the parastatals (state-owned corporations), maintained positive <!--del_lnk--> real <!--del_lnk--> interest rates, eliminated <!--del_lnk--> exchange controls, and endorsed free market principles. <!--del_lnk--> Corruption grew dramatically under the Chiluba government. It remains to be seen whether the Mwanawasa government will be aggressive in continuing economic reform. Zambia is still dealing with economic reform issues such as the size of the <!--del_lnk--> public sector and improving Zambia's social sector delivery systems. <!--del_lnk--> NGOs and other groups have contended that the SAPs, in Zambia and other countries, have had very detrimental effects on the poor. <!--del_lnk--> Zambia's total foreign debt exceeded $6 billion when the country qualified for <!--del_lnk--> Highly Indebted Poor Country Initiative (HIPC) debt relief in 2000, contingent upon meeting certain <!--del_lnk--> performance criteria. Initially, Zambia hoped to reach the HIPC completion point, and benefit from substantial debt forgiveness, in late 2003. In January 2003, the Zambian Government informed the <!--del_lnk--> IMF and <!--del_lnk--> World Bank that it wished to renegotiate some of the agreed performance criteria calling for privatization of the Zambia National Commercial Bank and the national telephone and electricity utilities. Although agreements were reached on these issues, subsequent overspending on civil service wages delayed Zambia's final HIPC debt forgiveness from late 2003 to early 2005, at the earliest. In an effort to reach HIPC completion in 2004, the government drafted an austerity budget for 2004, freezing civil service salaries and increasing a number of taxes. The labor movement and other components of civil society have objected to the sacrifices called for in the budget, and, in some cases, the role of the international financial institutions in demanding austerity.<p>The Zambian economy has historically been based on the <!--del_lnk--> copper mining industry. Output of copper had fallen, however, to a low of 228,000 metric tons in 1998, after a thirty-year decline in output due to lack of investment, low copper prices, and uncertainty over privatization. In 2002, following privatization of the industry, copper production rebounded to 337,000 metric tons. Improvements in the world copper market have magnified the effect of this volume increase on revenues and foreign exchange earnings. Recently firms like Vedanta Resources, a London based metals giant acquired Konkola Copper Mines (KCM)and have completely transformed the company allowing it to develop to its full potential and maximise the benefits for the employees. They are also investing a lot in the Zambian economy by undertaking the largest single investment into the country earlier in 2006.<p>The Zambian Government is pursuing an economic diversification program to reduce the economy's reliance on the copper industry. This initiative seeks to exploit other components of Zambia's rich resource base by promoting agriculture, tourism, gemstone mining, and hydro power. In 2003, nonmetal exports increased by 25% and accounted for 38% of all export earnings, previously 35%. The Zambian government has recently been granting licenses to international resource companies to prospect for minerals such as nickel and uranium.<p><a id="Demographics_and_ethnicity" name="Demographics_and_ethnicity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics and ethnicity</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14958.jpg.htm" title="Thatched-roof church in a Zambian village."><img alt="Thatched-roof church in a Zambian village." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zambian_Church_by_spooceman.jpg" src="../../images/149/14958.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14958.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Thatched-roof church in a Zambian village.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14959.jpg.htm" title="A Zambian field."><img alt="A Zambian field." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zambian_Field_by_spooceman.jpg" src="../../images/149/14959.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14959.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Zambian field.</div>
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<p>Zambia's population is comprised of about seventy-two Bantu-speaking ethnic groups but almost 90% of Zambians belong to the nine main ethnolinguistic groups: the <!--del_lnk--> Bemba, <!--del_lnk--> Nyanja-Chewa, <!--del_lnk--> Tonga, <!--del_lnk--> Tumbuka (spoken in the Eastern Province and eastern part Nothern Province), <!--del_lnk--> Lunda, <!--del_lnk--> Luvale, <!--del_lnk--> Kaonde, <!--del_lnk--> Nkoya and <!--del_lnk--> Lozi. In the rural areas, each ethnic group is concentrated in a particular geographic region of the country and many groups are very small and not as well known. However, in Lusaka and the Copperbelt, all the ethinic groups can be found in good proportions.<p>The country is 44% urban. Most rural Zambians are <!--del_lnk--> subsistence farmers. The predominant religion is <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> which is also the official national religion. <!--del_lnk--> Expatriates, mostly British (about 15,000) or South African, live mainly in Lusaka and in the Copperbelt in northern Zambia, where they are employed in mines and related activities. Zambia also has a small but economically important <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asian</a> population, most of whom are <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indians</a>. In recent years over three hundred dispossesed white farmers left Zimbabwe at the invitation of the Zambian government and have taken up farming in the southern region.<p>The HIV/AIDS epidemic is ravaging Zambia. Nearly one million Zambians are HIV positive or have AIDS. An estimated 100,000 died of the epidemic in 2004. Over a half-million Zambian children have been orphaned. Life expectancy at birth is just under forty.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h2>
<p>Zambia's constitution identifies the country as a <!--del_lnk--> Christian nation, but a variety of religious traditions exist. Traditional religious thought blends easily with Christian beliefs in many of the country's syncretic churches. <!--del_lnk--> Islam also has a visible presence especially in urban settings.<p>Within the Christian community, a variety of denominations can be found: <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic, <!--del_lnk--> Anglican, <!--del_lnk--> Pentecostal, <!--del_lnk--> Lutheran, <!--del_lnk--> Seventh-day Adventist: 4.0%, and a variety of <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical denominations. These grew, adjusted and prospered from the original missionary settlements (<!--del_lnk--> Portuguese and Catholicism in the east from <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>) and Anglican (English and Scottish influences) from the south. Except for some technical positions (e.g. physicians), western missionary roles have been assumed by native believers. After <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Chiluba (a pentecostal Christian) became President in 1991, Pentecostal congregations sprouted around the country.<p>Zambian-born Archibishop <!--del_lnk--> Emmanuel Milingo was a high-ranking Bishop at the <!--del_lnk--> Vatican until he left to marry <!--del_lnk--> Maria Sung, a 43-year-old Korean acupuncturist, at a ceremony officiated by the Rev. <!--del_lnk--> Sun Myung Moon in New York (May, 2001). He was ex-communicated by the Catholic Church in September, 2006 for conducting a <!--del_lnk--> consecration of 4 married men as bishops.<p>Zambia also has a very small <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> community, mostly of <!--del_lnk--> Ashkenazi members of the White community. However, there have been notable members such as <!--del_lnk--> Simon Zukas, retired Minister, MP and a member of <!--del_lnk--> Forum for Democracy and Development and earlier on the <!--del_lnk--> MMD and <!--del_lnk--> United National Independence Party. Additionally, the economist <!--del_lnk--> Stanley Fischer, currently the governor of the <!--del_lnk--> Bank of Israel and formerly head of the <!--del_lnk--> IMF also was born and partially raised in Zambia's Jewish community.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<p>Zambia's present-day culture exhibits a blend of historical and cultural features from the past as well as the present. Traditional African practices and understandings continue to influence many aspects of Zambian culture. The impact of the colonial era can also be seen in the lives of the people. Finally, present-day global expressions and forces contribute to the cultural landscape.<dl>
<dt><!--del_lnk--> Music <dd>traditional, popular, Christian<dt>Traditional ceremonies and rituals <dd><i>Kathanga</i> (Kafue Province), <i>Ncwala</i> (Eastern Province), <i>Umutomboko</i> (Luapula Province), <i>Kuomboka</i> (Western Province), <i>Cing'ande</i> (Southern Province)<dt>Traditional arts <dd><!--del_lnk--> Tonga baskets, stools, fabrics<dt><!--del_lnk--> Theatre<dt>Games <dd><!--del_lnk--> Nsolo<dt><!--del_lnk--> Languages <dd><!--del_lnk--> Chibemba, <!--del_lnk--> Nkoya, <!--del_lnk--> Chichewa (Chinyanja, Chilunda) or <!--del_lnk--> Lunda, Chitonga or <!--del_lnk--> Tonga, <!--del_lnk--> Ila, <!--del_lnk--> Mambwe, <!--del_lnk--> Namwanga, <!--del_lnk--> Kaonde, <!--del_lnk--> Lozi, <!--del_lnk--> Luvale, <!--del_lnk--> Shona, <!--del_lnk--> Goba, <!--del_lnk--> Tumbuka, <!--del_lnk--> Yauma, <!--del_lnk--> Aushi, <!--del_lnk--> Lenje, <!--del_lnk--> Lamba, <!--del_lnk--> Lala*, <!--del_lnk--> Fanagalo (a pidgin language used mainly used in the South African mines) and others making a total of seventy-eight<dt>Food <dd><!--del_lnk--> Nshima, <!--del_lnk--> Ibwatu, Inswa (termites), Vinkubala (caterpillars), Dobe (fresh maize), <i>chikwangwa</i> (the crust from the bottom of a Nshima pot), <i>vimbombo va nkhuku</i> ( a delicacy made from chicken's feet), <i>chiwaya cho kazinga</i> (roasted maize)</dl>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geographic locale</span></h2>
<p>
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<td rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; !important" width="5%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/510.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Armillary_sphere.png" src="../../images/5/510.png" width="50" /></a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1545.png.htm" title="Flag of Democratic Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Flag of Democratic Republic of the Congo" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg" src="../../images/15/1545.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></td>
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<td rowspan="3" style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1543.png.htm" title="Flag of Angola"><img alt="Flag of Angola" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Angola.svg" src="../../images/15/1543.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/513.png.htm" title="North"><img alt="North" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_North.png" src="../../images/5/513.png" width="17" /></a></td>
<td rowspan="3" style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1550.png.htm" title="Flag of Malawi"><img alt="Flag of Malawi" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Malawi.svg" src="../../images/15/1550.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a></td>
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<td nowrap style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/515.png.htm" title="West"><img alt="West" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_West.png" src="../../images/5/515.png" width="17" /></a> <b><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1557.png.htm" title="Flag of Zambia"><img alt="Flag of Zambia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Zambia.svg" src="../../images/15/1557.png" width="22" /></a> <strong class="selflink">Zambia</strong></b> <a class="image" href="../../images/5/516.png.htm" title="East"><img alt="East" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_East.png" src="../../images/5/516.png" width="17" /></a></td>
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<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/517.png.htm" title="South"><img alt="South" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_South.png" src="../../images/5/517.png" width="17" /></a></td>
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<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1552.png.htm" title="Flag of Namibia"><img alt="Flag of Namibia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Namibia.svg" src="../../images/15/1552.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1544.png.htm" title="Flag of Botswana"><img alt="Flag of Botswana" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Botswana.svg" src="../../images/15/1544.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1558.png.htm" title="Flag of Zimbabwe"><img alt="Flag of Zimbabwe" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg" src="../../images/15/1558.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> <small>•</small> <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1551.png.htm" title="Flag of Mozambique"><img alt="Flag of Mozambique" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mozambique.svg" src="../../images/15/1551.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></td>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#eee; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" title="Country">Countries of</a> <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Africa.htm" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></b></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a> <small>•</small> <strong class="selflink">Zambia</strong> <small>•</small> <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></div>
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<p><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a>:</b> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/b/Benin.htm" title="Benin">Benin</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/b/Burundi.htm" title="Burundi">Burundi</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/c/Central_African_Republic.htm" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/c/Chad.htm" title="Chad">Chad</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/c/Comoros.htm" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/e/Equatorial_Guinea.htm" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/g/Gabon.htm" title="Gabon">Gabon</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/t/The_Gambia.htm" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/g/Guinea-Bissau.htm" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/g/Guinea.htm" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/l/Liberia.htm" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/r/Rwanda.htm" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Sierra_Leone.htm" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> <sup><small>2</small></sup> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Tom%25C3%25A9_and_Pr%25C3%25ADncipe.htm" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/t/Togo.htm" title="Togo">Togo</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/u/Uganda.htm" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/y/Yemen.htm" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> <sup><small>3</small></sup> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><strong class="selflink">Zambia</strong> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></span><p><b><!--del_lnk--> Dependencies:</b> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/b/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory.htm" title="British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a> <small><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">(UK)</a></small> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" title="French Southern and Antarctic Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a> <small><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">(France)</a></small> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/m/Mayotte.htm" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a> <small><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">(France)</a></small> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/r/R%25C3%25A9union.htm" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> <small><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">(France)</a></small> •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Helena.htm" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> <sup><small>4</small></sup> <small><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">(UK)</a></small></span><p><b><!--del_lnk--> Unrecognized countries:</b> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><!--del_lnk--> Somaliland •</span> <span style="white-space: nowrap"><a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> •</span><p>
<br />
<p><sup>1</sup> <!--del_lnk--> Partly in Asia. <sup>2</sup> <!--del_lnk--> Mostly in Europe. <sup>3</sup> <!--del_lnk--> Mostly in Asia. <sup>4</sup> Includes the dependencies of <!--del_lnk--> Ascension Island and <!--del_lnk--> Tristan da Cunha.</div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#eee; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2061.png.htm" title="Flag of the SADC"><img alt="Flag of the SADC" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_SADC.svg" src="../../images/20/2061.png" width="20" /></a> </b><!--del_lnk--> Member states of <!--del_lnk--> the Southern African Development Community</div>
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<table style="background:transparent;" width="100%">
<tr valign="top">
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<p><a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <strong class="selflink">Zambia</strong><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></td>
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<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/20/2062.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="86" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SACU_in_SADC.PNG" src="../../images/20/2062.png" width="77" /></a></span></div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#eee; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b>Member states of the <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a></b></div>
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<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/202/20278.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="33" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_African_Union.svg" src="../../images/15/1532.png" width="50" /></a></span></div>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/b/Benin.htm" title="Benin">Benin</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/b/Burundi.htm" title="Burundi">Burundi</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/Central_African_Republic.htm" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/Chad.htm" title="Chad">Chad</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/Comoros.htm" title="Comoros">Comoros</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/e/Equatorial_Guinea.htm" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/g/Gabon.htm" title="Gabon">Gabon</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/t/The_Gambia.htm" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea.htm" title="Guinea">Guinea</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea-Bissau.htm" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/l/Liberia.htm" title="Liberia">Liberia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritius.htm" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/r/Rwanda.htm" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Tom%25C3%25A9_and_Pr%25C3%25ADncipe.htm" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Sierra_Leone.htm" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/t/Togo.htm" title="Togo">Togo</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/u/Uganda.htm" title="Uganda">Uganda</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <i><a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> <!--del_lnk--> (SADR)</i><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <strong class="selflink">Zambia</strong><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> <small>•</small></span> <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#eee; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><!--del_lnk--> Niger-Congo-speaking nations</b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em">
<div class="NavFrame" style="clear:both; margin: 0; padding: 2px; border: 1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 0.95em">
<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#f5ddb7; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><!--del_lnk--> Kordofanian</b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em">
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/3/394.png.htm" title="Flag of Sudan"><img alt="Flag of Sudan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sudan.svg" src="../../images/3/394.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a></div>
</div>
<div class="NavFrame" style="clear:both; margin: 0; padding: 2px; border: 1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 0.95em">
<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#f5ddb7; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><!--del_lnk--> Mande</b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em">
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1533.png.htm" title="Flag of The Gambia"><img alt="Flag of The Gambia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg" src="../../images/15/1533.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/The_Gambia.htm" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1534.png.htm" title="Flag of Guinea"><img alt="Flag of Guinea" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Guinea.svg" src="../../images/15/1534.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea.htm" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1535.png.htm" title="Flag of Guinea-Bissau"><img alt="Flag of Guinea-Bissau" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg" src="../../images/15/1535.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea-Bissau.htm" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1536.png.htm" title="Flag of Mali"><img alt="Flag of Mali" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mali.svg" src="../../images/15/1536.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/402.png.htm" title="Flag of Mauritania"><img alt="Flag of Mauritania" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mauritania.svg" src="../../images/4/402.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/10/1045.png.htm" title="Flag of Senegal"><img alt="Flag of Senegal" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Senegal.svg" src="../../images/10/1045.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1537.png.htm" title="Flag of Sierra Leone"><img alt="Flag of Sierra Leone" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg" src="../../images/15/1537.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sierra_Leone.htm" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></div>
</div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#f5ddb7; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic-Congo</b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em">
<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic</b><p><a class="image" href="../../images/7/786.png.htm" title="Flag of Benin"><img alt="Flag of Benin" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Benin.svg" src="../../images/7/786.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Benin.htm" title="Benin">Benin</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/10/1044.png.htm" title="Flag of Burkina Faso"><img alt="Flag of Burkina Faso" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg" src="../../images/10/1044.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/5/546.png.htm" title="Flag of Cameroon"><img alt="Flag of Cameroon" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cameroon.svg" src="../../images/5/546.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1538.png.htm" title="Flag of Central African Republic"><img alt="Flag of Central African Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Central_African_Republic.svg" src="../../images/15/1538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Central_African_Republic.htm" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1539.png.htm" title="Flag of Chad"><img alt="Flag of Chad" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Chad.svg" src="../../images/15/1539.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chad.htm" title="Chad">Chad</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/5/540.png.htm" title="Flag of Côte d'Ivoire"><img alt="Flag of Côte d'Ivoire" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cote_d%27Ivoire.svg" src="../../images/5/540.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1533.png.htm" title="Flag of The Gambia"><img alt="Flag of The Gambia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_The_Gambia.svg" src="../../images/15/1533.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/The_Gambia.htm" title="The Gambia">The Gambia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1534.png.htm" title="Flag of Guinea"><img alt="Flag of Guinea" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Guinea.svg" src="../../images/15/1534.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea.htm" title="Guinea">Guinea</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1535.png.htm" title="Flag of Guinea-Bissau"><img alt="Flag of Guinea-Bissau" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Guinea-Bissau.svg" src="../../images/15/1535.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea-Bissau.htm" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1540.png.htm" title="Flag of Liberia"><img alt="Flag of Liberia" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Liberia.svg" src="../../images/15/1540.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/l/Liberia.htm" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1536.png.htm" title="Flag of Mali"><img alt="Flag of Mali" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mali.svg" src="../../images/15/1536.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/4/402.png.htm" title="Flag of Mauritania"><img alt="Flag of Mauritania" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mauritania.svg" src="../../images/4/402.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1541.png.htm" title="Flag of Niger"><img alt="Flag of Niger" height="19" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Niger.svg" src="../../images/15/1541.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/10/1045.png.htm" title="Flag of Senegal"><img alt="Flag of Senegal" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Senegal.svg" src="../../images/10/1045.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1537.png.htm" title="Flag of Sierra Leone"><img alt="Flag of Sierra Leone" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg" src="../../images/15/1537.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sierra_Leone.htm" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/3/394.png.htm" title="Flag of Sudan"><img alt="Flag of Sudan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sudan.svg" src="../../images/3/394.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/5/549.png.htm" title="Flag of Togo"><img alt="Flag of Togo" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Togo.svg" src="../../images/5/549.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Togo.htm" title="Togo">Togo</a><p><b><!--del_lnk--> Ijoid</b>: <a class="image" href="../../images/7/787.png.htm" title="Flag of Nigeria"><img alt="Flag of Nigeria" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg" src="../../images/7/787.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> - <b><!--del_lnk--> Dogon</b>: <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1536.png.htm" title="Flag of Mali"><img alt="Flag of Mali" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mali.svg" src="../../images/15/1536.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a></div>
</div>
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<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#f5ddb7; height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1em; position:relative"><b><!--del_lnk--> Volta-Congo</b></div>
<div class="NavContent" style="font-size:0.9em; margin:0.5em">
<p><b><a href="../../wp/s/Senufo_languages.htm" title="Senufo languages">Senufo</a></b>: <a class="image" href="../../images/7/786.png.htm" title="Flag of Benin"><img alt="Flag of Benin" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Benin.svg" src="../../images/7/786.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Benin.htm" title="Benin">Benin</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/5/540.png.htm" title="Flag of Côte d'Ivoire"><img alt="Flag of Côte d'Ivoire" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cote_d%27Ivoire.svg" src="../../images/5/540.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1536.png.htm" title="Flag of Mali"><img alt="Flag of Mali" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mali.svg" src="../../images/15/1536.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a><p><b><!--del_lnk--> Gur</b>: <a class="image" href="../../images/7/786.png.htm" title="Flag of Benin"><img alt="Flag of Benin" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Benin.svg" src="../../images/7/786.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Benin.htm" title="Benin">Benin</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/10/1044.png.htm" title="Flag of Burkina Faso"><img alt="Flag of Burkina Faso" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg" src="../../images/10/1044.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/5/540.png.htm" title="Flag of Côte d'Ivoire"><img alt="Flag of Côte d'Ivoire" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cote_d%27Ivoire.svg" src="../../images/5/540.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1542.png.htm" title="Flag of Ghana"><img alt="Flag of Ghana" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ghana.svg" src="../../images/15/1542.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/15/1536.png.htm" title="Flag of Mali"><img alt="Flag of Mali" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mali.svg" src="../../images/15/1536.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/7/787.png.htm" title="Flag of Nigeria"><img alt="Flag of Nigeria" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg" src="../../images/7/787.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> • <a class="image" href="../../images/5/549.png.htm" title="Flag of Togo"><img alt="Flag of Togo" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Togo.svg" src="../../images/5/549.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Togo.htm" title="Togo">Togo</a><p><b><!--del_lnk--> Adamawa-Ubangi</b>: <a class="image" href="../../images/5/546.png.htm" title="Flag of Cameroon"><img 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<!-- NEWS --><div id="news"><span class="boxtop"></span><dl><dt>SOS Zambia News</dt><dd><span>18/02/2005</span> <a href="../../wp/s/Street_Children_A.htm">SOS Children: Street Children</a></dd></dl><span class="boxbot"></span></div><!-- ENDNEWS -->
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<h2>SOS Children in Zambia</h2>
<img src="../../wp/z/Zambia_2.jpg" width="251" height="400" alt="SOS Children Zambia" class="right" /><p>The republic of Zambia is in south central Africa. It was potentially one of the richest countries on the continent, but is now amongst the world's poorest. The avaerge daily income is about 60p. The economy has been in serious decline since the mid 1970s due to civil unrest and corruption, and more than half the population lives below the poverty line. Cuts in government spending on social services mean that people now have to pay for basic health care and education. There is an extremely high number of children in need in Zambia, either orphaned or neglected, due to the rural exodus in search of employment which is destroying the traditional concept of extended families or because of the AIDS epidemic. At least 50 per cent of Zambia's population are expected to die of HIV related diseases in the next three years. Life expectancy is 32.5 years. </p><p>The charity began its work in Zambia in September 1999 when the first families moved into the charity's Lusaka community, situated about 4 miles from the city centre in a densely populated and very poor area. The 40 acre site was donated by the Zambian government. The 15 family houses have been built in groups of three in the local style, using red burnt clay bricks with green roof tiles, and are surrounded by eucalyptus trees. The grounds have been planted with ornamental trees, flowers and grass. As well as the family houses, there is a youth house and a kindergarten which pre-school age children from the local community also attend and are given two meals a day, with priority given to children from the poorest families. A primary school and medical centre, which caters for 10,000 patients a year, have since been added as well as a social centre whose main focus is a community outreach programme for children and families affected by HIV/AIDS.</p><img src="../../wp/j/Jwp_map_zambia_en.gif" width="405" height="356" alt="SOS Children Sponsorship Locations in Zambia" class="left" /><p>In Zambia there are 75,000 children who are homeless orphans, many affected by HIV/AIDS. SOS Children is supporting a project in Lusaka which will help 1000 street children. This will provide mobile education facilities and encourage children to attend the social centre for training in vocational skills. The social centre provides hot nutritional food, washing facilities and clean clothes. </p><p>A second SOS Children’s Village has been opened in Kitwe, the capital of the Copperbelt region in northern Zambia, an area of increasing poverty due to falling copper prices. The village has 16 family houses for 190 orphaned and abandoned children. There is also a kindergarten which focuses on children from the local community who have special needs. There is also a primary school for 700 children. The SOS Social Centre provides practical help and counselling to 2000 families in the local community affected by HIV/AIDS. The SOS Medical Centre treats patients from 10,000 families in the local community. </p><p>A third SOS Children’s Village is planned to be built at Livingstone, about 300 miles south of Lusaka. It will have 15 family homes for 150 orphaned and abandoned children, nursery and primary schools and social centres focussing on family strengthening and helping children and their families affected by HIV/AIDS.</p><h3>Aids Orphan Projects</h3>
<p> See also more information on our <a href="../../wp/a/Africa_B.htm" title="Charity Africa">Charity's African</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Zambia_Africa.htm" title="Aids Orphan projects in Zambia">Aids Orphan projects in Zambia. </a></p><h3>Local Contacts</h3>
<p>SOS Children in Zambia<br />SOS Children's Villages of Zambia Trust, Plot 20092, Great North Road, P.O. Box 37907, Lusaka, Zambia<br />Tel: +260/1/242 730 or +260/1/242 731<br />Fax: +260/1/242 732<br />email: [email protected]<br />www.soscvzambia.org.zm</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Zambia Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe_A.htm">Zimbabwe</a></p>
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<p><b>Zar'a Ya`qob</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Ge'ez ዘርአ:ያዕቆብ <i>zarʿā yāʿiqōb</i> "Seed of Jacob," <!--del_lnk--> Amh. <i>zer'a yā'iqōb</i>) (<!--del_lnk--> 1399–<!--del_lnk--> 1468) was <i><!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">nəgusä nägäst</span></i> (19 or <!--del_lnk--> 20 June <!--del_lnk--> 1434–1468) of <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> (throne name <b>Kwestantinos I</b> <!--del_lnk--> Ge'ez ቈስታንቲኖስ <i>qʷastāntīnōs</i> or <b>Constantine I</b>), and a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Solomonic dynasty. Born at <!--del_lnk--> Tilq in the province of <!--del_lnk--> Fatagar (now part of the <!--del_lnk--> Oromia Region, near the <!--del_lnk--> Awash River), Zara Yaqob was the youngest son of <!--del_lnk--> Dawit I and his youngest queen, Igzi Kebra.<p>The British expert on Ethiopia, Edward Ullendorff, stated that Zara Yaqob "was unquestionably the greatest ruler Ethiopia had seen since <!--del_lnk--> Ezana, during the heyday of <!--del_lnk--> Aksumite power, and none of his successors on the throne – excepted only the emperors <!--del_lnk--> Menelik II and <!--del_lnk--> Haile Selassie – can be compared to him."<p>Paul B. Henze repeats the tradition that the jealousy of his older brother <!--del_lnk--> Tewodros I forced the courtiers to take Zara Yaqob to <!--del_lnk--> Tigray where he was brought up in secret, and educated in Axum and at the monastery of <!--del_lnk--> Dabra Abbay. While admitting that this tradition "is invaluable as providing a religious background for Zar'a-Ya'iqob's career", Taddesse Tamrat dismisses this story as "very improbable in its details." The professor notes that Zara Yaqob wrote in his <i>Mashafa Berhan</i> that "he was brought down from the royal prison of <!--del_lnk--> Mount Gishan only on the eve of his accession to the throne."<p>
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<p>Upon the death of Emperor Dawit, his older brother <!--del_lnk--> Tewodros ordered Zara Yaqob confined on Amba Geshen. Despite this, Zara Yaqob's supporters was a perennial candidate for Emperor due to the rapid succession of Emperors over the next 20 years, which removed all of his older brothers, leaving only underage sons who could not command the loyalty of the court, and left him as the oldest qualified candidate.<p>Although he became Emperor in 1434, Zara Yaqob was not crowned until <!--del_lnk--> 1436 at <!--del_lnk--> Axum, where he resided for three years. It was an accepted practice of Ethiopian rulers to postpone their coronation until later in their reigns.<p>After he became Emperor, Zara Yaqob married princess <!--del_lnk--> Eleni, who had converted from <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> before their marriage. Eleni was the daughter of the king of <!--del_lnk--> Hadiya, one of the <!--del_lnk--> Sidamo kingdoms south of the <!--del_lnk--> Abbay River. Although she failed to bear him any children, Eleni grew into a powerful political person. When a conspiracy involving one of his <!--del_lnk--> Bitwodeds came to light, Zara Yaqob reacted by appointing his two daughters, Medhan Zamada and Berhan Zamada, to these two offices. According to the Chronicle of his reign, the Emperor also appointed his daughters and nieces as governors over eight of his provinces. Unfortunately, this act was not successful.<p>He defeated <!--del_lnk--> Badlay ad-Din, the Sultan of <!--del_lnk--> Adal at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Gomit in <!--del_lnk--> 1445, which consolidated his hold over the Sidamo kingdoms in the south, as well as the weak Muslim kingdoms beyond the Awash River. However, his campaigns in the north against the <!--del_lnk--> Agaw and the <!--del_lnk--> Falasha were not as successful.<p>After witnessing a bright light in the sky (which most historians have identified as <!--del_lnk--> Halley's Comet, visible in Ethiopia in <!--del_lnk--> 1456), Zara Yaqob founded <!--del_lnk--> Debre Berhan and made it his capital for the remainer of his reign.<p>In his later years, Zara Yaqob became more despotic. When Takla Hawariat, abbot of <!--del_lnk--> Dabra Libanos, criticized Yaqob's beatings and murder of men, the emperor had the abbot himself beaten and imprisoned, where he died after few months. Zara Yaqob was convinced of a plot against him in <!--del_lnk--> 1453, which led to more brutal actions. He increasingly became convinced that his wives and children were plotting against him, and had several of them beaten. Seyon Morgasa, the mother of the future emperor <!--del_lnk--> Baeda Maryam, died from this mistreatment in <!--del_lnk--> 1462, which led to a complete break between son and father. Eventually relations between the two were repaired, and Zara Yaqob publicly designated Baeda Maryam as his successor.<p><a id="Zara_Yaqob_and_the_Ethiopian_church" name="Zara_Yaqob_and_the_Ethiopian_church"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zara Yaqob and the <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian church</span></h2>
<p>At the time Zara Yaqob assumed the throne, the Ethiopian church had been divided over the issue of the <!--del_lnk--> Sabbath, for roughly a century. One group, loyal to the <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> bishops, believed that the Sabbath should only observed on one day; another group, the followers of <!--del_lnk--> Ewostatewos, believed with their founder that both Saturday and Sunday should be observed.<p>He was successful in persuading two recently arrived Egyptian <!--del_lnk--> bishops, <!--del_lnk--> Mikael and <!--del_lnk--> Gabriel, to accept a compromise aimed to restore harmony with the House of Ewostatewos, as the followers of Ewostatewos were known. At the same time, he made efforts to placify the House of Ewostatewos. While the Ewostathians were won over to the compromise by 1442, the two Egyptian bishops only agreed to the compromise at the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Debre Mitmaq in <!--del_lnk--> Tegulet (<!--del_lnk--> 1450).<p>Emperor Zara Yaqob also continued as the defender of the <!--del_lnk--> Patriarch of Alexandria. When he heard in <!--del_lnk--> 1441 of the destruction of the Egyptian monastery of <!--del_lnk--> Dabra Mitmaq by Sultan <!--del_lnk--> Jaqmaq, he called for a period of mourning, then sent a letter of strong protest to the Sultan. He reminded Jaqmaq that he had <!--del_lnk--> Muslim subjects whom he treated fairly, and warned that he had the power to divert the <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a>, but refrained from doing so for the human suffering it would cause. Jaqmaq responded with gifts to appease Zara Yaqob's anger, but refused to rebuild the <!--del_lnk--> Coptic churches he had destroyed.<p>Edward Ullendorff also emphasizes the Emperor's importance in <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian literature, mentioning that Zara Yaqob was the author of two important theological works. The first was <i>Mashafa Berha</i> ("The Book of Light"), his exposition of his ecclesiastical reforms and a defense of his religious beliefs; the other is <i>Mashafa Milad</i> ("The Book of Nativity").<p><a id="Foreign_affairs" name="Foreign_affairs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign affairs</span></h2>
<p>Zara Yaqob sent a <!--del_lnk--> diplomatic mission to <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> (1450), led by a Sicilian <!--del_lnk--> Pietro Rombulo who had previously been successful in a mission to <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, specifically asking for skilled labor. Rombulo first visited <!--del_lnk--> Pope Nicholas V, but his ultimate goal was the court of <!--del_lnk--> Alfonso V of Aragon, who responded favorably.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zara_Yaqob"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Zebras</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14960.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zebra_face.jpg" src="../../images/149/14960.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chordata<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Perissodactyla<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Equidae<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Equus</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subgenus:</td>
<td><i><b>Hippotigris</b></i><br />
</td>
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<center>Species</center>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Equus zebra</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Equus hartmannae</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Equus quagga</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Equus grevyi</i></td>
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<p>The <b>Zebra</b> is a part of the <a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" title="Horse">horse</a> family, <!--del_lnk--> Equidae, native to central and southern <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>. They are most well known for their distinctive black and white stripes.<p>
<br />
<p>
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<p>They are white with black <!--del_lnk--> stripes. These stripes are typically vertical on the head, neck, forequarters, and main body, with horizontal stripes at the rear and on the legs of the animal. The <!--del_lnk--> zebra crossing is named after the zebra's white on black stripes.<p><!--del_lnk--> Zoologists believe that the stripes act as a <!--del_lnk--> camouflage mechanism. This is accomplished in several ways. First, the vertical striping helps the zebra hide in grass. At first glance, this may seem absurd considering that grass is neither white nor black, but it makes sense because the zebra's main <!--del_lnk--> predator, the <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">lion</a>, is <!--del_lnk--> colour blind. A zebra standing still in tall grass may not be noticed at all by a lion. However, zebras are herd animals and do not usually travel alone, so the second way the stripes help in camouflage is by confusing the lion — a number of zebras standing or moving close together may appear as one large animal, making it more difficult for the lion to pick out any single zebra to attack.<p>Stripes are also believed to play a role in social interactions, with slight variations of the pattern allowing the animals to distinguish between individuals.<p>A more recent theory, supported by experiment, posits that the disruptive coloration is also an effective means of confusing the visual system of the blood-sucking <!--del_lnk--> tsetse fly. Alternative theories include that the stripes coincide with fat patterning beneath the skin, serving as a thermoregulatory mechanism for the zebra, and that wounds sustained disrupt the striping pattern to clearly indicate the fitness of the animal to potential mates.<p><a id="Species" name="Species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species</span></h2>
<p>There are four <!--del_lnk--> extant <!--del_lnk--> species, as well as several <!--del_lnk--> subspecies. Zebra populations vary a great deal, and the relationships between and the <!--del_lnk--> taxonomic status of several of the subspecies are well known.<p>The <a href="../../wp/p/Plains_Zebra.htm" title="Plains Zebra">Plains Zebra</a> (<i>Equus quagga</i>, formerly <i>Equus burchelli</i>) is the most common, and has or had about twelve subspecies distributed across much of southern and eastern Africa. It, or particular subspecies of it, have also been known as the Common Zebra, the <!--del_lnk--> Dauw, <!--del_lnk--> Burchell's Zebra (actually the subspecies <i>Equus quagga burchelli</i>), and the <!--del_lnk--> Quagga (another <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinct</a> subspecies, <i>Equus quagga quagga</i>).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Mountain Zebra (<i>Equus zebra</i>) of southwest Africa tends to have a sleek coat with a white belly and narrower stripes than the Plains Zebra. It has two subspecies and is classified as endangered.<p><a href="../../wp/g/Grevy%2527s_Zebra.htm" title="Grevy's Zebra">Grevy's Zebra</a> (<i>Equus grevyi</i>) is the largest type, with an erect mane, and a long, narrow head making it appear rather <!--del_lnk--> mule-like. It is an inhabitant of the semi-arid <!--del_lnk--> grasslands of <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, and northern <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>. The Grevy's Zebra is one of the rarest species of zebra around today, and is classified as endangered.<p>Although zebra species may have overlapping ranges, they do not interbreed. This held true even when the Quagga and Burchell's race of Plains Zebra shared the same area. According to Dorcas McClintock in "A Natural History Of Zebras," Grevy's zebra has 46 chromosomes; plains zebras have 44 chromosomes and mountain zebras have 32 chromosomes. In captivity, Plains Zebras have been crossed with mountain zebras. The hybrid foals lacked a <!--del_lnk--> dewlap and resembled the Plains Zebra apart from their larger ears and their hindquarters pattern. Attempts to breed a Grevy's zebra stallion to Mountain Zebra mares resulted in a high rate of abortion.<p><a id="Zebra_classification" name="Zebra_classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zebra classification</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14961.jpg.htm" title="Zebra, Botswana"><img alt="Zebra, Botswana" height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zebra_Botswana.jpg" src="../../images/149/14961.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14961.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zebra, Botswana</div>
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<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/p/Plains_Zebra.htm" title="Plains Zebra">Plains Zebra</a>, <i>Equus quagga</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Quagga, <i>Equus quagga quagga</i> (<a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinct</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Burchell's Zebra, <i>Equus quagga burchellii</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Grant's Zebra, <i>Equus quagga boehmi</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Selous' zebra, <i>Equus quagga borensis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Chapman's Zebra, <i>Equus quagga chapmani</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Crawshay's Zebra, <i>Equus quagga crawshayi</i></ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Cape Mountain Zebra, <i>Equus zebra</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Hartmann's Mountain Zebra, <i>Equus hartmannae</i><li><a href="../../wp/g/Grevy%2527s_Zebra.htm" title="Grevy's Zebra">Grevy's Zebra</a>, <i>Equus grevyi</i></ul>
<p>For the remaining species of the genus and family see <!--del_lnk--> Equidae.<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10569.jpg.htm" title="Zebras drinking water in the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo"><img alt="Zebras drinking water in the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zebras-biblical-zoo.jpg" src="../../images/105/10569.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10569.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zebras drinking water in the <!--del_lnk--> Jerusalem Biblical Zoo</div>
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<p>Attempts have been made to train zebras for both riding and draft use, both for novelty value and due to their better resistance than horses to diseases in Africa. Although easily broken for both uses, they are highly strung and zebra-mules or <!--del_lnk--> zebroids (crosses between any species of zebra and a horse, pony, donkey or ass) are preferred over pure-bred zebras.<p>In England, Lord Rothschild frequently used zebras for drawing carriages. In 1907, Rosendo Ribeiro, the first doctor in Nairobi, Kenya, used a riding zebra for doing house-calls. Captain Horace Hayes, in "Points of the Horse" (circa 1899) compared the use of different zebra species.<p>Hayes saddled and bridled a Mountain Zebra in less than one hour, but was unable to give it a "mouth" during the two days it was in his possession. He noted that the zebra's neck was so stiff and strong that he was unable to bend it in any direction. Although he taught it to do what he wanted in a circus ring, when he took it outdoors he was unable to control it. He found the Burchell's Zebra easy to break in and considered it ideal for domestication as it was also immune to the tsetse fly bite. He considered the quagga well-suited to domestication due to being stronger, more docile and more horse-like than other zebras.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zebra shark</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<dl>
<dd><span class="dablink"><i>Not to be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> leopard shark, Triakis semifasciata.</i></span></dl>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Zebra shark</b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14964.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Leopard_shark.jpg" src="../../images/149/14964.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_VU.svg" src="../../images/18/1808.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Vulnerable (VU)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chondrichthyes<br />
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<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elasmobranchii<br />
</td>
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orectolobiformes<br />
</td>
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Stegostomatidae</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Gill, 1862</small></td>
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Stegostoma</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Müller & <!--del_lnk--> Henle, 1837</small></td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>S. fasciatum</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Stegostoma fasciatum</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Hermann, 1783)</small></td>
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<p>The <b>zebra shark</b>, <i>Stegostoma fasciatum</i>, is a common <!--del_lnk--> carpet shark of inshore <!--del_lnk--> Indo-Pacific waters notable for its very long <!--del_lnk--> caudal fin, nearly as long as its body. It is the only <!--del_lnk--> species in the <!--del_lnk--> family <b>Stegostomatidae</b> and the <!--del_lnk--> genus <i><b>Stegostoma</b></i>.<p>
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</script><a id="Naming" name="Naming"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Naming</span></h2>
<p>The species is also mistaken for the <!--del_lnk--> leopard shark, a name which can refer to either of the species <i>Stegostoma fasciatum</i> or <i>Triakis semifasciata</i> which is a totally different shark from the eastern pacific. The name <a href="../../wp/z/Zebra.htm" title="Zebra">zebra</a> shark is given because as a <!--del_lnk--> juvenile the shark have stripes like the zebra, when it grows up it turns into <!--del_lnk--> leopard-like spots. It is a very sleek and skinny shark, about 11.5 feet long.<p><a id="Distribution_and_habitat" name="Distribution_and_habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution and habitat</span></h2>
<p>The zebra shark is found in the tropical Western <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> at depths of about 5 to 30 meters.<p><a id="Anatomy_and_appearance" name="Anatomy_and_appearance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy and appearance</span></h2>
<p>In addition to the long tail, the zebra shark has distinctive ridges running down its body. As its names suggest, it is patterned; young sharks are dark with yellowish stripes, changing to an adult pattern of a tan colour with dark spots, found all over including the fins. The snout is rather rounded, with small <!--del_lnk--> barbels (whiskers). Maximum known length is about 230 cm.<p><a id="Behavior" name="Behavior"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h2>
<p>The zebra shark is a slow-moving type, often just sitting on the seafloor in the vicinity of <!--del_lnk--> coral reefs, on sandy or rocky bottoms. Unlike most types of sharks, it does not need to move, and instead pumps water through its gills.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h2>
<p>It feeds on <!--del_lnk--> molluscs, <a href="../../wp/c/Crustacean.htm" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>, and small fish that it sucks out of the sand at night, and is capable of wiggling through small holes and crevices in its search for food.<p><a id="Importance_to_humans" name="Importance_to_humans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Importance to humans</span></h2>
<p>Zebra sharks do well in captivity, and a number of <a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" title="Aquarium">aquariums</a> around the world have them on display. They are fished commercially on a small scale. They are often seen by <!--del_lnk--> scuba divers, and will lay still on the bottom as long as a diver does not come too close. They are harmless to divers as long as they are not disturbed.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_shark"</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Zebra', 'Pacific Ocean', 'Indian Ocean', 'Crustacean', 'Aquarium'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zeus</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Divinities.htm">Divinities</a></h3>
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<div style="width:332px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/49/4983.jpg.htm" title="The Statue of Zeus at OlympiaPhidias created the 12-m (40-ft) tall statue of Zeus at Olympia about 435 BC. The statue was perhaps the most famous sculpture in Ancient Greece, imagined here in a 16th century engraving"><img alt="The Statue of Zeus at OlympiaPhidias created the 12-m (40-ft) tall statue of Zeus at Olympia about 435 BC. The statue was perhaps the most famous sculpture in Ancient Greece, imagined here in a 16th century engraving" height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Statue_of_Zeus.jpg" src="../../images/131/13117.jpg" width="330" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/49/4983.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <b><a href="../../wp/s/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia.htm" title="Statue of Zeus at Olympia">Statue</a> of Zeus at <!--del_lnk--> Olympia</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Phidias created the 12-m (40-ft) tall <!--del_lnk--> statue of <i><b>Zeus</b></i> at Olympia about <!--del_lnk--> 435 BC. The statue was perhaps the most famous <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> in <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, imagined here in a <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a> <!--del_lnk--> engraving</div>
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<p>In <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>, <b>Zeus</b> (in <!--del_lnk--> Greek: <!--del_lnk--> nominative: Ζεύς <i>Zeús</i>, <!--del_lnk--> genitive: Διός <i>Díos</i>) is the king of the gods, the ruler of <!--del_lnk--> Mount Olympus, and god of the <!--del_lnk--> sky and <!--del_lnk--> thunder. The eagle and oak tree are sacred to him. His attributes include thunder and the <!--del_lnk--> lightning bolt.<p>The son of <!--del_lnk--> Cronus and <!--del_lnk--> Rhea, he was the youngest of his siblings. He was married to <!--del_lnk--> Hera in most traditions, although at the oracle of <!--del_lnk--> Dodona his consort was <!--del_lnk--> Dione: according to the <i><!--del_lnk--> Iliad</i>, he is the father of <!--del_lnk--> Aphrodite by Dione. Accordingly, he is known for his erotic escapades, including one <!--del_lnk--> pederastic relationship, with <!--del_lnk--> Ganymede. His trysts resulted in many famous offspring, including <a href="../../wp/a/Athena.htm" title="Athena">Athena</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Apollo.htm" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Artemis (by <!--del_lnk--> Leto), <!--del_lnk--> Hermes, <!--del_lnk--> Persephone (by <!--del_lnk--> Demeter), <!--del_lnk--> Dionysus, <!--del_lnk--> Perseus, <a href="../../wp/h/Heracles.htm" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Helen.htm" title="Helen">Helen</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Minos, and the <!--del_lnk--> Muses (by <!--del_lnk--> Mnemosyne); by Hera he is usually said to have sired <!--del_lnk--> Ares, <!--del_lnk--> Hebe and <!--del_lnk--> Hephaestus.<p>His <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a> counterpart was <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter_%2528mythology%2529.htm" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>, and his <!--del_lnk--> Etruscan counterpart was <!--del_lnk--> Tinia.<p>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13145.jpg.htm" title="Bust of Zeus in the British Museum"><img alt="Bust of Zeus in the British Museum" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bust_of_Zeus.jpg" src="../../images/131/13145.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13145.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bust of Zeus in the <!--del_lnk--> British Museum</div>
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3>
<p>nak kuh Zeus, poetically referred to by the <!--del_lnk--> vocative <i>Zeu pater</i> ("O, father Zeus"), is a continuation of *<!--del_lnk--> <span class="PIE Unicode" style="white-space: nowrap" title="Proto-Indo-European language"><i>Di̯ēus</i></span>, the <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Indo-European god of the daytime sky, also called *<span class="PIE Unicode" style="white-space: nowrap" title="Proto-Indo-European language"><i>Dyeus ph<sub>2</sub>tēr</i></span> ("Sky Father"). The god is known under this name in <!--del_lnk--> Sanskrit (cf. <i><!--del_lnk--> Dyaus/Dyaus Pita</i>), <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> (cf. <i><!--del_lnk--> Jupiter</i>, from <i>Iuppiter</i>, deriving from the <!--del_lnk--> PIE vocative *<span class="PIE Unicode" style="white-space: nowrap" title="Proto-Indo-European language"><i>dyeu-ph<sub>2</sub>tēr</i></span>), deriving from the basic form *<i>dyeu</i>- ("to shine", and in its many derivatives, "sky, heaven, god"). And in <!--del_lnk--> Germanic and <a href="../../wp/n/Norse_mythology.htm" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a> (cf. *<i>Tīwaz</i> > <!--del_lnk--> OHG <i>Ziu</i>, <!--del_lnk--> ON <i><!--del_lnk--> Týr</i>), together with Latin <i>deus</i>, <i>dīvus</i> and <i>Dis</i>(a variation of <i>dīves</i>), from the related noun *<i>deiwos</i>. To the Greeks and Romans, the god of the sky was also the supreme god, whereas this function was filled out by <a href="../../wp/o/Odin.htm" title="Odin">Odin</a> among the <!--del_lnk--> Germanic tribes. Accordingly, they did not identify Zeus/Jupiter with either Tyr or Odin, but with <a href="../../wp/t/Thor.htm" title="Thor">Thor</a> (<span class="Unicode">Þórr</span>). Zeus is the only deity in the Olympic pantheon whose name has such a transparent Indo-European etymology.<p>In addition to his Indo-European inheritance, the classical Zeus also derives certain iconographic traits from the cultures of the <!--del_lnk--> ancient Near East, such as the <!--del_lnk--> scepter. Zeus is envisaged by Greek artists especially in two poses: standing, striding forward a thunderbolt levelled in his raised right hand and seated in majesty.<p>Aside from forced transformation, Zeus is known to punish those who veered out of his pleasure with lightning bolts.<p><a id="Role_and_epithets" name="Role_and_epithets"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Role and epithets</span></h3>
<p>Zeus played a dominant role, presiding over the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> Olympian pantheon. He fathered many of the heroes and heroines and was featured in many of their stories. Though the Homeric "cloud collecter" was the god of the sky and thunder like his Near-Eastern counterparts, he was also the supreme <a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" title="Culture">cultural</a> artifact; in some senses, he was the embodiment of Greek <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religious</a> beliefs and the <!--del_lnk--> archetypal Greek deity.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> epithets or titles applied to Zeus emphasized different aspects of his wide-ranging authority:<ul>
<li><b>Olympios</b> emphasized Zeus's kingship over both the gods and the Panhellenic festival at <!--del_lnk--> Olympia.<li>A related title was <b>Panhellenios</b>, ('Zeus of all the Hellenes') to whom <!--del_lnk--> Aeacus' famous temple on <!--del_lnk--> Aegina was dedicated.<li>As <b>Xenios</b>, Zeus was the patron of hospitality and guests, ready to avenge any wrong done to a stranger.<li>As <b>Horkios</b>, he was the keeper of oaths. Liars who were exposed were made to dedicate a <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">statue</a> to Zeus, often at the sanctuary of Olympia.<li>As <b>Agoraios</b>, Zeus watched over business at the <!--del_lnk--> agora, and punished dishonest traders.</ul>
<p><a id="Panhellenic_cults_of_Zeus" name="Panhellenic_cults_of_Zeus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Panhellenic cults of Zeus</span></h3>
<p>The major center at which all Greeks converged to pay honour to their chief god was <!--del_lnk--> Olympia. The quadrennial festival there featured the famous Games. There was also an altar to Zeus made not of stone, but of ash - from the accumulated remains of many centuries' worth of animals sacrificed there.<p>Outside of the major inter-<!--del_lnk--> polis sanctuaries, there were certain modes of worshipping Zeus that were shared across the Greek world. Most of the above titles, for instance, could be found at any number of <!--del_lnk--> Greek temples from <!--del_lnk--> Asia Minor to <!--del_lnk--> Sicily. Certain modes of ritual were held in common as well: sacrificing a white animal over a raised altar, for instance.<p>On the other hand, certain cities had Zeus-cults that operated in markedly different ways.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13157.jpg.htm" title="Colossal seated Zeus from Gaza, Roman period Istanbul Archaeology Museum)"><img alt="Colossal seated Zeus from Gaza, Roman period Istanbul Archaeology Museum)" height="400" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Statue_of_Zeus_dsc02611-.jpg" src="../../images/131/13157.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13157.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Colossal seated Zeus from <!--del_lnk--> Gaza, Roman period <!--del_lnk--> Istanbul Archaeology Museum)</div>
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<p><a id="Some_local_Zeus-cults" name="Some_local_Zeus-cults"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Some local Zeus-cults</span></h3>
<p>In addition to the Panhellenic titles and conceptions listed above, local cults maintained their own idiosyncratic ideas about the king of gods and men. A few examples are listed below.<p><a id="Cretan_Zeus" name="Cretan_Zeus"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Cretan Zeus</span></h4>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> Crete, Zeus was worshipped at a number of caves at <!--del_lnk--> Knossos, <!--del_lnk--> Ida and <!--del_lnk--> Palaikastro. The stories of <!--del_lnk--> Minos and <!--del_lnk--> Epimenides suggest that these caves were once used for <!--del_lnk--> incubatory divination by kings and priests. The dramatic setting of <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i>Laws</i> is along the pilgrimage-route to one such site, emphasizing archaic Cretan knowledge. On Crete, Zeus was represented in art as a long-haired youth rather than a mature adult, and hymned as <i>ho megas kouros</i> "the great youth". With the <!--del_lnk--> Kouretes, a band of ecstatic armed dancers, he presided over the rigorous military-athletic training and secret rites of the Cretan <!--del_lnk--> paideia.<p>The Hellenistic writer <!--del_lnk--> Euhemerus apparently proposed a theory that Zeus had actually been a great king of <!--del_lnk--> Crete and that posthumously his glory had slowly turned him into a deity. The works of Euhemerism have not survived, but Christian patristic writers took up the suggestion with enthusiasm.<p><a id="Zeus_Lykaios_in_Arcadia" name="Zeus_Lykaios_in_Arcadia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Zeus Lykaios in Arcadia</span></h4>
<p>The title <i>Lykaios</i> is morphologically connected to <i>lyke</i> "brightness", and yet it <i>looks</i> a lot like <i>lykos</i> "wolf". This semantic ambiguity is reflected in the strange cult of Zeus Lykaios in the backwoods of <!--del_lnk--> Arcadia, where the god takes on both lucent and lupine features. On the one hand, he presides over Mount Lykaion ("the bright mountain") the tallest peak in Arcadia, and home to a precinct in which, allegedly, no shadows were ever cast (<!--del_lnk--> Pausanias 8.38). On the other hand, he is connected with <!--del_lnk--> Lycaon ("the wolf-man") whose ancient cannibalism was commemorated with bizarre, recurring rites. According to <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<i>Republic</i> 565d-e), a particular clan would gather on the mountain to make a sacrifice every eight years to Zeus Lykaios, and a single morsel of human entrails would be intermingled with the animal's. Whoever ate the human flesh was said to turn into a wolf, and could only regain human form if he did not eat again of human flesh until the next eight-year cycle had ended.<p><a id="Subterranean_Zeus" name="Subterranean_Zeus"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Subterranean Zeus</span></h4>
<p>Although etymology indicates that Zeus was originally a sky god, many Greek cities honored a local Zeus, who lived underground. Athenians and Sicilians honored Zeus <i>Meilichios</i> ("kindly" or "honeyed") while other cities had Zeus <i>Chthonios</i> ("earthy"), <i>Katachthonios</i> ("under-the-earth) and <i>Plousios</i> ("wealth-bringing"). These deities might be represented indifferently as snakes or men in visual art. They also received offerings of black animal victims sacrificed into sunken pits, as did <!--del_lnk--> chthonic deities like <!--del_lnk--> Persephone and <!--del_lnk--> Demeter, and also the <!--del_lnk--> heroes at their tombs. Olympian gods, by contrast, usually received white victims sacrificed upon raised altars.<p>In some cases, cities were not entirely sure whether the <i>daimon</i> to whom they sacrificed was a hero or an underground Zeus. Thus the shrine at Lebadaea in <!--del_lnk--> Boeotia might belong to the hero <!--del_lnk--> Trophonius or to Zeus <i>Trephonius</i> ("the nurturing"), depending on whether you believe <!--del_lnk--> Pausanias or <!--del_lnk--> Strabo. The hero <!--del_lnk--> Amphiaraus was honored as <i>Zeus Amphiaraus</i> at Oropus outside of <!--del_lnk--> Thebes, and the Spartans even had a shrine to <i>Zeus <a href="../../wp/a/Agamemnon.htm" title="Agamemnon">Agamemnon</a></i>.<p><a id="Oracles_of_Zeus" name="Oracles_of_Zeus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Oracles of Zeus</span></h3>
<p>Although most oracle sites were usually dedicated to <a href="../../wp/a/Apollo.htm" title="Apollo">Apollo</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> heroes, or various <!--del_lnk--> goddesses like <!--del_lnk--> Themis, a few oracular sites were dedicated to Zeus.<p><a id="The_Oracle_at_Dodona" name="The_Oracle_at_Dodona"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The Oracle at Dodona</span></h4>
<p>The cult of Zeus at <!--del_lnk--> Dodona in <!--del_lnk--> Epirus, where there is evidence of religious activity from the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd millennium BC onward, centered around a sacred oak. When the <a href="../../wp/o/Odyssey.htm" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a> was composed (circa <!--del_lnk--> 750 BC), divination was done there by barefoot priests called <i>Selloi</i>, who lay on the ground and observed the rustling of the leaves and branches (<i>Odyssey</i> 14.326-7). By the time <a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> wrote about Dodona, female priestesses called <!--del_lnk--> peleiades ("doves") had replaced the male priests.<p>Zeus' consort at Dodona was not <!--del_lnk--> Hera, but the goddess <!--del_lnk--> Dione — whose name is a feminine form of "Zeus". Her status as a <!--del_lnk--> titaness suggests to some that she may have been a more powerful pre-Hellenic deity, and perhaps the original occupant of the oracle.<p><a id="The_Oracle_at_Siwa" name="The_Oracle_at_Siwa"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The Oracle at Siwa</span></h4>
<p>The oracle of <!--del_lnk--> Ammon at the <!--del_lnk--> oasis of Siwa in the Western Desert of <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> did not lie within the bounds of the Greek world before <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander</a>'s day, but it already loomed large in the Greek mind during the archaic era: <a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> mentions consultations with Zeus Ammon in his account of the <!--del_lnk--> Persian War. Zeus Ammon was especially favored at <!--del_lnk--> Sparta, where a temple to him existed by the time of the <!--del_lnk--> Peloponnesian War (Pausanias 3.18).<p>After Alexander made a trek into the desert to consult the oracle at Siwa, the figure arose of a <!--del_lnk--> Libyan Sibyl.<p><a id="Other_oracles_of_Zeus" name="Other_oracles_of_Zeus"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Other oracles of Zeus</span></h4>
<p>The chthonic Zeuses (or heroes) <!--del_lnk--> Trophonius and <!--del_lnk--> Amphiaraus were both said to give oracles at the cult-sites.<p><a id="Zeus_and_foreign_gods" name="Zeus_and_foreign_gods"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zeus and foreign gods</span></h3>
<p>Zeus was equivalent to the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a> god <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter and associated in the syncretic classical imagination (see <i><!--del_lnk--> interpretatio graeca</i>) with various other deities, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian <!--del_lnk--> Ammon and the <!--del_lnk--> Etruscan <!--del_lnk--> Tinia. He (along with <!--del_lnk--> Dionysus) absorbed the role of the chief <!--del_lnk--> Phrygian god <!--del_lnk--> Sabazios in the <!--del_lnk--> syncretic deity known in Rome as <!--del_lnk--> Sabazius.<p><a id="Zeus_in_myth" name="Zeus_in_myth"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zeus in myth</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13159.png.htm" title="The Chariot of Zeus, from an 1879 Stories from the Greek Tragedians by Alfred Church"><img alt="The Chariot of Zeus, from an 1879 Stories from the Greek Tragedians by Alfred Church" height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Chariot_of_Zeus_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_14994.png" src="../../images/131/13159.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13159.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Chariot of Zeus, from an 1879 <i>Stories from the Greek Tragedians</i> by Alfred Church</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Birth" name="Birth"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Birth</span></h3>
<p>Cronus sired several children by Rhea: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon, but swallowed them all as soon as they were born, since he had learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be overcome by his own son as he had overthrown his own father— an oracle that Zeus was to hear and avert. But when Zeus was about to be born, Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save him, so that Cronus would get his retribution for his acts against Uranus and his own children. Rhea gave birth to Zeus in Crete, handing Cronus a rock wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallowed. His mother hid Zeus in a basket under a tree and was raised by a shepherd family under the promise that their sheep would be saved from wolves.<p><a id="Childhood" name="Childhood"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Childhood</span></h3>
<p>Rhea hid Zeus in a cave on <!--del_lnk--> Mount Ida in Crete. According to varying versions of the story:<ol>
<li>He was then raised by <!--del_lnk--> Gaia.<li>He was raised by a <a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" title="Goat">goat</a> named <!--del_lnk--> Amalthea, while a company of <!--del_lnk--> Kouretes— soldiers, or smaller gods— danced, shouted and clashed their spears against their shields so that Cronus would not hear the baby's cry. (See <!--del_lnk--> cornucopia.)<li>He was raised by a <!--del_lnk--> nymph named <!--del_lnk--> Adamanthea. Since Cronus ruled over the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> heavens and the <a href="../../wp/s/Sea.htm" title="Sea">sea</a>, she hid him by dangling him on a <!--del_lnk--> rope from a <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">tree</a> so he was suspended between earth, sea and sky and thus, invisible to his father.<li>He was raised by a <!--del_lnk--> nymph named <!--del_lnk--> Cynosura. In gratitude, Zeus <!--del_lnk--> placed her among the stars.<li>He was raised by <!--del_lnk--> Melissa, who nursed him with <a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" title="Goat">goats</a>-milk</ol>
<p><a id="Zeus_becomes_king_of_the_gods" name="Zeus_becomes_king_of_the_gods"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zeus becomes king of the gods</span></h3>
<p>After reaching manhood, Zeus forced Cronus to disgorge first the stone (which was set down at <!--del_lnk--> Pytho under the glens of <!--del_lnk--> Parnassus to be a sign to mortal men, the <!--del_lnk--> Omphalos) then his siblings in reverse order of swallowing. In some versions, <!--del_lnk--> Metis gave Cronus an <!--del_lnk--> emetic to force him to disgorge the babies, or Zeus cut Cronus' <!--del_lnk--> stomach open. Then Zeus released the brothers of Cronus, the <!--del_lnk--> Gigantes, the <!--del_lnk--> Hecatonchires and the <!--del_lnk--> Cyclopes, from their dungeon in <!--del_lnk--> Tartarus (The <!--del_lnk--> Titans; he killed their guard, <!--del_lnk--> Campe. As gratitude, the Cyclopes gave him <!--del_lnk--> thunder and the thunderbolt, or <!--del_lnk--> lightning, which had previously been hidden by Gaia.) Together, Zeus and his brothers and sisters, along with the Gigantes, Hecatonchires and Cyclopes overthrew Cronus and the other Titans, in the combat called the <!--del_lnk--> Titanomachy. The defeated Titans were then cast into a shadowy underworld region known as Tartarus. Atlas, one of the titans that fought against Zeus, was punished by having to hold up the sky.<p>After the battle with the Titans, Zeus shared the world with his elder brothers, <!--del_lnk--> Poseidon and <!--del_lnk--> Hades, by drawing lots: Zeus got the sky and air, Poseidon the waters, and Hades the world of the dead (the underworld). The ancient Earth, <!--del_lnk--> Gaia, could not be claimed; she was left to all three, each according to their capabilities, which explains why Poseidon was the "earth-shaker" (the god of earthquakes) and Hades claimed the humans that died. (See also: <!--del_lnk--> Penthus)<p>Gaia resented the way Zeus had treated the Titans, because they were her children. Soon after taking the throne as king of the gods, Zeus had to fight some of Gaia's other children, the <!--del_lnk--> monsters <!--del_lnk--> Typhon and <!--del_lnk--> Echidna. He vanquished Typhon and trapped him under a mountain, but left Echidna and her children alive as challenges for future <!--del_lnk--> heroes.<p><a id="Zeus_and_Hera" name="Zeus_and_Hera"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zeus and Hera</span></h3>
<p>Zeus was brother and consort of <!--del_lnk--> Hera. By Hera, Zeus sired <!--del_lnk--> Ares, <!--del_lnk--> Hebe and <!--del_lnk--> Hephaestus, though some accounts say that Hera produced these offspring alone. Some also include <!--del_lnk--> Eileithyia as their daughter. The conquests of Zeus among <!--del_lnk--> nymphs and the mythic mortal progenitors of <!--del_lnk--> Hellenic dynasties are famous. Olympian mythography even credits him with unions with <!--del_lnk--> Demeter, <!--del_lnk--> Latona, <!--del_lnk--> Dione and <!--del_lnk--> Maia.<p>Among the mortals: <!--del_lnk--> Semele, <!--del_lnk--> Io, <!--del_lnk--> Europa and <!--del_lnk--> Leda. (For more details, see below).<p>Many myths renders Hera as jealous of his amorous conquests and a consistent enemy of Zeus' mistresses and their children by him. For a time, a <!--del_lnk--> nymph named <!--del_lnk--> Echo had the job of distracting Hera from his affairs by incessantly talking: when Hera discovered the deception, she cursed Echo to repeat the words of others.<p><a id="Consorts_and_children" name="Consorts_and_children"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Consorts and children</span></h3>
<p><a id="Deific_mother" name="Deific_mother"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Deific mother</span></h4>
<table border="1" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; width:25%; height:200px">
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<td>
<center><b>Mother</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>Children</b></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height:60px">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ananke*</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Moirae (<!--del_lnk--> Fates)* <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Atropos<li><!--del_lnk--> Clotho<li><!--del_lnk--> Lachesis</ol>
</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Demeter</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Persephone</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dione</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aphrodite</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hera</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ares<li><!--del_lnk--> Eileithyia<li><!--del_lnk--> Hephaestus<li><!--del_lnk--> Hebe</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eos</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ersa</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Leto</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo.htm" title="Apollo">Apollo</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Artemis</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Maia</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Hermes</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Metis</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Athena.htm" title="Athena">Athena</a></ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mnemosyne</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Muses (Original three) <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aoide<li><!--del_lnk--> Melete<li><!--del_lnk--> Mneme</ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Muses (Later nine) <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Calliope<li><!--del_lnk--> Clio<li><!--del_lnk--> Erato<li><!--del_lnk--> Euterpe<li><!--del_lnk--> Melpomene<li><!--del_lnk--> Polyhymnia<li><!--del_lnk--> Terpsichore<li><!--del_lnk--> Thalia<li><!--del_lnk--> Urania</ol>
</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Selene</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ersa<li><!--del_lnk--> Nemea<li><!--del_lnk--> Pandia</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thalassa</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aphrodite</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Themis</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Astraea<li><!--del_lnk--> Dike<li><!--del_lnk--> Horae<ol>
<li>First Generation <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Auxo<li><!--del_lnk--> Carpo<li><!--del_lnk--> Thallo</ol>
<li>Second Generation <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Dike<li><!--del_lnk--> Eirene<li><!--del_lnk--> Eunomia</ol>
</ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Moirae (<!--del_lnk--> Fates)* <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Atropos<li><!--del_lnk--> Clotho<li><!--del_lnk--> Lachesis</ol>
</ol>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>*The Greeks variously claimed that they were the daughters of Zeus and the Titaness <!--del_lnk--> Themis or of primordial beings like <!--del_lnk--> Nyx, <!--del_lnk--> Chaos or <!--del_lnk--> Ananke.<p><a id="Mortal.2Fnymph.2Fother_mother" name="Mortal.2Fnymph.2Fother_mother"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Mortal/nymph/other mother</span></h4>
<table border="1" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; width:25%; height:200px">
<tr align="center" bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<td>
<center><b>Mother</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>Children</b></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aegina</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aeacus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alcmene</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Heracles.htm" title="Heracles">Heracles</a> (Hercules)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Antiope</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Amphion<li><!--del_lnk--> Zethus</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Callisto</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Arcas</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carme</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Britomartis</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Danae</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Perseus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elara</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tityas</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electra</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Dardanus<li><!--del_lnk--> Iasion</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Europa</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Minos<li><!--del_lnk--> Rhadamanthys<li><!--del_lnk--> Sarpedon</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eurynome</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charites(<!--del_lnk--> Graces) <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aglaea<li><!--del_lnk--> Euphrosyne<li><!--del_lnk--> Thalia</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Himalia</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li>Kronios<li>Spartaios<li>Kytos</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Iodame</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thebe</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Io</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Epaphus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lamia</td>
<td> ???</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Laodamia</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sarpedon</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Leda</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Polydeuces (<!--del_lnk--> Pollux)<li><a href="../../wp/h/Helen.htm" title="Helen">Helen</a> of Troy</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Maera</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Locrus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Niobe</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Argos<li><!--del_lnk--> Pelasgus</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Olympias</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Plouto</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tantalus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Podarge</td>
<td>
<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Balius<li><!--del_lnk--> Xanthus</ol>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pyrrha</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hellen</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Semele</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dionysus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Taygete</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lacedaemon</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thalia</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Palici</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Unknown mother</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Litae</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Unknown mother</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tyche</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Unknown mother</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ate</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Zeus_miscellany" name="Zeus_miscellany"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zeus miscellany</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Though Zeus could be petty and malicious, he also had a righteous element, perhaps best exemplified in his aid on behalf of <!--del_lnk--> Atreus and his murder of <!--del_lnk--> Capaneus for unbridled arrogance. He was also the protector of strangers and travelers against those who might seek to victimize them.<li>Zeus turned <!--del_lnk--> Pandareus to stone for stealing the golden <a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" title="Dog">dog</a> which had guarded him as an infant in the holy Dictaeon Cave of <!--del_lnk--> Crete.<li>Zeus killed <!--del_lnk--> Salmoneus with a thunderbolt for attempting to impersonate him, riding around in a <!--del_lnk--> bronze <!--del_lnk--> chariot and loudly imitating <!--del_lnk--> thunder.<li>Zeus turned <!--del_lnk--> Periphas into an <a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" title="Eagle">eagle</a> after his <!--del_lnk--> death, as a reward for being righteous and just.<li>At the marriage of Zeus and Hera, a nymph named <!--del_lnk--> Chelone refused to attend. Zeus transformed her into a tortoise (chelone in Greek).<li>Zeus, with Hera, turned King <!--del_lnk--> Haemus and <!--del_lnk--> Queen Rhodope into <!--del_lnk--> mountains (the <!--del_lnk--> Balkan mountains, or Stara Planina, and <!--del_lnk--> Rhodope mountains, respectively) for their vanity.<li>Zeus condemned <!--del_lnk--> Tantalus to eternal torture in Tartarus for trying to trick the gods into eating the flesh of his butchered son.<li>Zeus condemned <!--del_lnk--> Sisyphus be tied to a fiery wheel for eternity as punishment for attempting to violate Hera.<li>Zeus sunk the <!--del_lnk--> Telchines beneath the sea for blighting the earth with their fell magics.<li>Zeus blinded the seer <!--del_lnk--> Phineus and sent the <!--del_lnk--> Harpies to plague him as punishment for revealing the secrets of the gods.<li>Zeus rewarded <!--del_lnk--> Tiresias with a life three times the norm as reward for ruling in his favour when he and Hera contested which of the sexes gained the most pleasure from the act of love.<li>Zeus punished <!--del_lnk--> Hera by having her hung upside down from the sky when she attempted to drown Heracles in a storm.<li>Of all the many, many children Zeus spawned, <!--del_lnk--> Hercules was often described as his favorite. Indeed, Hercules was often called by various gods and people as "the favorite son of Zeus"(where Hercules resents both the title and his father for much of the shows run), Zeus and Hercules were very close and in one story, where a tribe of earth-born Giants threatened Olympus and the Oracle at Delphi decreed that only the combined efforts of a lone god and mortal could stop the creature, Zeus chose Hercules to fight by his side. They proceeded to defeat the monsters.<li>His sacred bird was the golden eagle, which he kept by his side at all times. Like him, the eagle was a symbol of strength, courage, and justice.<li>His favourite tree was the oak, symbol of strength. Olive trees were also sacred to him.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zelus, <!--del_lnk--> Nike, <!--del_lnk--> Cratos and <!--del_lnk--> Bia were Zeus' <!--del_lnk--> retinue.</ul>
<p><a id="Zeus_in_popular_culture" name="Zeus_in_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zeus in popular culture</span></h2>
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<dd>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zhang Qian</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<dd><i>This is a <!--del_lnk--> Chinese name; the <!--del_lnk--> family name is</i> <!--del_lnk--> Zhang</dl>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14965.jpg.htm" title="Zhang Qian taking leave from emperor Han Wudi, for his expedition to Central Asia from 138 to 126 BCE, Mogao Caves mural, 618-712 CE."><img alt="Zhang Qian taking leave from emperor Han Wudi, for his expedition to Central Asia from 138 to 126 BCE, Mogao Caves mural, 618-712 CE." height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZhangQianTravels.jpg" src="../../images/149/14965.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Zhang Qian</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant" xml:lang="zh-Hant">張騫</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans" xml:lang="zh-Hans">张骞</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Hanyu Pinyin: <span class="Unicode">Zhāng Qiān</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Wade-Giles: Chang Ch'ien; d. <!--del_lnk--> 113 BCE), was a <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> <!--del_lnk--> explorer and imperial envoy in the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd century BCE, during the time of the <!--del_lnk--> Han Dynasty. He was the first official diplomat to bring back reliable information about <!--del_lnk--> Central Asia to the Chinese imperial court, then under <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Wu of Han, and played an important pioneering role in the Chinese colonisation and conquest of the region now known as <!--del_lnk--> Xinjiang. Zhang Qian's accounts of his explorations of Central Asia are detailed in the Early Han historical chronicles ("<!--del_lnk--> Shiji", or "Records of the Great Historian"), compiled by <!--del_lnk--> Sima Qian in the <!--del_lnk--> 1st century BCE .<p>
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</script><a id="First_embassy_to_the_West" name="First_embassy_to_the_West"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">First embassy to the West</span></h2>
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<div style="width:132px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14966.jpg.htm" title="Ideograms for Zhang Qian."><img alt="Ideograms for Zhang Qian." height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZhangQianIdeograms.jpg" src="../../images/149/14966.jpg" width="130" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14966.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Ideograms for <b>Zhang Qian</b>.</div>
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<p>Zhang Qian was born in present day <!--del_lnk--> Hanzhong, Shaanxi, at the border of northeastern <!--del_lnk--> Sichuan. He entered the capital, Chang'an, today's <!--del_lnk--> Xi'an, between 140 BCE and 134 BCE as a Gentleman (郎), serving <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Wu. At the time the <!--del_lnk--> Xiongnu tribes controlled modern <!--del_lnk--> Inner Mongolia and dominated much of modern Xiyu (西域 "<!--del_lnk--> Western Regions").<p>The Han court despatched Zhang Qian to the Western Regions in <!--del_lnk--> 138 BCE with a delegation of over one hundred members, including a surrendered Xiongnu guide. The objective of Zhang Qian's first mission was to seek a military alliance with the Greater <!--del_lnk--> Yuezhi (月氏), in modern <a href="../../wp/t/Tajikistan.htm" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>. On route he was captured by the Xiongnu and detained for ten years. There he married a Xiongnu wife and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.<p>When Zhang finally made it to Yuezhi lands, he found that they were too settled to want war against the Xiongnu. He spent about one year in Yuezhi and <!--del_lnk--> Bactrian territory, documenting their cultures, lifestyles and economy, before returning to China.<p><a id="Zhang_Qian.27s_report" name="Zhang_Qian.27s_report"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zhang Qian's report</span></h2>
<p>The report of Zhang Qian's travels is quoted extensively in the <!--del_lnk--> 1st century BCE Chinese historic chronicles "Records of the Great Historian" (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji) by <!--del_lnk--> Sima Qian. Zhang Qian visited directly the kingdom of <a href="../../wp/d/Dayuan.htm" title="Dayuan">Dayuan</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Ferghana, the territories <!--del_lnk--> Yuezhi in <!--del_lnk--> Transoxonia, the <!--del_lnk--> Bactrian country of <!--del_lnk--> Daxia with it remnants of <!--del_lnk--> Greco-Bactrian rule, and <!--del_lnk--> Kangju (康居). He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he did not visit, such as Anxi (<!--del_lnk--> Parthia), Tiaozhi (<a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>), Shendu (<a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>) and the <!--del_lnk--> Wusun.<p><a id="Dayuan_.28Ferghana.29" name="Dayuan_.28Ferghana.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dayuan (Ferghana)</span></h3>
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<div style="width:351px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14967.jpg.htm" title="Countries described in Zhang Qian's report. Visited countries are highlighted in blue."><img alt="Countries described in Zhang Qian's report. Visited countries are highlighted in blue." height="262" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZhangQianTravel.jpg" src="../../images/149/14967.jpg" width="349" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Zhang Qian starts with a report on the first country he visited (after his captivity among the Xiongnu), <a href="../../wp/d/Dayuan.htm" title="Dayuan">Dayuan</a>, in <!--del_lnk--> Ferghana, west of the <!--del_lnk--> Tarim Basin. They are considered by him as sophisticated urban dwellers, on the same footing as the Parthian and the Bactrians. The name Dayuan (meaning Great Yuan), may be a transliteration of the word <i><!--del_lnk--> Yona</i> used to designate Greeks, who occupied the region from the 4th to the 2nd century BCE.<dl>
<dd>"Dayuan lies southwest of the territory of the Xiongnu, some 10,000 <i><!--del_lnk--> li</i> (5,000 kilometers) directly west of China. The people are settled on the land, plowing the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. The people live in houses in fortified cities, there being some seventy or more cities of various sizes in the region. The population numbers several hundred thousand" (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p><a id="Yuezhi_.28Tocharians.3F.29" name="Yuezhi_.28Tocharians.3F.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Yuezhi (Tocharians?)</span></h3>
<p>After obtaining the help of the king of Dayuan, Zhang Qian went southwest to the territory of the Yuezhi, with whom he was supposed to obtain a military alliance against the Xiongnu.<dl>
<dd>"The Great Yuezhi live some 2,000 or 3,000 li (1,000 or 1,500 kilometers) west of Dayuan, north of the Gui (<!--del_lnk--> Oxus) river. They are bordered to the south by Daxia (Bactria), on the west by Anxi (Parthia), and on the north by <!--del_lnk--> Kangju (康居). They are a nation of nomads, moving place to place with their herds and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors." (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p>Zhang Qian also describes the origins of the Yuezhi, explaining they came from the eastern part of the <!--del_lnk--> Tarim Basin, a momentous explanation which has encouraged historians to connect them to the <!--del_lnk--> Caucasoid <!--del_lnk--> mummies, as well as to the <!--del_lnk--> Indo-European-speaking <!--del_lnk--> Tocharians that have been identified from precisely the same area:<dl>
<dd>"The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian or Heavenly Mountains (<!--del_lnk--> Tian Shan) and <!--del_lnk--> Dunhuang, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the west, beyond Dayuan (Ferghana), where they attacked the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river." (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p>A smaller group of Yuezhi, the "Little Yuezhi" were not able to follow the exodus and reportedly found refuge among the "Qiang barbarians" (<!--del_lnk--> Tibetans).<p><a id="Daxia_.28Bactria.29" name="Daxia_.28Bactria.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Daxia (Bactria)</span></h3>
<p>Zhang Qian probably witnessed the last period of the <!--del_lnk--> Greco-Bactrian kingdom, as it was being subjugated by the nomad Yuezhi. Only small powerless chiefs remained, who were apparently vassals to the Yuezhi horde. Their civilization was urban, almost identical to the civilizations of Parthia and Dayuan, and the population was numerous.<dl>
<dd>"Daxia is situated over 2,000 <i>li</i> (1,000 kilometers) southwest of <a href="../../wp/d/Dayuan.htm" title="Dayuan">Dayuan</a> (Ferghana), south of the Gui (Oxus) river. Its people cultivate the land, and have cities and houses. Their customs are like those of Dayuan. It has no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the various cities. The people are poor in the use of arms and afraid of battle, but they are clever at commerce. After the Great Yuezhi moved west and attacked and conquered Daxia, the entire country came under their sway. The population of the country is large, numbering some 1,000,000 or more persons. The capital is Lanshi (<!--del_lnk--> Bactra) where all sorts of goods are bought and sold." (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, translation Burton Watson).</dl>
<p><a id="Shendu_.28India.29" name="Shendu_.28India.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Shendu (India)</span></h3>
<p>Zhang Qian also reports about the existence of <!--del_lnk--> India southeast of Bactria. The name <i>Shendu</i> comes from the <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word "Sindhu", used for the province of <!--del_lnk--> Sindh (now a province of <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>) by its local people. Sindh was one of the most advanced regions of India at the time. Although it was part of India, it practiced separate authority over itself. Because of its coastal borders with Persia and the Arabian Sea, it invited great wealth from these regions. Parts of Northwestern India (modern Pakistan) was ruled by the <a href="../../wp/i/Indo-Greek_Kingdom.htm" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a> at the time, which explains the reported cultural similarity between Bactria and India.<dl>
<dd>"Southeast of Daxia is the kingdom of Shendu (India)... Shendu, they told me, lies several thousand <i>li</i> southeast of Daxia (Bactria). The people cultivate the land and live much like the people of Daxia. The region is said to be hot and damp. The inhabitants ride elephants when they go in battle. The kingdom is situated on a great river (<a href="../../wp/i/Indus_River.htm" title="Indus River">Indus</a>)" (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p><a id="Anxi_.28Parthia.29" name="Anxi_.28Parthia.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anxi (Parthia)</span></h3>
<p>Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and Daxia (Bactria). The name "Anxi" is a transliterations of "<!--del_lnk--> Arsacid", name of the Parthian dynasty.<dl>
<dd>"Anxi is situated several thousand <i><!--del_lnk--> li</i> west of the region of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region contains several hundred cities of various sizes. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on horizontal strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) and to the north Yancai and Lixuan (<!--del_lnk--> Hyrcania)." (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p><a id="Tiaozhi" name="Tiaozhi"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tiaozhi</span></h3>
<p>Zhang Qian reports about Mesopotamia, beyond Parthia, although in rather tenuous terms, because he didn't go there, and was only able to reports other's accounts.<dl>
<dd>"Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) is situated several thousand <i>li</i> west of Anxi (Parthia) and borders the Western Sea (<a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>/ <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>?). It is hot and damp, and the people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice... The people are very numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi (Parthia) give orders to these chiefs and regards them as vassals." (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p><a id="Kangju_.28.E5.BA.B7.E5.B1.85.29_northwest_of_Sogdiana_.28.E7.B2.9F.E7.89.B9.29" name="Kangju_.28.E5.BA.B7.E5.B1.85.29_northwest_of_Sogdiana_.28.E7.B2.9F.E7.89.B9.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><a href="../../wp/t/Tashkent.htm" title="Kangju">Kangju (康居)</a> northwest of Sogdiana (粟特)</span></h3>
<p>Zhang Qian also visited directly the area of <!--del_lnk--> Sogdiana, home to the Sogdian nomads:<dl>
<dd>"Kangju is situated some 2,000 li (1,000 kilometers) northwest of Dayuan (Bactria). Its people are nomads and resemble the <!--del_lnk--> Yuezhi in their customs. They have 80,000 or 90,000 skilled archer fighters. The country is small, and borders Dayuan. It acknowledges sovereignty to the Yuezhi people in the South and the Xiongnu in the East." (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p><a id="Yancai_.E5.A5.84.E8.94.A1_.28Vast_Steppe.29" name="Yancai_.E5.A5.84.E8.94.A1_.28Vast_Steppe.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Yancai 奄蔡 (Vast Steppe)</span></h3>
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<dd>"Yancai lies some 2,000 <i><!--del_lnk--> li</i> (832 km) northwest of <a href="../../wp/t/Tashkent.htm" title="Kangju">Kangju</a> (centered on <!--del_lnk--> Turkestan at Bei'tian). The people are nomads and their customs are generally similar to those of the people of <a href="../../wp/t/Tashkent.htm" title="Kangju">Kangju</a>. The country has over 100,000 archer warriors, and borders a great shoreless lake, perhaps what is known as the Northern Sea (<a href="../../wp/a/Aral_Sea.htm" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a>, distance between <a href="../../wp/t/Tashkent.htm" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Aralsk is about 866 km)" (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p><a id="Return_to_China" name="Return_to_China"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Return to China</span></h2>
<p>On his return trip he was again captured by the Xiongnu who again spared his life because they valued his sense of duty and composure in the face of death. Two years later the Xiongnu leader died and in the midst of chaos and infighting Zhang Qian escaped.<p>Zhang Qian returned in <!--del_lnk--> 125 BCE with detailed news for the Emperor, which showed that sophisticated civilizations existed to the West, with which China could advantageously develop relations. The Shiji relates that "the emperor learned of the Dayuan, Daxia, Anxi, and the others, all great states rich in unusual products whose people cultivated the land and made their living in much the same way as the Chinese. All these states, he was told, were militarily weak and prized Han goods and wealth". (<!--del_lnk--> Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).<p>His second expedition was more organised, a trade mission to the <!--del_lnk--> Wu-sun people in <!--del_lnk--> 119 BCE. This was a success and led to trade between China and <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a>.<p><a id="Development_of_East-West_contacts" name="Development_of_East-West_contacts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Development of East-West contacts</span></h2>
<p>Following Zhang Qian' embassy and report, commercial relations between China and Central as well as Western Asia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the end of the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd century BCE and the <!--del_lnk--> 1st century BCE, initiating the development of the <!--del_lnk--> Silk Road:<dl>
<dd>"The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members... In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p>Many objects were soon exchanged, and travelled as far as <a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> in the East, as suggested by the discovery of a <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persian</a> box and various artifacts from Central Asia in the <!--del_lnk--> 122 BCE tomb of the Chinese King <!--del_lnk--> Wen of <!--del_lnk--> Nanyue.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14968.jpg.htm" title="Fresco describing Emperor Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) worshipping two statues of the Buddha, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, c.8th century CE."><img alt="Fresco describing Emperor Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) worshipping two statues of the Buddha, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, c.8th century CE." height="303" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HanWudiBuddhas.jpg" src="../../images/149/14968.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14968.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fresco describing Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) worshipping two statues of the <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Mogao Caves, <!--del_lnk--> Dunhuang, c.8th century CE.</div>
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<p>Around 120 BCE, one of these missions may have brought the first Buddhist statues to China. Murals in <!--del_lnk--> Mogao Caves in <!--del_lnk--> Dunhuang describe the Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) worshipping Buddhist statues, explaining them as "golden men brought in <!--del_lnk--> 120 BCE by a great Han general in his campaigns against the nomads", although there is no other mention of Han Wudi worshipping the Buddha in Chinese historical literature.<p>China also sent a mission to <!--del_lnk--> Parthia, which were followed up by reciprocal missions from Parthian envoys around <!--del_lnk--> 100 BCE:<dl>
<dd>"When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom... When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them... The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson).</dl>
<p>The Roman historian <!--del_lnk--> Florus describes the visit of numerous envoys, included <i><!--del_lnk--> Seres</i> (Chinese), to the first Roman Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Augustus, who reigned between <!--del_lnk--> 27 BCE and <!--del_lnk--> 14 CE:<dl>
<dd>"Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even <!--del_lnk--> Scythians and <!--del_lnk--> Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the <!--del_lnk--> Seres came likewise, and the <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indians</a> who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours." ("Cathey and the way thither", <!--del_lnk--> Henry Yule).</dl>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 97 CE the Chinese general <!--del_lnk--> Ban Chao went as far west as the <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> with 70,000 men and established direct military contacts with the Parthian Empire, also dispatching an envoy to <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> in the person of <!--del_lnk--> Gan Ying.<p>Several <!--del_lnk--> Roman embassies to China soon followed from <!--del_lnk--> 166 CE, and are officially recorded in Chinese historical chronicles.<p><a id="Zhang_Qian_of_today" name="Zhang_Qian_of_today"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zhang Qian of today</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Zhang Qian (Chang Chien) is a <!--del_lnk--> frigate built in <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> based on the <!--del_lnk--> Oliver Hazard Perry class-design. It is currently in service for the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of China Navy.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Qian"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zheng He</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<p><b>Zheng He</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Traditional Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hant" xml:lang="zh-Hant">鄭和</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Simplified Chinese: <span lang="zh-Hans" xml:lang="zh-Hans">郑和</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Hanyu Pinyin: <span class="Unicode">Zhèng Hé</span>; <!--del_lnk--> Wade-Giles: Cheng Ho; Birth name: 馬三寶 / 马三宝; <!--del_lnk--> pinyin: Mǎ Sānbǎo; <!--del_lnk--> Arabic name: حجّي محمود <i>Hajji Mahmud</i>) (<!--del_lnk--> 1371–<!--del_lnk--> 1433), was a famous <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> mariner, <!--del_lnk--> explorer, <!--del_lnk--> diplomat and fleet <!--del_lnk--> admiral, who made the voyages collectively referred to as the travels of "Eunuch Sanbao to the Western Ocean" ("三保太監下西洋") or "<i>Zheng He to the Western Ocean</i>", from <!--del_lnk--> 1405 to <!--del_lnk--> 1433.<p>
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</script><a id="Life" name="Life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14969.jpg.htm" title="Hui ethnic group of China."><img alt="Hui ethnic group of China." height="201" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HuiChineseMuslim3.jpg" src="../../images/149/14969.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14969.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Hui ethnic group of China.</div>
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<p>Zheng He was born in <!--del_lnk--> 1371 of the <!--del_lnk--> Hui ethnic group and the <!--del_lnk--> Muslim faith in modern-day <!--del_lnk--> Yunnan Province, one of the last possessions of the <!--del_lnk--> Mongols of the <!--del_lnk--> Yuan Dynasty before being conquered by the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a>. He served as a close confidant of the <!--del_lnk--> Yongle Emperor of <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> (reigned <!--del_lnk--> 1403–<!--del_lnk--> 1424), the third emperor of the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a>. According to his biograhy in the <!--del_lnk--> History of Ming, he was originally named Ma Sanbao (馬三保), and came from <!--del_lnk--> Kunyang (昆阳, present day <!--del_lnk--> Jinning (晋宁), <!--del_lnk--> Yunnan Province. Zheng belonged to the <!--del_lnk--> Semur or Semu caste who practiced <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>. He was the sixth generation descendant of <!--del_lnk--> Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, a famous Yuan governor of the Yunnan Province from <!--del_lnk--> Bukhara in modern day <a href="../../wp/u/Uzbekistan.htm" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>. His family name "Ma" came from Shams al-Din's fifth son Masuh. Both his father Mir Tekin and grandfather Charameddin had travelled on <!--del_lnk--> pilgrimage to <a href="../../wp/m/Mecca.htm" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. Their travels contributed much to the young boy's education. He grew up speaking Arabic and Chinese, learning much about the world to the west and its geography and customs. After the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming</a> army conquered <!--del_lnk--> Yunnan, he was taken captive as a young boy in 1381, and <!--del_lnk--> castrated, thus becoming a <!--del_lnk--> eunuch, to become a servant at the Imperial court. The name <i>Zheng He</i> was given by the Yongle emperor for the war <!--del_lnk--> merit in the Yongle rebellion aganst the <!--del_lnk--> Jianwen Emperor. He studied at <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing Taixue (The Imperial Central College).<p>Zheng He was a Muslim by birth. He travelled to Mecca, though he did not peform <!--del_lnk--> the pilgrimage itself. His tomb was recently (at the beginning of the 1980's) renovated in a more Islamic style, although he himself was <!--del_lnk--> buried at sea. The <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="PRC">PRC</a> government uses him as a model to integrate the Muslim minority into the Chinese nation. He himself was a living example of <!--del_lnk--> religious tolerance, perhaps even <!--del_lnk--> syncretism. The <!--del_lnk--> Galle Trilingual Inscription set up by Zheng He around <!--del_lnk--> 1410 in <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> records the offerings he made at a <a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> mountain temple <!--del_lnk--> . In around <!--del_lnk--> 1431, he set up a commemorative pillar at the temple of the <!--del_lnk--> Taoist <!--del_lnk--> goddess <!--del_lnk--> Tian Fei, the <!--del_lnk--> Celestial Spouse, in <!--del_lnk--> Fujian province, to whom he and his sailors prayed for safety at sea <!--del_lnk--> . This pillar records his veneration for the goddess and his belief in her divine protection, as well as a few details about his voyages <!--del_lnk--> . Visitors to the <!--del_lnk--> Jinghaisi (静海寺）in Nanjing are reminded of the donations Zheng He made to this non-Muslim institution.<p><a id="Zheng_He.27s_missions" name="Zheng_He.27s_missions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zheng He's missions</span></h2>
<p>His missions showed impressive demonstrations of organizational capability and technological might, but did not lead to significant trade, since Zheng He was an admiral and an official, not a merchant. There were also rumors that he was at least two meters (six feet seven inches) tall. In <!--del_lnk--> 1424, the Yongle Emperor died. His successor, the <!--del_lnk--> Hongxi Emperor (reigned 1424–1425), decided to curb the influence at court. Zheng He made one more voyage under the <!--del_lnk--> Xuande Emperor (reigned 1426–1435), but after that Chinese treasure ship fleets ended. Zheng He died during the treasure fleet's last voyage. Although he has a tomb in China, it is empty: he was, like many great admirals, buried at sea.<p>Zheng He, on his seven voyages, successfully relocated large numbers of Chinese Muslims to Malacca, Palembang, Surabaya and other places and converted the natives to Islam. Malacca became the center of Islamic learning and also a large international Islamic trade centre of the southern seas.<p><a id="Voyages" name="Voyages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Voyages</span></h2>
<p>Zheng He led seven expeditions to what the Chinese called "the Western Ocean" (<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.) The places in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> that Zheng He visited included:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Southeast Asia * <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> * <!--del_lnk--> Malacca * <!--del_lnk--> Java * <!--del_lnk--> Ceylon * <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> * <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a> * The <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> * <!--del_lnk--> Arabia * The <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> as far north as <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> * <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> as far south as the <!--del_lnk--> Mozambique Channel * <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> seven times.</ul>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14970.jpg.htm" title="The Kangnido map (1402) predates Zheng's voyages and suggests that he had quite detailed geographical information on much of the Old World."><img alt="The Kangnido map (1402) predates Zheng's voyages and suggests that he had quite detailed geographical information on much of the Old World." height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KangnidoMap.jpg" src="../../images/149/14970.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14970.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Kangnido map (1402) predates Zheng's voyages and suggests that he had quite detailed geographical information on much of the <!--del_lnk--> Old World.</div>
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<p>The number of his voyages varies depending on the method of division, but he travelled at least seven times to "The Western Ocean" with his fleet. He brought back to China many trophies and envoys from more than thirty kingdoms -— including King <!--del_lnk--> Alagonakkara of <!--del_lnk--> Ceylon, who came to China to apologize to the Emperor.<p>There are speculations that some of Zheng's ships may have travelled beyond the <!--del_lnk--> Cape of Good Hope. In particular, the <!--del_lnk--> Venetian monk and cartographer <!--del_lnk--> Fra Mauro describes in his <!--del_lnk--> 1457 <!--del_lnk--> Fra Mauro map the travels of a huge "<!--del_lnk--> junk from India" 2,000 miles into the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1420.<p>Zheng himself wrote of his travels:<dl>
<dd>"We have traversed more than 100,000 <!--del_lnk--> li (50,000 kilometers) of immense waterspaces and have beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising in the sky, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapors, while our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds day and night, continued their course (as rapidly) as a star, traversing those savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare…" (Tablet erected by Zhen He, <!--del_lnk--> Changle, <!--del_lnk--> Fujian, <!--del_lnk--> 1432. Louise Levathes)</dl>
<p>His voyages, records, maps are one of the explanations and supposed sources of some of the other <!--del_lnk--> Ancient world maps, which are claimed to have depicted the <!--del_lnk--> Americas, <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, the tip of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> etc.. before the (European) official discovery, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Fra Mauro map or the <!--del_lnk--> De Virga world map.<p>Former submarine commander Gavin Menzies in his book "1421: The Year China discovered the World" claims that several parts of Zheng's fleet explored virtually the entire globe, discovering West Africa, North and South America, Greenland, Antarctica and Australia. A related book, "The island of seven cities : where the Chinese settled when they discovered America" by Paul Chiasson maintains that a nation of native peoples known as the <!--del_lnk--> Mi'kmaq on the east coast of Canada are descendants of Chinese explorers, offering evidence in the form of archaeological remains, customs, costume, artwork, etc.<p><a id="Treasure_Ships" name="Treasure_Ships"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Treasure Ships</span></h2>
<p><b>Treasure ship</b> is the name of a type of <a href="../../wp/s/Ship.htm" title="Ship">vessel</a> that the <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> <!--del_lnk--> admiral Zheng He sailed in. His fleet included 62 treasure ships, with some reaching 600 <!--del_lnk--> feet (146 <!--del_lnk--> meters) long. The fleet was manned by over 27,000 crew members, including <!--del_lnk--> navigators, <!--del_lnk--> explorers, <!--del_lnk--> sailors, <!--del_lnk--> doctors, <!--del_lnk--> workers, and <!--del_lnk--> soldiers. See also <!--del_lnk--> Junk (ship).<p>According to the Chinese chronicles, Zheng He commanded seven expeditions. The <!--del_lnk--> 1405 expedition consisted of 27,800 men and a fleet of 62 treasure ships supported by approximately 190 smaller ships. The fleet included:<ul>
<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Treasure ships"</b>, used by the commander of the fleet and his deputies (nine-masted, about 120 <!--del_lnk--> meter (400 <!--del_lnk--> ft) long and 50 m (160 ft) wide). (Some reached up to 600 feet long) The treasure ships weighed as much as 1,500 tons, while the largest European ships 80 years later only weighed 150 tons.<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Horse ships"</b>, carrying tribute goods and repair material for the fleet (eight-masted, about 103 m (339 ft) long and 42 m (138 ft) wide)<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Supply ships"</b>, containing staple for the crew (seven-masted, about 78 m (257 ft) long and 35 m (115 ft) wide).<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Troop transports"</b>, six-masted, about 67 m (220 ft) long and 25 m (83 ft) wide).<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Fuchuan warships"</b>, five-masted, about 50 m (165 ft) long).<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Patrol boats"</b>, eight-oared, about 37 m (120 feet) long).<li><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Water tankers"</b>, with 1 month supply of fresh water.</ul>
<p>Six more expeditions took place, from <!--del_lnk--> 1407 to <!--del_lnk--> 1433, with fleets of comparable size.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14972.gif.htm" title="Early 17th century Chinese woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships."><img alt="Early 17th century Chinese woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships." height="282" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZhengHeShips.gif" src="../../images/149/14972.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14972.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Early <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> Chinese <!--del_lnk--> woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng He's ships.</div>
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<p>The enormous characteristics of the Chinese ships of the period are confirmed by Western travelers to the East, such as <a href="../../wp/i/Ibn_Battuta.htm" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Marco_Polo.htm" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>. According to Ibn Battuta, who visited China in <!--del_lnk--> 1347:<dl>
<dd>…We stopped in the port of <!--del_lnk--> Calicut, in which there were at the time thirteen Chinese vessels, and disembarked. <!--del_lnk--> China Sea travelling is done in Chinese ships only, so we shall describe their arrangements. The Chinese vessels are of three kinds; large ships called chunks (<!--del_lnk--> junks), middle sized ones called zaws (<!--del_lnk--> dhows) and the small ones <!--del_lnk--> kakams. The large ships have anything from twelve down to three sails, which are made of bamboo rods plaited into mats. They are never lowered, but turned according to the direction of the wind; at anchor they are left floating in the wind.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>Three smaller ones, the "half", the "third" and the "quarter", accompany each large vessel. These vessels are built in the towns of <!--del_lnk--> Zaytun and <a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" title="Sin-Kalan">Sin-Kalan</a>. The vessel has four decks and contains rooms, cabins, and saloons for merchants; a cabin has chambers and a lavatory, and can be locked by its occupants.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>This is the manner after which they are made; two (parallel) walls of very thick wooden (planking) are raised and across the space between them are placed very thick planks (the bulkheads) secured longitudinally and transversely by means of large nails, each three <!--del_lnk--> ells in length. When these walls have thus been built the lower deck is fitted in and the ship is launched before the upper works are finished." <i>(Ibn Battuta).</i></dl>
<p><a id="Zheng_He_and_Islam_in_Southeast_Asia" name="Zheng_He_and_Islam_in_Southeast_Asia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zheng He and Islam in Southeast Asia</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14973.png.htm" title="Admiral Hajji Mahmud's Islamic faith."><img alt="Admiral Hajji Mahmud's Islamic faith." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Allah-green.svg" src="../../images/149/14973.png" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14973.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Admiral Hajji Mahmud's Islamic faith.</div>
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<p><span style="font-size: 150%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Islam in China</b></span><br />
<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14974.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="84" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Islam_in_China.jpg" src="../../images/149/14974.jpg" width="130" /></a><br />
<p><!--del_lnk--> History</td>
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<td style="color:#ffffff; background-color:#007f00;"><b>Architecture</b></td>
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<td>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Chinese mosques<br /><!--del_lnk--> Niujie Mosque</td>
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<td style="color:#ffffff; background-color:#007f00;"><b>Major figures</b></td>
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<tr>
<td>
<p><strong class="selflink">Zheng He</strong> • <!--del_lnk--> Ma Bufang<br /><!--del_lnk--> Haji Noor</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="color:#ffffff; background-color:#007f00;"><b>People Groups</b></td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Hui • <!--del_lnk--> Salar • <!--del_lnk--> Uygur<br /><!--del_lnk--> Kazakhs • <!--del_lnk--> Kyrgyz • <!--del_lnk--> Tatars<br /><!--del_lnk--> Uzbeks • <!--del_lnk--> Tibetans • <!--del_lnk--> Dongxiang<br /><!--del_lnk--> Bao'an • <!--del_lnk--> Tajiks</td>
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<td style="color: white; background-color:#007f00;"><b>Islamic Cities/Regions</b></td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Quanzhou • <!--del_lnk--> Linxia • <!--del_lnk--> Xinjiang<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ningxia • <!--del_lnk--> Kashgar</td>
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<td style="color: white; background-color:#007f00;"><b>Culture</b></td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Islamic Association of China<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cuisine • <!--del_lnk--> Calligraphy<br /><!--del_lnk--> Education • <!--del_lnk--> Martial arts</td>
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</table>
<p><a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908-1981) wrote in 1961: <i>"The development of Islam in Indonesia and <!--del_lnk--> Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."</i> In Malacca he built granaries, warehouses and a stockade, and most probably he left behind many of his Muslim crews. Much of the information on Zheng He's voyages were compiled by <!--del_lnk--> Ma Huan, also Muslim, who accompanied Zheng He on several of his inspection tours and served as his chronicler / interpreter. In his book 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean Shores' (Chinese: 瀛涯勝覽) written in 1416, Ma Huan gave very detailed accounts of his observations of the peoples' customs and lives in ports they visited. Zheng He had many Muslim Eunuchs as his companions. At the time when his fleet first arrived in Malacca, there were already Chinese of the '<!--del_lnk--> Mohammedan' faith living there. Ma Huan talks about them as Tang-Ren (Chinese: 唐人) who were Muslim. At places they went, they frequented mosques, actively propagated the Islamic faith, established Chinese Muslim communities and built mosques.<p>Indonesian scholar Slamet Muljana writes: "Zheng He built Chinese Muslim communities first in <!--del_lnk--> Palembang, then in San Fa (West Kalimantan), subsequently he founded similar communities along the shores of <!--del_lnk--> Java, the <!--del_lnk--> Malay Peninsula and the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. They propagated the Islamic faith according to the <!--del_lnk--> Hanafi school of thought and in Chinese language.<p>Li Tong Cai, in his book 'Indonesia – Legends and Facts', writes: "in 1430, Zheng He had already successfully established the foundations of the Hui religion Islam. After his death in 1434, Hajji Yan Ying Yu became the force behind the Chinese Muslim community, and he delegated a few local Chinese as leaders, such as trader Sun Long from Semarang, Peng Rui He and Hajji Peng De Qin. Sun Long and Peng Rui He actively urged the Chinese community to 'Javanise'. They encouraged the younger Chinese generation to assimilate with the Javanese society, to take on Javanese names and their way of life. Sun Long's adopted son Chen Wen, also named Radin Pada is the son of King <!--del_lnk--> Majapahit and his Chinese wife."<p>After Zheng He's death, Chinese naval expeditions were suspended. The Hanafi Islam that Zheng He and his people propagated lost almost all contact with Islam in China, and gradually was totally absorbed by the local Shafi’i sect. When Melaka was successively colonised by the <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a>, the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a>, and later the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">British</a>, Chinese were discouraged to convert into Islam. Many of the Chinese Muslim mosques became San Bao Chinese temples commemorating Zheng He. After a lapse of 600 years, the influence of Chinese Muslims in Malacca declined to almost nil. <p><a id="In_Malacca" name="In_Malacca"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In Malacca</span></h3>
<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> Malaysian history, Sultan Mansur Shah (ruled 1459 - 1477) dispatched Tun Perpatih Putih as his envoy to China and carried a letter from the Sultan to the Ming Emperor. Tun Perpatih succeeded in impressing the Emperor of Ming with the fame and grandeur of Sultan Mansur Shah that the Emperor decreed that his daughter Hang Li Po should marry the Sultan. In the year 1459, a princess <!--del_lnk--> Hang Li Po (or Hang Liu), was sent by the emperor of Ming to marry Malacca Sultan Mansur Shah (ruled 1459 - 1477). The princess came with her entourage 500 sons of ministers and a few hundred handmaidens. They eventually settled in <!--del_lnk--> Bukit Cina, <!--del_lnk--> Malacca. The descendants of these people, from mixed marriages with the local natives, are known today as <!--del_lnk--> Peranakan: Baba (the male title) and <!--del_lnk--> Nyonya (the female title).<p>In Malaysia today, many people believe it was admiral Zheng He (died 1433) who sent princess <!--del_lnk--> Hang Li Po to Malacca in year 1459. However there is no record of Hang Li Po (or Hang Liu) in Ming documents, she is known only from Malacca folklore. In that case, Ma Huan's observation was true, the so-called Peranakan in Malacca was in fact Tang-Ren or Hui Chinese Muslims. These Chinese Muslims together with <!--del_lnk--> Parameswara were refugees of the declining <!--del_lnk--> Srivijaya kingdom, they came from <!--del_lnk--> Palembang, <!--del_lnk--> Java and other places. Some of the Chinese Muslims were soldiers and so they served as warrior and bodyguard to protect the Sultanate of Malacca.<p><a id="Connection_to_the_history_of_Late_Imperial_China" name="Connection_to_the_history_of_Late_Imperial_China"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Connection to the history of <!--del_lnk--> Late Imperial China</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14975.jpg.htm" title="A giraffe brought from Africa in the twelfth year of Yongle (AD 1414)."><img alt="A giraffe brought from Africa in the twelfth year of Yongle (AD 1414)." height="509" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MalindiGiraffe.jpg" src="../../images/149/14975.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14975.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <a href="../../wp/g/Giraffe.htm" title="Giraffe">giraffe</a> brought from <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> twelfth year of Yongle (AD 1414).</div>
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<p>One popular belief holds that after Zheng's voyages, China turned away from the seas and underwent a period of technological stagnation. Although historians such as <!--del_lnk--> John Fairbank and <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Needham popularized this view in the <!--del_lnk--> 1950s, most current historians of China question its accuracy. They point out that Chinese maritime commerce did not stop after Zheng He, that Chinese ships continued to dominate Southeast Asian commerce until the 19th century and that active Chinese trading with India and East Africa continued long after the time of Zheng. The travels of the Chinese junk <i><!--del_lnk--> Keying</i> to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> between <!--del_lnk--> 1846 to <!--del_lnk--> 1848 testify to the power of Chinese shipping until the 19th century.<p>Although the Ming Dynasty did ban shipping for a few decades with the <i><!--del_lnk--> Hai jin</i> edict, they eventually lifted this ban. The alternative view cites the fact that by banning ocean going shipping the Ming (and later Qing) dynasties forced countless numbers of people into blackmarket smuggling. This reduced government tax revenue and increased piracy. The lack of an ocean going navy then left China highly vulnerable to the <!--del_lnk--> Waku (wakou) pirates that ravaged China in the 16th century.<p>One thing is certain. State-sponsored Ming naval efforts declined dramatically after Zheng's voyages. Starting in the early 15th century China experienced increasing pressure from resurgent <a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolian</a> tribes from the north. In recognition of this threat and possibly to move closer to his family's historical geographic power base, in <!--del_lnk--> 1421 the emperor Yongle moved the capital north from <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing to present-day <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>. From the new capital he could apply greater imperial supervision to the effort to defend the northern borders. At considerable expense, China launched annual military expeditions from Beijing to weaken the Mongolians. The expenditures necessary for these land campaigns directly competed with the funds necessary to continue naval expeditions.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1449 Mongolian <!--del_lnk--> cavalry ambushed a land expedition personally led by the emperor <!--del_lnk--> Zhengtong less than a day's march from the walls of the capital. In the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Tumu Fortress the Mongolians wiped out the Chinese army and captured the emperor. This battle had two salient effects. First, it demonstrated the clear threat posed by the northern nomads. Second, the Mongols caused a political crisis in China when they released Zhengtong after his half-brother had proclaimed himself the new <!--del_lnk--> Jingtai emperor. Not until <!--del_lnk--> 1457 did political stability return when Zhengtong recovered the throne. Upon his return to power China abandoned the strategy of annual land expeditions and instead embarked upon a massive and expensive expansion of the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Wall_of_China.htm" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>. In this environment, funding for naval expeditions simply did not happen.<p>More fundamentally, unlike the later naval expeditions conducted by European nations, the Chinese treasure ships appear to have been doomed in the long run because the voyages lacked any economic motive. They were primarily conducted to increase the prestige of the emperor and the costs of the expeditions and of the return gifts provided to foreign royalty and ambassadors more than offset the benefit of any tribute collected. Thus when China's governmental finances came under pressure (which like all medieval governments' finances they eventually did), funding for the naval expeditions melted away. In contrast, by the 16th century, most European missions of exploration made enough profit from the resulting trade to become self-financing, allowing them to continue regardless of the condition of the state's finances.<p><a id="Cultural_echoes" name="Cultural_echoes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural echoes</span></h2>
<p>A recent controversial theory (the <i><!--del_lnk--> 1421 hypothesis</i>) put forward by <!--del_lnk--> Gavin Menzies in his book asserts that Zheng He circumnavigated the globe and arrived in America in the 15th century before <a href="../../wp/f/Ferdinand_Magellan.htm" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Qeng Ho space-faring society alluded to in <!--del_lnk--> Vernor Vinge's <!--del_lnk--> science fiction novel <i><!--del_lnk--> A Fire Upon the Deep</i> (and later prominently featured in <i><!--del_lnk--> A Deepness in the Sky</i>) reflects the name of Zheng. His voyages and the subsequent possible abandonment (as some have argued) of maritime exploration by the Chinese emperors have become symbolic in the <!--del_lnk--> space advocacy community of the success and cancellation of the <!--del_lnk--> Apollo Program.<p>Zheng features as a character in Kim Stanley Robinson's alternative history <i><!--del_lnk--> The Years of Rice and Salt</i>.<p>It has been suggested by some historians and mentioned in a recent <!--del_lnk--> National Geographic article on Zheng that <!--del_lnk--> Sindbad the Sailor (also spelled "Sinbad", from Arabic السندباد—As-Sindibad) and the collection of travel-romances that make up the Seven Voyages of Sindbad the Sailor found in <!--del_lnk--> The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) were influenced heavily by the cumulative tales of many seafarers that had followed, traded and worked in various support ships as part of the armada of Chinese Ming Imperial Treasure Fleets. This belief is supported in part by the similarities in Sindbad's name and the various iterations of Zheng in Arabic and Mandarin (pinyin: Mǎ Sānbǎo;Cantonese: Mah Senbau; Arabic name: Hajji Mahmud Shams) along with the similarities in the number (seven) and general locations of voyages between Sindbad and Zheng.<p><a id="The_.22Zheng_He_map.22" name="The_.22Zheng_He_map.22"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The "Zheng He map"</span></h3>
<p>In January 2006, <!--del_lnk--> BBC News and <!--del_lnk--> The Economist both published news regarding the exhibition of a Chinese sailing map claimed to be dated <!--del_lnk--> 1763, which was stated to be a copy of another map purportedly made in <!--del_lnk--> 1418. The map has detailed descriptions of both Native Americans and Native Australians. According to the map's owner, Liu Gang, a Chinese lawyer and collector, he purchased the map in <!--del_lnk--> 2001 for $500 USD from a Shanghai dealer.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14976.jpg.htm" title="1763 Chinese map of the world, claiming to incorporate information from a 1418 map. Discovered by Lui Gang in 2005."><img alt="1763 Chinese map of the world, claiming to incorporate information from a 1418 map. Discovered by Lui Gang in 2005." height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zhenghemap.jpg" src="../../images/149/14976.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14976.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1763 Chinese map of the world, claiming to incorporate information from a 1418 map. Discovered by Lui Gang in 2005.</div>
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<p>After Liu read the book "1421: The Year China discovered the World" by <!--del_lnk--> Gavin Menzies, he realized the significant potential value of the map. The map has been tested to verify the age of its paper, but not the ink. Even though the map has been shown to date from a period that could cover 1763, the question remains as to whether it is an accurate copy of an earlier 1418 map, or simply a copy of a contemporary 18th-century European map.<p>A number of authorities on Chinese history have questioned the authenticity of the map. Some point to the use of the Mercator-style projection, its accurate reckoning of longitude and its North-based orientation. None of these features was used in the best maps made in either Asia or Europe during this period (for example see the <!--del_lnk--> Kangnido map (1410) and the <!--del_lnk--> Fra Mauro (1459). Also mentioned is the depiction of the erroneous <!--del_lnk--> Island of California, a mistake commonly repeated in European maps from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries.<p>Geoff Wade of the Asia Research Institute at the National University of Singapore has strongly disputed the authenticity of the map and has suggested that it is either an 18th or 21st-century fake. He has pointed out a number of anachronisms that appear in the map and its text annotations. For example, in the text next to Eastern Europe, which has been translated as "People here mostly believe in God and their religion is called 'Jing'", Wade notes that the Chinese word for the Christian God is given as "Shang-di", which is a usage that was first coined by Jesuit missionaries in the 16th century.<p>In May 2006, it was reported by the <!--del_lnk--> Dominion Post that Fiona Petchey, head of the testing unit at <!--del_lnk--> Waikato University, which had carbon dated the map, had asked Gavin Menzies to remove claims from his website that the dating proved the map was genuine. The carbon dating indicated with an 80% probability a date for the paper of the map between either 1640-1690 or 1730-1810. However as the ink was not tested, it was impossible to know when it was drawn. Ms Petchey said, "<i>we asked him to remove those, not because we were not happy with the dates, but because we were not overly happy with being associated with his interpretations of those dates.</i>"<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Possible_contact_of_Ming_Chinese_with_Pre-Columbian_America" name="Possible_contact_of_Ming_Chinese_with_Pre-Columbian_America"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Possible contact of Ming Chinese with Pre-Columbian America</span></h3>
<p>In June 2006, Siu-Leung Lee (Columbus, Ohio) presented evidence that might indicate contact of Ming Chinese and Pre-Columbian Americans. A 7-cm diameter brass disk has been unearthed in a scantly populated Appalachian region of west North Carolina. It bears the inscription of six Chinese words "Da Ming Xuan De Wei Ci", meaning "commissioned to be granted by Xuan De the emperor of Great Ming". Xuan De was the fifth emperor of Ming dynasty that dispatched Zheng He for the last voyage (1431). The disk (or medallion) is unearthed at a site that was the cultural centre of Cherokee, which is known to be one of the most culturally advanced of the native American tribes.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Cherokee tribe had a flag with <!--del_lnk--> Big Dipper, but they only associate that with the seven clans without knowing the meaning of the <!--del_lnk--> Big Dipper as constellation. This flag may be an imported concept from China. The Big Dipper has been a symbol of Chinese emperors since Zhou dynasty. According to the official history of Song, Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing, a Big Dipper flag was always used as a central display in the imperial parade. The Big Dipper was especially revered during the Ming dynasty as a symbol of <!--del_lnk--> Daoism, a favorite of the Ming emperors. Zheng He also used the Big Dipper as his navigation guide. Peace and war flags were used by Zheng He's fleet when encountering friends or foes in their visit to new lands. The Cherokees also had the Big Dipper flag made for peace (white with red stars) and war (red with white stars).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Catawba tribe along the coast of South Carolina is still the most capable <a href="../../wp/p/Pottery.htm" title="Pottery">potters</a> among native Americans. They continue to make a three-legged pot resembling the famous <!--del_lnk--> Xuan De censer, a special design by the Ming emperor. The knowledge of the <!--del_lnk--> Catawba on processing raw clay into refined clay for pottery was notably advanced. While England had been trying to learn the secret of porcelain making from China without success, their first porcelain industry came only after importing the china clay from Catawba/Cherokee. The word for china clay in Cherokee is "unaker", a corruption of English transliteration of Chinese southern dialect "uk-na(ke)" (-ke is silent). The term was used during Ming dynasty and later gradually replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Kaolin (Gaolingtu) in Qing dynasty.<p>All these cultural relics seem to imply that there may have been contact between the Ming Chinese and the Catawba and Cherokee during Ming period. It is therefore possible that some of Zheng He's 27,000 crew members actually landed in America. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Appearances_in_Games" name="Appearances_in_Games"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Appearances in Games</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> WizKids' <!--del_lnk--> Pirates of the Spanish Main <!--del_lnk--> constructible strategy game contained a convention-exclusive Admiral Zheng He game piece packed with a <!--del_lnk--> treasure ship game piece in 2005.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ziad Jarrah</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><big>Ziad Samir Jarrah</big></th>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/131/13174.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZJarrah.JPG" src="../../images/131/13174.jpg" width="150" /></a></span></div>
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<th align="right">Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1975<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mazraa, <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a></td>
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<th style="text-align:right;">Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2001<br /><!--del_lnk--> Shanksville, Pennsylvania, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
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<p><b>Ziad Samir Jarrah</b> (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <b>زياد سمير جراح</b>) <span dir="ltr">(<!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1975 — <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2001), was the pilot of the hijacked <!--del_lnk--> United Airlines Flight 93, part of the <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>. He is believed to have taken over as the <!--del_lnk--> pilot of the <a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> and made an unsuccessful attempt to crash the plane into the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Capitol.</span><p>There are many variations on his name, including <b>Ziad Samir Al-Jarrah</b>, <b>Zaid Jarrahi</b>, <b>Ziad Jarrah Jarrat</b>, and <b>Ziyad Samir Jarrah</b>. After a wealthy and <!--del_lnk--> secular upbringing, Jarrah became involved in the planning for the <!--del_lnk--> September 11 attacks in college. Unique among the hijackers, he had a girlfriend and was close to his family. There have been some questions as to whether or not Jarrah was actually on Flight 93 and whether he was a hijacker; the <!--del_lnk--> 9/11 Commission concluded, however, that his was not a case of mistaken identity and that he had indeed piloted the plane. In October 2006, an al-Qaeda video was released showing Jarrah and Mohammed Atta recording their wills in January 2000 in Osama Bin Laden's Tarnak Farm base near Kandahar.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h3>
<p>Jarrah was born in <!--del_lnk--> Mazraa, <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, to a wealthy family. His parents were nominally <!--del_lnk--> Muslim <!--del_lnk--> Sunnis, although they lived a <!--del_lnk--> secular lifestyle. When he was seven years old, <!--del_lnk--> Israel invaded southern Lebanon, a fact he referred to later in life. His parents sent him to a <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> <!--del_lnk--> private school in <a href="../../wp/b/Beirut.htm" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> called La Sagesse, where he volunteered at a camp for disabled children and helped run an anti-drug program. His academic success to this point was mediocre, and his parents arranged for private tutors in <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>.<p>He remained close to his family; he was apparently the only 9/11 hijacker to have close family ties, including with his uncle <!--del_lnk--> Assem Omar Jarrah whose work permit would later be found in the wreckage with Ziad's passport. In his childhood, he had always wanted to fly planes, but his family discouraged this. "I stopped him from being a pilot," his father told the <i>Wall Street Journal</i> a week after the attacks. "I only have one son and I was afraid that he would crash."<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13181.jpg.htm" title="This is the text of a 1998 eMail from Aysel Sengun to Ziad Jarrah"><img alt="This is the text of a 1998 eMail from Aysel Sengun to Ziad Jarrah" height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ziad-redact.jpg" src="../../images/131/13181.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13181.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This is the text of a 1998 eMail from Aysel Sengun to Ziad Jarrah</div>
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<p>From 1995 to 1996, while Ziad Jarrah was living in Lebanon according to his family, somebody of the same name rented an apartment in <!--del_lnk--> Brooklyn, <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a>. The landlords claimed it was the same Ziad Jarrah as in the FBI photographs.<p>In the spring of 1996, Jarrah moved to <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> with his cousin Salim. They were there to take a certificate course in <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Greifswald required of foreigners studying in Germany who do not speak the language. While sharing an apartment with his cousin, he reportedly attended <!--del_lnk--> discos and beach parties, and his attendance at the <a href="../../wp/m/Mosque.htm" title="Mosque">mosque</a> fell off. He met <b>Aysel Sengün</b>, a <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkish</a> woman studying <!--del_lnk--> dentistry, and the two became good friends. They dated on and off for the remainder of his life and lived together briefly, which vexed his more religious friends, and celebrated an unofficial wedding on <!--del_lnk--> April 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1999.<p>In 1997, Jarrah left Greifswald and instead began studying <!--del_lnk--> aerospace engineering at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Applied Sciences in <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, while working at a <!--del_lnk--> Volkswagen paint shop in nearby <!--del_lnk--> Wolfsburg. While in Hamburg, he rented an apartment from Rosemarie Canel, who would paint a portrait of him that he would bring back as a gift for his mother that December.<p>The 9/11 Commission Report states that Jarrah was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Hamburg cell, along with Atta and the others. He did not live with any of the others, however, and can only be confirmed to have met with any of them in Hamburg on a single occasion: that of <!--del_lnk--> Said Bahaji's wedding at the al-Quds Mosque. The closeness of his connections with the others is not known.<p><a id="Training_in_Afghanistan" name="Training_in_Afghanistan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Training in Afghanistan</span></h3>
<p>In late 1999, Jarrah, <!--del_lnk--> Mohammed Atta, <!--del_lnk--> Marwan al-Shehhi, <!--del_lnk--> Said Bahaji, and <!--del_lnk--> Ramzi Binalshibh decided to travel to <!--del_lnk--> Chechnya to fight <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> soldiers. <!--del_lnk--> Khalid al-Masri and <!--del_lnk--> Mohamedou Ould Slahi convinced them at the last minute to travel instead to <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> to meet with <a href="../../wp/o/Osama_bin_Laden.htm" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a> and train for terrorist attacks. They were told they were on a highly secret mission, and were instructed to return to Germany and enroll in flight school. In October of 1999 Ziad Jarrah was filmed at <!--del_lnk--> Said Bahaji's wedding with other 9/11 hijackers, including <!--del_lnk--> Marwan al-Shehhi.<p>In 2006 a video surfaced showing Jarah, still bearded, reading his will in January 2000 along with <!--del_lnk--> Mohammed Atta.. Not long after this, Jarrah shaved his beard and began to act more secular, according to Sengün. Many of the future hijackers attempted to hide their radicalism and blend in with the population. Jarrah reported his <!--del_lnk--> passport stolen in February of 2000 and received a duplicate, just as hijackers Atta and al-Shehhi had done the previous month.<p>Jarrah dropped out of college and began looking at flight schools. He claimed that this was to fulfill his childhood dream of being a pilot. After looking in several countries, he decided that none of the flight schools in Europe were sufficient, and at the advice of a childhood friend, he prepared to move to the United States.<p><a id="In_the_United_States" name="In_the_United_States"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In the United States</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13182.jpg.htm" title="Jarrah's May 21, 2000 Student Visa"><img alt="Jarrah's May 21, 2000 Student Visa" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:May212000StudentVisa-Jarrah.jpg" src="../../images/131/13182.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/131/13182.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Jarrah's <!--del_lnk--> May 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2000 Student Visa</div>
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<p>Jarrah apparently entered the United States on seven separate occasions, more than any other hijacker. On <!--del_lnk--> May 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2000, he was issued a student visa to the United States. On <!--del_lnk--> June 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2000 he came to the U.S. for the first time, arriving in <a href="../../wp/a/Atlanta%252C_Georgia.htm" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta, Georgia</a> on a flight from <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>. He then travelled to <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> to attend a flight school. Many of his classmates remember him fondly, describing him as kind and trustworthy, and remember him drinking beer occasionally. He was enrolled for six months, from June 2000 to <!--del_lnk--> January 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2001.<p>Jarrah was unique among the hijackers in that he did not live with any other hijackers, but rather lived with a German student named Thorsten Biermann. Biermann did not observe Jarrah acting particularly religious or overtly political. Jarrah occasionally flew back to Germany to visit his girlfriend, and called or e-mailed her nearly every day.<p>Jarrah had obtained his license to fly small planes, and began training to fly large jets late in 2000. He flew to <a href="../../wp/b/Beirut.htm" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> to visit his family, and then to Germany to visit his girlfriend Sengün. He brought her back to the United States for a ten-day visit, and she even attended a flight school session with him. In mid-January of 2001, he again flew to <a href="../../wp/b/Beirut.htm" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> to visit his father, who was to have <!--del_lnk--> open-heart surgery. He then visited his girlfriend Sengün in Germany and came back to the United States again. His behaviour was markedly different from the other hijackers, who broke off all familial and romantic relations.<p>On his way back to the U.S., he passed through the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" title="United Arab Emirates">UAE</a>, according to the country's officials, where he was initially reported as having been interviewed by authorities on <!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, at the request of the <!--del_lnk--> CIA. He allegedly admitted to having been to Afghanistan and <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, although the CIA has since denied the claim and the 9/11 Commission report does not mention it. The Florida flight school where Jarrah had been studying also said he was in school there until <!--del_lnk--> January 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2001.<p>On May 6, Jarrah registered for a two-month membership at the Us1 Fitness Gym in <!--del_lnk--> Dania Beach, Florida — he would later renew his membership for two more months, and eventually paid either $500 or $1000 to have 20 lessons in close-quarters combat with Bert Rodriguez. He was one of 9 hijackers to open a <!--del_lnk--> SunTrust bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001. Sometime in that month it's believed that <!--del_lnk--> Ahmed al-Haznawi, who arrived on June 8, moved in with Jarrah. Jarrah rented a new apartment in <!--del_lnk--> Lauderdale-by-the-Sea after both men gave the landlord photocopies of their German passports, which he later turned over to the FBI.<p>On June 25, Jarrah took al-Haznawi to <!--del_lnk--> Holy Cross Hospital in <!--del_lnk--> Fort Lauderdale, Florida on the advice of his landlord Charles Lisa. Al-Haznawi was treated by Dr. Christos Tsonas, who gave him antibiotics for a small gash on his left calf. While he told staff that he had bumped into a suitcase, the media briefly reported it as a sign of <!--del_lnk--> cutaneous anthrax hoping to show a link to the <!--del_lnk--> 2001 anthrax attacks, although the FBI later addressed the rumors stating that "Exhaustive testing did not support that anthrax was present anywhere the hijackers had been".<p>In mid July 2001, some of the hijackers and members of the Hamburg cell gathered near <!--del_lnk--> Salou, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, for a period of a few days up to a couple of weeks. Since hotel records are sparse during some of that time, it is thought that they may have spent considerable time in and around safe houses related to the al-Qaeda leader in Spain, <!--del_lnk--> Imad Yarkas. After 9/11, Spanish investigators followed the trails backwards, and the events they uncovered were chronicled in the Spanish nationwide newspaper <!--del_lnk--> El País. Witnesses told Spanish investigators they saw a man who resembled <!--del_lnk--> Marwan al-Shehhi on <!--del_lnk--> July 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2001 at the <!--del_lnk--> Universal Studios <!--del_lnk--> Port Aventura theme park next to Salou, Spain. The visitor, who was accompanied by two men, inquired about rides at the customer service counter. Witnesses indicated these companions resembled Ziad Jarrah, and Said Bahaji, a then 26-year-old German-Moroccan member of the al-Qaida cell in Hamburg. Back in Germany, it had been Bahaji's 1999 wedding during which Jarrah was filmed. Other witnesses elsewhere had pointed out Bahaji from photos, as one of the men they saw in Spain. But Bahaji also bore a resemblance in appearance to <!--del_lnk--> Mohamed Atta, who was traced to the same areas in Spain through his hotel and travel records.<p>In late July, Jarrah flew to Germany and again met with his girlfriend, the last time she saw him. He reportedly arrived back in the United States on August 5, though other sources indicate that he wrote his pilot's test on August 2, having missed his sister's wedding to do so. On August 27 he checked into a <!--del_lnk--> Laurel, Maryland motel, only a mile away from the Valencia where 4 other hijackers were staying. On September 7 all four of Flight 93 hijackers flew from <!--del_lnk--> Fort Lauderdale to <!--del_lnk--> Newark International Airport aboard <!--del_lnk--> Spirit Airlines.<p>On September 9, in the early morning, Jarrah was pulled over for speeding in Maryland and received a $200 ticket. Jarrah phoned his parents, mentioning that he had received the money order they'd sent five days earlier. He told them he intended to see them on <!--del_lnk--> September 22 for his cousin's wedding, and that he had bought a new suit for the occasion. His landlady later confirmed that Jarrah had shown off the suit to her days earlier.<p>On September 10, Jarrah sent a letter to his girlfriend, widely interpreted as a <!--del_lnk--> suicide note. The note contained the phrases "I have done what I had to do" and "You should be very proud, it is an honour, and you will see the result, and everyone will be happy." Because of an error in the address, the letter was returned to the United States where it was discovered. Some have disputed whether the letter was a suicide note, since it referred to future meetings and the package also contained references to <!--del_lnk--> scuba diving instructions.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
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<p>According to one source, Jarrah had set up a large mock cockpit made of cardboard boxes in his apartment just before the attacks.<p><a id="The_attack" name="The_attack"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The attack</span></h3>
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<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13208.jpg.htm" title="Charred passport found among the wreckage of Flight 93"><img alt="Charred passport found among the wreckage of Flight 93" height="107" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ziad_Jarrah_Passport_Photo.jpg" src="../../images/132/13208.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13208.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Charred passport found among the wreckage of <!--del_lnk--> Flight 93</div>
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<p>On the morning of <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, Ziad Jarrah boarded <!--del_lnk--> United Airlines Flight 93 without incident, and sat in a first-class seat near the <!--del_lnk--> cockpit. Due to the flight's delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings that day, and were told to be on the alert. Within minutes, Flight 93 was hijacked as well.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> 9/11 Commission stated that Jarrah was the pilot. The flight transcript, however, might indicate that <!--del_lnk--> Saeed al-Ghamdi, who also trained in flight simulators, could have been the pilot or a co-pilot. Two of the hijackers are heard calling the pilot "Saeed".<p>The pilot's voice was heard by <!--del_lnk--> air traffic control telling passengers to remain seated. At 9:39 AM, the pilot announced, "Uh, this is the captain. Would like you all to remain seated. There is a bomb on board and are going back to the airport, and to have our demands [unintelligible]. Please remain quiet." over the radio.<p>At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas, and indicated that one of the men had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside - it is not known which hijacker this was.<p>Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes. They realized they had to take the cockpit back from the terrorists or their plane too would be used as a missile. A passenger uprising foiled the terrorist's plans, but failed to save the plane. According to the <!--del_lnk--> August 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2003 analysis of the plane's <!--del_lnk--> cockpit recordings by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> investigators, a crowd of passengers tried to break into the cockpit. To try to knock them off balance, the pilot rolled the plane to the left and right. When this failed, he then pitched the nose forward and back. Nevertheless, the passengers continued their assault on the cockpit door. They used a service trolley as a battering ram and began to destroy the cockpit door. Finally the pilot was told by a fellow hijacker to crash into the <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania farmland rather than cede control of the plane. In response, he turned the plane upside down and began his descent. United 93 crashed, at 580 miles per hour (933 km/h), into a reclaimed strip mine at the edge of the woods in <!--del_lnk--> Shanksville, Pennsylvania at 10:03:11, 125 miles (200 km) from Washington, D.C. All aboard died.<p>After September 11, Jarrah's girlfriend Sengün filed a missing person report in <!--del_lnk--> Bochum. Jarrah became a suspect as FBI agents found a "Ziad Jarrahi" in the flight manifest (the additional <i>i</i> at the end a possible misspelling).<p><a id="Mistaken_identity_claims" name="Mistaken_identity_claims"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mistaken identity claims</span></h2>
<p>There have been claims that Jarrah was not a hijacker or that he was not present on the plane and his identity was stolen. It has been pointed out that he had a deviating profile from the other hijackers and that the passengers reported three and not four hijackers. However, the October 2006 emergence of a "martyrdom" video shot on January 18, 2000 along with Mohammad Atta has cast heavy doubt on such claims.<p>Shortly after the September 11 attacks, family and friends claimed that Jarrah did not exhibit the same "smoldering political resentments" or "cultural conservatism" as Mohammed Atta. He was not raised with a background of religious conviction and did not hold to an obviously conservative lifestyle. Personnel at the flight school Jarrah attended described him as "a normal person". Jarrah called his family two days, and his girfriend Aysel Sengün three hours, before boarding United 93; Sengün described the conversation as "pleasant" and "normal". She also claimed that he never mentioned any names of the other hijackers. In his call two days before the attack, Jarrah told his family he would be coming home for a cousin's wedding. "It makes no sense," his uncle Jamal claimed. "He said he had even bought a new suit for the occasion." Jarrah's family in <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> claimed in September 2001 that he was an innocent passenger on the plane.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2001, <!--del_lnk--> John Ashcroft claimed that Jarrah had shared a Hamburg apartment with <!--del_lnk--> Mohamed Atta and <!--del_lnk--> Marwan Alshehhi, though <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> authorities that same day told the <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles Times that they had no evidence that any of Jarrah's three apartments in Hamburg had been connected with the other hijackers. One high-ranking German police official stated "The only information we have connecting the three Hamburg suspects is the FBI's assertion that there is a connection." In October 2006, however, a video surfaced showing Atta and Jarrah together in Afghanistan, clearly connecting Jarrah to the members of the Hamburg cell. Jarrah also appears in a wedding video with other hijackers at a Mosque in Hamburg.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> 9/11 Commission concluded that Jarrah was a hijacker on the plane when it crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. The Commission does not give any credence to the idea that Jarrah was not aboard the plane, and no government or credible investigating agency has come forward questioning that conclusion. Also, there have been no reports of Jarrah being seen alive since the attacks.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziad_Jarrah"</div>
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<h2>Zidane visits SOS Children in Algeria</h2><p><strong>13/12/2006</strong></p>
<img src="../../wp/z/Zidane_CV_Draria_131206.jpg" width="436" height="374" alt="Zinedine Zidane with child at the SOS Medical Centre in Thenia, Algeria" class="left" /><p>Football great and former French captain Zinedine Zidane this week visited a paediatric centre at a hospital in Thenia, which was reconstructed by SOS Children's Villages following the earthquake that devastated the northern Algerian region of Boumerdes in 2003.</p><p>Making his first visit in 20 years to his ancestral home, Zidane visited and inaugurated various social projects in Algeria over the past few days, including the paediatric centre at Thenia hospital, which had been destroyed by the 2003 earthquake. Zizou, as he nicknamed in France, was accompanied on his visit by his Algerian-born parents. </p><p>SOS Children coordinated the reconstruction of this paediatric centre in Thenia with the financial support of the Foundation of France, as well as proceeds of a charity football game that was organised by Zidane and his former team mate Henri Emile back in October 2003. </p><p>The paediatric centre was reconstructed in 90 days and includes a 475m2 building with 45 beds for children. The centre went into operation following a small opening ceremony in March 2004 organised by Algerian hospital authorities. Later on, another building was established for the mothers of hospitalised children. </p><p>This facility provides a space for mothers to be with their sick children and includes 24 beds, three classrooms, three educational workshops and two offices and is the first of its kind in Algeria. </p><p>The 2003 earthquake in the Boumerdes region of northern Algeria killed 2,300 people, injured more than 10,000 and left least 100,000 homeless. SOS Children quickly responded to this natural disaster by setting up an emergency relief programme, under which food parcels, hygiene products, sleeping bags, radiators and clothes were distributed to families who had been forced to temporarily live in tents.</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria_A.htm">Algeria</a>.</p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zimbabwe</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.African_Countries.htm">African Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Zimbabwe. For more information see <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Zimbabwe, Africa">SOS Children in Zimbabwe, Africa</a></div>
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<div style="padding-top:0.75em;">
<table class="infobox geography" style="width:46ex;">
<tr>
<th align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;">Republic of Zimbabwe</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td class="maptable" colspan="3">
<table align="center" style="background:none; text-align:center;">
<tr>
<td style="width:62%; vertical-align:middle;"><span style="display: inline;"><span style="display: table-cell; border-collapse: collapse; border: solid 1px #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1558.png.htm" title="Flag of Zimbabwe"><img alt="Flag of Zimbabwe" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Zimbabwe.svg" src="../../images/149/14977.png" width="125" /></a></span></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14978.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Zimbabwe"><img alt="Coat of arms of Zimbabwe" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zimbabwe_coa.png" src="../../images/149/14978.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Motto</b><br /> "Unity, Freedom, Work"</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Anthem</b><br /><i>Simudzai Mureza Wedu weZimbabwe</i><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> </span><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Shona)</small><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe</i><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> </span><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Ndebele)<br /> "Blessed be the land of Zimbabwe"</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align:center; padding:0.6em 0em 0.6em 0em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/82/8227.png.htm" title="Location of Zimbabwe"><img alt="Location of Zimbabwe" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationZimbabwe.svg" src="../../images/82/8227.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div style="position:relative; top:3px;">
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle;"><a href="../../wp/h/Harare.htm" title="Harare">Harare</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 17°50′S 31°3′E">17°50′S, 31°3′E</span></span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Republic</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;"><!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Robert Mugabe</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;">Rhodesia</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1965 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;">Zimbabwe</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1980 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;">Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 390,757 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 60th)<br /> 150,871 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;">Water (%)</td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;">July 2005 estimate</td>
<td>13,010,000<sup>1</sup> (<!--del_lnk--> 68th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;"><!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>33 /km² (<!--del_lnk--> 170th)<br /> 85 /sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> GDP</b> (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</td>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;">Total</td>
<td>$30.581 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 94th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;"><!--del_lnk--> Per capita</td>
<td>$2,607 (<!--del_lnk--> 129th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2005)</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1525.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_Arrow_Down.svg" src="../../images/15/1525.png" width="10" /></a> 0.491 (<font style="color:#e0584e">low</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 151st)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dollar (<code><!--del_lnk--> ZWD</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
<td style="padding-left:0px;">Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td>not observed (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .zw</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+263</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3"><small><sup>1</sup> Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p><b>Zimbabwe</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[zɪmˈbɑbwe]</span>), officially the <b>Republic of Zimbabwe</b>, and formerly <b>Republic of Rhodesia</b>, is a <!--del_lnk--> landlocked country in the southern part of the <a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" title="Continent">continent</a> of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, between the <a href="../../wp/z/Zambezi.htm" title="Zambezi">Zambezi</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Limpopo rivers. It borders <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> to the south, <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> to the southwest, <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> to the northwest, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> to the east. The name <i>Zimbabwe</i> derives from "dzimba dzemabwe" meaning "houses of stone" in the <!--del_lnk--> Shona language. Its use as the country's name is a tribute to <!--del_lnk--> Great Zimbabwe, site of the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Munhumutapa Empire.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Precolonial_era" name="Precolonial_era"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Precolonial era</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a>-speaking peoples began migrating into the area about 2,000 years ago, including the ancestors of the <!--del_lnk--> Shona, who account for roughly four-fifths of the country's population today. By the middle ages, there was a Bantu civilization in the region, as evidenced by ruins at <!--del_lnk--> Great Zimbabwe, a Shona-speaking state. Around the early <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a>, trade developed with <!--del_lnk--> Muslim <!--del_lnk--> merchants on the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> coast, helping to develop Great Zimbabwe in the <a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th century</a>. The state traded <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ivory.htm" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, and <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> for <!--del_lnk--> cloth and <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a>. It ceased to be the leading Shona state in the mid-<a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1837, the Shona were conquered by the <!--del_lnk--> Ndebele, who forced them to pay tribute. Later, in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, British and <!--del_lnk--> Boer traders, missionaries, and hunters started encroaching on the area.<p><a id="Rhodesian_era" name="Rhodesian_era"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Rhodesian era</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1888, British imperialist <!--del_lnk--> Cecil Rhodes extracted <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a> rights from <!--del_lnk--> King Lobengula of the Ndebele. The following year, he obtained a charter for the <!--del_lnk--> British South Africa Company, which conquered the Ndebele and their territory and promoted the colonization of the region's land, labour, and precious metal and mineral resources. In <!--del_lnk--> 1895, the territory was named "<!--del_lnk--> Rhodesia" after Cecil Rhodes. Both the Ndebele and the Shona staged unsuccessful revolts against the encroachment on their native lands in <!--del_lnk--> 1896 and <!--del_lnk--> 1897. Both the Ndebele and Shona became subject to the Rhodes administration. This was the beginning of a larger settlement of white settlers, that also led to the land distribution favouring whites and displacing both the Shona and Ndebele and other black people. The land issue in Zimbabwe remains a controversial issue to this day.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1911, the territory was divided into <!--del_lnk--> Northern Rhodesia (now <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>) and <!--del_lnk--> Southern Rhodesia, the latter becoming a <!--del_lnk--> self-governing <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British colony</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1922. In <!--del_lnk--> 1953, the two parts of Rhodesia were reunited together with <!--del_lnk--> Nyasaland (now <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>) in the <!--del_lnk--> Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, but this dissolved in <!--del_lnk--> 1963. The same year, <!--del_lnk--> Ian Smith's regime <!--del_lnk--> declared <!--del_lnk--> Unilateral Independence from Britain and Southern Rhodesia was renamed to Rhodesia.<p><a id="White_minority_rule_and_civil_war" name="White_minority_rule_and_civil_war"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">White minority rule and civil war</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> politics served as a menacing backdrop for <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> and British <!--del_lnk--> decolonisation in Southern Africa. After African-majority governments assumed control in neighbouring Northern Rhodesia and in Nyasaland, and after realising that Britain was not prepared to offer special conditions to Southern Rhodesia, which had been a self-governing colony since <!--del_lnk--> 1922, the white-minority government led by <!--del_lnk--> Ian Smith declared unilateral independence on <!--del_lnk--> 11 November <!--del_lnk--> 1965.<p>When negotiations with the Ian Smith administration in <!--del_lnk--> 1966 and <!--del_lnk--> 1968 stalemated, the UK requested <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">UN</a> <!--del_lnk--> economic sanctions against Rhodesia. Faced with no alternative, the white-minority regime declared itself a <!--del_lnk--> republic in <!--del_lnk--> 1970. It was not recognized by the UK or any other state, other than white-minority–led <!--del_lnk--> apartheid <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. The newly independent neighbouring African nations of Zambia and Malawi meanwhile, declared themselves to be one-party states. During this time, the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet bloc intensified its efforts to gain a foothold in Africa, with troops drafted in from <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="../../wp/y/Yugoslavia.htm" title="Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> USSR, openly funding lawless guerrilla warfare in Africa. Large shipments of <!--del_lnk--> landmines and weaponry were handed over to groups which have been criticised by some as being "untrained groups of poorly educated youths led by power-hungry political activists".<p><!--del_lnk--> Guerrilla fighting against the white minority intensified, and the Smith regime opened negotiations with the leaders of the Patriotic Fronts <!--del_lnk--> Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by <!--del_lnk--> Robert Mugabe and the <!--del_lnk--> Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), led by <!--del_lnk--> Joshua Nkomo. With his regime near the brink of collapse, in March 1978 Smith signed a desperate accord with three black leaders, led by the moderate Bishop <!--del_lnk--> Abel Muzorewa, who offered safeguards for white civilians.<p>Muzorewa, who had the support not only of the Smith regime but also of the white-minority regime in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, lacked credibility among significant parts of the African population, and his government soon faltered. In <!--del_lnk--> 1979, the British Government asked all parties to come to <!--del_lnk--> Lancaster House in an attempt to negotiate a settlement in the civil war.<p><a id="Independence" name="Independence"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Independence</span></h3>
<p>Following the conference, held in London (<!--del_lnk--> 1979–<!--del_lnk--> 80), Britain's <!--del_lnk--> Lord Soames was appointed governor to oversee the disarming of revolutionary guerrillas, the holding of elections, and the granting of independence to an uneasy coalition government with Joshua Nkomo, head of ZAPU. In the free elections of February 1980, Mugabe and his ZANU won a landslide victory. Mugabe has won re-election ever since.<p>During the first decade of independence Robert Mugabe used the <a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korean</a> trained <!--del_lnk--> Fifth Brigade to silence any opposition from the <!--del_lnk--> Ndebele nation in an operation referred to as <!--del_lnk--> Gukurahundi. The killing was done on the pretext of dissidents existing within the Zimbabwean armed forces. An estimated 20 000 civilians, mostly Ndebele, were killed or disappeared and have not been accounted for to this date. Allegations of <!--del_lnk--> genocide and <!--del_lnk--> ethnic cleansing have resulted in calls for Mugabe's arrest and prosecution for crimes against humanity.<p>Land issues, which the liberation movement promised to solve, re-emerged as the vital issue for the <!--del_lnk--> ruling party beginning in <!--del_lnk--> 1999. Despite majority-rule, and the existence of a "willing buyer-willing seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, ZANU (PF) claimed that <!--del_lnk--> whites made up less than 1% of the population but held 70% of the country's commercially viable <!--del_lnk--> arable land (though these figures are disputed by many outside of the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Zimbabwe). Mugabe began to <!--del_lnk--> redistribute land to blacks in 2000 with a compulsory land redistribution; charges that the programme as a whole is designed to reward loyal deputies have persisted in Zimbabwe since the beginning of the process. Despite claims by both the opposition and the government that land reform of one kind or another must take place, the Mugabe lead process has been seen as a diversion away from an ill conceived war in the <!--del_lnk--> DRC and economic maladministration. The legality and constitutionality of the process has regularly been challenged in the Zimbabwean High and Supreme Courts, however the <!--del_lnk--> policing agencies have rarely acted in accordance with courts' rulings on these matters. The chaotic implementation of the land reform lead to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, traditionally the country's leading export producing sector. <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">Mining</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> have surpassed <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. As a result, Zimbabwe is currently experiencing a severe hard currency shortage, which has led to <!--del_lnk--> hyperinflation and chronic shortages in imported <!--del_lnk--> fuel and consumer goods. In 2002 Zimbabwe was suspended from the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations on charges of <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a> abuses during the land redistribution and of <a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" title="Election">election</a> tampering.<p>Following elections in 2005, the government initiated "<!--del_lnk--> Operation Murambatsvina", a supposed effort to crack down on illegal markets and homes that had seen slums unfit for human habitation emerge in towns and cities. This action has been widely condemned by opposition and international figures, who charge that it has left a large section of the urban poor homeless. The Zimbabwe government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population although they have yet to deliver any new housing for the forcefully removed people.<p>Zimbabwe's current economic and food crisis, described by some observers as the country's worst humanitarian crisis since independence, has been attributed, in varying degrees, to a drought affecting the entire region, the <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> epidemic, and the government's price controls and land reforms.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
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<p>Zimbabwe is a <!--del_lnk--> republic, with an <!--del_lnk--> executive president and a <!--del_lnk--> bicameral <!--del_lnk--> Parliament. Under constitutional changes in <!--del_lnk--> 2005, an <!--del_lnk--> upper chamber, the <!--del_lnk--> Senate, was reinstated. The <!--del_lnk--> House of Assembly is the <!--del_lnk--> lower chamber of Parliament.<p><!--del_lnk--> Zanu PF party leader <!--del_lnk--> Robert Mugabe, elected <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister in <!--del_lnk--> 1980, revised the <!--del_lnk--> constitution in <!--del_lnk--> 1987 to make himself President. President Mugabe's affiliated party has won every election since independence on <!--del_lnk--> April 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1980. In some quarters <!--del_lnk--> corruption and <!--del_lnk--> rigging of elections have been alleged. In particular, the elections of <!--del_lnk--> 1990 were nationally and internationally condemned as being rigged, with the second-placed party, <!--del_lnk--> Edgar Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement, winning only 20% of the vote. Presidential elections were last held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud. The next Presidential elections are to be held in <!--del_lnk--> 2008, although Mugabe is currently trying to amend the constitution in an attempt to stay in power until <!--del_lnk--> 2010.<p>The major opposition party at the moment is the <!--del_lnk--> Movement for Democratic Change, or MDC, led by <!--del_lnk--> Morgan Tsvangirai. The MDC is currently split into two factions. One faction, led by <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Mutambara is contesting the elections to the Senate, while the other led by Morgan Tsvangirai is opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that elections in Zimbabwe are completely free and fair. However, the opposition parties have resumed participation in national and local elections as recently as <!--del_lnk--> 2006. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2005 with Morgan Tsvangirai being elected to lead the main splinter group which has become more popular than the other group. Professor <!--del_lnk--> Arthur G.O Mutambara, a Robotics Professor and former <!--del_lnk--> NASA robotics specialist has replaced <!--del_lnk--> Welshman Ncube who was the interim leader after the split. Morgan Tsvangirai did not participate in the Senate elections, while the Mutambara faction participated and won some seats in the senate. The Mutambara faction has however been weakened by defections from MPs and individuals who are disillusioned by their manifesto. <!--del_lnk--> As of 2007, the Tsvangirai-led MDC has become the most popular, with crowds as large as 20,000 attending their rallies as compared to between 500–5,000 for the other splinter group. There is wide disagreement in Zimbabwe and neighbouring states as to whether a divided MDC can win presidential elections against a disciplined ruling party. The opposition continues to be weak in rural areas, where a large number of the population of Zimbabwe resides.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on <!--del_lnk--> March 31 and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the MDC and <!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Moyo, calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies. Despite the allegations Jonathan Moyo participated in the elections and won a seat, enabling him to serve as an independent member of Parliament.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<p>Zimbabwe had a literacy rate of 95.2% in 2000, the highest in Africa, although that had slipped to an estimated 90.7% in 2003. Zimbabweans generally value and pursue <!--del_lnk--> academic achievement, for example, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Mugabe, the president, has four non-honorary degrees and the <!--del_lnk--> cabinet has several graduates at <!--del_lnk--> PhD level. For males, the country's adult literacy rate (the percentage of persons aged 15 and over who can read and write) is 97%. Comparison with other <!--del_lnk--> SADC countries in 2004 is as follows: <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, 86%, <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, 79.9%, <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a>, 80.9%, <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, 83.3%, <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>, 81.4%, <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>, 78.9%, <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, 77.1%, <a href="../../wp/m/Malawi.htm" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>, 61.8%, <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, 46.5%.<sup><small>,</small></sup><sup><small>,</small></sup>.<p><a id="Universities" name="Universities"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Universities</span></h3>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> University of Zimbabwe, the first, largest and most complete<li><!--del_lnk--> National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe (NUST), the second state university<li><!--del_lnk--> Africa University, in Mutare<li><!--del_lnk--> Midlands State University<li><!--del_lnk--> Bindura University of Science Education<li><!--del_lnk--> Chinhoyi University of Technology<li><!--del_lnk--> Masvingo State University<li><!--del_lnk--> Catholic University in Zimbabwe<li><!--del_lnk--> Zimbabwe Open University<li><!--del_lnk--> Women's University in Africa<li><!--del_lnk--> Solusi University<li><!--del_lnk--> Lupane State University<li><!--del_lnk--> University Without Walls<li><!--del_lnk--> Theological College of Zimbabwe (TCZ)</ul>
<p>The highest professional board for <!--del_lnk--> accountants is the <!--del_lnk--> Institute of Chartered Accountants in Zimbabwe, (ICAZ) with direct relationships with similar bodies in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <!--del_lnk--> UK and <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, meaning if you are a qualified <!--del_lnk--> Chartered Accountant from Zimbabwe, you are also a member of similar bodies in these countries after writing a conversion paper which is normally easier than the normal qualifying examination papers. In addition, Zimbabwean-trained Doctors only require one year of residence to be fully-licensed doctors in the USA<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:422px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/82/8243.gif.htm" title="Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe"><img alt="Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe" class="thumbimage" height="364" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zimbabwe.geohive.gif" src="../../images/82/8243.gif" width="420" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/82/8243.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe</div>
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<p>Zimbabwe is divided into eight <!--del_lnk--> provinces and two cities with provincial status. The provinces are subdivided into 59 districts and 1,200 municipalities.<p>The provinces include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bulawayo (city)<li><a href="../../wp/h/Harare.htm" title="Harare">Harare</a> (city)<li><!--del_lnk--> Manicaland<li><!--del_lnk--> Mashonaland Central<li><!--del_lnk--> Mashonaland East<li><!--del_lnk--> Mashonaland West<li><!--del_lnk--> Masvingo<li><!--del_lnk--> Matabeleland North<li><!--del_lnk--> Matabeleland South<li><!--del_lnk--> Midlands</ul>
<p>Districts: see <!--del_lnk--> Districts of Zimbabwe<p>Municipalities: see <!--del_lnk--> Municipalities of Zimbabwe<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14982.png.htm" title="Satellite image of Zimbabwe, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library"><img alt="Satellite image of Zimbabwe, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library" class="thumbimage" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zimbabwe_sat.png" src="../../images/149/14982.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14982.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image of Zimbabwe, generated from <!--del_lnk--> raster graphics data supplied by <!--del_lnk--> The Map Library</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14983.jpg.htm" title="Bridal Veil Falls, Eastern Highlands"><img alt="Bridal Veil Falls, Eastern Highlands" class="thumbimage" height="302" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZimBridalVeiFallsJM.jpg" src="../../images/149/14983.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14983.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bridal Veil Falls, Eastern Highlands</div>
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<p>Zimbabwe is a <!--del_lnk--> landlocked country, surrounded by <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> to the south, <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> to the west, <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a> to the northwest and <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> to the east and northeast. <!--del_lnk--> Inyangani is the highest mountain in Zimbabwe at 2,592 meters. The north-western border is defined by the <a href="../../wp/z/Zambezi.htm" title="Zambezi">Zambezi</a> River. <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Falls is a popular tourist destination on the Zambezi. To the south, Zimbabwe is separated from <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> by the <!--del_lnk--> Limpopo River. Zimbabwe also shares a border with <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> to the west via a narrow land corridor.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult economic problems after having abandoned earlier efforts in developing a market-oriented economy. Current problems include a shortage of <!--del_lnk--> foreign exchange, soaring inflation, and supply shortages. Zimbabwe's involvement from <!--del_lnk--> 1998 to <!--del_lnk--> 2002 in the war in the <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy.<p>Mineral exports, agriculture, and tourism are the main foreign currency earners of Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is the biggest trading partner of South Africa south of the equator. Since land redistribution began, agricultural exports, especially tobacco, have declined sharply.<p>The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement, corruption and Zimbabwe's inability to feed itself after evicting more than 4000 white farmers in the controversial farm invasions of <!--del_lnk--> 2000.<p>According to official figures, inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to a high of 1,729.9% in February 2007, a state of <!--del_lnk--> hyperinflation. The exchange rate fell from 24 <!--del_lnk--> Zimbabwean dollars per <!--del_lnk--> US dollar to 250(000) Zimbabwean dollars per US dollar (official rate) and 10,000(000) Zimbabwean dollars per US dollar (parallel rate), in the same period.<p>Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe reached a record annual rate of some 1,730% as reported on <!--del_lnk--> 10 March <!--del_lnk--> 2007. Mugabe points to foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the cause of this, as well as the country's 80% unemployment rate. Critics of Mugabe's administration, however, immediately indicate the main cause of some of these issues stems from Mugabe's controversial program which sought to seize land from white commercial farmers.<p>Robert Mugabe has repeatedly blamed sanctions imposed on Zimbabwe by the EU and the USA for the state of the Zimbabwean economy. Governments that imposed the sanctions have however argued that the sanctions are only meant to target government officials and not ordinary citizens.<p><a id="Demographics_and_ethnicity" name="Demographics_and_ethnicity"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Demographics and ethnicity</span></h2>
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<p>According to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, the life expectancy for men is 37 years and the life expectancy for women is 34 years of age, the lowest in the world in 2006. An association of doctors in Zimbabwe have made calls for President Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service. Zimbabwe has a very high <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a> infection rate. In 2001, it was measured at its highest level ever of 33.7% for people aged 15–49.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 3 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Zimbabwe launched the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit, which forms the basis for a global <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> prevention, treatment and support plan. The country was chosen to test it because of its excellence in initiating different strategies on home based care.<p><a id="Ethnic_groups_.282005_est..29" name="Ethnic_groups_.282005_est..29"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Ethnic groups (2005 est.)</span></h3>
<p>The black ethnic groups total 98% of the population<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Shona 80–84%. The ruling party is linked to the Shona majority ethnic group and a small Ndebele group from Joshua Khomo's ZAPU, although there is also considerable opposition support among the Shona.<li><!--del_lnk--> Ndebele 8–10%. The Ndebele are descended from <a href="../../wp/z/Zulu.htm" title="Zulu">Zulu</a> migrations in the nineteenth century and the other tribes with which they mixed. Support for the opposition is particularly strong both from the Ndebele and the Shona majority. Up to 1 million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years, mainly for South Africa.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantus</a> of other ethnicity 8–10%.<li><!--del_lnk--> White Zimbabweans Less than 1%. These are mostly of British origin, but some are of <!--del_lnk--> Afrikaner, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> or <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> origin. The white population dropped from a peak of 275,000 in <!--del_lnk--> 1970 to possibly 120,000 in <!--del_lnk--> 1999, and was estimated at no more than 60,000 in <!--del_lnk--> 2006, possibly much less. Most emigration has been to the UK, South Africa, Zambia and <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mixed race 0.5%.<li>Asian ethnic groups (various) 0.5%. Mostly <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a>. Zimbabwe is now experiencing a surge of Asian immigrants who run business. If the trend continues, they will surpass whites as the largest non-African minority group in Zimbabwe.</ul>
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<p>There have been widespread reports of various civil and political human rights abuses throughout Zimbabwe, in particular against opponents of the government. According to <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a> organizations such as <!--del_lnk--> Amnesty International and <!--del_lnk--> Human Rights Watch the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food, <!--del_lnk--> freedom of movement and residence, <!--del_lnk--> freedom of assembly and the <!--del_lnk--> protection of the law. There are assaults on the <!--del_lnk--> media, the <!--del_lnk--> political opposition, civil society activists, and human rights defenders.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Football</a> is the most popular sport in Zimbabwe, although <!--del_lnk--> rugby and <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a> also have a following, traditionally among the white minority.<p>Zimbabwe celebrates its <!--del_lnk--> national holiday on <!--del_lnk--> April 18.<p><a id="Arts" name="Arts"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Arts</span></h3>
<p>Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include <a href="../../wp/p/Pottery.htm" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, basketry, <!--del_lnk--> textiles, <!--del_lnk--> jewelery, and <!--del_lnk--> carving. Among the distinctive qualities are <!--del_lnk--> symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> in essence has been a fusion of African folklore with <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> influences. Also, a recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the <!--del_lnk--> metamorphosis of man into beast.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h3>
<p>There are various forms of spiritual practice in Zimbabwe. Forty to fifty percent of Zimbabweans attend <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <!--del_lnk--> churches. However like most former European <!--del_lnk--> colonies, Christianity is often mixed with enduring traditional beliefs. Besides Christianity, Ancestral worship is the most practiced non-Christian <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a> which involves ancestor worship and <!--del_lnk--> spiritual intercession; the Mbira Dza Vadzimu, which means "Voice of the Ancestors", an instrument related to many <!--del_lnk--> lamellophones ubiquitous throughout Africa, is central to many ceremonial proceedings. Mwari simply means God the creator, musika vanhu. Around 1% of the population is <!--del_lnk--> Muslim.<p><a id="Language" name="Language"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Language</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> is the official <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> of Zimbabwe, though less than 2% consider it their native language, mainly the white and <!--del_lnk--> Coloured (mixed race) minorities. The rest of the population speak <a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a> languages like <!--del_lnk--> Shona (76%) and <!--del_lnk--> Ndebele (18%). Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel, <i>Feso</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Solomon Mutswairo, published in 1957. English is spoken primarily in the cities, but less so in rural areas. Radio and Television news is now broadcast in three languages: Shona, Ndebele and English.<p><a id="Food" name="Food"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Food</span></h3>
<p>Like in many African countries, a majority of Zimbabweans depend on staple foods. Mealie meal or <!--del_lnk--> cornmeal as it is known in other parts of the world is used to prepare <i>bota</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> porridge made by mixing the cornmeal with water, to produce a thick paste. This is usually flavoured with <!--del_lnk--> peanut butter, <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Butter.htm" title="Butter">butter</a> and sometimes even <!--del_lnk--> jam. <!--del_lnk--> Bota is usually eaten for breakfast. Cornmeal is also used to make <i><!--del_lnk--> sadza</i>, which is usually eaten for dinner, and by many for lunch too. The process of making sadza is similar to bota, however after the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste until it is hard. This meal is usually served with greens, (<!--del_lnk--> spinach, <!--del_lnk--> collard greens) etc, beans and meat that is stewed, grilled or roasted. Sadza is also commonly eaten with <!--del_lnk--> curdled milk commonly known as lacto (mukaka wakakora), or a small dried fish called kapenta (matemba). On special occasions rice and <a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" title="Chicken">chicken</a> with cabbage salad is often served as the main meal.<p>Graduations, weddings and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a <a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" title="Goat">goat</a> or <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cow">cow</a>, which will be <!--del_lnk--> braaied (an <!--del_lnk--> Afrikaner form of <!--del_lnk--> barbecue) for the family.<p>For the Afrikaners, (although a small part of the white minority group, their recipes are popular), meat is especially important, though often expensive and now rare in Zimbabwe. <!--del_lnk--> Biltong, a type of <!--del_lnk--> jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of raw meat to dry in the sun. <!--del_lnk--> Boerewors (<!--del_lnk--> pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/børəvɞɾs/</span> - bore-wore-vorse) is served alongside sadza. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of various meats, and barbecued.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe"</div>
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<h2>SOS Children In Zimbabwe</h2>
<img src="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe_Map.jpg" width="405" height="387" alt="SOS Children Sponsorship Locations in Zimbabwe" class="left" /><p>We are not making any public statements about operation Murambatsvina (clean-up). We have a lot of children and workers in affected areas and are doing our best to help with human hardship caused by the recent actions. We would welcome donations to help with this (please put "Zimbabwe" in the instructions box, and SOS Children UK guarantee to pass on 100% without deductions). We are sending more detailed reports to long standing supporters of our work in Zimbabwe only. </p><p>Zimbabwe, formerly Rhodesia, is in southern Africa, a landlocked country bordered by Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique and the Republic of South Africa. Successive droughts in the region combined with Zimbabwe's political and economic problems, as well as the prevalence of HIV/AIDS have created a worsening situation for most of Zimbabwe's population, and it is estimated that over 6 million people are at risk of starvation. Close on 2 million people have no access to safe water or sanitation, and there have been increased outbreaks of cholera and other diseases.</p><img src="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe_3.jpg" width="250" height="400" alt="SOs Children Zimbabwe" class="right" /><p>The charity built its first community in Zimbabwe in 1983 to help children who had lost their parents in the struggle for independence. The SOS Children's Bindura community is in the Mozowe valley, about 80 km north of the capital of Harare. It has fifteen family houses and seven youth houses, three in the village and four in nearby Chipadzi. The kindergarten, which offers full day care, together with the well established primary and secondary schools are open to over 1500 children from the neighbourhood.. </p><p>Close to Bindura is the SOS Maizelands Farm. Covering an area of 1400 hectacres, young people from SOS Children learn modern farming methods here. As well as the cultivation of soy beans, cotton and maize, livestock are reared, providing the communities with food and contributing to its maintenance through the sale of produce. Engineering workshops alongside the farm provide further training opportunities. </p><p>In 1989, the charity's Waterfalls site opened in a suburb of Harare. It has fifteen family houses, eight youth houses and two hospice houses for SOS children and staff suffering from AIDS. The kindergarten and primary school are open to local children. </p><p>The charity's Bulawayo community, inthe capital of Matabeleland Province, was built in 1995. It has fifteen family houses and ten youth houses which together are home to 260 children and young people. The SOS kindergarten and primary school provide for the educational needs of local children as well as the SOS children. </p><p>In 2003, SOS Children established community outreach programmes in all three villages in Zimbabwe to support HIV/AIDS affected children and families in their own environment. Providing clothing, food, school fees, medical treatment, housing improvements and counselling, these programmes will help over 5000 children a year.</p><h3>Aids Orphan Projects</h3>
<p> See also more information on our <a href="../../wp/a/Africa_B.htm" title="Charity Africa">Charity's African</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Zimbabwe_Africa.htm" title="Aids Orphan projects in Zinbabwe">Aids Orphan projects in Zimbabwe. </a></p><h3>Local Contacts</h3>
<img src="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe_4.jpg" width="399" height="250" alt="SOS Children in Zimbabwe" class="right" /><p>SOS Children in Zimbabwe<br />SOS Children's Villages Association of Zimbabwe, PO Box HG 766, Mon Repos Building, Highlands, Harare, Zimbabwe<br />Tel: +263/4746 451 or +263/4746 452<br />Fax: +263/4746454<br />e-mail: [email protected]<br />www.soschildrensvillages.org.zw</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Zimbabwe Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
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<p>"SOS Children" refers to SOS Kinderdorf worldwide. SOS Children is a working name for SOS Children's Villages UK.</p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zinc</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">30</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">zinc</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/g/Gallium.htm" title="Gallium">gallium</a></span></td>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%">-</span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Zn</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/c/Cadmium.htm" title="Cadmium">Cd</a></span></td>
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<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14984.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="73" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zn-TableImage.png" src="../../images/149/14984.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">General</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>zinc, Zn, 30</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> transition metals</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 12, <!--del_lnk--> 4, <!--del_lnk--> d</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>bluish pale gray<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14985.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="66" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zn%2C30.jpg" src="../../images/149/14985.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 65.409<!--del_lnk--> (4) g/mol</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/a/Argon.htm" title="Argon">Ar</a>] 3d<sup>10</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup></td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 2</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Physical properties</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>7.14 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>6.57 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>692.68 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (419.53 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 787.15 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>1180 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (907 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 1665 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>7.32 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>123.6 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 25.390 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
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<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
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<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>610</td>
<td>670</td>
<td>750</td>
<td>852</td>
<td>990</td>
<td>(1185)</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>hexagonal</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>2<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> amphoteric oxide)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>1.65 (Pauling scale)</td>
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<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 906.4 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td>2nd: 1733.3 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td>3rd: 3833 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 135 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
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<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 142 pm</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 131 pm</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Van der Waals radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 139 pm</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> diamagnetic</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(20 °C) 59.0 nΩ·m</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 116 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(25 °C) 30.2 µm·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> r.t.) (rolled) 3850 <!--del_lnk--> m·s<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Young's modulus</td>
<td>108 GPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Shear modulus</td>
<td>43 GPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Bulk modulus</td>
<td>70 GPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Poisson ratio</td>
<td>0.25</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></td>
<td>2.5</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Brinell hardness</td>
<td>412 MPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-66-6</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
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<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of zinc</caption>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
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<td><sup>64</sup>Zn</td>
<td>48.6%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zn is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 34 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
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<td rowspan="2"><sup>65</sup>Zn</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 244.26 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>-</td>
<td><sup>65</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">Cu</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> γ</td>
<td>1.1155</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
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<td><sup>66</sup>Zn</td>
<td>27.9%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zn is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 36 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
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<td><sup>67</sup>Zn</td>
<td>4.1%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zn is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 37 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
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<td><sup>68</sup>Zn</td>
<td>18.8%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zn is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 38 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
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<td><sup>69</sup>Zn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>56.4 min</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>−</sup></td>
<td>0.906</td>
<td><sup>69</sup><a href="../../wp/g/Gallium.htm" title="Gallium">Ga</a></td>
</tr>
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<td><sup>70</sup>Zn</td>
<td>0.6%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zn is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 40 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
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</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Zinc</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈzɪŋk/</span>, from <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Zink</i></span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Zn</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 30.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Zinc is a moderately reactive bluish-white metal that tarnishes in moist air and burns in air with a bright greenish flame, giving off plumes of zinc oxide. It reacts with acids and alkalis and other non-metals. If not completely pure, zinc reacts with dilute acids to release hydrogen. The one common oxidation state of zinc is +2. From 100 °C to 210 °C zinc metal is malleable and can easily be beaten into various shapes. Above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle and will be pulverized by beating.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p>Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, and <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> in annual production.<ul>
<li>Zinc is used to <!--del_lnk--> galvanize <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> to prevent corrosion.<li>Zinc is used to <!--del_lnk--> Parkerize steel to prevent rust and corrosion<li>Zinc is used in alloys such as <!--del_lnk--> brass, nickelled silver, typewriter metal, various <!--del_lnk--> soldering formulas and <!--del_lnk--> German silver.<li>Zinc is the primary metal used in making American <!--del_lnk--> cents since 1982.<li>Zinc is used in die <!--del_lnk--> casting notably in the <!--del_lnk--> automobile industry.<li>Zinc is used as part of the containers of <!--del_lnk--> batteries.<li>Zinc is used in contemporary <!--del_lnk--> pipe organ building as a substitute for the classic lead/tin alloy in pipes sounding the lowest (pedal) tones, as it is tonally almost indistinguishable from lead/tin at those pitches, and has the added advantages of being much more economical and lighter in weight. Even the best organ builders will use zinc in this capacity.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment in watercolours or <!--del_lnk--> paints, and as an activator in the <!--del_lnk--> rubber industry. As an over-the-counter ointment, it is applied as a thin coating on the exposed skin of the face or nose to prevent dehydration of the area of skin. It can protect against <!--del_lnk--> sunburn in the summer and <!--del_lnk--> windburn in the winter. Applied thinly to a baby's diaper area (perineum) with each diaper change, it can protect against <!--del_lnk--> rash. As determined in the <!--del_lnk--> Age-Related Eye Disease Study, it is part of an effective treatment for <!--del_lnk--> age-related macular degeneration in some cases.<li>Zinc is the fourth most common material used in metal wall tiles, and is used for its germicidal properties in kitchens. <li><a href="../../wp/z/Zinc_chloride.htm" title="Zinc chloride">Zinc chloride</a> is used as a deodorant and can also be used as a wood <!--del_lnk--> preservative.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zinc sulfide is used in <!--del_lnk--> luminescent pigments such as on the hands of clocks and other items that glow in the dark.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zinc methyl (Zn(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>) is used in a number of organic <!--del_lnk--> syntheses.<li>Zinc stearate is a lubricative plastic additive.<li>Lotions made of <!--del_lnk--> calamine, a mix of Zn-(hydroxy-)carbonates and silicates, are used to treat skin rash.<li>Zinc metal is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin and mineral supplements. It is believed to possess anti-oxidant properties, which protect against premature aging of the skin and muscles of the body. In larger amounts, taken as zinc alone in other proprietaries, it is believed by some to speed up the healing process after an injury. Preparations include <!--del_lnk--> zinc acetate and <!--del_lnk--> zinc gluconate.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zinc gluconate glycine and <!--del_lnk--> zinc acetate are also used in <!--del_lnk--> throat lozenges in an attempt to remedy the common cold. <li>Zinc is used as the anode or fuel of the <!--del_lnk--> zinc-air battery/Fuel Cell providing the basis of the <!--del_lnk--> Zinc Economy.</ul>
<p><a id="Popular_misconceptions" name="Popular_misconceptions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Popular misconceptions</span></h3>
<p>The highly characteristic metal <!--del_lnk--> counters of traditional <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <!--del_lnk--> bars are often referred to as <b>zinc bars</b> or vaguely <b>zinc</b>, but actually zinc has never been used for this purpose and the counters are really made of an alloy of <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14986.jpg.htm" title="Zinc"><img alt="Zinc" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZincMetalUSGOV.jpg" src="../../images/149/14986.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14986.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zinc</div>
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<p>In ancient <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> the production of zinc metal was very common. Many mine sites of Zawarmaala were active even during 1300-1000 BC. There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the <!--del_lnk--> Charaka Samhita (300 BC). The <!--del_lnk--> Rasa Ratna Samuccaya (800 AD) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose. Zinc alloys have been used for centuries, as brass goods dating to <!--del_lnk--> 1000–<!--del_lnk--> 1400 BC have been found in <!--del_lnk--> Israel and zinc objects with 87% zinc have been found in prehistoric <!--del_lnk--> Transylvania. Because of the low boiling point and high chemical reactivity of this metal (isolated zinc would tend to go up the chimney rather than be captured), the true nature of this metal was not understood in ancient times.<p>The manufacture of <!--del_lnk--> brass was known to the <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> by about <!--del_lnk--> 30 BC, using a technique where <!--del_lnk--> calamine and <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> were heated together in a crucible. The <!--del_lnk--> zinc oxides in calamine were reduced, and the free zinc metal was trapped by the copper, forming an <!--del_lnk--> alloy. The resulting <!--del_lnk--> calamine brass was either cast or hammered into shape.<p>Smelting and extraction of impure forms of zinc was accomplished as early as <!--del_lnk--> 1000 AD in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>. In the West, impure zinc as a remnant in melting ovens was known since Antiquity, but usually discarded as worthless. Strabo mentions it as <i>pseudo-arguros</i> — "mock silver". The <!--del_lnk--> Berne zinc tablet is a votive plaque dating to <!--del_lnk--> Roman Gaul, probably made from such zinc remnants. The discovery of pure metallic zinc is most often credited to the German <!--del_lnk--> Andreas Marggraf, in the year <!--del_lnk--> 1746, though the whole story is disputed.<p>The English metallurgist Libavius received in 1597 a quantity of zinc metal in its pure form, which was unknown in the West before then. Libavius identified it as Indian/Malabar lead. <!--del_lnk--> Paracelsus (<!--del_lnk--> 1616) was credited with the name "zinc". <!--del_lnk--> Postlewayt's Universal Dictionary, the most authentic source of all technological information in Europe, did not mention zinc before 1751.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1738, <!--del_lnk--> William Champion is credited with patenting in <!--del_lnk--> Britain a process to extract zinc from calamine in a smelter, a technology he acquired after visiting Zawar zinc mines in <!--del_lnk--> Rajasthan. His first patent was rejected by the patent court on grounds of plagiarising the technology common in India. However he was granted the patent on his second submission of patent approval.<p>Before the discovery of the <!--del_lnk--> zinc sulfide <!--del_lnk--> flotation technique, <!--del_lnk--> calamine was the mineral source of zinc metal.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14987.jpg.htm" title="Foods and spices that contain the essential mineral zinc"><img alt="Foods and spices that contain the essential mineral zinc" height="379" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Foodstuff-containing-Zinc.jpg" src="../../images/149/14987.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><a id="Biological_role" name="Biological_role"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biological role</span></h2>
<p>Zinc is an essential element, necessary for sustaining all life. It is estimated that 3000 of the hundreds of thousands of proteins in the human body contain zinc <!--del_lnk--> prosthetic groups. In addition, there are over a dozen types of cells in the human body that secrete zinc ions, and the roles of these secreted zinc signals in medicine and health are now being actively studied. Intriguingly, brain cells in the mammalian forebrain are one type of cell that secretes zinc, along with its other neuronal messenger substances. Cells in the salivary gland, prostate, immune system and intestine are other types that secrete zinc.<p>Zinc is an activator of certain enzymes, such as carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is important in the transport of carbon dioxide in vertebrate blood. It is also required in plants for leaf formation, the synthesis of indole acetic acid (auxin) and anaerobic respiration (alcoholic fermentation).<p><a id="Food_sources" name="Food_sources"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zinc deficiency</span></h3>
<p>Zinc deficiency results from inadequate intake of zinc, or inadequate absorption of zinc into the body. Signs of zinc deficiency includes hair loss, <!--del_lnk--> skin lesions, <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea, wasting of body tissues, and, eventually, death. Eyesight, taste, smell and memory are also connected with zinc. A deficiency in zinc can cause malfunctions of these organs and functions. Congenital abnormalities causing zinc deficiency may lead to a disease called <!--del_lnk--> Acrodermatitis enteropathica.<p>Obtaining a sufficient zinc intake during <!--del_lnk--> pregnancy and in young children is a very real problem, especially among those who cannot afford a good and varied diet. <a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" title="Brain">Brain</a> development is stunted by zinc insufficiency in utero and in youth.<p><a id="Zinc_toxicity" name="Zinc_toxicity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Zinc toxicity</span></h3>
<p>Even though zinc is an essential requirement for a healthy body, too much zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc can also suppress copper and iron absorption. The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish. The Free Ion Activity Model (FIAM) is well-established in the literature, and shows that just <!--del_lnk--> micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all daphnia in water. Swallowing an American one cent piece (98% zinc) can also cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach. Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of US pennies minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe <!--del_lnk--> hemolytic anaemia. <p><a id="Immune_system" name="Immune_system"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Immune system</span></h3>
<p>Zinc salts are effective against pathogens in direct application. Gastrointestinal infections are also strongly attenuated by ingestion of zinc, and this effect could be due to direct antimicrobial action of the zinc ions in the GI tract, or to absorption of the zinc and re-release from immune cells (all granulocytes secrete zinc) or both.<p>The direct effect of zinc (as in lozenges) on bacteria and viruses is also well-established, and has been used since at least 2000 BC, from when zinc salts in palliative salves are documented. However, exactly how to deliver zinc salts against pathogens without injuring one's own tissues is still being investigated.<p><a id="Abundance" name="Abundance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Abundance</span></h2>
<p>Zinc is the 23rd most abundant element in the <!--del_lnk--> Earth's crust. The most heavily mined <!--del_lnk--> ores (sphalerite) tend to contain roughly 10% <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> as well as 40–50% zinc. Minerals from which zinc is extracted include <!--del_lnk--> sphalerite (zinc sulfide), <!--del_lnk--> smithsonite (zinc carbonate), <!--del_lnk--> hemimorphite (zinc silicate), and <!--del_lnk--> franklinite (a zinc spinel).<p><a id="Zinc_production" name="Zinc_production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zinc production</span></h2>
<p>There are zinc mines throughout the world, with the largest producers being <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> U.S.A. Mines and refiners in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> include Umicore in <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Tara, Galmoy and Lisheen in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Zinkgruvan in <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. Zinc metal is produced using <!--del_lnk--> extractive metallurgy. <!--del_lnk--> Zinc sulfide (<!--del_lnk--> sphalerite) minerals are concentrated using the <!--del_lnk--> froth flotation method and then usually roasted using <!--del_lnk--> pyrometallurgy to oxidise the zinc sulfide to zinc oxide. The zinc oxide is leached in several stages of increasingly stronger sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). Iron is usually rejected as Jarosite or goethite, removing other impurities at the same time. The final purification uses zinc dust to remove copper, cadmium and cobalt. The metal is then extracted from the solution by electrowinning as cathodic deposits. Zinc cathodes can be directly cast or alloyed with aluminium.<p>Electrolyte solutions must be very pure for electrowinning to be at all efficient. Impurities can change the decomposition voltage enough to where the electrolysis cell produces largely hydrogen gas rather than zinc metal.<p>There are two common processes for electrowinning the metal, the <i>low current density</i> process, and the <i>Tainton high current density</i> process. The former uses a 10% sulfuric acid solution as the electolyte, with current density of 270–325 amperes per square meter. The latter uses 22-28% sulfuric acid solution as the electrolyte with current density of about 1000 amperes per square meter. The latter gives better purity and has higher production capacity per volume of electrolyte, but has the disadvantage of running hotter and being more corrosive to the vessel in which it is done. In either of the electrolytic processes, each metric ton of zinc production expends about 3900 kW·h (14 MJ) of electric power.<p>There are also several pyrometallurgical processes that reduce zinc oxide using carbon, then distill the metallic zinc from the resulting mix in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide. These include the <i>Belgian-type horizontal-retort</i> process, the <i>New Jersey Zinc continuous vertical-retort</i> process, and the <i>St. Joseph Lead Company's electrothermal</i> process. The Belgian process requires redistillation to remove impurities of lead, cadmium, iron, copper, and arsenic. The New Jersey process employs a fractionating column, which is absent in the Belgian process, that separates the individual impurities, where they can be sold as byproducts. The St. Joseph Lead Company process heats the zinc oxide/coke mixture by passing an electric current through it rather than by coal or gas fire.<p>Another pyrometallurgical process is flash smelting. Then zinc oxide is obtained, usually producing zinc of lesser quality than the hydrometallurgical process. Zinc oxide treatment has much fewer applications, but high grade deposits have been successful in producing zinc from zinc oxides and zinc carbonates using <!--del_lnk--> hydrometallurgy.<p><a id="Alloys" name="Alloys"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Alloys</span></h2>
<p>The most widely used alloy of zinc is <!--del_lnk--> brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 9% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass, along with much smaller amounts of lead and tin. Alloys of 85–88% zinc, 4–10% copper, and 2–8% aluminum find limited use in certain types of machine bearings. Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminum, and magnesium are useful in die-casting. Similar alloys with the addition of a small amount of lead can be cold-rolled into sheets. An alloy of 96% zinc and 4% aluminium is used to make stamping dies for low production run applications where ferrous metal dies would be too expensive.<p><a id="Compounds" name="Compounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Compounds</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Zinc oxide is perhaps the best known and most widely used zinc compound, as it makes a good base for white pigments in paint. It also finds industrial use in the rubber industry, and is sold as opaque <!--del_lnk--> sunscreen. A variety of other zinc compounds find use industrially, such as <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc_chloride.htm" title="Zinc chloride">zinc chloride</a> (in deodorants), <!--del_lnk--> zinc sulfide (in luminescent paints), and zinc methyl or <!--del_lnk--> zinc diethyl in the organic laboratory. Roughly one quarter of all zinc output is consumed in the form of zinc compounds.<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>Naturally occurring zinc is composed of the 5 stable <!--del_lnk--> isotopes <sup>64</sup>Zn, <sup>66</sup>Zn, <sup>67</sup>Zn, <sup>68</sup>Zn, and <sup>70</sup>Zn with <sup>64</sup>Zn being the most abundant (48.6% <!--del_lnk--> natural abundance). Twenty-one <!--del_lnk--> radioisotopes have been characterised with the most abundant and stable being <sup>65</sup>Zn with a <!--del_lnk--> half-life of 244.26 days, and <sup>72</sup>Zn with a half-life of 46.5 hours. All of the remaining <!--del_lnk--> radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 14 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 <!--del_lnk--> meta states.<p>Zinc has been proposed as a "<!--del_lnk--> salting" material for <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> (<a href="../../wp/c/Cobalt.htm" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> is another, better-known salting material). A jacket of <!--del_lnk--> isotopically enriched <sup>64</sup>Zn, irradiated by the intense high-energy neutron flux from an exploding thermonuclear weapon, would transmute into the radioactive isotope Zn-65 with a half-life of 244 days and produce approximately 2.27 <!--del_lnk--> MeV of <!--del_lnk--> gamma radiation, significantly increasing the radioactivity of the weapon's <!--del_lnk--> fallout for several days. Such a weapon is not known to have ever been built, tested, or used.<p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<p>Metallic zinc is not considered to be toxic, but free zinc ions in solution (like copper or iron ions) are highly toxic. There is also a condition called <i>zinc shakes</i> or <i>zinc chills</i> (see <!--del_lnk--> metal fume fever) that can be induced by the inhalation of freshly formed <!--del_lnk--> zinc oxide formed during the <a href="../../wp/w/Welding.htm" title="Welding">welding</a> of <!--del_lnk--> galvanized materials. Excessive intake of zinc can promote deficiency in other <!--del_lnk--> dietary minerals.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zinc chloride</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_compounds.htm">Chemical compounds</a></h3>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Zinc chloride</th>
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<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22995.jpg.htm" title="Zinc chloride hydrate"><img alt="Zinc chloride hydrate" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zinc_chloride.jpg" src="../../images/229/22995.jpg" width="200" /></a></td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">General</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Systematic name</td>
<td>Zinc chloride</td>
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<tr>
<td>Other names</td>
<td>Zinc(II) chloride,<br /> zinc dichloride,<br /> butter of zinc</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Molecular formula</td>
<td>ZnCl<sub>2</sub></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Molar mass</td>
<td>136.29 g/mol</td>
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<td>Appearance</td>
<td>White crystalline solid.</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS number</td>
<td>[7646-85-7]</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Properties</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density and <a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">phase</a></td>
<td>2.907 g/cm³, solid</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Solubility in <!--del_lnk--> water</td>
<td>432 g/100 mL (25 °C)</td>
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<td>in <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a></td>
<td>100 g/100 mL (12.5 °C)</td>
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<tr>
<td>in <a href="../../wp/a/Acetone.htm" title="Acetone">acetone</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> diethyl ether</td>
<td>Soluble</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>275 °C (548 K)</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>756 °C (1029 K)</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Structure</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Coordination<br /> geometry</td>
<td><span style="font-size: 0.9em;"><!--del_lnk--> Tetrahedral, 4-coordinate,<br /> linear in the gas phase.</span></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td><span style="font-size: 0.9em;">Four forms known<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hexagonal close-packed (δ)<br /> is the only stable form<br /> when anhydrous.</span></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Dipole moment</td>
<td> ? <!--del_lnk--> D</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Hazards</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> MSDS</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> External MSDS</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> EU classification</td>
<td>Irritant (<b>I</b>),<br /> Corrosive(<b>C</b>).</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> NFPA 704</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/1/178.png.htm" title="Image:nfpa_h3.png"><img alt="Image:nfpa_h3.png" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nfpa_h3.png" src="../../images/1/178.png" width="25" /></a><a class="image" href="../../images/1/179.png.htm" title="Image:nfpa_f0.png"><img alt="Image:nfpa_f0.png" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nfpa_f0.png" src="../../images/1/179.png" width="25" /></a><a class="image" href="../../images/171/17194.png.htm" title="Image:nfpa_r0.png"><img alt="Image:nfpa_r0.png" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nfpa_r0.png" src="../../images/171/17194.png" width="25" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> R-phrases</td>
<td><span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Causes burns">R34</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Very toxic to aquatic organisms">R50</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment">R53</span></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> S-phrases</td>
<td><span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Keep container tightly closed and dry">S7/8</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="After contact with skin, wash immediately with plenty of ... (to be specified by the manufacturer)">S28</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="In case of accident or if you feel unwell seek medical advice immediately (show the label where possible)">S45</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="This material and its container must be disposed of as hazardous waste">S60</span>,<br /><span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Avoid release to the environment. Refer to special instructions/safety data sheet">S61</span></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> RTECS number</td>
<td>ZH1400000</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;"><!--del_lnk--> Supplementary data page</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Structure and<br /> properties</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> <i>n</i>, <!--del_lnk--> <i>ε<sub>r</sub></i>, etc.</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermodynamic data</td>
<td>Phase behaviour<br /> Solid, liquid, gas</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Spectral data</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UV, <!--del_lnk--> IR, <!--del_lnk--> NMR, <!--del_lnk--> MS</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Related compounds</th>
</tr>
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<td>Other <!--del_lnk--> anions</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Zinc fluoride,<br /><!--del_lnk--> zinc bromide,<br /><!--del_lnk--> zinc iodide</td>
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<td>Other <!--del_lnk--> cations</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Copper(II) chloride,<br /><!--del_lnk--> cadmium chloride</td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;"><small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br /> materials in their <!--del_lnk--> standard state (at 25°C, 100 kPa)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Infobox disclaimer and references</small></td>
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<p><b>Zinc chloride</b> is the name of <!--del_lnk--> chemical compound <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc.htm" title="Zinc">Zn</a><a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">Cl</a><sub>2</sub> or its hydrates. All zinc chlorides are colorless or white and highly soluble in water. ZnCl<sub>2</sub> itself is <!--del_lnk--> hygroscopic and can be considered <!--del_lnk--> deliquescent. Samples should therefore be protected from sources of moisture, such as the atmosphere.<p>Four crystalline forms of ZnCl<sub>2</sub> and its hydrates are known, although the anhydrous form appears to exist only in the hexagonal close-packed phase. Rapid cooling of molten ZnCl<sub>2</sub> forms a glassy material.<p>Concentrated aqueous solutions of zinc chloride have the interesting property of dissolving <!--del_lnk--> starch, <!--del_lnk--> silk, and <!--del_lnk--> cellulose. Thus, solutions of zinc chlorides cannot be filtered through standard filter papers.<p>Zinc chloride finds wide application in <a href="../../wp/t/Textile.htm" title="Textile">textile</a> processing, <!--del_lnk--> metallurgical fluxes and chemical synthesis.<p>
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</script><a id="Chemical_properties" name="Chemical_properties"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Chemical properties</span></h2>
<p>ZnCl<sub>2</sub> is an <!--del_lnk--> ionic solid, although some <!--del_lnk--> covalent character is indicated by its low <!--del_lnk--> melting point (275 °C). Further evidence for covalency is provided by its high solubility in solvents such as <!--del_lnk--> diethyl ether. ZnCl<sub>2</sub> is a mild <!--del_lnk--> Lewis acid. Consistent with this character, aqueous solutions of ZnCl<sub>2</sub> have a <!--del_lnk--> pH around 4. It is hydrolyzed to an oxychloride when hydrated forms are heated.<p>In aqueous solution, zinc chloride is a useful source of Zn<sup>2+</sup> for the preparation of other zinc salts, for example <!--del_lnk--> zinc carbonate:<dl>
<dd>ZnCl<sub>2</sub>(<!--del_lnk--> aq) + <!--del_lnk--> Na<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>(<!--del_lnk--> aq) → <!--del_lnk--> ZnCO<sub>3</sub>(<!--del_lnk--> s) + 2 <!--del_lnk--> NaCl(<!--del_lnk--> aq)</dl>
<p><a id="Preparation_and_purification" name="Preparation_and_purification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Preparation and purification</span></h2>
<p>Anhydrous ZnCl<sub>2</sub> can be prepared from <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc.htm" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and <!--del_lnk--> hydrogen chloride.<dl>
<dd>Zn + 2 HCl → ZnCl<sub>2</sub> + H<sub>2</sub></dl>
<p>Hydrated forms and aqueous solutions may be readily prepared using concentrated hydrochloric acid and pieces of Zn. Zinc oxide and <!--del_lnk--> zinc sulfide react with HCl, without forming hydrogen:<dl>
<dd>ZnS(<!--del_lnk--> s) + 2 <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" title="Hydrochloric acid">HCl</a>(<!--del_lnk--> aq) → ZnCl<sub>2</sub>(<!--del_lnk--> aq) + <!--del_lnk--> H<sub>2</sub>S(<!--del_lnk--> l)</dl>
<p>Commercial samples of zinc chloride typically contain <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> and <!--del_lnk--> zinc oxychloride, the main <!--del_lnk--> hydrolysis product. Such samples may be purified as follows: 100 g of crude ZnCl<sub>2</sub> are heated to reflux in 800 mL anhydrous <!--del_lnk--> dioxan in the presence of zinc metal dust. The mixture is filtered while hot (to remove Zn),and then the filtrate is allowed to cool to give pure ZnCl<sub>2</sub> as a white precipitate. Anhydrous samples can be purified by <!--del_lnk--> sublimation in a stream of <!--del_lnk--> hydrogen chloride gas, followed by heating to 400 °C in a stream of dry <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> gas.<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<p>ZnCl<sub>2</sub> is used as a <!--del_lnk--> flux for <!--del_lnk--> soldering because of its ability (when molten) to dissolve metal oxides. Typically this flux was prepared by dissolving zinc foil in dilute <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> until the liquid ceased to evolve hydrogen, for this reason such flux was known as <!--del_lnk--> killed spirits. because of its corrosive nature it is not a suitable flux for situations where any residue cannot be cleaned totally away, such as electronic work. This property also leads to its use in the manufacture of <!--del_lnk--> magnesia cements for <!--del_lnk--> dental fillings and certain <!--del_lnk--> mouthwashes as an active ingredient. ZnCl<sub>2</sub> has also been used as a fireproofing agent, for etching metals, and is also a primary ingredient in fabric refresheners such as Febreze.<p>In the laboratory, zinc chloride finds wide use, principally as a moderate-strength <!--del_lnk--> Lewis acid. It can <!--del_lnk--> catalyse (A) the <!--del_lnk--> Fischer indole synthesis<sup></sup>, and also (B) <!--del_lnk--> Friedel-Crafts acylation reactions involving activated <!--del_lnk--> aromatic rings<sup></sup>.<p><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22996.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="97" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZnCl2_aromatics.gif" src="../../images/229/22996.gif" width="480" /></a><p>Related to the latter is the classical preparation<sup></sup> of the dye <!--del_lnk--> fluorescein from <!--del_lnk--> phthalic anhydride and <!--del_lnk--> resorcinol, which involves a <!--del_lnk--> Friedel-Crafts acylation. This transformation has in fact been accomplished using even the wet ZnCl<sub>2</sub> sample shown in the picture above.<p><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22997.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZnCl2_fluorescein.gif" src="../../images/229/22997.gif" width="480" /></a><p><a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" title="Hydrochloric acid">Hydrochloric acid</a> alone reacts poorly with <!--del_lnk--> primary alcohols and <!--del_lnk--> secondary alcohols, but a combination of HCl with ZnCl<sub>2</sub> (known together as the "Lucas reagent") is effective for the preparation of alkyl chlorides. Typical reactions are conducted at 130 °C. This reaction probably proceeds via an <!--del_lnk--> S<sub>N</sub>2 mechanism with primary alcohols but <!--del_lnk--> S<sub>N</sub>1 pathway with secondary alcohols.<p><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22998.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZnCl2_Lucas.gif" src="../../images/229/22998.gif" width="300" /></a><p>Zinc chloride also activates <!--del_lnk--> benzylic and <!--del_lnk--> allylic halides towards substitution by weak <!--del_lnk--> nucleophiles such as <!--del_lnk--> alkenes<sup></sup>:<p><a class="image" href="../../images/229/22999.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZnCl2_benzylation.gif" src="../../images/229/22999.gif" width="480" /></a><p>In similar fashion, ZnCl<sub>2</sub> promotes selective <!--del_lnk--> NaBH<sub>3</sub>CN reduction of tertiary, allylic or benzylic halides to the corresponding hydrocarbons.<p>Zinc chloride is also a useful starting reagent for the synthesis of many <!--del_lnk--> organozinc reagents, such as those used in the palladium catalysed <!--del_lnk--> Negishi coupling with <!--del_lnk--> aryl halides or <!--del_lnk--> vinyl halides<sup></sup>. In such cases the organozinc compound is usually prepared by <!--del_lnk--> transmetallation from an <!--del_lnk--> organolithium or a <!--del_lnk--> Grignard reagent, for example:<p><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23000.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZnCl2_Negishi.gif" src="../../images/230/23000.gif" width="480" /></a><p>Zinc <!--del_lnk--> enolates, prepared from alkali metal enolates and ZnCl<sub>2</sub>, provide control of <!--del_lnk--> stereochemistry in <!--del_lnk--> aldol condensation reactions due to <!--del_lnk--> chelation on to the zinc. In the example shown below, the <i><!--del_lnk--> threo</i> product was favored over the <i><!--del_lnk--> erythro</i> by a factor of 5:1 when ZnCl<sub>2</sub> in <!--del_lnk--> DME/<!--del_lnk--> ether was used<sup></sup>. The chelate is more stable when the bulky phenyl group is pseudo-<!--del_lnk--> equatorial rather than pseudo-<!--del_lnk--> axial, i.e., <i>threo</i> rather than <i>erythro</i>.<p><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23001.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZnCl2_aldol.gif" src="../../images/230/23001.gif" width="600" /></a><p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<p>Corrosive, irritant. Wear gloves and goggles.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_chloride"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zion National Park</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger;">Zion National Park</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #CDE5B2; line-height: 1.2;"><!--del_lnk--> IUCN Category II (<!--del_lnk--> National Park)</td>
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<div style="position: absolute; left: 55px; top: 86px; padding: 0;"><a class="image" href="../../images/171/17100.png.htm" title="Zion National Park"><img alt="Zion National Park" height="9" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Locator_Dot.svg" src="../../images/171/17100.png" width="9" /></a></div><a class="image" href="../../images/199/19924.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_Locator_Blank.svg" src="../../images/171/17101.png" width="288" /></a></div>
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<td><b>Location:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Utah, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
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<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><b>Nearest city:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Springdale, Utah</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><b>Coordinates:</b></td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">37°18′0″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">113°3′0″W</span></span></td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align:top;">
<td><b>Area:</b></td>
<td>146,598 acres<font size="-2"><br /> (143,035.07 federal)</font><br /> 593.26 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align:top;">
<td><b>Established:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1909</td>
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<tr style="vertical-align:top">
<td><b>Visitation:</b></td>
<td>2,586,665 (in 2005)</td>
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<tr style="vertical-align:top;">
<td style="white-space:nowrap;"><b>Governing body:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Park Service</td>
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</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28645.jpg.htm" title="Zion Canyon as seen from the top of Angels Landing at sunset"><img alt="Zion Canyon as seen from the top of Angels Landing at sunset" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zion_angels_landing_view.jpg" src="../../images/286/28645.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28645.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zion Canyon as seen from the top of Angels Landing at sunset</div>
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<p><b>Zion National Park</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> United States National Park located in the <!--del_lnk--> Southwestern United States, near <!--del_lnk--> Springdale, Utah. A prominent feature in the 229-<!--del_lnk--> square-mile (<!--del_lnk--> 593 km²) park is <b>Zion Canyon</b>, 15 miles (24 km) long and up to half a mile (800 m) deep, cut through the reddish and tan-colored <!--del_lnk--> Navajo Sandstone by the North Fork of the <!--del_lnk--> Virgin River. Located at the junction of the Colorado Plateau, <!--del_lnk--> Great Basin, and <!--del_lnk--> Mojave Desert regions, this unique <a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" title="Geography">geography</a> and variety of <!--del_lnk--> life zones allow for unusual <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plant</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal</a> diversity. A total of 289 <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> species, 75 <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> (including 19 species of <a href="../../wp/b/Bat.htm" title="Bat">bat</a>), 32 <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and numerous plant species inhabit the park's four life zones: <a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">desert</a>, <!--del_lnk--> riparian, <!--del_lnk--> woodland, and <!--del_lnk--> coniferous forest. Notable megafauna include <!--del_lnk--> Mountain Lions, <!--del_lnk--> Mule Deer and <a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Eagle.htm" title="Golden Eagle">Golden Eagles</a>, along with reintroduced <!--del_lnk--> California Condors and <!--del_lnk--> Bighorn Sheep. Common plant species include <!--del_lnk--> Cottonwood, <a href="../../wp/c/Cactus.htm" title="Cactus">Cactus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Juniper, <!--del_lnk--> Pine, <!--del_lnk--> Boxelder, <!--del_lnk--> Sagebrush and various <!--del_lnk--> willows.<p>Human habitation of the area started about 8,000 years ago with small family groups of <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans; the semi-nomadic Basketmaker <!--del_lnk--> Anasazi (300 CE) stem from one of these groups. In turn, the Virgin Anasazi culture (500 CE) developed as the Basketmakers settled in permanent communities. A different group, the <!--del_lnk--> Parowan Fremont, lived in the area as well. Both groups moved away by 1300 and were replaced by the Parrusits and several other Southern <!--del_lnk--> Paiute subtribes. The canyon was discovered by <a href="../../wp/m/Mormon.htm" title="Mormon">Mormons</a> in 1858 and was settled by that same group in the early 1860s. <b>Mukuntuweap National Monument</b> was established in 1909 to protect the canyon, and by 1919 the monument was expanded to become Zion National Park (<i><!--del_lnk--> Zion</i> is an ancient <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> word meaning a place of refuge or sanctuary). The Kolob section was proclaimed a separate <b>Zion National Monument</b> in 1937, but was incorporated into the park in 1956.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area includes nine <!--del_lnk--> formations that together represent 150 million years of mostly <!--del_lnk--> Mesozoic-aged <!--del_lnk--> sedimentation. At various periods in that time, warm, shallow seas, streams, ponds and lakes, vast deserts and dry near-shore environments covered the area. Uplift associated with the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Colorado Plateaus lifted the region 10,000 feet (3000 m) starting 13 million years ago.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28646.jpg.htm" title="Spectacular Zion scenery as seen from the Zion-Mount Carmel Highway"><img alt="Spectacular Zion scenery as seen from the Zion-Mount Carmel Highway" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zion_mount_carmel_highway_view.jpg" src="../../images/286/28646.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28646.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Spectacular Zion scenery as seen from the Zion-Mount Carmel Highway</div>
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<p>The park is located in southwestern <!--del_lnk--> Utah in <!--del_lnk--> Washington, <!--del_lnk--> Iron, and <!--del_lnk--> Kane counties. Geomorphically, it is located on the <!--del_lnk--> Markagunt and <!--del_lnk--> Kolob plateaus, at the intersection of three <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North American</a> geographic provinces: The <!--del_lnk--> Colorado Plateaus, the <!--del_lnk--> Great Basin, and the <!--del_lnk--> Mojave Desert. The northern part of the park is known as the Kolob Canyons section and is accessible from <!--del_lnk--> Interstate 15, exit 40.<p>The 8,726 foot (2660 m) summit of Horse Ranch Mountain (<!--del_lnk--> photo) is the highest point in the park; the lowest point is the 3,666 foot (1117 m) elevation of Coal Pits Wash, creating a relief of about 5,100 feet (1500 m).<p>Streams in the area follow rectangular paths because they follow jointing planes in the rocks. The headwaters of the Virgin River are at about 9,000 feet (2700 m) and the river empties into <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Mead.htm" title="Lake Mead">Lake Mead</a> 200 <!--del_lnk--> miles (320 <!--del_lnk--> km) southeast after flowing 8,000 feet (2400 m) downward. This gives the Virgin a <!--del_lnk--> stream gradient that ranges from 50 to 80 feet per mile (0.9–1.5%)—one of the steepest stream gradients in North America.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28647.jpg.htm" title="Temple of Sinawava Waterfall"><img alt="Temple of Sinawava Waterfall" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zion-Temple-of-Sinawava-waterfall-NPS.jpg" src="../../images/286/28647.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28647.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Temple of Sinawava Waterfall</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The road into Zion Canyon is 6 miles long, ending at the Temple of Sinawava ("Sinawava" refers to the Coyote God of the Paiute Indians). At the Temple, the canyon narrows and a foot-trail continues to the mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> Zion Narrows, a spectacular gorge with walls 40-100 feet (12-30 meters) wide and 1000 feet (300 m) tall. The Zion Canyon road is served by a free shuttle bus from early April to late October and by private vehicles the other months of the year. Other roads in Zion are open to private vehicles year-round.<p>Other areas of the park also offer outstanding scenery. The east side of the park is served by the <!--del_lnk--> Zion-Mount Carmel Highway which passes through the Zion-Mount Carmel Tunnel and ends at Mt. Carmel Junction. On the east side of the park notable park features include Checkerboard Mesa and the East Temple and one of the more popular hikes, the Canyon Overlook Trail.<p>West of Zion Canyon, the Kolob Terrace area features The Subway, a famous slot canyon hike, and Lava Point, with a spectacular view of the entire area. The Kolob Canyons section, further west near <!--del_lnk--> Cedar City, features the worlds longest arch, <!--del_lnk--> Kolob Arch.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28648.jpg.htm" title="Map of Zion National Park showing the Zion and Kolob canyon sections."><img alt="Map of Zion National Park showing the Zion and Kolob canyon sections." height="369" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zion_National_Park_map1.jpg" src="../../images/286/28648.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28648.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Zion National Park showing the Zion and Kolob canyon sections.</div>
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</div>
<p>Spring <a href="../../wp/w/Weather.htm" title="Weather">weather</a> is unpredictable, with stormy, wet days being common, mixed with occasional warm, sunny weather. <!--del_lnk--> Precipitation is heaviest in March. Spring <!--del_lnk--> wildflowers bloom from April through June, peaking in May. Fall days are usually clear and mild; nights are often cool. Summer days are hot (95 °<!--del_lnk--> F to 110 °F; 35 °<!--del_lnk--> C to 43 °C), but overnight lows are usually comfortable (65 °F to 70 °F; 18 °C to 21 °C). Afternoon <a href="../../wp/t/Thunderstorm.htm" title="Thunderstorm">thunderstorms</a> are common from mid-July through mid-September. Storms may produce <!--del_lnk--> waterfalls as well as <!--del_lnk--> flash floods. Autumn tree-colour displays begin in September in the high country; inside Zion Canyon, autumn colors usually peak in late October. Winter in Zion Canyon is fairly mild. Winter storms bring <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">rain</a> or light <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a> to Zion Canyon and heavier snow to the higher elevations. Clear days may become quite warm, reaching 60 °F (16 °C); nights are often 20 °F to 40 °F (−7 °C to 4 °C). Winter storms can last several days and make roads icy. Zion roads are plowed, except the Kolob Terrace Road and the Kolob Canyons Road, which are closed when covered with snow. Winter driving conditions persist from November through March.<p><a id="Notable_geographical_features_of_the_park" name="Notable_geographical_features_of_the_park"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Notable geographical features of the park</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Virgin River Narrows<li>Emerald Pools (<!--del_lnk--> photo) (<!--del_lnk--> photo)<li>Angel's Landing (<!--del_lnk--> photo) (<!--del_lnk--> photo) (<!--del_lnk--> photo)<li>The Great White Throne (<!--del_lnk--> photo)<li>The Three Patriarchs (<a href="../../images/286/28655.jpg.htm" title="Image:The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon.jpg">photo</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kolob Arch, a remote cliff wall arch</ul>
<p><a id="Human_history" name="Human_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Human history</span></h2>
<p>Archaeologists have divided the long span of Zion's human history into four cultural periods, each characterized by distinctive technological and social adaptations.<p><a id="Archaic_period" name="Archaic_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Archaic period</span></h3>
<p>The first human use in the region dates to <!--del_lnk--> 8,000 years ago when family groups camped where they could <!--del_lnk--> hunt or collect plants and <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seeds</a>. About 2,000 years ago, some groups began growing <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a> and other crops, leading to an increasingly sedentary lifestyle. Later groups in this period built permanent villages (called <!--del_lnk--> pueblos). Archaeologists call this the Archaic period and it lasted until about 500 CE. Baskets, cordage nets, and <!--del_lnk--> yucca fibre sandals have been found and dated to this period. The Archaic toolkits included flaked stone knives, drills, and stemmed dart points. The dart points were hafted to wooden shafts and propelled by throwing devices called <!--del_lnk--> atlatls.<p>By 300 CE some of the archaic groups developed into an early branch of seminomadic <!--del_lnk--> Anasazi, the Basketmakers. Basketmaker sites have grass- or stone-lined storage cists and shallow, partially underground dwellings called pithouses. They were hunters and gatherers who supplemented their diet with limited <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Locally collected <!--del_lnk--> pine nuts were important for food and trade.<p><a id="Protohistoric_period" name="Protohistoric_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Protohistoric period</span></h3>
<p>The Parrusits and several other Southern <!--del_lnk--> Paiute subtribes lived in the Virgin River Valley south of Zion Canyon for hundreds of years following the departure of the Anasazi and Fremont Indians around 1300 CE. Tradition and archaeological evidence holds that they are a Numic-speaking cousin of the Virgin Anasazi. Parrusits seasonally migrated up and down the valley in search of wild seeds and <!--del_lnk--> nuts in what is called the Neo-Archaic period. Some farming and hunting supplemented their diet.<p>Evidence suggests the Parrusits had great reverence for the large <!--del_lnk--> monoliths and turbulent waters in Zion Canyon. They believed the monoliths were responsible for the streams and springs they depended upon by communicating with the <!--del_lnk--> rocks, animals, <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a>, and plants that make their home there. Modern bands of Southern Paiute still visit sites within the park to perform rituals and collect plants.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28650.jpg.htm" title="Kaun huts were used by bands of Southern Paiute who lived in the area."><img alt="Kaun huts were used by bands of Southern Paiute who lived in the area." height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Southern_Paiute_kaun_huts.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28650.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28650.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Kaun huts were used by bands of Southern Paiute who lived in the area.</div>
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<p><a id="Historic_period" name="Historic_period"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Historic period</span></h3>
<p><a id="Early_exploration" name="Early_exploration"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Early exploration</span></h4>
<p>The Historic period begins in the late 18th century, with the exploration and settlement of southern Utah by <!--del_lnk--> Euro-Americans. Padres <!--del_lnk--> Silvestre Vélez de Escalante and <!--del_lnk--> Francisco Atanasio Domínguez passed near what is now the Kolob Canyons Visitor Centre on <!--del_lnk--> October 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1776, becoming the first white men known to visit the area. In 1826, trapper and trader <!--del_lnk--> Jedediah Smith led 16 men to explore the area in a quest to find a route to <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>. These and other explorations by traders from <!--del_lnk--> New Mexico blazed the <!--del_lnk--> Old Spanish Trail, which followed the Virgin River for a portion of its length. Captain <!--del_lnk--> John C. Fremont wrote about his 1844 journeys in the region.<p><a id="Mormon_pioneers_and_the_Powell_expedition" name="Mormon_pioneers_and_the_Powell_expedition"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Mormon pioneers and the Powell expedition</span></h4>
<p>In the 1850s, <a href="../../wp/m/Mormon.htm" title="Mormon">Mormon</a> farmers from the <a href="../../wp/s/Salt_Lake_City%252C_Utah.htm" title="Salt Lake City, Utah">Salt Lake</a> area became the first white people to settle the <!--del_lnk--> Virgin River region. In 1851, the Parowan and <!--del_lnk--> Cedar City, Utah areas were settled by Mormons who used the Kolob Canyons area for timber, and for grazing <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <!--del_lnk--> sheep, and <a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" title="Horse">horses</a>. They prospected for <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">mineral</a> deposits, and diverted Kolob water to <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigate</a> crops in the valley below. Mormon settlers named the area <i><!--del_lnk--> Kolob</i> - in Mormon scripture, the <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> nearest the residence of <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>.<p>In 1858, they had expanded 30 miles south to the lower Virgin River. That year, a Southern Paiute guide led young Mormon missionary and interpreter <!--del_lnk--> Nephi Johnson into the upper Virgin River area and Zion Canyon. Johnson wrote a favorable report about the <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> potential of the upper Virgin River basin, and returned later that year to found the town of Virgin. More settlers arrived in 1860 and 1861 and settled the towns of Rockville and Springdale. Catastrophic flooding by the river (especially in the Great Flood of 1861-1862), little <a href="../../wp/a/Arable_land.htm" title="Arable land">arable land</a>, and poor <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soils</a> made agriculture in the upper Virgin River a risky venture.<p>In 1861 or 1862, <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Black made the arduous journey to Zion Canyon and was very impressed by its beauty. His stories about the Canyon were at first seen as exaggerated, prompting his neighbors to call the Canyon "Joseph's Glory". The floor of Zion Canyon was settled in 1863 by <!--del_lnk--> Issac Behunin, who farmed corn, <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> fruit trees. The Behunin family lived in Zion canyon near the site of today's <!--del_lnk--> Zion Lodge during the summer, and wintered in Springdale. Isaac Behunin is credited with naming Zion, a reference to a place of peace mentioned in the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<p>Two more families settled Zion canyon in the next couple of years, bringing with them cattle and other <!--del_lnk--> domesticated animals. The canyon floor was farmed until Zion became a Monument in 1909.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28651.jpg.htm" title="The Crawford ranch was located near the mouth of Zion Canyon, in Springdale."><img alt="The Crawford ranch was located near the mouth of Zion Canyon, in Springdale." height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Crawford_ranch_in_Zion_Canyon.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28651.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28651.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Crawford ranch was located near the mouth of Zion Canyon, in Springdale.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> John Wesley Powell expedition entered the area in 1869 after their first trip through the <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a>. Powell returned in September 1872 and descended the East Fork of the Virgin River (Parunaweap Canyon) to the town of Shunesberg. He may have made the climb up to Zion Canyon, and named it <i>Mukuntuweap</i> under the impression that that was the Paiute name. In the same year, Geologist <!--del_lnk--> Grove Karl Gilbert, working with the <!--del_lnk--> Wheeler Survey, descended the North Fork of the Virgin River from Navajo Lake to Zion Canyon, making the first recorded descent of "The <!--del_lnk--> Zion Narrows". It is likely that he named this remarkable section of canyon in the process.<p>Powell Survey photographers, <!--del_lnk--> Jack Hillers and <!--del_lnk--> James Fennemore, first visited the Zion Canyon and <!--del_lnk--> Kolob Plateau region in the spring of 1872. Hillers returned in April of 1873 to add more <!--del_lnk--> photographs to the "Virgin River Series" of photographs and <!--del_lnk--> stereographs. Hillers described wading the canyon for 4 days and nearly freezing to death to take his photographs. Geologist <!--del_lnk--> Clarence Dutton later <!--del_lnk--> mapped the region and artist <!--del_lnk--> William H. Holmes documented the scenery.<p><a id="Protection_and_tourism" name="Protection_and_tourism"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Protection and tourism</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28652.jpg.htm" title="From April through October, the scenic drive in Zion Canyon is closed to private vehicles, and visitors ride the frequent shuttle buses"><img alt="From April through October, the scenic drive in Zion Canyon is closed to private vehicles, and visitors ride the frequent shuttle buses" height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zion_shuttle.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28652.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28652.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> From April through October, the scenic drive in Zion Canyon is closed to private vehicles, and visitors ride the frequent shuttle buses</div>
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<p>Paintings of the canyon by Frederick S. Dellenbaugh were exhibited at the <!--del_lnk--> St. Louis World's Fair in 1904, followed by a glowing article in <i><!--del_lnk--> Scribner's Magazine</i> the next year. That, along with previously created photographs, paintings, and reports, led to U.S. President <a href="../../wp/w/William_Howard_Taft.htm" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>'s proclamation creating Mukuntuweap National Monument on <!--del_lnk--> July 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1909. In 1917, the acting director of the newly created <!--del_lnk--> National Park Service visited the canyon and proposed changing its name <i>Zion</i> from the locally unpopular <i>Mukuntuweap</i>. That occurred the following year. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Congress.htm" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> added more land and established Zion National Park on <!--del_lnk--> November 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1919. A separate Zion National Monument, the Kolob Canyons area, was proclaimed on <!--del_lnk--> January 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1937, and was incorporated into the park on <!--del_lnk--> July 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1956.<p>Travel to the area before it was a national park was rare due to its remote location, lack of accommodations, and the absence of real roads in southern Utah. Old wagon roads were upgraded to the first automobile roads starting about 1910, and the road into Zion Canyon was built in 1917, to as far as The Grotto.<p>By the summer of 1917, touring cars could reach Zion Canyon, and the Wylie Camp was established - a tent camp providing the first visitor lodging in Zion Canyon. The <!--del_lnk--> Utah Parks Company, a subsidiary of the Union Pacific Railroad, acquired the Wylie Camp in 1923, and offered ten-day rail/bus tours to Zion, <a href="../../wp/b/Bryce_Canyon_National_Park.htm" title="Bryce Canyon National Park">Bryce</a>, Kaibab, and the North Rim of the Grand Canyon. The Zion Lodge complex was built in 1925 at the site of the Wylie tent camp. Architect <!--del_lnk--> Gilbert Stanley Underwood designed Zion Lodge in the "Rustic Style" and the Utah Parks Company funded the construction. In 1968, the main lodge building was destroyed by fire but was quickly rebuilt. The detached Western Cabins (<!--del_lnk--> photo) survived and were added to the <!--del_lnk--> National Register of Historic Places.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28653.jpg.htm" title="Tour buses at Zion Lodge in 1929. Tourism greatly increased after paved all-weather highways were built to Zion."><img alt="Tour buses at Zion Lodge in 1929. Tourism greatly increased after paved all-weather highways were built to Zion." height="107" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tour_buses_at_Zion_Lodge_in_1929.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28653.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28653.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tour buses at Zion Lodge in 1929. Tourism greatly increased after paved all-weather highways were built to Zion.</div>
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<p>Work on the <!--del_lnk--> Zion-Mount Carmel Highway, started in 1927 to provide reliable access between Springdale and the east side of the park. The road opened in 1930 and park visitation and travel in the area greatly increased. The most famous feature of the highway is the 1.1-mile (1.8-km) Zion-Mount Carmel <!--del_lnk--> Tunnel, which has six large windows cut through the massive <!--del_lnk--> sandstone cliff. On the south side of the tunnel, switchbacks take motorists from the tunnel to the floor of Zion Canyon. On the east side the Zion-Mt. Carmel Highway terminates at Mt. Carmel Junction and Highway 89, allowing visitors to travel by car to other national parks, including Bryce Canyon and the Grand Canyon.<p>In 1896, local rancher John Winder improved the Native American footpath up Echo Canyon so he could travel on horseback up to the East Rim, and hence to Long Valley. This trail was improved again about 1925 and became the East Rim Trail. Other trails were built in 1925 including the West Rim Trail and the Lady Mountain Trail. The auto road was extended to the Temple of Sinawava, and a trail built from there one mile to the start of the Narrows. The next year saw construction of the Angels Landing Trail, and two suspension bridges were built over the Virgin River. The Hidden Canyon trail was built in 1928. The West Rim and East Rim Trail were built for horse-back riding visitors, and were blasted out of the sandstone in many places.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28654.jpg.htm" title="East portal of Zion-Mt. Carmel tunnel in early 1930s. When it was built, the tunnel was the longest of its type in the world."><img alt="East portal of Zion-Mt. Carmel tunnel in early 1930s. When it was built, the tunnel was the longest of its type in the world." height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:East_portal_of_Zion-Mt._Carmel_tunnel_in_early_1930s.jpg" src="../../images/286/28654.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28654.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> East portal of Zion-Mt. Carmel tunnel in early 1930s. When it was built, the tunnel was the longest of its type in the world.</div>
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<p>The original ranger cabin was built at The Grotto in the 1920s. A real visitor center was first built in the 1950's, facing the Temples and Towers of the Virgin. Park facilities were redesigned in 2000, with the visitor centre converted to a human-history <!--del_lnk--> museum (<!--del_lnk--> photo) and visitor centre functions moved to a new <!--del_lnk--> solar powered facility adjacent to the south entrance.<p>Zion Canyon Scenic Drive provides access to Zion Canyon. Traffic congestion in the narrow canyon was recognized as a major problem in the 1990s and a public transportation system using propane-powered shuttle buses was instituted in the year 2000. From April through October, the scenic drive in Zion Canyon is closed to private vehicles, and visitors ride the frequent shuttle buses. The new plan restored natural quiet to the canyon.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1995, heavy rains triggered a landslide that blocked the Virgin River in Zion Canyon. Over a period of two hours, the river carved away 590 feet (190 m) of the only exit road from the canyon, trapping 450 guests and employees in the Zion Lodge. A one-lane temporary road was contructed within 24 hours to allow evacuation of the Lodge. A more stable, albeit temporary, road was completed on <!--del_lnk--> May 25, 1995 to allow summer visitors to access the park. This road was replaced with a permanent road during the first half of 1996.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Zion-Mount Carmel Highway, can be traveled year-round. Access for over-sized vehicles requires a special permit, and is limited to daytime hours, as traffic through the tunnel must be one way to accommodate large vehicles.<p>The 5 mile (8 km) Kolob Canyons Road was built in the mid-1960s to provide a scenic drive and access to the Kolob Canyons section of the park. This road often closes in the winter.<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28655.jpg.htm" title="The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon are made of Navajo Sandstone."><img alt="The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon are made of Navajo Sandstone." height="106" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Three_Patriarchs_in_Zion_Canyon.jpg" src="../../images/286/28655.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28655.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Three Patriarchs in Zion Canyon are made of Navajo Sandstone.</div>
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<p>The nine known exposed formations visible in Zion National Park are part of a super-sequence of rock units called the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Staircase; they represent about 150 million years of mostly <!--del_lnk--> Mesozoic-aged <!--del_lnk--> sedimentation in that part of North America. The <!--del_lnk--> formations exposed in the Zion area were deposited as <!--del_lnk--> sediment in very different environments:<ul>
<li>The warm, shallow (sometimes advancing or retreating) <a href="../../wp/s/Sea.htm" title="Sea">sea</a> of the Kaibab and Moenkopi formations;<li><!--del_lnk--> Streams, <a href="../../wp/p/Pond.htm" title="Pond">ponds</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> lakes of the Chinle, Moenave, and Kayenta formations;<li>The vast <a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">desert</a> of the Navajo and Temple Cap formations; and<li>The dry near-shore environment of the Carmel Formation.</ul>
<p>Uplift affected the entire region, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Colorado Plateaus, by slowly raising these formations more than 10,000 feet (3,000 m) higher than where they were deposited. This steepened the <!--del_lnk--> stream gradient of the ancestral Virgin and other rivers on the plateau.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28656.jpg.htm" title="Kolob Canyons are a set of finger canyons cut into the Kolob Plateau."><img alt="Kolob Canyons are a set of finger canyons cut into the Kolob Plateau." height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kolob_Canyons_midway_through_Kolob_Canyons_Road.jpg" src="../../images/286/28656.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28656.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Kolob Canyons are a set of finger canyons cut into the Kolob Plateau.</div>
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<p>The fast-moving streams took advantage of uplift-created joints in the rocks to remove all Cenozoic-aged formations and cut gorges into the plateaus. Zion Canyon was cut by the North Fork of the Virgin River in this way. During the later part of this process, <!--del_lnk--> lava flows and <!--del_lnk--> cinder cones covered parts of the area.<p>High water volume in wet seasons does most of the <!--del_lnk--> downcutting in the main canyon and carries much of the 3 million <!--del_lnk--> tons of <!--del_lnk--> rock and sediment that the Virgin River transports yearly. The Virgin cuts away its canyon faster than its <!--del_lnk--> tributaries can cut away their own streambeds, so tributaries end in <!--del_lnk--> waterfalls from <!--del_lnk--> hanging valleys where they meet the Virgin. The valley between the peaks of the Twin Brothers is a notable example of a hanging valley in the canyon.<center>
<br clear="all" />
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td rowspan="10" width="14%">
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28657.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="326" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zion_strat.jpg" src="../../images/286/28657.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div>
</td>
<td width="14%"><small><b>Rock Layer</b></small></td>
<td width="17%"><small><b>Appearance</b></small></td>
<td width="17%"><small><b>Where To See</b></small></td>
<td width="16%"><small><b>Deposition</b></small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b>Rock Type</b></small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b>Photo</b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Dakota Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Cliffs</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Top of Horse Ranch Mountain</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Streams</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Conglomerate and sandstone</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28658.jpg.htm" title="Dakota Sandstone"><img alt="Dakota Sandstone" height="52" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dakota_Sandstone.jpg" src="../../images/286/28658.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Carmel Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Cliffs</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small><!--del_lnk--> Mt Carmel Junction</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Shallow sea and coastal desert</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Limestone, sandstone and gypsum</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28659.jpg.htm" title="Carmel Formation"><img alt="Carmel Formation" height="43" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Carmel_Formation.jpg" src="../../images/286/28659.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Temple Cap Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Cliffs</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Top of West Temple</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Desert</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Sandstone</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28660.jpg.htm" title="Temple Cap Formation atop Navajo Sandstone"><img alt="Temple Cap Formation atop Navajo Sandstone" height="61" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Temple_Cap_Formation_atop_Navajo_Sandstone.jpg" src="../../images/286/28660.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Navajo Sandstone</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Steep cliffs 1,600 to 2,200 ft (490 to 670 m) thick</small><p><small>Red lower layers are colored by iron oxides</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Tall cliffs of Zion Canyon; highest exposure is West Temple. Cross-bedding shows well at Checkerboard Mesa (<!--del_lnk--> photo)</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Desert sand dunes covered 150,000 mile² (390,000 km²)</small><p><small>Shifting winds during deposition created cross-bedding</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Sandstone</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28661.jpg.htm" title="Navajo Sandstone showing its two tones"><img alt="Navajo Sandstone showing its two tones" height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Navajo_Sandstone_seen_from_Hidden_Canyon_Trail.jpg" src="../../images/286/28661.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Kayenta Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Rocky slopes</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Throughout canyon</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Streams</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Siltstone and sandstone</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28662.jpg.htm" title="Kayenta Formation"><img alt="Kayenta Formation" height="52" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Keyenta_Formation_in_Kolob_Canyons.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28662.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Moenave Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Slopes and ledges</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Lower red cliffs seen from Zion Human History Museum</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Streams and ponds</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Siltstone and sandstone</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28663.jpg.htm" title="Moenave Formation"><img alt="Moenave Formation" height="47" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Moenave_Formation.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28663.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Chinle Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Purpleish slopes</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Above Rockville</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Streams</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Shale, loose clay and conglomerate</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28664.jpg.htm" title="Chinle Formation"><img alt="Chinle Formation" height="36" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Chinle_Formation_near_Springdale%2C_Utah.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28664.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Moenkopi Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Chocolate cliffs with white bands</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Rocky slopes from Virgin to Rockville</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Shallow sea</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Shale, siltstone, sandstone, mudstone, and limestone</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28665.jpg.htm" title="Moenkopi Formation"><img alt="Moenkopi Formation" height="47" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Moenkopi_Formation.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28665.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="14%"><small>Kaibab Formation</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Cliffs</small></td>
<td width="17%"><small>Hurricane Cliffs along I-15 near Kolob Canyons</small></td>
<td width="16%"><small>Shallow sea</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small>Limestone</small></td>
<td width="36%"><small><b><a class="image" href="../../images/286/28666.jpg.htm" title="Hurricane Cliffs/Kaibab Fm."><img alt="Hurricane Cliffs/Kaibab Fm." height="31" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hurricane_Cliffs1.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28666.jpg" width="80" /></a></b></small></td>
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</center>
<p><a id="Biology" name="Biology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28667.jpg.htm" title="Taylor Creek with Horse Ranch Mountain in background. Desert, riparian, woodland and coniferous forest habitat can be seen in this photo."><img alt="Taylor Creek with Horse Ranch Mountain in background. Desert, riparian, woodland and coniferous forest habitat can be seen in this photo." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Taylor_Creek_with_Horse_Ranch_Mountain_in_background.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28667.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28667.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Taylor Creek with Horse Ranch Mountain in background. Desert, riparian, woodland and coniferous forest habitat can be seen in this photo.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Great Basin, <!--del_lnk--> Mojave Desert, and <!--del_lnk--> Colorado Plateau converge at Zion and the Kolob canyons. This, along with the varied <!--del_lnk--> topography of <!--del_lnk--> canyon-<!--del_lnk--> mesa country, differing <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a> types, and uneven water availability, provides diverse <!--del_lnk--> habitat for the equally diverse mix of plants and animals that live in the area. In 1999, biologists counted 289 <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> species in the park. Seventy-five <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammal</a> and 32 <a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptile</a> and <!--del_lnk--> amphibian species are also found. These organisms make their home in one or more of four <!--del_lnk--> life zones found in the Park:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">Desert</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Riparian<li><!--del_lnk--> Woodland<li><!--del_lnk--> Coniferous <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forest</a></ul>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28668.jpg.htm" title="Sacred Datura grows on the canyon floor and blooms at night."><img alt="Sacred Datura grows on the canyon floor and blooms at night." height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SacredDaturaFx_Wb2.jpg" src="../../images/286/28668.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28668.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Sacred Datura grows on the canyon floor and blooms at night.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Desert conditions persist on canyon bottoms and rocky ledges away from perennial streams. <!--del_lnk--> Sagebrush, <!--del_lnk--> Prickly pear Cactus, and <!--del_lnk--> Rabbitbrush, along with <!--del_lnk--> Sacred Datura and <!--del_lnk--> Indian Paintbrush are common. Utah Penstemon and Golden Aster can also be found. Milkvetch and Prince's Plume are found in pockets of <a href="../../wp/s/Selenium.htm" title="Selenium">selenium</a>-rich soils. Common daytime animals include <!--del_lnk--> squirrels, <!--del_lnk--> Pinyon Jays, and <!--del_lnk--> Whiptail and <!--del_lnk--> Collared lizards (<!--del_lnk--> photo), while <!--del_lnk--> Desert Cottontails, <!--del_lnk--> Jackrabbits, and Merriam's Kangaroo Rats come out at night.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28669.jpg.htm" title="Chipmunks can be found roaming Zion Canyon."><img alt="Chipmunks can be found roaming Zion Canyon." height="105" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SquirrelAtZion.jpg" src="../../images/286/28669.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28669.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Chipmunks can be found roaming <b>Zion Canyon</b>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Cougars, <!--del_lnk--> Coyotes, <!--del_lnk--> Gray Foxes, and <!--del_lnk--> Ringtails are the top <!--del_lnk--> predators.<p>Cooler conditions persist at mid-elevation slopes, between 3900 to 5500 feet (1190 to 1680 m). Stunted forests of <!--del_lnk--> pinyon pine and <!--del_lnk--> Juniper coexist here with <!--del_lnk--> manzanita shrubs, <!--del_lnk--> cliffrose, <!--del_lnk--> serviceberry, <!--del_lnk--> Scrub Oak, and <!--del_lnk--> yucca.<p>Stands of <!--del_lnk--> Ponderosa Pine, <!--del_lnk--> Gambel Oak, manzanita and <!--del_lnk--> aspen populate the <!--del_lnk--> mesas and cliffs above 6000 feet (1830 m).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28670.jpg.htm" title="Mule Deer graze throughout the area and are the most-often seen megafauna."><img alt="Mule Deer graze throughout the area and are the most-often seen megafauna." height="90" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mule_Deer_in_Zion_Canyon.jpeg" src="../../images/286/28670.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28670.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Mule Deer graze throughout the area and are the most-often seen megafauna.</div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Eagle.htm" title="Golden Eagle">Golden Eagles</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Red-tailed Hawks, <a href="../../wp/p/Peregrine_Falcon.htm" title="Peregrine Falcon">Peregrine Falcons</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> White-throated Swifts can be seen in the area. <!--del_lnk--> California Condors and <!--del_lnk--> Bighorn Sheep were introduced in the 1990s. Nineteen species of <a href="../../wp/b/Bat.htm" title="Bat">bat</a> also live in the area.<p><!--del_lnk--> Boxelder, Fremont Cottonwood, <!--del_lnk--> maple, and <!--del_lnk--> willow dominate riparian plant communities. Animals such as the Bank Beaver, Flannel-mouth Suckers, <!--del_lnk--> Gnatcatchers, <!--del_lnk--> Dippers, <!--del_lnk--> Canyon Wrens, the Virgin Spinedace, and <!--del_lnk--> Water Striders all make their homes in the riparian zones. <!--del_lnk--> Mule Deer browse on vegetation throughout the park.<p><a id="Activities" name="Activities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Activities</span></h2>
<p>For many, the highlight of Zion is a trip up the main canyon to the Temple of Sinawava, via the park-run propane-powered free shuttle buses (operating April 1st to October 31st) or driving in their own vehicles the rest of the year. Spectacular, colorful sandstone cliffs soar into the sky above a flat-bottomed, forested valley floor.<p>Driving through the east side of Zion to <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Route 89 allows access north to <a href="../../wp/b/Bryce_Canyon_National_Park.htm" title="Bryce Canyon National Park">Bryce Canyon National Park</a> or south to the north rim of the <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a>. Due to the narrowness of the Zion-Mount Carmel Tunnel, RVs and buses must obtain a special pass and run through the tunnel during limited hours.<p>The more primitive sections of Zion include the Kolob Terrace and the Kolob Canyons. The Grotto in Zion Canyon and the viewpoint at the end of Kolob Canyons Road have the only designated <!--del_lnk--> picnic sites.<p>More than 150 miles (240 km) of maintained trails provide access to the roadless interior. Seven popular trails with round-trip times of half an hour (Weeping Rock) to 4 hours (Angels Landing) are found in Zion Canyon. Two popular trails, Taylor Creek (4 hours round trip) and Kolob Arch (9 hours round trip) are in the Kolob Canyons section of the park (near Cedar City). Hiking up into The Narrows from the Temple of Sinawava is a popular summertime diversion. Orderville Canyon, a narrower slot canyon, is also a favorite. Heartier souls can backpack down The Narrows from the top in two days, or hike down in one long day (12 hours). Other popular backpack trips include the West Rim Trail and LaVerkin Creek/Kolob Arch.<p>Zion is a centre for <!--del_lnk--> Rock climbing, with short walls like Touchstone, Moonlight Buttress, Spaceshot and Prodigal Son being very popular. There are many short free climbs, and a large number of hard, long aid climbs. Rockclimbing does not require a permit, though any anticipated bivy on a wall does. Certain areas are closed for raptor nesting in the spring.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28671.jpg.htm" title="Horseback riding in Zion"><img alt="Horseback riding in Zion" height="230" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Horseback_riding_in_Zion.jpg" src="../../images/286/28671.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/286/28671.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Horseback riding in Zion</div>
</div>
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<p>Zion is the USA's most concentrated centre for <!--del_lnk--> canyoneering. Popular routes like Pine Creek and Mystery Canyon were first descended in the 1950s and 1960s, with the last of the big drainages (Heaps) descended in 1982. Zion has a concentration of about 50 technical canyons, characterized by downclimbing and rappels in beautiful sandstone canyons. The most difficult canyons have long sections of entrenched narrows, with keeper potholes that require technical gear and specialized techniques to escape.<p>Lodging in the park is available at <!--del_lnk--> Zion Lodge, located halfway through Zion Canyon. Zion Lodge is open year-round and has <!--del_lnk--> motel units, cabins, a restaurant, café, and gift shop but rooms fill up fast. Three <!--del_lnk--> campgrounds are available; South and Watchman at the far south side of the park, and a primitive site at Lava Point in the middle of the park off Kolob Terrace Road. Watchman is the only campground in the park that takes reservations and Lava Point has only primitive facilities and is usually open from May to October. Camping in the backcountry requires permits.<p>Guided <!--del_lnk--> horseback riding trips, nature walks, and evening programs are available from late March to early November. The Junior Ranger Program for ages 6 to 12 is active from <!--del_lnk--> Memorial Day to <!--del_lnk--> Labor Day at the Zion Nature Centre.<p>Rangers at the Zion Canyon Visitor Center and the smaller Kolob Canyons Visitor Center can help visitors plan their stay. A bookstore attached to the Zion Canyon Visitor Centre, run by the Zion Natural History Association, offers books, maps, and souvenirs for sale, with proceeds benefiting the park. The Association also runs the Zion Human History Museum.<p>Zion Canyon IMAX in nearby Sprindale, features many interesting documentaries about the natural history of Zion Canyon and the American Southwest<p>Adjacent to the park on the south, is the town of <!--del_lnk--> Springdale, Utah which offers services such as lodging, food, and entertainment. There is also lodging, food and entertainment offered on the east side of the park along the <!--del_lnk--> Zion-Mount Carmel Highway and in <!--del_lnk--> Mt Carmel Junction.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zion_National_Park"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zionism</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Religion.Religious_movements_traditions_and_organizations.htm">Religious movements, traditions and organizations</a></h3>
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<td style="background-color: #077cd0; font-size: 1.6em"><a class="image" href="../../images/71/7157.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="37" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Israel.png" src="../../images/71/7157.png" width="30" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel"><span style="color:#fff">State of Israel</span></a></b> <a class="image" href="../../images/187/18742.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="29" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel.svg" src="../../images/71/7158.png" width="40" /></a></td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Geography</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Land of Israel · <!--del_lnk--> Districts · <!--del_lnk--> Cities<br /><!--del_lnk--> Transportation · <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a><br /><a href="../../wp/d/Dead_Sea.htm" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a> · <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> · <a href="../../wp/s/Sea_of_Galilee.htm" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a><br /><a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> · <a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Haifa</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> History</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jewish history · <!--del_lnk--> Timeline · <strong class="selflink">Zionism</strong> · <!--del_lnk--> Aliyah<br /><!--del_lnk--> Herzl · <!--del_lnk--> Balfour · <!--del_lnk--> Mandate · <!--del_lnk--> 1947 UN Plan<br /><!--del_lnk--> Independence · <!--del_lnk--> Flag · <!--del_lnk--> Austerity · <!--del_lnk--> Refugees<br />
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<th><a href="../../wp/a/Arab-Israeli_conflict.htm" title="Arab-Israeli conflict">Arab-Israeli conflict</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Proposals</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> 1948 War · <!--del_lnk--> 1949 Armistice · <!--del_lnk--> Suez War<br /><!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War · <!--del_lnk--> Attrition War<br /><a href="../../wp/y/Yom_Kippur_War.htm" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Lebanon War<br /><!--del_lnk--> Israel-Lebanon conflict<br /> Peace treaties with: <!--del_lnk--> Egypt, <!--del_lnk--> Jordan<br />
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Israeli-Palestinian conflict</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Timeline · <!--del_lnk--> Peace process · <!--del_lnk--> Peace camp<br /><!--del_lnk--> 1st Intifada · <!--del_lnk--> Oslo · <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Intifada<br /><!--del_lnk--> Terrorism · <!--del_lnk--> Barrier · <!--del_lnk--> Disengagement</td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Religion · <!--del_lnk--> Israeli Arabs · <!--del_lnk--> Kibbutz<br /><!--del_lnk--> Music · <!--del_lnk--> Archaeology · <!--del_lnk--> Universities<br /><a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Literature · <!--del_lnk--> Sport · <!--del_lnk--> Israelis</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Foreign affairs</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Intl. Law · <!--del_lnk--> UN · <!--del_lnk--> US · <!--del_lnk--> Arab League</td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Israel Defense Forces<br /><!--del_lnk--> Intelligence Community · <!--del_lnk--> Security Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Police · <!--del_lnk--> Border Police · <!--del_lnk--> Prison Service</td>
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<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Portal:Israel</b></td>
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<p><b>Zionism</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> political movement that supports a <!--del_lnk--> homeland for the <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> people in the <!--del_lnk--> Land of Israel, where Jewish <!--del_lnk--> nationhood is thought to have evolved somewhere between 1200 BCE and late <!--del_lnk--> Second Temple times, and where <!--del_lnk--> Jewish kingdoms existed up to the 2nd century <!--del_lnk--> CE.<p>Zionism is defined as "an international movement originally for the establishment of a Jewish national or religious community in Palestine and later for the support of modern Israel." It has been described as a <!--del_lnk--> diaspora <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. Its proponents regard it as a national liberation movement whose aim is the <!--del_lnk--> self-determination of the Jewish people.<p>While Zionism is based in part upon <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">religious tradition</a> linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, the modern movement was mainly <!--del_lnk--> secular, beginning largely as a response to rampant <!--del_lnk--> antisemitism in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> during the 19th century. At first one of several <!--del_lnk--> Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to the position of Jews in Europe, Zionism gradually gained more support. <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a> accelerated Jewish immigration to the Land of Israel and ultimate creation of the <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">State of Israel</a>. On May 14, 1948, the <!--del_lnk--> Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel stated: "In the year 5657 (1897), at the summons of the spiritual father of the Jewish State, Theodore Herzl, the First Zionist Congress convened and proclaimed the right of the Jewish people to national rebirth in its own country."<p>
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</script><a id="Terminology" name="Terminology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Terminology</span></h2>
<p>The word "Zionism" itself derived from the word "<!--del_lnk--> Zion" (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: ציון, <i>Tziyyon</i>), one of the names of <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, as mentioned in the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<p>It was coined as a term for Jewish <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> by <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> publisher <!--del_lnk--> Nathan Birnbaum in his journal <i>Self Emancipation</i> in 1890.<p>Since the founding of the State of Israel, the term "Zionism" is generally considered to mean support for Israel as a Jewish <!--del_lnk--> nation state. However, a variety of different, and sometimes competing, ideologies that support Israel fit under the general category of Zionism, such as <!--del_lnk--> Religious Zionism, <!--del_lnk--> Revisionist Zionism, and <!--del_lnk--> Labor Zionism. Thus, the term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to the programs of these ideologies, such as efforts to encourage <!--del_lnk--> Jewish emigration to Israel. The term Zionism is also sometimes used retroactively to describe the millennia-old <!--del_lnk--> Biblical connection between the Jewish people and the Land of Israel, which existed long before the birth of the modern Zionist movement.<p>Certain individuals and groups have used the term "Zionism" as a pejorative to justify attacks on Israel. In some cases, the label "Zionist" is also used as a <!--del_lnk--> euphemism for Jews in general by apologists for <!--del_lnk--> anti-Semitism. A historian of Zionism <!--del_lnk--> Walter Laqueur wrote in 2006:<blockquote>
<p>"... behind the cover of "anti-Zionism" lurks a variety of motives that ought to be called by their true name. When, in the 1950s under Stalin, the Jews of the Soviet Union came under severe attack and scores were executed, it was under the banner of anti-Zionism rather than anti-Semitism, which had been given a bad name by Adolf Hitler. When in later years the policy of Israeli governments was attacked as racist or colonialist in various parts of the world, the basis of the criticism was quite often the belief that Israel had no right to exist in the first place, not opposition to specific policies of the Israeli government. Traditional anti-Semitism has gone out of fashion in the West except on the extreme right. But something we might call post-anti-Semitism has taken its place. It is less violent in its aims, but still very real. By and large it has not been too difficult to differentiate between genuine and bogus anti-Zionism. The test is twofold. It is almost always clear whether the attacks are directed against a specific policy carried out by an Israeli government (for instance, as an occupying power) or against the existence of Israel. Secondly, there is the test of selectivity. If from all the evils besetting the world, the misdeeds, real or imaginary, of Zionism are singled out and given constant and relentless publicity, it can be taken for granted that the true motive is not anti-Zionism but something different and more sweeping." </blockquote>
<p>Zionism should be distinguished from <!--del_lnk--> Territorialism which was a Jewish nationalist movement calling for a Jewish homeland, but not necessarily in Palestine. During the early history of Zionism, a number of proposals were made for settling Jews outside of Europe but these all ultimately were rejected or failed. The debate over these proposals helped define the nature and focus of the Zionist movement.<p><a id="Historical_background" name="Historical_background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical background</span></h2>
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<p>The desire of Jews to return to their ancestral homeland has remained a universal Jewish theme since the defeat of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Jewish Revolt, and the <!--del_lnk--> destruction of Jerusalem by the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in the year <!--del_lnk--> 70, the later defeat of <!--del_lnk--> Bar Kokhba's revolt in <!--del_lnk--> 135, and the dispersal of the Jews to other parts of the Empire that followed. (During the <!--del_lnk--> Hellenistic Age many Jews had decided to leave Palestine to live in other parts of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> basin by their own free will; famous figures associated with these migrations include, for example, <!--del_lnk--> Philo of Alexandria). Due to the disastrous results of the revolt, what had been a human-driven movement to regain national sovereignty based on religious inspiration, became, after centuries of broken hopes associated with one "false messiah" after another, a movement in which much of the human element of messianic deliverance had been replaced by a trust in <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">Divine</a> providence. Although Jewish nationalism in ancient times had always had religious connotations—from the <!--del_lnk--> Maccabean Revolt to the various Jewish revolts during Roman rule, and even during the Medieval period when intermittently national hopes were incarnated in the "<!--del_lnk--> false messianism" of <!--del_lnk--> Shabbatai Zvi,—it was not until the rise of ideological and political Zionism and its renewed belief in human-based action toward Jewish national aspirations that the notion of returning to the homeland once again became widespread among the Jewish people.<p>Jews lived continuously in the Land of Israel even after the Bar Kokhba's revolt, and indeed there is much historical evidence of vibrant communities there continually throughout the past two millennia. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Jerusalem Talmud was created in the centuries following that revolt. The inventor of <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew vowel-signs in the 5th century lived in a Jewish community in Palestine; and so forth. The slow and gradual decline of the Palestinian Jews occurred across a period of several centuries, and can be attributed to Hadrian's crushing of Bar Kokhba's revolt, the Arab conquest of Palestine in the 600s, the <!--del_lnk--> Crusader wars in the 11th century and beyond, and the inefficiencies of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> from the 15th century on, by which time the land had greatly decreased in fertility and its economy was virtually nil.<p>Despite this decline, several proto-Zionist movements over the centuries saw the revival of particular Jewish communities, such as the medieval community of <!--del_lnk--> Safed, the population of which was bolstered by Jews fleeing Christian persecution following the <i><!--del_lnk--> Reconquista</i> of <i><!--del_lnk--> Al-Andalus</i> (the Muslim name of the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian peninsula). In <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> during this period, Jews were expelled by <!--del_lnk--> Manuel I or forced to convert to Christianity, — a policy that created the <!--del_lnk--> Marrano Jews, from which <a href="../../wp/b/Baruch_Spinoza.htm" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a> came. According to chronicler <!--del_lnk--> Jerónimo Osório, this followed the enslavement and partial expulsion of Jewish refugees from Spain during the reign of <!--del_lnk--> John II. The persecution of those with Jewish blood, no matter what faith, continued in Portugal untill well into the eighteenth century. In 1536, <!--del_lnk--> John III established the <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese Inquisition, mirroring the more famous <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Inquisition.htm" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a>, which imposed the <i><!--del_lnk--> limpieza de sangre</i> doctrine, breaking away with the <!--del_lnk--> Caliph of Córdoba's tolerance.<p>
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<p><a id="Aliyah_and_the_ingathering_of_the_exiles" name="Aliyah_and_the_ingathering_of_the_exiles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aliyah and the ingathering of the exiles</span></h3>
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<p>Return to the Land of Israel had remained a recurring theme among generations of <!--del_lnk--> diaspora Jews, particularly in <!--del_lnk--> Passover and <!--del_lnk--> Yom Kippur prayers which traditionally concluded with, "Next year in Jerusalem", and in the thrice-daily <!--del_lnk--> Amidah (Standing prayer).<p><i>Aliyah</i> (immigration to Israel) has always been considered to be a praiseworthy act for Jews according to <!--del_lnk--> Jewish law, and is included as a commandment in most versions of the <!--del_lnk--> 613 commandments. Although not found in the version of <!--del_lnk--> Maimonides, his other writings indicate that he considered return to the Land of Israel a matter of extreme importance for Jews. From the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and onwards, a number of famous Jews (and often their followers) immigrated to the Land of Israel. These included <!--del_lnk--> Nahmanides, <!--del_lnk--> Yechiel of Paris with several hundred of his students, <!--del_lnk--> Yosef Karo, <!--del_lnk--> Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk and 300 of his followers, and over 500 disciples (and their families) of the <!--del_lnk--> Vilna Gaon known as <!--del_lnk--> Perushim, among others.<p>
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<p><a id="Establishment_of_the_Zionist_movement" name="Establishment_of_the_Zionist_movement"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Establishment of the Zionist movement</span></h2>
<p><a id="Proto-Zionism" name="Proto-Zionism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Proto-Zionism</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Haskala of Jews in European countries in the <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a> and <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th centuries</a> following the <a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, and the spread of western liberal ideas among a section of newly emancipated Jews, created for the first time a class of <!--del_lnk--> secular Jews who absorbed the prevailing ideas of <!--del_lnk--> rationalism, <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a> and, most importantly, <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. Jews who had abandoned Judaism, at least in its traditional forms, began to develop a new Jewish identity, as a "nation" in the European sense. They were inspired by various national struggles, such as those for <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a> unification, and for <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Polish</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> independence. If Italians and Poles were entitled to a homeland, they asked, why were Jews not so entitled?<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14989.jpg.htm" title="1844 Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews by Mordecai Noah, page one. The second page shows the map of the Land of Israel"><img alt="1844 Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews by Mordecai Noah, page one. The second page shows the map of the Land of Israel" height="264" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1844_Discourse_on_the_Restoration_of_the_Jews_p1.jpg" src="../../images/149/14989.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14989.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1844 <i>Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Mordecai Noah, page one. The <!--del_lnk--> second page shows the map of the Land of Israel</div>
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<p>A precursor to the Zionist movement of the later 1800s occurred with the 1820 attempt by journalist, playwright and American-born diplomat <!--del_lnk--> Mordecai Manuel Noah to establish a Jewish homeland on <!--del_lnk--> Grand Island, New York, (north of <!--del_lnk--> Buffalo, New York, USA). In 1840s, Noah advocated the "Restoration of the Jews" in the Land of Israel.<p><a id="Rise_of_modern_political_Zionism" name="Rise_of_modern_political_Zionism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rise of modern political Zionism</span></h3>
<p>Before the 1890s there had already been attempts to settle Jews in Palestine, which was in the 19th century a part of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, inhabited (in 1890) by about 520,000 people, mostly <!--del_lnk--> Muslims and <!--del_lnk--> Christian <!--del_lnk--> Arabs—but including 20-25,000 Jews. <!--del_lnk--> Pogroms in the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Empire led Jewish philanthropists such as the <!--del_lnk--> Montefiores and the <!--del_lnk--> Rothschilds to sponsor agricultural settlements for Russian Jews in Palestine in the late 1870s, culminating in a small group of immigrants from Russia arriving in the country in 1882. This has become known in Zionist history as the <!--del_lnk--> First Aliyah. <i>Aliyah</i> is a Hebrew word meaning "ascent," referring to the act of spiritually "ascending" to the Holy Land.<p>While Zionism is based heavily upon <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish religious tradition</a> linking the Jewish people to the Land of Israel, the modern movement was mainly <!--del_lnk--> secular, beginning largely as a response to rampant <!--del_lnk--> anti-Semitism in late 19th century <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Moses Hess's 1862 work <i>Rome and Jerusalem; The Last National Question</i> argued for the Jews to settle in <!--del_lnk--> Palestine as a means of settling the <!--del_lnk--> national question. Hess proposed a <!--del_lnk--> socialist state in which the Jews would become <!--del_lnk--> agrarianised through a process of "redemption of the soil" that would transform the Jewish community into a true nation in that Jews would occupy the productive layers of society rather than being an intermediary non-productive merchant class, which is how he perceived European Jews. Hess, along with later thinkers such as <!--del_lnk--> Nahum Syrkin and <!--del_lnk--> Ber Borochov, is considered a founder of <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Zionism and <!--del_lnk--> Labour Zionism and one of the intellectual forebears of the <!--del_lnk--> kibbutz movement.<p>In the same year 1862, German Orthodox Rabbi <!--del_lnk--> Zvi Hirsch Kalischer published his tractate <i>Derishat Zion</i>, positing that the salvation of the Jews, promised by the Prophets, can come about only by self-help. His ideas contributed to the <!--del_lnk--> Religious Zionism movement.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14990.jpg.htm" title="Auto-Emancipation by J.L. Pinsker, 1882"><img alt="Auto-Emancipation by J.L. Pinsker, 1882" height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pinsker_Autoemanicipation.jpg" src="../../images/149/14990.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14990.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Auto-Emancipation</i> by J.L. Pinsker, 1882</div>
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<p>Early Zionist groups such as <!--del_lnk--> Hibbat Zion were active in the 1880s in the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe where emancipation had not occurred to the extent it did in <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe (or at all). The massive <!--del_lnk--> anti-Jewish <!--del_lnk--> pogroms following the assassination of <!--del_lnk--> Tsar Alexander II made emancipation seem more elusive than ever, and influenced <!--del_lnk--> Judah Leib Pinsker to publish the pamphlet <i><!--del_lnk--> Auto-Emancipation</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1882. In 1890, the "Society for the Support of Jewish Farmers and Artisans in Syria and Eretz Israel" (better known as the <!--del_lnk--> Odessa Committee) was officially registered as a <!--del_lnk--> charitable organization in the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Empire and by 1897 it counted over 4,000 members.<p><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> Protestant <!--del_lnk--> Christian Zionists such as <!--del_lnk--> William Eugene Blackstone also pursued the Zionist ideal during late 19th century, especially in the American <!--del_lnk--> Blackstone Memorial (1891).<table align="right" style="float; margin: 10px; border: solid 1px #bbb; width: 298px;">
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<p><a class="image" href="../../images/149/14991.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="204" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Theodore_Herzl.jpg" src="../../images/149/14991.jpg" width="150" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Der_JudenStaat.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="130" /></td>
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<td>T. Herzl and his 1896 book <i>The Jewish State</i></td>
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<p>A key event said to trigger the modern Zionist movement was the <!--del_lnk--> Dreyfus Affair, which erupted in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> in 1894. Jews were profoundly shocked to see this outbreak of anti-Semitism in a country which they thought of as the home of enlightenment and liberty. Among those who witnessed the Affair was an Austro-Hungarian (born in <a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, lived in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>) Jewish journalist, <!--del_lnk--> Theodor Herzl, who published his pamphlet <i><!--del_lnk--> Der Judenstaat</i> ("The Jewish State") in 1896 and described the Affair as a turning point—prior to the Affair, Herzl had been anti-Zionist, afterwards he became ardently pro-Zionist. In 1897 Herzl organised the <!--del_lnk--> First Zionist Congress in <a href="../../wp/b/Basel.htm" title="Basel">Basel</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, which founded the <!--del_lnk--> World Zionist Organisation (WZO) and elected Herzl as its first President.<p><a id="Agricultural_settlements" name="Agricultural_settlements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Agricultural settlements</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14993.jpg.htm" title="The first aliyah: Biluim used to wear the traditional Arab headdress, the kaffiyeh"><img alt="The first aliyah: Biluim used to wear the traditional Arab headdress, the kaffiyeh" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:First_aliyah_BILU_in_kuffiyeh.jpg" src="../../images/149/14993.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14993.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The first aliyah: <!--del_lnk--> Biluim used to wear the traditional Arab headdress, the <!--del_lnk--> kaffiyeh</div>
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<p>Founded in 1878, <!--del_lnk--> Petah Tikva was the first <!--del_lnk--> Zionist settlement. It was inhabited by former residents of <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> hoping to escape the cramped quarters of <!--del_lnk--> Jerusalem's Old City walls.<p><!--del_lnk--> Rishon LeZion was founded on <!--del_lnk--> 31 July <!--del_lnk--> 1882 by a group of ten members of the Zionist group <!--del_lnk--> Hovevei Zion from <!--del_lnk--> Kharkov (today's <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>). Led by <!--del_lnk--> Zalman David Levontin, they purchased 835 acres (3.4 km²) of land for this purpose near an <!--del_lnk--> Arab village named <!--del_lnk--> Uyun Qara. The land was owned by Tzvi Leventine and was purchased by the "Pioneers of Jewish Settlement Committee" that was formed in <!--del_lnk--> Jaffa, the port of arrival for many of the immigrants to the area.<p><a id="Early_Zionist_initiatives" name="Early_Zionist_initiatives"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early Zionist initiatives</span></h3>
<p>In 1883, <!--del_lnk--> Nathan Birnbaum, nineteen years old, founded <i>Kadimah</i>, the first Jewish Students Association in Vienna. In 1884 the first issue of <i>Selbstemanzipation</i> or <i>Self <!--del_lnk--> Emancipation</i> appeared, completely made by Nathan Birnbaum himself.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14994.jpg.htm" title="Theodor Herzl addresses the Second Zionist Congress in 1898."><img alt="Theodor Herzl addresses the Second Zionist Congress in 1898." height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Herzelandsecondcongress.jpg" src="../../images/149/14994.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14994.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Theodor Herzl addresses the Second Zionist Congress in 1898.</div>
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<p>Together with Nathan Birnbaum, Herzl planned the first Zionist Congress in Basel. During the congress, the following agreement was reached:<blockquote>
<p>Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Eretz-Israel secured under public law. The Congress contemplates the following means to the attainment of this end:<ul>
<li>The promotion by appropriate means of the settlement in Eretz-Israel of Jewish farmers, artisans, and manufacturers.<li>The organization and uniting of the whole of Jewry by means of appropriate institutions, both local and international, in accordance with the laws of each country.<li>The strengthening and fostering of Jewish national sentiment and national consciousness.<li>Preparatory steps toward obtaining the consent of governments, where necessary, in order to reach the goals of Zionism.</ul>
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<p>After the First Zionist Congress, the <!--del_lnk--> World Zionist Organization met every year first four years, later they gathered every second year till the Second World War. After the war the Congress met every four years until present time.<p>The WZO's initial strategy was to obtain permission of the <!--del_lnk--> Ottoman Sultan <!--del_lnk--> Abd-ul-Hamid II to allow systematic Jewish settlement in Palestine. The good offices of the German Emperor, <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm II, were sought, but nothing came of this. Instead, the WZO pursued a strategy of building a homeland through persistent small-scale immigration, and the founding of such bodies as the <!--del_lnk--> Jewish National Fund in 1901 and the Anglo-Palestine Bank in 1903.<p><a id="Alternative_proposals" name="Alternative_proposals"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alternative proposals</span></h3>
<p>Before 1917 some Zionist leaders took seriously proposals for Jewish homelands in places other than Palestine. Herzl's <i>Der Judenstaat</i> argued for a Jewish state in either Palestine, "our ever-memorable historic home", or <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, "one of the most fertile countries in the world". In 1903 British cabinet ministers suggested the <!--del_lnk--> British Uganda Program, land for a Jewish state in "<a href="../../wp/u/Uganda.htm" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>" (in today's <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>). Herzl initially rejected the idea, preferring Palestine, but after the April 1903 <!--del_lnk--> Kishinev pogrom Herzl introduced a controversial proposal to the Sixth Zionist Congress to investigate the offer as a temporary measure for Russian Jews in danger. Notwithstanding its emergency and temporary nature, the proposal still proved very divisive, and widespread opposition to the plan was fueled by a walkout led by the Russian Jewish delegation to the Congress. Nevertheless, a majority voted to establish a committee for the investigation of the possibility, and it was not dismissed until the 7th Zionist Congress in 1905.<p>In response to this, the <!--del_lnk--> Jewish Territorialist Organization (ITO) led by <!--del_lnk--> Israel Zangwill split off from the main Zionist movement. The <!--del_lnk--> territorialists attempted to establish a Jewish homeland wherever possible, but went into decline after 1917 and the ITO was dissolved in 1925. From that time Palestine was the sole focus of Zionist aspirations. In 1928, the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> established a <!--del_lnk--> Jewish Autonomous Oblast in the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Far East but the effort failed to meet expectations and as of 2002 Jews constitute only about 1.2% of its population.<p><a id="New_Jewish_mentality" name="New_Jewish_mentality"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">New Jewish mentality</span></h3>
<p>One of the major motivations for Zionism was the belief that the Jews needed to return to their historic homeland, not just as a refuge from anti-Semitism, but also to govern themselves as an independent nation. Some Zionists, mainly socialist Zionists, believed that the Jews' centuries of being oppressed in anti-Semitic societies had reduced Jews to a meek, vulnerable, despairing existence which invited further anti-Semitism. They argued that Jews should redeem themselves from their history by becoming farmers, workers, and soldiers in a country of their own. These socialist Zionists generally rejected religion as perpetuating a "<!--del_lnk--> Diaspora mentality" among the Jewish people.<p>One such Zionist ideologue, <!--del_lnk--> Ber Borochov, continuing from the work of <!--del_lnk--> Moses Hess, proposed the creation of a socialist society that would correct the "inverted pyramid" of Jewish society. Borochov believed that Jews were forced out of normal occupations by Gentile hostility and competition, using this dynamic to explain the relative predominance of Jewish professionals, rather than workers. Jewish society, he argued, would not be healthy until the inverted pyramid was righted, and the majority of Jews became workers and peasants again. This, he held, could only be accomplished by Jews in their own country. Another Zionist thinker, <!--del_lnk--> A. D. Gordon, was influenced by the <i><!--del_lnk--> völkisch</i> ideas of European romantic nationalism, and proposed establishing a society of Jewish peasants. Gordon made a religion of work. These two figures, and others like them, motivated the establishment of the first Jewish collective settlement, or <!--del_lnk--> kibbutz, <!--del_lnk--> Degania, on the southern shore of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sea_of_Galilee.htm" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a>, in 1909 (the same year that the city of <a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a> was established). Deganiah, and many other <!--del_lnk--> kibbutzim that were soon to follow, attempted to realise these thinkers' vision by creating a communal villages, where newly arrived European Jews would be taught agriculture and other manual skills.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14996.jpg.htm" title="Tel Aviv, its name taken from a work by Theodor Herzl, was founded by Zionists on empty dunes north of Jaffa. This photograph is of the auction of the first lots in 1909."><img alt="Tel Aviv, its name taken from a work by Theodor Herzl, was founded by Zionists on empty dunes north of Jaffa. This photograph is of the auction of the first lots in 1909." height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Telaviv_founding_1909.jpg" src="../../images/149/14996.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14996.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>, its name taken from a work by Theodor Herzl, was founded by Zionists on empty dunes north of Jaffa. This photograph is of the auction of the first lots in 1909.</div>
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<p>Another aspect of this strategy was the revival and fostering of an "indigenous" Jewish culture and the <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a>. One early Zionist thinker, Asher Ginsberg, better known by his penname <!--del_lnk--> Ahad Ha'am ("One of the People") rejected what he regarded as the over-emphasis of political Zionism on statehood, at the expense of the revival of Hebrew culture. Ahad Ha'am recognised that the effort to achieve independence in Palestine would bring Jews into conflict with the native Palestinian Arab population, as well as with the Ottomans and European colonial powers then eying the country. Instead, he proposed that the emphasis of the Zionist movement shift to efforts to revive the Hebrew language and create a new culture, free from Diaspora influences, that would unite Jews and serve as a common denominator between diverse Jewish communities once independence was achieved.<p>The most prominent follower of this idea was <!--del_lnk--> Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, a linguist intent on reviving Hebrew as a spoken language among Jews (<i>see <!--del_lnk--> History of the Hebrew language</i>). Most European Jews in the 19th century spoke <!--del_lnk--> Yiddish, a language based on mediaeval German, but as of the 1880s, Ben Yehuda and his supporters began promoting the use and teaching of a modernised form of biblical Hebrew, which had not been a living language for nearly 2,000 years. Despite Herzl's efforts to have German proclaimed the official language of the Zionist movement, the use of Hebrew was adopted as official policy by Zionist organisations in Palestine, and served as an important unifying force among the Jewish settlers, many of whom also took new Hebrew names.<p>The development of the first modern Hebrew-speaking city (<a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>), the <!--del_lnk--> kibbutz movement, and other Jewish economic institutions, plus the use of Hebrew, began by the 1920s to lay the foundations of a new nationality, which would come into formal existence in 1948. Meanwhile, other cultural Zionists attempted to create new Jewish artforms, including graphic arts. (<!--del_lnk--> Boris Schatz, a Bulgarian artist, founded the <!--del_lnk--> Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design in Jerusalem in 1906.) Others, such as dancer and artist <!--del_lnk--> Baruch Agadati, fostered popular festivals such as the Adloyada carnival on <!--del_lnk--> Purim.<p><a id="British_influence" name="British_influence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">British influence</span></h3>
<p>Ideas of the restoration of the Jews in the Land of Israel entered the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British</a> public discourse in the 19th century. Not all such attitudes were favorable towards the Jews; they were shaped in part by a variety of <!--del_lnk--> Protestant beliefs, or by a streak of <!--del_lnk--> philo-Semitism among the classically educated British elite, or by hopes to extend the Empire. <i>(See <!--del_lnk--> The Great Game)</i><p>At the urging of <!--del_lnk--> Lord Shaftesbury, Britain established a consulate in Jerusalem in 1838, the first diplomatic appointment in the Land of Israel. In 1839, the <!--del_lnk--> Church of Scotland sent <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Bonar and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Murray M'Cheyne to report on the condition of the Jews in their land. Their report was widely published and was followed by a "Memorandum to Protestant Monarchs of Europe for the restoration of the Jews to Palestine." In August 1840, <i>The Times</i> reported that the British government was considering Jewish restoration.<p>Lord Lindsay wrote in 1847: "The soil of Palestine still enjoys her sabbaths, and only waits for the return of her banished children, and the application of industry, commensurate with her agricultural capabilities, to burst once more into universal luxuriance, and be all that she ever was in the days of Solomon." The <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Paris (1856) granted Jews and Christians the right to settle in Palestine and opened the doors for Jewish immigration. In her 1876 novel <i><!--del_lnk--> Daniel Deronda</i>, <a href="../../wp/g/George_Eliot.htm" title="George Eliot">George Eliot</a> advocated "the restoration of a Jewish state planted in the old ground as a centre of a national feeling, a source of dignifying protection, a special channel for special energies and an added voice in the councils of the world."<p><a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" title="Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield">Benjamin Disraeli</a> wrote in his article entitled "The Jewish Question is the Oriental Quest" (1877) that within fifty years a nation of one million Jews would reside in Palestine under the guidance of the British. <!--del_lnk--> Moses Montefiore visited the Land of Israel seven times and fostered its development.<p><!--del_lnk--> Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire allowed the British <!--del_lnk--> place missions in the region and to institute charitable projects such as hospitals, settlement colonies and exploratory surveys and by the end of the 19th century, British interest in the Middle East increased because it was considered essential to guard the route to <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>.<p>The Zionist leaders always saw <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> as a key potential ally in the struggle for a Jewish homeland. Not only was Britain the world's greatest imperial power; it was also a country where Jews had lived for centuries in relative peace and security — among them influential political and cultural leaders such as Disraeli, Montefiore and <!--del_lnk--> Lord Rothschild.<p><!--del_lnk--> Chaim Weizmann's <!--del_lnk--> invention of cordite was critical for the <!--del_lnk--> Allies of World War I. In his meetings with the British Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Lloyd George and the <!--del_lnk--> First Lord of the Admiralty <a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, Weizmann, the leader of the Zionist movement since 1904, was able to advance the Zionist cause for which the war had created new prospects.<p>This hope was realised in 1917, when the British Foreign Secretary, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Balfour, made his famous <!--del_lnk--> Declaration in favour of "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people". The Declaration used the word "home" rather than "state," and specified that its establishment must not "prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine."<p><a id="Jewish_attitudes_to_Zionism_before_the_founding_of_Israel" name="Jewish_attitudes_to_Zionism_before_the_founding_of_Israel"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Jewish attitudes to Zionism before the founding of Israel</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14997.jpg.htm" title="Poster from the Zionist Tarbut schools of Poland in the 1930s. Zionist parties were very active in Polish politics. In the 1922 Polish elections, Zionists held 24 seats of a total of 35 Jewish parliament members."><img alt="Poster from the Zionist Tarbut schools of Poland in the 1930s. Zionist parties were very active in Polish politics. In the 1922 Polish elections, Zionists held 24 seats of a total of 35 Jewish parliament members." height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tarbut.jpg" src="../../images/149/14997.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/149/14997.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Poster from the Zionist Tarbut schools of <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> in the 1930s. Zionist parties were very active in <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Polish</a> politics. In the 1922 Polish elections, Zionists held 24 seats of a total of 35 Jewish parliament members.</div>
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<p>The chain of events between 1881 and 1945, beginning with waves of anti-Semitic <!--del_lnk--> pogroms in <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <!--del_lnk--> the Russian-controlled areas of Poland, and culminating in <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, converted the great majority of surviving Jews to the belief that a Jewish homeland was an urgent necessity, particularly given the large population of disenfranchised <!--del_lnk--> Jewish refugees after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Most also became convinced that the Land of Israel was the only location that was both acceptable to all strands of Jewish thought and within the realms of practical possibility. This led to the great majority of Jews supporting the struggle between 1945 and 1948 to establish the State of Israel, though many did not condone violent tactics used by some Zionist groups.<p><a id="Opposition_or_ambivalence" name="Opposition_or_ambivalence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Opposition or ambivalence</span></h3>
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<p>Initially, support for political Zionism was not a mainstream position in the Jewish communities scattered around the world. The secular, socialist language used by many pioneer Zionists was contrary to the outlook of most religious Jewish communities, and many religious organisations opposed it, both on the grounds that it was a secular movement, and on the grounds that any attempt to re-establish Jewish rule in Israel by <!--del_lnk--> human agency was blasphemous, since (in their view) only the <!--del_lnk--> Messiah could accomplish this.<p>While traditional <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish belief</a> held that the Land of Israel was given to the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Israelites by <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>, and that therefore the right of the Jews to that land was permanent and inalienable, most <!--del_lnk--> Orthodox groups held that the Messiah must appear before Israel could return to Jewish control. Prior to <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Reform Judaism explicitly rejected Zionism.<p>When the Balfour Declaration was issued in 1917, <!--del_lnk--> Edwin Montagu, the only Jew in the British Cabinet, "was passionately opposed to the declaration on the grounds that (a) it was a capitulation to anti-Semitic bigotry, with its suggestion that Palestine was the natural destination of the Jews, and that (b) it would be a grave cause of alarm to the Muslim world."<dl>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Haredi Jewish opinion was overwhelmingly negative, with several Hasidic groups calling Zionists the personification of Satan, blaming Zionism for the Holocaust, accusing them of being the source of all evil in the world and defiling the entire world with their impurity.<p><a id="Support" name="Support"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Support</span></h3>
<p>The 1911 edition of the <!--del_lnk--> Jewish Encyclopedia evidenced the movement's growing popularity: "there is hardly a nook or corner of the Jewish world in which Zionistic societies are not to be found."<dl>
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<p>In the 1920s and 1930s, a small but vocal group of religious Jews began to develop the concept of <!--del_lnk--> Religious Zionism under such leaders as Rabbi <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Isaac Kook (the Chief Rabbi of Palestine) and his son Zevi Judah, and gained substantial following during the latter half of the 20th century. Only the desperate circumstances of the 1930s and 1940s converted most (though not all) of these communities to Zionism. By 1940, there were 171,000 members of Zionist organizations, and by 1942, 80% of American Jews surveyed agreed that a homeland in Palestine was required.<p><a id="Zionism_and_the_Arabs" name="Zionism_and_the_Arabs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zionism and the Arabs</span></h2>
<p>The Jews who already lived in the region of <!--del_lnk--> Palestine had a long and complex <!--del_lnk--> history of interaction with their Muslim neighbours and rulers, which was complicated by the relationship between <!--del_lnk--> Islam and Judaism.<p>Outside of <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Safed, and <!--del_lnk--> Tiberias, <!--del_lnk--> Arabs and/or <!--del_lnk--> Muslims constituted the overwhelming majority of the population. The early Zionists were well aware of this, but claimed that the inhabitants could only benefit from Jewish immigration. They also were inclined to settle in uninhabited areas, such as the coastal plain and the <!--del_lnk--> Jezreel Valley, thus avoiding conflict with the Arabs. Within Zionist literature, the Arab presence was largely ignored, as in the famous slogan "A land without a people for a people without a land." This slogan is often attributed to <!--del_lnk--> Israel Zangwill, but its original form, "A country without a nation for a nation without a country," was penned by <!--del_lnk--> Lord Shaftesbury. Generally such statements were propaganda invented by leaders who did not foresee the subsequent conflict with the Arabs and thought of them as allies against the big empires whom they viewed as the main obstacle. Agreements with the Ottoman authorities, or with Arab rulers outside Palestine were their main concern and concerns of the local Arabs were overlooked.<p>One of the earlier Zionists to warn against these ideas was <!--del_lnk--> Ahad Ha'am, who warned in his 1891 essay "Truth from Eretz Israel" that in Palestine "it is hard to find tillable land that is not already tilled", and moreover,<blockquote>
<p>From abroad we are accustomed to believing that the Arabs are all desert savages, like donkeys, who neither see nor understand what goes on around them. But this is a big mistake... The Arabs, and especially those in the cities, understand our deeds and our desires in Eretz Israel, but they keep quiet and pretend not to understand, since they do not see our present activities as a threat to their future... However, if the time comes when the life of our people in Eretz Israel develops to the point of encroaching upon the native population, they will not easily yield their place.</blockquote>
<p>Though there had already been Arab protests to the Ottoman authorities in the 1880s against land sales to foreign Jews, the most serious opposition began in the 1890s after the full scope of the Zionist enterprise became known. This opposition did not arise out of Palestinian nationalism, which was in its infancy at the time, but out of a sense of threat to the livelihood of the Arabs. This sense was heightened in the early years of the 20th century by the Zionist attempts to develop an economy in which Arabs were largely redundant, such as the "Hebrew labor" movement that campaigned against the employment of Arabs. The severing of Palestine from the rest of the Arab world in 1918 and the <!--del_lnk--> Balfour Declaration were seen by the Arabs as proof that their fears were coming to fruition.<p>A wide range of opinion could be found among Zionist leaders after 1920. However, the division between these camps did not match the main threads in Zionist politics so cleanly as is often portrayed. To take an example, the leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Revisionist Zionists, <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Jabotinsky, is often presented as having had an extreme pro-expulsion view but the proofs offered for this are rather thin. According to Jabotinsky's <i>Iron Wall</i> (1923), an agreement with the Arabs was impossible, since they<blockquote>
<p>look upon Palestine with the same instinctive love and true fervor that any <a href="../../wp/a/Aztec.htm" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> looked upon his <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> or any <!--del_lnk--> Sioux looked upon his prairie. To think that the Arabs will voluntarily consent to the realization of Zionism in return for the cultural and economic benefits we can bestow on them is infantile.</blockquote>
<p>The solution, according to Jabotinsky, was not expulsion (which he was "prepared to swear, for us and our descendants, that we will never [do]") but to impose the Jewish presence on the Arabs by force of arms until eventually they came to accept it. Only late in his life did Jabotinsky speak of the desirability of Arab emigration though still without unequivocally advocating an expulsion policy. After the <!--del_lnk--> World Zionist Organization rejected Jabotinsky's proposals, he resigned from the organization and founded the <!--del_lnk--> New Zionist Organization in 1933 to promote his views and work independently for immigration and the establishment of a state. The NZO rejoined the WZO in 1951.<p>The situation with socialist Zionists such as <!--del_lnk--> David Ben-Gurion was also ambiguous. In public Ben-Gurion upheld the official position of his party that denied the necessity of force in achieving Zionist goals. The argument was based on the denial of a unique Palestinian identity coupled with the belief that eventually the Arabs would realise that Zionism was to their advantage. The British plan was soon shelved, but the idea of a Jewish state with a minimal population of Arabs remained an important thread in Labour Zionist thought throughout the remaining period until the creation of <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<p>The attitude of the Zionist leaders towards the Arab population of Palestine in the lead-up to the 1948 conflict is one of the most hotly debated issues in Zionist history. This article does not cover it; see <!--del_lnk--> 1936-1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, <!--del_lnk--> Israel-Palestinian conflict, and the <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian exodus for more information on this.<p><a id="The_struggle_for_Palestine" name="The_struggle_for_Palestine"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The struggle for Palestine</span></h2>
<p><a id="Before_the_Holocaust" name="Before_the_Holocaust"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Before the Holocaust</span></h3>
<p>With the defeat and dismantling of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, and the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> British Mandate over Palestine by the <a href="../../wp/l/League_of_Nations.htm" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> in 1922, the Zionist movement entered a new phase of activity. Its priorities were the escalation of Jewish settlement in Palestine, the building of the institutional foundations of a Jewish state, raising funds for these purposes, and persuading — or forcing — the British authorities not to take any steps which would lead to Palestine moving towards independence as an Arab-majority state. The 1920s did see a steady growth in the Jewish population and the construction of state-like Jewish institutions, but also saw the emergence of Palestinian Arab nationalism and growing resistance to Jewish immigration.<p>International Jewish opinion remained divided on the merits of the Zionist project. While many Jews in Europe and the United States argued that a Jewish homeland was not needed because Jews were able to live in the democratic countries of the West as equal citizens, others supported Zionism.<p><a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> was one of the prominent supporters of Zionism, and was active in the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which published in 1930 a volume titled <i>About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein</i>, and to which Einstein bequeathed his papers. However, he opposed nationalism and expressed skepticism about whether a Jewish nation-state was the best solution. He said: "I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain, especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks."<p>Many Jews who embraced <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialism</a> and <!--del_lnk--> proletarian internationalism opposed Zionism as a form of <!--del_lnk--> bourgeois nationalism. The <!--del_lnk--> General Jewish Labor Union (Bund), which represented socialist Jews in eastern Europe, was anti-Zionist. Some Jewish factions tried to blend <!--del_lnk--> Jewish Autonomism with Zionism, favoring Jewish self-rule in the diaspora until diaspora Jews make aliyah.<p>The Communist parties, which attracted substantial Jewish support during the 1920s and 1930s, were even more vigorously internationalist and therefore anti-Zionist, if one defines Zionism as the advocacy of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. During this time the Soviet <!--del_lnk--> OZET/<!--del_lnk--> Komzet actively promoted an alternative Jewish homeland — the <!--del_lnk--> Jewish Autonomous Oblast with its capital in <!--del_lnk--> Birobidzhan set up in the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Far East.<p>At the other extreme, some American Jews went so far as to say that the United States <i>was</i> Zion, and the successful absorption of two million Jewish immigrants in the 30 years before <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> lent force to this argument. Some American Jewish socialists supported the Birobidzhan experiment, and a few even migrated there during the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression.<p><a id="Rise_of_the_Nazis_in_Germany" name="Rise_of_the_Nazis_in_Germany"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rise of the Nazis in Germany</span></h3>
<p>The rise to power of <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in Germany in 1933 produced a powerful new impetus for Zionism. Not only did it create a flood of <!--del_lnk--> Jewish refugees but it undermined the faith of Jews that they could live in security as minorities in non-Jewish societies. Jewish opinion began to shift in favour of Zionism, and pressure for more <!--del_lnk--> Jewish immigration to Palestine increased. But the more Jews settled in Palestine, the more aroused local Arab opinion became, and the more difficult the situation became in Palestine. In 1936 serious Arab rioting broke out, and in response the British authorities held the unsuccessful <!--del_lnk--> St. James Conference and issued the <!--del_lnk--> MacDonald White Paper of 1939, severely restricting further Jewish immigration.<p>The Jewish community in Palestine responded by organising armed forces, based on smaller units developed to defend remote agricultural settlements. Two military movements were founded, the Labor-dominated <!--del_lnk--> Haganah and the Revisionist <!--del_lnk--> Irgun. The latter group did not hesitate to retaliate in military action against the Arab population. With the advent of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, both groups decided that defeating Hitler took priority over the fight against the British. However, attacks against British targets were recommenced in 1940 by a splinter group of the Irgun, later known as <!--del_lnk--> Lehi, and in 1944 by the Irgun itself.<p><a id="After_the_Holocaust" name="After_the_Holocaust"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">After the Holocaust</span></h3>
<p>The revelation of the fate of six million European Jews murdered during <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> had several consequences. Firstly, it left hundreds of thousands of Jewish refugees (or displaced persons) in camps in Europe, unable or unwilling to return to homes in countries which they felt had betrayed them to the Nazis. Not all of these refugees wanted to go to Palestine, and in fact many of them eventually went to other countries, but large numbers of them did, and they resorted to increasingly desperate measures to get there; over 250,000 were smuggled out of Europe by an organization called <!--del_lnk--> Berihah.<p>Secondly, it evoked a world-wide feeling of sympathy with the Jewish people, mingled with guilt that more had not been done to deter Hitler's aggressions before the war, or to help Jews escape from Europe during its course. This was particularly the case in the United States, whose federal government had halted Jewish immigration during the war. Among those who became strong supporters of the Zionist ideal was President <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, who overrode considerable opposition in his <!--del_lnk--> State Department and used the great power of his position to mobilise support at the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> for the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. Since Britain was desperate to withdraw from Palestine, Truman's efforts were the crucial factor in the creation of Israel. This also corresponded with the Soviet effort to establish their influence in the Middle East. During the <!--del_lnk--> 1947 UN Partition Plan debate on <!--del_lnk--> May 14, 1947, the Soviet ambassador <!--del_lnk--> Gromyko announced:<blockquote>
<p>"As we know, the aspirations of a considerable part of the Jewish people are linked with the problem of Palestine and of its future administration. This fact scarcely requires proof... During the last war, the Jewish people underwent exceptional sorrow and suffering... The United Nations cannot and must not regard this situation with indifference, since this would be incompatible with the high principles proclaimed in its Charter... The fact that no Western European State has been able to ensure the defence of the elementary rights of the Jewish people and to safeguard it against the violence of the fascist executioners explains the aspirations of the Jews to establish their own State. It would be unjust not to take this into consideration and to deny the right of the Jewish people to realize this aspiration."</blockquote>
<p>Thirdly, it swung world Jewish opinion almost unanimously behind the project of a Jewish state in Palestine, and within Palestine it led to a greater resolution to use force to achieve that objective. American <!--del_lnk--> Reform Judaism was among the elements of Jewish thought which changed their opinions about Zionism after the Holocaust. The proposition that Jews could live in peace and security in non-Jewish societies was certainly a difficult one to defend in 1945, although it is one of the ironies of Zionist history that in the decades since World War II anti-Semitism has greatly declined as a serious political force in most western countries, though it increased greatly in Middle Eastern countries.<p><a id="Zionism_and_Israel" name="Zionism_and_Israel"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zionism and Israel</span></h2>
<p>In 1947 Britain announced its intention to withdraw from Palestine, and on <!--del_lnk--> 29 November the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations General Assembly voted to partition Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state (with Jerusalem becoming an international enclave). The Jewish Agency accepted the plan, while the Arabs of Palestine and the neighboring countries rejected it and commenced to use force to abort the establishment on a Jewish state in the area allotted to it by the UN. Civil conflict between the Arabs and Jews in Palestine ensued immediately. On <!--del_lnk--> 14 May <!--del_lnk--> 1948 the leaders of the Jewish community in Palestine made a declaration of independence, and the state of Israel was established. This marked a major turning point in the Zionist movement, as its principal goal had now been accomplished. Many Zionist institutions were reshaped, and the three military movements combined to form the <!--del_lnk--> Israel Defence Forces.<p>The majority of the Arab population having either fled or been expelled during the War of Independence, Jews were now a majority of the population within the 1948 ceasefire lines, which became Israel's <i>de facto</i> borders until 1967. In 1950 the <!--del_lnk--> Knesset passed the <!--del_lnk--> Law of Return which granted all Jews the right to immigrate to Israel. This, together with the influx of Jewish refugees from Europe and the later flood of expelled Jews from Arab countries, had the effect of creating a large and apparently permanent Jewish majority in Israel.<p>Since 1948 the international Zionist movement has undertaken a variety of roles in support of Israel. These have included the encouragement of immigration, assisting the absorption and integration of immigrants, fundraising on behalf of settlement and development projects in Israel, the encouragement of private capital investment in Israel, and mobilisation of world public opinion in support of Israel.<p>The 1967 war between Israel and the Arab states (the "<!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War") marked a major turning point in the history of Israel and of Zionism. Israeli forces captured the eastern half of Jerusalem, including the holiest of Jewish religious sites, the <!--del_lnk--> Western Wall of the ancient Temple. They also took over the remaining territories of pre-1948 Palestine, the <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> (from Jordan) and the <a href="../../wp/g/Gaza_Strip.htm" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a> (from <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>). Religious Jews regarded the West Bank (ancient <!--del_lnk--> Judaea and <!--del_lnk--> Samaria) as an integral part of Eretz Israel, and within Israel voices of the political Right soon began to argue that these territories should be permanently retained. Zionist groups began to build Jewish settlements in the territories as a means of establishing "facts on the ground" that would make an Israeli withdrawal impossible.<p>The 28th Zionist Congress (Jerusalem, 1968) adopted the following five principles, known as the "Jerusalem Program", as the aims of contemporary Zionism:<ul>
<li>The unity of the Jewish people and the centrality of Israel in Jewish life<li>The ingathering of the Jewish people in the historic homeland, Eretz Israel, through <!--del_lnk--> aliyah from all countries<li>The strengthening of the State of Israel, based on the "prophetic vision of justice and peace"<li>The preservation of the identity of the Jewish people through the fostering of Jewish, Hebrew and Zionist education and of Jewish spiritual and cultural values<li>The protection of Jewish rights everywhere.</ul>
<p>Control of the West Bank and Gaza placed Israel in the position of control over a large population of Palestinian Arabs. Whether or not there had been a distinct Palestinian national identity in the 1920s may be debated, but there is no doubt that by the 1960s such an identity was firmly established — the founders of Zionism had thus, ironically, created two new nationalities, Israeli and Palestinian, instead of one.<p>The faith of the Palestinians in the willingness and ability of the Arab states to defeat Israel and return Palestine to Arab rule was destroyed by the war, and the death of the most militant and popular Arab leader, <!--del_lnk--> Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, in 1970 reinforced the belief of Palestinians that they had been abandoned. The <!--del_lnk--> PLO, created in 1964 after a proposal by Nasser at the first <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab Summit</a>, took on new life as an autonomous movement led by <!--del_lnk--> Yasser Arafat, and soon turned to <a href="../../wp/t/Terrorism.htm" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> as its principal means of struggle.<p><i>From this point the history of Israel and the Palestinians can be followed in the article <!--del_lnk--> Israeli-Palestinian conflict.</i><p>In 1975 the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 was passed. It stated that "zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination" The resolution 3379 was rescinded in 1991 by the <!--del_lnk--> Resolution 4686. This issue is discussed in length in the article on <!--del_lnk--> anti-Zionism.<p>Since 1948 most Jews have continued to identify as Zionists, in the sense that they support the State of Israel even if they do not choose to live there. This worldwide support has been of vital importance to Israel, both politically and financially. This has been particularly true since 1967, as the rise of <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian nationalism and the resulting political and military struggles have eroded sympathy for Israel among non-Jews, at least outside the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. In recent years, many Jews have criticised the morality and expediency of Israel's continued control of the <!--del_lnk--> territories captured in 1967.<p><a id="Anti-Zionism_and_post-Zionism" name="Anti-Zionism_and_post-Zionism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anti-Zionism and post-Zionism</span></h2>
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<p>More than 50 years after the founding of the State of Israel, and after more than 80 years of Arab-Jewish conflict over Israel, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, some groups have misgivings about current Israeli policies. The overwhelming majority of Jewish organizations and denominations are strongly pro-Zionist. Some liberal or socialist Jews, as well as some ultra-Orthodox Jewish communities (the most vocal and visible being <!--del_lnk--> Satmar Hasidim and the <!--del_lnk--> Neturei Karta group), oppose Zionism as a matter of religious belief. Well-known Jewish scholars and statesmen who have opposed Zionism include <!--del_lnk--> Bruno Kreisky, Hans Fromm, and Michael Selzer. In the United States, a small number of Jewish intellectuals such as <a href="../../wp/n/Noam_Chomsky.htm" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Norman Finkelstein oppose modern Zionism. Chomsky says he supports a <!--del_lnk--> Jewish homeland, but not a Jewish state, and claims that this view is consistent with the original meaning of Zionism.<p>In the modern period, certain elements within Orthodox Judaism remain anti-Zionist, some vehemently so. Yakov M. Rabin, a professor of history at the University of Montreal, argues in his book ‘’A Threat Within: A Century of Jewish Opposition to Zionism,’’ that <!--del_lnk--> Haredi Jews who publicly criticize Zionism do so for two religiously-based reasons:<dl>
<dd>“The first of these is to prevent desecration of the name of God. And since the State of Israel often claims to be acting on behalf of all the world's Jews, and even in the name of Judaism, these Jews feel they must explain to the public, and primarily to non-Jews, the falsehood of this pretension. The second commandment is to preserve human life. By exposing the Judaic rejection of Zionism, they hope to protect Jews from the outrage they believe the State of Israel has generated among the nations of the world.”</dl>
<p>Many mainstream Orthodox groups, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Agudat Israel, have changed their positions since 1948 and have reached a <!--del_lnk--> modus vivendi with the State of Israel. Others have often assumed right-wing stances regarding important political questions such as the peace process.<p>Among the important minority threads within Zionism is one that holds Israelis to be a new <a href="../../wp/n/Nationality.htm" title="Nationality">nationality</a>, not merely the representatives of world Jewry. The "Canaanite" or "Hebrew Renaissance" movement led by poet <!--del_lnk--> Yonatan Ratosh in the 1930s and 1940s was built on this idea. A modern movement based partly on the same idea is known as <!--del_lnk--> post-Zionism. There is no agreement as to how this movement should be defined, nor even of who belongs to it, but the most common idea is that Israel should leave behind the concept of a "state of the Jewish people" and instead strive to be a state of all its citizens according to pluralistic democratic values. Many Israeli historians consider "<!--del_lnk--> Canaanism" or "Pan-<!--del_lnk--> Semitism" to be an aberration beyond the bounds of Zionism. Self-identified post-Zionists differ on many important details, such as the status of the <!--del_lnk--> Law of Return. Critics tend to associate post-Zionism with <!--del_lnk--> anti-Zionism or <!--del_lnk--> postmodernism, both of which claims are strenuously denied by proponents.<p>Another opinion favors a <!--del_lnk--> binational state in which Arabs and Jews live together while enjoying some type of autonomy. Variants of this idea were proposed by <!--del_lnk--> Chaim Weizmann in the 1930s and by the <i>Ichud</i> (Unity) group in the 1940s, which included such prominent figures as <!--del_lnk--> Judah Magnes (first dean of <!--del_lnk--> The Hebrew University) and <!--del_lnk--> Martin Buber. With the emergence of Israel as a Jewish state with a small Arab minority, however, the movement died down, but it was revived after the 1967 war left Israel in control of a large Arab population. The idea is nevertheless supported by a few prominent intellectuals such as <a href="../../wp/n/Noam_Chomsky.htm" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, the late <!--del_lnk--> Edward Said, <!--del_lnk--> Meron Benvenisti (since 2003), and <!--del_lnk--> Tony Judt. Opponents of a binational state argue that since Arabs, whose population growth rates are much higher than among Jews, would form the majority of the population in such a state, the Jewish character on which the state was founded would be lost and the Jewish population's existence threatened, as it was threatened under other Turkish and Arab regimes in the past. They also suggest that such a state is unlikely to remain a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a> for long, as many Arab countries today have either <!--del_lnk--> autocratic or <!--del_lnk--> theocratic governments.<p>Critics of Zionism see the changes in demographic balance which created a Jewish state and displaced over 700,000 Arab refugees, and the methods employed along the way, as inevitable consequences of Zionism. Critics also point to current inequities between Jews and Arabs in Israel, similarly viewing them as attributable to Zionist beliefs and ideologies. Some consider this ethnic and cultural discrimination to be a form of <!--del_lnk--> racism.<p>Defenders of Zionism disagree with the identification of Zionism with racism on a number of grounds. They hold that the basis of the charge is too vague, as the views of Zionist groups differ widely from each other (see Types of Zionism). They also disagree on the basis that <!--del_lnk--> Palestinians and <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jews">Jews</a> are not racially distinct from each other, and that Israeli Jews themselves are racially "mixed": nearly half of Israel's Jews <!--del_lnk--> come from Arab countries, and there are almost 100,000 <!--del_lnk--> black Jews from Ethiopia. Thus even if Zionism discriminates against Arabs, such discrimination cannot accurately be termed racist, but rather ethnic and/or cultural. Defenders of Zionism also argue that discrimination based on culture or ethnicity is a fact in almost all countries, and that any discrimination in Israel, including discrimination between and among Jewish groups, is similarly based on such differences, and is not an inevitable consequence of Zionism. They also argue that, in stark contrast to the situation in neighboring Arab countries, Arab citizens of Israel can vote in free elections, are represented in the Israeli parliament and enjoy a much higher standard of living than Arabs in Arab countries, and that most differences in income between Israeli Jews and Arabs have more to do with a difference in educational background than would be likely to result from discrimination, either by the government or by private actors. They also point out that while perhaps 700,000 Muslims either fled or were forced out of Israel upon the creation of the State, almost a million Jews were forced out of Muslim controlled lands and fled to Israel. (Muslims are free to <!--del_lnk--> vote in Israel, and have their own MK's, while Jews are forbidden citizenship in many Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia and Jordan.)<p><a id="Non-Jewish_Zionism" name="Non-Jewish_Zionism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Non-Jewish Zionism</span></h2>
<p><a id="International_support_for_Zionism" name="International_support_for_Zionism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">International support for Zionism</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Napoleon suggested the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine as early as of 1799.<p>Throughout the entire 19th century, the return of the Jews to the Holy Land was widely supported by eminent figures as <!--del_lnk--> Queen Victoria, <!--del_lnk--> King Edward VII, <a href="../../wp/j/John_Adams.htm" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>, the second President of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <!--del_lnk--> General Smuts of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <!--del_lnk--> President Masaryk of <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia, British Prime Ministers Lloyd George and Arthur Balfour, President <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Benedetto Croce, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italian</a> philosopher and historian, <!--del_lnk--> Henry Dunant, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Red Cross and author of the <!--del_lnk--> Geneva Conventions, <!--del_lnk--> Fridtjof Nansen, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> scientist and humanitarian. The <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> government through Minister M. Cambon formally committed itself to “the renaissance of the Jewish nationality in that Land from which the people of Israel were exiled so many centuries ago". Even in faraway <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, Wang, Minister of Foreign Affairs, declared that "the Nationalist government is in full sympathy with the Jewish people in their desire to establish a country for themselves." <p>In 1873, Shah Nasr-ed-Din met with British Jewish leaders, including Sir <!--del_lnk--> Moses Montefiore, during his journey to Europe. At that time, the Persian leader suggested that the Jews buy land and establish a state for the Jewish people.<p>King <!--del_lnk--> Faisal I of Iraq supported the idea of Zionism and signed the <!--del_lnk--> Faisal-Weizmann Agreement in <!--del_lnk--> 1919. He wrote: "We <!--del_lnk--> Arabs, especially the educated among us, look with the deepest sympathy on the Zionist movement. Our delegation here in Paris is fully acquainted with the proposals submitted yesterday to the Zionist organization to the Peace Conference, and we regard them as moderate and proper."<p>Both the <a href="../../wp/l/League_of_Nations.htm" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>' <!--del_lnk--> 1922 <!--del_lnk--> Palestine Mandate and the <!--del_lnk--> 1947 UN Partition Plan endorsed the aim of Zionism. The latter was a rare instance of concurrence between the United States and the Soviet Union during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<p>Various political groups and parties in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> have also expressed support for Zionism. This reflects the opinion of many sections of Indian society that are increasingly sympathetic to Israel.<p><a id="Christian_Zionism" name="Christian_Zionism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Christian Zionism</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>In addition to Jewish Zionism, there was always a small number of <!--del_lnk--> Christian Zionists that existed from the early days of the Zionist movement. According to Charles Merkley of Carleton University, Christian Zionism strengthened significantly after the 1967 <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War, and many <!--del_lnk--> dispensationalist Christians, especially in the United States, now strongly support Zionism.<p><a id="Left_wing_support_for_Zionism" name="Left_wing_support_for_Zionism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Left wing support for Zionism</span></h3>
<p>Zionism was also supported by the political left at various times both before and after Israel's formation, in part due to sympathy for the Jews as an oppressed people and in part due to the strong <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialist</a> roots of <!--del_lnk--> Labor Zionism. Since the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War of 1967, however, the Palestinians have been gathering more sympathy as a dispersed and stateless people, and Israel has been moving away from the limited socialist policies it had originally adopted. This has led to a loss of support for Zionism among the political left, especially in Europe. (see <!--del_lnk--> The left and "anti-Zionism")<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zionism"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zirconium</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">40</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/y/Yttrium.htm" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">zirconium</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/n/Niobium.htm" title="Niobium">niobium</a></span></td>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">Ti</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Zr</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/h/Hafnium.htm" title="Hafnium">Hf</a></span></td>
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<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/150/15000.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zr-TableImage.png" src="../../images/150/15000.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">General</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>zirconium, Zr, 40</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> transition metals</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 4, <!--del_lnk--> 5, <!--del_lnk--> d</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>silvery white<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/150/15001.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="66" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zr%2C40.jpg" src="../../images/150/15001.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 91.224<!--del_lnk--> (2) g/mol</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/k/Krypton.htm" title="Krypton">Kr</a>] 4d<sup>2</sup> 5s<sup>2</sup></td>
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<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 10, 2</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Physical properties</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>6.52 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>5.8 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>2128 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (1855 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 3371 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>4682 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (4409 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 7968 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>14 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>573 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 25.36 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
<tr align="center">
<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>2639</td>
<td>2891</td>
<td>3197</td>
<td>3575</td>
<td>4053</td>
<td>4678</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>hexagonal</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>4<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> amphoteric oxide)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>1.33 (Pauling scale)</td>
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<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 640.1 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td>2nd: 1270 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 2218 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 155 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 206 pm</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 148 pm</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>no data</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(20 °C) 421 nΩ·m</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 22.6 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(25 °C) 5.7 µm·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(20 °C) 3800 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Young's modulus</td>
<td>68 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shear modulus</td>
<td>33 GPa</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Poisson ratio</td>
<td>0.34</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></td>
<td>5.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vickers hardness</td>
<td>903 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brinell hardness</td>
<td>650 MPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-67-7</td>
</tr>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
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<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of zirconium</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>88</sup>Zr</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 83.4 d</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>-</td>
<td><sup>88</sup><a href="../../wp/y/Yttrium.htm" title="Yttrium">Y</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> γ</td>
<td>0.392<!--del_lnk--> D</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3"><sup>89</sup>Zr</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> 78.4 h</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>-</td>
<td><sup>89</sup><a href="../../wp/y/Yttrium.htm" title="Yttrium">Y</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>+</sup></td>
<td>0.902</td>
<td><sup>89</sup><a href="../../wp/y/Yttrium.htm" title="Yttrium">Y</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> γ</td>
<td>0.909<!--del_lnk--> D</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>90</sup>Zr</td>
<td>51.45%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zr is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 50 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>91</sup>Zr</td>
<td>11.22%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zr is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 51 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>92</sup>Zr</td>
<td>17.15%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zr is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 52 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>93</sup>Zr</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1.53×10<sup>6</sup>y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.060</td>
<td><sup>93</sup><a href="../../wp/n/Niobium.htm" title="Niobium">Nb</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>94</sup>Zr</td>
<td>17.38%</td>
<td colspan="4">Zr is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 54 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>96</sup>Zr</td>
<td>2.8%</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> >3.9×10<sup>20</sup>y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup>β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td> ?</td>
<td><sup>96</sup><a href="../../wp/m/Molybdenum.htm" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffc0c0; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Zirconium</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/zəˈkəʊniəm, ˌzɛːˈkəʊniəm/</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the modern <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that is assigned the symbol <b>Zr</b> and has the <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 40. A lustrous gray-white, strong <!--del_lnk--> transition metal that resembles <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, zirconium is obtained chiefly from <!--del_lnk--> zircon and is very corrosion resistant. Zirconium is primarily used in <!--del_lnk--> nuclear reactors due to its resistance to <a href="../../wp/c/Corrosion.htm" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> and low <!--del_lnk--> neutron cross-section.<p>== Notable characteristics It is a grayish-white <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metal</a>, lustrous and exceptionally corrosion resistant. Zirconium is lighter than <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> and its hardness is similar to <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>. When it is finely divided, the metal can spontaneously ignite in air, especially at high temperatures (it is much more difficult to ignite the solid metal). Zirconium zinc alloy becomes <a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">magnetic</a> at temperatures below 35 <!--del_lnk--> K. Oxidation state of zirconium is usually +4, although +3 and +2 can also be obtained.<p>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/150/15002.jpg.htm" title="Cubic zirconia, ZrO2"><img alt="Cubic zirconia, ZrO2" height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CZ_brilliant.jpg" src="../../images/150/15002.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/150/15002.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cubic zirconia, ZrO<sub>2</sub></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The major end uses of zircon (Zr<a href="../../wp/s/Silicon.htm" title="Silicon">Si</a><a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">O</a><sub>4</sub>) are refractories, foundry sands (including <!--del_lnk--> investment casting), and <!--del_lnk--> ceramic opacification. Zircon is also marketed as a natural <!--del_lnk--> gemstone used in <!--del_lnk--> jewelry, and its oxide is processed to produce the <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamond</a> simulant, <!--del_lnk--> cubic zirconia (shown at left).<p>Other uses:<p>
<br />
<ul>
<li>Zirconium has a low absorption <!--del_lnk--> cross section for <!--del_lnk--> thermal neutrons, which makes it ideal for <!--del_lnk--> nuclear energy uses, such as <!--del_lnk--> cladding <!--del_lnk--> fuel elements. More than 90% of zirconium metal production is consumed by commercial nuclear power generation. Modern commercial scale reactors can use as much as a 150,000 meters of zirconium alloy (<!--del_lnk--> Zircaloy) tubing. Reactor-grade zirconium has to be purified of <a href="../../wp/h/Hafnium.htm" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a>, which has 600 times higher neutron cross-section; a hafnium-free zirconium can be 10 times more expensive than zirconium with naturally occurring 1-5% of hafnium.<li>Extensively used by the chemical industry for piping in <a href="../../wp/c/Corrosion.htm" title="Corrosion">corrosive</a> environments.<li>Zirconium is <!--del_lnk--> pyrophoric (flammable) and has been used in military <!--del_lnk--> incendiaries such as <!--del_lnk--> Dragon's Breath. It is also planned for use in the baseline variant of the <!--del_lnk--> AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon for incendiary effects.<li>Its <!--del_lnk--> carbonate was used in <!--del_lnk--> poison-ivy lotions until it was evident that many people are allergic. (allergies greatly vary between people)<li>Impure zirconium oxide, <!--del_lnk--> Zirconia, is used to make laboratory <!--del_lnk--> crucibles that can withstand <!--del_lnk--> heat shock, for linings of metallurgical <!--del_lnk--> furnaces, and by the ceramic and <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> industries as a <!--del_lnk--> refractory material.<li>Human tissues can easily tolerate this metal which makes it suitable for <!--del_lnk--> biocompatible <!--del_lnk--> implants, eg. some <!--del_lnk--> artificial joints and limbs.<li>Also used in <!--del_lnk--> heat exchangers, as a "<!--del_lnk--> getter" in <!--del_lnk--> vacuum tubes, in lamp <!--del_lnk--> filaments and various specialty <!--del_lnk--> alloys.<li>When alloyed with <a href="../../wp/n/Niobium.htm" title="Niobium">niobium</a>, zirconium becomes <!--del_lnk--> superconductive at low temperatures and is used to make superconductive magnets with possible large-scale <!--del_lnk--> electrical power uses.<li>Zirconium Diamide-Diamine complexes can be used to <!--del_lnk--> catalyse the <!--del_lnk--> polymerisation of <!--del_lnk--> alkenes, especially <!--del_lnk--> ethene, when activated with Trityl-BArF.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zirconium nitride has been used more recently as an alternative to <!--del_lnk--> titanium nitride for coating <!--del_lnk--> drill bits. Both coatings are supposed to keep the bit sharper and cooler during cutting.<li>Bis(cyclopentadienyl)zirconium(IV) chloride hydride (<!--del_lnk--> Schwartz's Reagent) is a commercially available <!--del_lnk--> metallocene used in the hydrozirconation of <!--del_lnk--> alkenes and <!--del_lnk--> alkynes.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bicycle.htm" title="Bicycle">Bicycle</a> manufacturers incorporate zirconium-<a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminum">aluminium</a> <!--del_lnk--> alloys in their high end <!--del_lnk--> bicycle frames. This combination provides the frame with tougher durability; likewise, the frame becomes lighter and much stronger. Zirconium is also used in the manufacture of high strength <!--del_lnk--> lacrosse sticks.<li>Zirconium is also applied in the molecule Aluminium Zirconium Octachlorohydrex GLY, also known as Anti-perspirant.</ul>
<p><a id="Hafnium-free_zirconium" name="Hafnium-free_zirconium"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hafnium-free zirconium</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Reactor-grade zirconium alloys must be made of purified zirconium free of <a href="../../wp/h/Hafnium.htm" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a> contamination, as hafnium has very high neutron absorption cross-section, 600 times higher than zirconium. Commercial zirconium naturally contains 1-5% of hafnium which has to be removed. This removal process is difficult (zirconium and hafnium are two of the most difficult elements to separate). Two main process are in use: <!--del_lnk--> liquid-liquid extraction, exploiting the difference of solubility of metal <!--del_lnk--> thiocyanates in <!--del_lnk--> methyl isobutyl ketone, used mainly in United States, and <!--del_lnk--> extractive distillation, used primarily in Europe. The resulting reactor-grade zirconium is about 10 times as expensive as the hafnium-contaminated commercial grade. The separated hafnium is used for <!--del_lnk--> control rods. The zirconium is used mostly almost pure, in the form of low alloys, most often from the <!--del_lnk--> zircaloy group.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Zirconium (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> <i>zarkûn</i> from <!--del_lnk--> Persian <i>zargûn</i> <i>زرگون</i> meaning "gold like") was <!--del_lnk--> discovered in <!--del_lnk--> 1789 by <!--del_lnk--> Martin Heinrich Klaproth and isolated in <!--del_lnk--> 1824 by <!--del_lnk--> Jöns Jakob Berzelius.<p>The zirconium-containing <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">mineral</a> zircon, or its variations (jargon, hyacinth, jacinth, or ligure), were mentioned in biblical writings. The mineral was not known to contain a new element until Klaproth analyzed a jargon from <!--del_lnk--> Ceylon in the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. He named the new element Zirkonertz (zirconia). The impure metal was isolated first by Berzelius by heating a mixture of <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">potassium</a> zirconium fluoride in a small decomposition process conducted in an <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> tube. Pure zirconium wasn't prepared until <!--del_lnk--> 1914.<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> crystal bar process</i> (or <i>Iodide process</i>), discovered by <!--del_lnk--> Anton Eduard van Arkel and <!--del_lnk--> Jan Hendrik de Boer in <!--del_lnk--> 1925, was the first industrial process for the commercial production of pure ductile metallic zirconium. It was superseded by the <!--del_lnk--> Kroll process.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>Zirconium is never found in nature as a free metal. The principal economic source of zirconium is the zirconium silicate mineral, zircon (ZrSiO<sub>4</sub>), which is found in deposits located in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. (It is extracted as a dark sooty powder, or as a gray metallic crystalline substance). Zirconium and <a href="../../wp/h/Hafnium.htm" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a> are contained in zircon at a ratio of about 50 to 1 and are difficult to separate. Zircon is a coproduct or byproduct of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a> and processing of heavy-mineral sands for the <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a> minerals, <!--del_lnk--> ilmenite and <!--del_lnk--> rutile, or <a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a> minerals. Zirconium is also in 30 other recognized mineral species including <!--del_lnk--> baddeleyite. This metal is commercially produced by reduction of the Zirconium(IV) <!--del_lnk--> chloride with <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Kroll process, and through other methods. Commercial-quality zirconium still has a content of 1 to 3% hafnium.<p>This element is also abundant in S-type <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a> and has been detected in the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">sun</a> and <!--del_lnk--> meteorites. Lunar <!--del_lnk--> rock samples brought back from several <!--del_lnk--> Apollo program missions to the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">moon</a> have a very high zirconium oxide content relative to <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial rocks.<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>Naturally occurring zirconium is composed of four stable isotopes and one extremely long-lived <!--del_lnk--> radioisotope (<sup>96</sup>Zr). The second most stable <!--del_lnk--> radioisotope is <sup>93</sup>Zr which has a <!--del_lnk--> half life of 1.53 million years. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized. Most of these have half lives that are less than a day except <sup>95</sup>Zr (64.02 days), <sup>88</sup>Zr (63.4 days), and <sup>89</sup>Zr (78.41 hours). The primary decay mode is <!--del_lnk--> electron capture before <sup>92</sup>Zr and the primary mode after is <!--del_lnk--> beta decay.<p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/150/15003.jpg.htm" title="Zirconium rod"><img alt="Zirconium rod" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zirconium_rod.jpg" src="../../images/150/15003.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/150/15003.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zirconium rod</div>
</div>
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<p>Compounds containing zirconium are not noted for toxicity. The metal dust can ignite in air and should be regarded as a major fire and explosion hazard. Zirconium has no <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biological</a> role.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirconium"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zoroaster</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Religious_figures_and_leaders.htm">Religious figures and leaders</a></h3>
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<td><small>Part of a series on</small><br />
<p><span style="font-size: 140%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrianism</b></span><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/230/23006.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Faravahar.png" src="../../images/230/23002.png" width="100" /></a><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Portal</small><br />
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrianism / Mazdaism<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ahura Mazda<br /><strong class="selflink">Zarathustra (Zoroaster)</strong></td>
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<td style="color:#ffffff; background-color:#7f0000;"><b>Angels and Demons</b></td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Overview of the Angels<br /><!--del_lnk--> Amesha Spentas · <!--del_lnk--> Yazatas<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ahuras · <!--del_lnk--> Daevas<br /><!--del_lnk--> Angra Mainyu</td>
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<td style="color:#ffffff; background-color:#7f0000;"><b>Scripture and Worship</b></td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Avesta · <!--del_lnk--> Gathas<br /> The <!--del_lnk--> Ahuna Vairya Invocation<br /><!--del_lnk--> Fire Temples<br />
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<td style="color:#ffffff; background-color:#7f0000;"><b>Accounts and Legends</b></td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Dēnkard<br /><!--del_lnk--> Book of Arda Viraf<br /><!--del_lnk--> Qissa-i Sanjan<br />
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Zurvanism<br /><!--del_lnk--> Medes · <!--del_lnk--> Achaemenids<br /><!--del_lnk--> Sassanids<br /><!--del_lnk--> Calendar · <!--del_lnk--> Eschatology<br />
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<td style="color:#ffffff; background-color:#7f0000;"><b>Adherents</b></td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Parsis · <!--del_lnk--> Iranis<br /><!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrians in Iran</td>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Index of Related Articles</td>
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<p>
<br /><b>Zoroaster</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek Ζωροάστρης, <i>Zōroastrēs</i>) or <b>Zarathustra</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Avestan: <i>Zaraθuštra</i>), also referred to as <i>Zartosht</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Persian<span class="Unicode">زرتشت</span>), was an ancient <a href="../../wp/i/Iranian_peoples.htm" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> prophet and the founder of <!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrianism, a religion that was the <!--del_lnk--> national religion of the <!--del_lnk--> Sassanian Empire of <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a>; it is predominantly practiced today by the <!--del_lnk--> Parsi community of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>.<p>Zoroaster is generally accepted as an authentic historical figure, but the period in which he lived remains unclear. Many scholarly estimates place him circa <!--del_lnk--> 1200 B.C., making him a candidate to be the founder of the earliest religion based on revealed <!--del_lnk--> scripture, while others place him anywhere between the <!--del_lnk--> 18th and the <!--del_lnk--> 6th centuries B.C.<p>
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</script><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2>
<p>The name <i>Zaraθ-uštra</i> is probably a <!--del_lnk--> Bahuvrihi compound in the <!--del_lnk--> Avestan language, which has been interpreted in the following ways:<ul>
<li><i>zarəta-</i> ("old") + <i>uštra</i> ("<a href="../../wp/c/Camel.htm" title="Camel">camel</a>)," meaning "having old camels; the one who owns old camels."<li>Avestan <i>zaray</i>/<!--del_lnk--> Modern Persian <i>zærd</i> ("yellow" or "golden") + <i>uštra</i> ("camel"), meaning "having yellow camels" or possibly "having golden camels; he who obtains wealth by trading with goods carried on camels."<li><i>zara</i> ("shine"; "gold"; "light") + <i>tushtra</i>/<i>tusht</i> ("friend"; "lover"), meaning "he who loves the light."<li><i>zara</i> ("gold") + <i><!--del_lnk--> Ushas</i> ("<!--del_lnk--> dawn"), a wrongly presumed Avestic <!--del_lnk--> cognate of <!--del_lnk--> Vedic Sanskrit, meaning "[bringer of the] golden dawn." A variant of this is "Golden Star," which assumes the second part of his name is a variant of "Aster" or "Akhtar": "<a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a>."</ul>
<p>The latter two interpretations seem to have derived from a desire to give a more fitting meaning to the prophet's name than "owner of feeble camels."<p><a id="Possible_dates_of_existence" name="Possible_dates_of_existence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Possible dates of existence</span></h2>
<p>Estimates for the lifetime of Zoroaster vary widely, depending upon the sources used.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1400 B.C. to <!--del_lnk--> 1000 B.C., which represents the current scholarly consensus, is cited by <!--del_lnk--> Mary Boyce in her <i>A History of <!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrianism</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1989).<li>"Before <!--del_lnk--> 458 B.C." is cited by H.S. Nyberg in <i>Die Religionen des Alten Iran</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1938).<li>The <i><!--del_lnk--> Bundahišn</i> or <i>Creation,</i> an important Zoroastrian religious text, cites the time of Zoroaster as 258 years before <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s invasion of <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a> (i.e., <!--del_lnk--> 588 B.C.). This "Traditional Date of Zoroaster" was accepted by many 19th century scholars, among them Taghizadeh and W. B. Henning.</ul>
<p>Though other scholars such as Darmesteter, who placed Zoroaster around <!--del_lnk--> 100 B.C., have argued for later dates, these theories are now widely rejected.<p><a id="Linguistic_evidence" name="Linguistic_evidence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Linguistic evidence</span></h3>
<p>From an early time, scholars such as Bartholomea and Christensen noted problems with the "Traditional Date;" namely in the linguistic difficulties that it presents. Tradition holds that Zoroaster composed the eighteen poems that make up the oldest parts of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Avesta</i>, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Gāthās</i>. The language of the <i>Gāthās</i> and the text known as <i>Yasna Haptanghaiti</i> (the <i>"Seven Chapter <!--del_lnk--> Sermon"</i>) is called Old <!--del_lnk--> Avestan, and is significantly more archaic than the language of the later parts of the Avesta, Young Avestan. Gathic Avestan was still etymologically similar to the <!--del_lnk--> Vedic Sanskrit of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Rigveda.</i> <!--del_lnk--> Sound changes separating the two branches, which both descended independently from <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Indo-Iranian, include the loss of <i>z,</i> the development of a <!--del_lnk--> retroflex series in Indo-Aryan, and loss of aspiration and of prevocalic <i>s</i> in Iranian.<p>Since <!--del_lnk--> Rigvedic Sanskrit is slightly more conservative than Gathic Avestan, the <i>Avesta</i> is usually dated to a few centuries after the <i>Rigveda</i>. Based on the date of the <i>Rigveda</i>’s composition, commonly stated as between the <!--del_lnk--> 15th and <!--del_lnk--> 12th centuries B.C., and a date of Proto-Indo-Iranian of roughly 2000 B.C., the <i><!--del_lnk--> Gāthās</i> are commonly dated within two hundred years of <!--del_lnk--> 1000 B.C..<p><a id="Historical_evidence" name="Historical_evidence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Historical evidence</span></h3>
<p>The historical approach compares social customs described in the <i>Gāthās</i> to what is known of the time and region from other historical studies. Since the <i>Gāthās</i> are cryptic and open to interpretation, this method also yields only rough estimates. The <i>Gāthās</i> seem to indicate a society of <!--del_lnk--> nomadic <!--del_lnk--> pastoralists, which contrasts sharply with the view of Zoroaster living in the court of an <!--del_lnk--> Achaemenid <!--del_lnk--> satrap such as Vištaspa. The absence in the <i>Gāthās</i> of any mention of Achaemenids or any West Iranian tribes such as <!--del_lnk--> Medes, <!--del_lnk--> Persians, or even <!--del_lnk--> Parthians, makes it unlikely that the historical Zoroaster ever lived in the court of a 6th century satrap. Though it is possible Zoroaster lived sometime between the <!--del_lnk--> 13th and <!--del_lnk--> 11th centuries B.C., before Iranian tribes settled in the central and western areas of the <!--del_lnk--> Iranian Plateau, it is just as likely for him to have lived in a rural society during the centuries immediately after the Iranian migration. Therefore, though the historical estimate is consistent with the linguistic one, it is just as vague; Gherardo Gnoli gives a date near 1000 B.C.<p><a id="Archaeological_evidence" name="Archaeological_evidence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Archaeological evidence</span></h3>
<p>Archaeological evidence is usually inconclusive regarding questions of religion. However, a <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> archaeologist, <!--del_lnk--> Viktor Sarianidi, links Zoroaster to circa <!--del_lnk--> 2000 B.C. based upon excavations of the <!--del_lnk--> BMAC (Asgarov, <!--del_lnk--> 1984).<p><!--del_lnk--> Indo-Iranian religion is generally accepted to have begun in the late <!--del_lnk--> 3rd millennium B.C. (e.g., the <!--del_lnk--> Soma cult), but Zoroaster himself already looked back on a long religious tradition. The <!--del_lnk--> Yaz culture (circa 1500-1100 B.C.) in the <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghan</a>-<a href="../../wp/t/Turkmenistan.htm" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmen</a>-<a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iranian</a> border area is considered a likely staging ground for the development of <!--del_lnk--> East Iranian and early Zoroastrian practices.<p><a id="Mythological_evidence" name="Mythological_evidence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mythological evidence</span></h3>
<p>Zoroaster was famous in <!--del_lnk--> classical antiquity as the founder of the religion of the <!--del_lnk--> Magi. His name is mentioned by <!--del_lnk--> Xanthus, <!--del_lnk--> Plutarch, <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder, <!--del_lnk--> Diogenes Laertius, and by <a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" title="Plato">Plato</a> in the <i><a href="../../wp/a/Alcibiades.htm" title="Alcibiades">Alcibiades</a></i>. Ancient Greek estimates are dependent upon <!--del_lnk--> Persian mythology, and give dates as early as the <!--del_lnk--> 7th millennium B.C., which are the dates to which <!--del_lnk--> Parsis subscribe.<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <p>Persian mythology, primarily the <i><!--del_lnk--> Shahnama</i> of <!--del_lnk--> Ferdowsi, and oral tradition place Zoroaster quite early. <!--del_lnk--> Manly Palmer Hall, in his book <i>Twelve World Teachers</i>, arrives at a rough estimate ranging from <!--del_lnk--> 10000 B.C. to <!--del_lnk--> 1000 B.C..<p><a id="Life" name="Life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life</span></h2>
<p>Information about the life of Zoroaster primarily derives from the following sources: the <i><!--del_lnk--> Avesta</i>, the <i>Gāthās</i>, Greek texts, oral history, and archaeological evidence.<p>The <i>Spena Nask</i>, the 13th section of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Avesta</i>, describes Zoroaster's life. However, this text has disappeared over the centuries, and the biographies in the seventh book of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Dēnkard</i> (<a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a>) and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Shāhnāma</i> are based on earlier texts which no longer extant.<p>The <i>Gāthās</i> are poetic admonitions and prophecies cast in the form of dialogues with God and the <!--del_lnk--> Aməša Spəntas (<!--del_lnk--> Pahlavi <i>Amahraspandān</i>), or "Immortals." They also contain allusions to personal events, such as Zoroaster’s triumph over obstacles imposed by competing priests and the ruling class. They also indicate he had difficulty spreading his teachings, and was even treated with ill-will in his mother's hometown, which was an exceptional insult in his culture.<p>Important differences exist between the two texts. In the later <i><!--del_lnk--> Avesta</i>, Zoroaster is depicted wrestling with the <!--del_lnk--> Daēvas (<!--del_lnk--> Pahlavi <i>Dēwān</i>), or "evil immortals," and is tempted by <!--del_lnk--> Ahriman to renounce his faith (<i>Yasht</i>, 17,19). This account is comparable to the story of the <!--del_lnk--> Temptation of Christ in the <!--del_lnk--> Synoptic Gospels.<p>The historical Zoroaster, however, eludes categorization as a legendary character. The <i>Gāthās</i> within the <i><!--del_lnk--> Avesta</i> make claim to be the the literal word of the prophet. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Vendidad</i> also gives accounts of the dialogues between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. They are the last-surviving account of his doctrinal discourses, presented at the court of King <!--del_lnk--> Vištāspa.<p>From Greek accounts, it can be assumed that Zoroaster lived in the northeastern area of ancient Persian territory. The Greeks refer to him as <!--del_lnk--> Bactrian, because the area where <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> now lies is where he preached his religion. These texts include many rote details of his life, such as a record of his family members: His father was Pourushaspa Spitāma, son of Haecadaspa Spitāma, and his mother was Dughdova. He and his wife Hvōvi had three daughters, Freni, Pourucista, and Triti; and three sons, Isat Vastar, Uruvat-Nara, and Hvare Ciθra. Zoroaster’s great-grandfather Haēcataspa was the ancestor of the whole family Spitāma, for which reason Zoroaster usually bears the surname Spitāma. His wife and children, and a cousin named Maidhyoimangha, were his first converts after his illumination from <!--del_lnk--> Ahura Mazdā at age 30.<p>Greek accounts additionally record some details regarding the childhood of Zoroaster and his <!--del_lnk--> hermitic lifestyle. According to tradition and <i><!--del_lnk--> Pliny's Natural History</i>, Zoroaster laughed on the day of his birth. He lived in the wilderness and enjoyed exploring it from a young age. <!--del_lnk--> Plutarch compares him with <!--del_lnk--> Lycurgus and <!--del_lnk--> Numa Pompilius (<i>Numa,</i> 4). <!--del_lnk--> Dio Chrysostom relates Zoroaster's <!--del_lnk--> Ahura Mazdā to <a href="../../wp/z/Zeus.htm" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>. Plutarch, drawing partly on <!--del_lnk--> Theopompus, speaks of <!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrianism in <i>Isis and Osiris</i>: In this work, he is a mortal, empowered by trust in his god and the protection of his allies. He faces outward opposition and unbelief, and inward doubt.<p>Textual evidence conflicts in regard to the birthplace of Zoroaster. While <i>Yasnas</i> 9 & 17 cite the Ditya River in <!--del_lnk--> Airyanem Vaējah (<!--del_lnk--> Pahlavi <i>Ērān Wēj</i>), or "Homeland of the Aryans," as his home and the scene of his first appearance, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Būndahišn</i>, or "Creation," (20, 32 and 24, 15) places his birth and his father’s home near the Dhraja River. This same text identifies Ērān Wēj with the district of <!--del_lnk--> Aran on the river Aras (<!--del_lnk--> Araxes), close by the north-western frontier of the <!--del_lnk--> Medes. According to <i>Yasna</i> 59, 18, the <i>zaraθuštrotema</i>, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, resided in Ragha at a later time during the <!--del_lnk--> Sassanid dynasty. The Persian <!--del_lnk--> Muslim writer <!--del_lnk--> Shahrastani has endeavored to solve the conflict by arguing that Zoroaster’s father was from <!--del_lnk--> Atropatene, while his mother was from <!--del_lnk--> Rai.<p>According to <i>Yasnas</i> 5 & 105, Zoroaster prayed for the conversion of King <!--del_lnk--> Vištaspa, and afterwards left his native district. <i>Yasnas</i> 53 & 9 suggest that he ventured to Rai, where he was unwelcome. Eventually, he met <!--del_lnk--> Vištaspa, king of <!--del_lnk--> Bactria, who appears in the Gāthās as a historical personage.<p>The court of <!--del_lnk--> Vištaspa included two brothers, Frašaōštra and Jamaspa, both of whom were <!--del_lnk--> viziers of <!--del_lnk--> Vištaspa according to legend. Zoroaster was closely related to both: his wife, Hvōvi, was the daughter of Frashaōštra, while Jamaspa was the husband of his daughter Pourucista. The actual role of intermediary was played by the pious queen Hutaōsa. Apart from this connection, the new prophet relied especially upon his own kindred (<i>hvaētuš</i>).<p>Placing the date of King <!--del_lnk--> Vištaspa is difficult. Antiquated sources suggest <!--del_lnk--> Vištaspa was <!--del_lnk--> Hystaspes, father of <!--del_lnk--> Darius I. Hutaōsa could be <!--del_lnk--> Atossa, <!--del_lnk--> queen consort to <!--del_lnk--> Cambyses II, <!--del_lnk--> Smerdis, and <!--del_lnk--> Darius I. The matriarchal name is the only link to the <!--del_lnk--> Achaemenidian lineage.<p>According to the <i><!--del_lnk--> Book of Arda Viraf</i>, Zoroaster taught an estimated 300 years before the invasion of <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. <a href="../../wp/a/Assyria.htm" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> inscriptions relegate him to a more ancient period. Eduard Meyer maintains that the Zoroastrian religion must have been predominant among the <!--del_lnk--> Medes; therefore, he estimates the date of Zoroaster at 1000 B.C., in agreement with Duncker (<i>Geschichte des Altertums</i>, 44, 78). Zoroaster may have emanated from the old school of <!--del_lnk--> Median Magi and appeared first among the <!--del_lnk--> Medes as the prophet of a new faith, but met with sacerdotal opposition and turned eastward. <!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrianism then seems to have acquired a solid footing in eastern Iran, where it continues to survive in dwindling numbers.<p>Zoroaster’s death is not mentioned in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Avesta</i>; in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Shahnama</i>, he is said to have been murdered at the altar by the <!--del_lnk--> Turanians in the storming of <!--del_lnk--> Balkh.<p><a id="Zoroastrian_teachings" name="Zoroastrian_teachings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zoroastrian teachings</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The teachings of Zoroaster are presented in the <i><!--del_lnk--> yasna</i>, seventeen <!--del_lnk--> liturgical texts or "<!--del_lnk--> hymns," which is divided into groups called <i>Gāthās</i>.<p>The basic precept of <!--del_lnk--> Zoroastrianism is the maxim “<i>Humata, Hukhta, Huvarshta</i>” (<a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <i>sumata</i>, <i>sukta</i>, <i>suvartana</i>)—“Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds.”<p>The foundation of human existence is the cosmic struggle between <i>Aša</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Pahlavi <i>Ahlāyīh</i>), "The Truth," and <i>Druj</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Pahlavi <i>Druz</i>), "The Lie." This may also be conceptualized as a battle between Darkness and Light, a structure parallel to the struggle between <i>good</i> and <i>evil</i> in Western <!--del_lnk--> paradigm. The two opposing forces in this battle are <!--del_lnk--> Ahura Mazdā (<a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>) and <!--del_lnk--> Ahriman (<!--del_lnk--> The Devil). In the <i>yasnas</i>, Zoroaster refers to these forces as “the Better and the Bad.”<p>Zoroaster describes <!--del_lnk--> Ahura Mazdā in a series of <!--del_lnk--> rhetorical questions: "Who established the course of the Sun and stars?...Who feeds and waters the plants?...What builder created light and darkness?...Through whom does exist dawn, noon and night?" (Yasna 44, 4-6).<p><a id="Zoroaster_in_the_West" name="Zoroaster_in_the_West"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zoroaster in the West</span></h2>
<p>Zoroaster was known as a sage, magician, and miracle-worker in post-Classical Western culture. Though almost nothing was known of his ideas until the late <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a>, by that time his name was already associated with lost ancient wisdom and had been appropriated by <!--del_lnk--> Freemasons and other groups who claimed access to such knowledge. Zoroaster appears as “Sarastro” in Mozart's opera <i><!--del_lnk--> Die Zauberflöte</i>, which has been noted for its Masonic elements, where he represents <!--del_lnk--> moral order in opposition to the "Queen of the Night."<p><a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> writers such as <a href="../../wp/v/Voltaire.htm" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> promoted research into Zoroastrianism in the belief that it was a form of rational <!--del_lnk--> Deism, preferable to <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. With the translation of the <!--del_lnk--> Avesta by <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Anquetil-Duperron, Western scholarship of Zoroastrianism began.<p>The 2005 edition of the <i>Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i> places Zoroaster as first in the chronology of philosophers because he was the founder of Mazda-Yasna, which can be translated to "worship of wisdom." Zoroastrians later educated the Greeks, who used a similar term, philosophy, or “love of wisdom,” to describe the search for ultimate truth.<p>In addition, Zoroaster is ranked #93 on <!--del_lnk--> Michael H. Hart’s <!--del_lnk--> list of the most influential figures in history.<p><a id="Thus_Spake_Zarathustra" name="Thus_Spake_Zarathustra"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Thus Spake Zarathustra</span></h3>
<dl>
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</dl>
<p>German philosopher <a href="../../wp/f/Friedrich_Nietzsche.htm" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> used the name Zarathustra in his seminal work <i><!--del_lnk--> Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spake Zarathustra)</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1885), in which he fictionalized the historical figure to meet his own literary and philosophical aims. Nietzsche presents Zoroaster as a returning visionary who repudiates the designation of good and evil and thus marks the observation of the death of <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>. Nietzsche asserted that he chose Zoroaster as a vehicle for his ideas because the historical prophet had been the first to proclaim the <!--del_lnk--> manicheic opposition between "good" and "evil" by rejecting the <!--del_lnk--> Daēva, who represent natural forces, in favour of a moral order represented by the <!--del_lnk--> Ahuras.<p><!--del_lnk--> Richard Strauss's <i>Opus 30</i>, inspired by Nietzsche's book, is also called <i><!--del_lnk--> Also sprach Zarathustra</i>. Its opening theme, which corresponds to the book's prologue, was used to score the opening sequence of <!--del_lnk--> Stanley Kubrick's <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">movie</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> 2001: A Space Odyssey</i>.<p><a id="Zoroaster_in_the_Bah.C3.A1.27.C3.AD_Faith" name="Zoroaster_in_the_Bah.C3.A1.27.C3.AD_Faith"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zoroaster in the Bahá'í Faith</span></h2>
<p>Bahá'ís believe Zoroaster was a "<!--del_lnk--> Manifestation of God," one of a line of prophets who have progressively revealed the Word of God to a gradually maturing humanity. Zoroaster therefore shares an exalted station with <!--del_lnk--> Abraham, <!--del_lnk--> Moses, <a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Krishna, <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, <!--del_lnk--> the Báb, and the founder of the <a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" title="Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Bahá'u'lláh.<p>However, the <!--del_lnk--> Central Figures of the Bahá'í Faith caution believers that, as with many Manifestations, few if any teachings of Zoroaster that have survived to the modern age can be authenticated, and any contradictions between the teachings of the Manifestations are ascribed to later corruptions or the differing needs of the age and culture. <!--del_lnk--> Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Faith, wrote that <!--del_lnk--> Bahá'u'lláh fulfilled the Zoroastrian prophecy of the return of the Sháh-Bahrám: "To Him [Bahá'u'lláh] Zoroaster must have alluded when, according to tradition, He foretold that a period of three thousand years of conflict and contention must needs precede the advent of the World-Savior Sháh-Bahrám, Who would triumph over Ahriman and usher in an era of blessedness and peace." <!--del_lnk--> `Abdu'l-Bahá, one of the Bahá'í Faith's Central Figures, has stated that Zoroaster lived roughly 1,000 years before Jesus.<p><a id="Zoroaster_in_Tajikistan" name="Zoroaster_in_Tajikistan"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zoroaster in Tajikistan</span></h2>
<p>In his book, <i>The Tajiks in the Mirror of History,</i> President <!--del_lnk--> Emomali Rahmonov of <a href="../../wp/t/Tajikistan.htm" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> claims that Zoroaster was a <!--del_lnk--> Tajik from <!--del_lnk--> Bactria. Rahmonov, a Muslim who has performed the <!--del_lnk--> hajj, states in his work:<dl>
<dd>"Many principles of the Zarathushtrian religion have left a deep imprint on the [Tajik] people's mind. The habit has been preserved prohibiting the killing of animals when they are pregnant and the cutting of trees in blossom. Water, earth and fire have to be protected from any impurity. The fumes of some fragrant herbs are still used to keep away sickness and the force of evil.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>These and many other examples give evidence that in every Tajik house we may find trace of Zarathushtra's teachings.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>Let us hope in the new millennium, the Tajik people will continue to live under the spiritual guidance of Zarathushtra, the prophet of truth and light."</dl>
<p>Rahmonov subsequently convinced <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO to declare 2002-2003 the third millennium since Zoroaster's birth. UNESCO’s nod to Tajikistan, an overwhelmingly Muslim nation, gave rise to an extraordinary show of support by Zoroastrian organizations worldwide, resulting in hundreds of large and small commemorative events to celebrate the declared anniversary from diverse locations such as Dushanbe, Tehran, Mumbai, New York, and Vancouver. UNESCO's secretary-general later declared UNESCO’s support for this worldwide collaboration in several speeches and texts.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroaster"</div>
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<br /><small>This article is a part of</small><p><small>the <b><a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch dialects</a></b> series.</small></th>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>The Dialects</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><a href="../../wp/b/Brabantian.htm" title="Brabantian">Brabantian</a></b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><a href="../../wp/h/Hollandic.htm" title="Hollandic">Hollandic</a></b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><a href="../../wp/w/West_Flemish.htm" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a></b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Zealandic</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><a href="../../wp/e/East_Flemish.htm" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><strong class="selflink">Zuid-Gelders</strong></b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Dutch Low Saxon</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Limburgish</b></td>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/150/15004.png.htm" title="Position of Zuid-Gelders (Marked dark Blue) within the Dutch speaking area"><img alt="Position of Zuid-Gelders (Marked dark Blue) within the Dutch speaking area" height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZUIDGELDERS2.PNG" src="../../images/150/15004.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Zuid-Gelders</b> (Kleverlands) is the dialect of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch language</a> that is spoken in the Veluwezoom, around Nijmegen, in the Bommelerwaard, other areas of the Netherlands, and traditionally parts of Germany including <!--del_lnk--> Duisburg and partly <!--del_lnk--> Wuppertal up to Wenden, which is the only Westphalian municipality.<p>Each of the dialects from the <i>Zuid-Gelders</i> group has most features shared with the <!--del_lnk--> Brabantic dialects. The <i>Zuid-Gelders</i> dialects form no unity against the Brabantic dialects, i.e. they are not more closely related to each other than to any Brabantic dialect. There also exists no <!--del_lnk--> isogloss bundle between the "Brabantic" and "Zuid-Gelders" dialects: the distinction is thus purely conventional. To the south of Venlo and -at least formerly- in the area of today's Duisburg it borders to the <!--del_lnk--> Limburgish language. Zuid-Gelders is part of the <!--del_lnk--> Low Franconian languages, which are <!--del_lnk--> West Germanic languages. Zuid-Gelders is considered a dialect of <!--del_lnk--> Low Rhenish in Germany. Low Rhenish is to include <!--del_lnk--> Limburgish as the only other form according to this definition. Together they belong to the greater <!--del_lnk--> Maas-Rhine area, a large group of southeast Low Franconian dialects. This group is called <i>Maas-Rhenish</i> (Dutch: <i>Maas-Rijnlands</i>, German: <i>Rheinmaasländisch</i>) by the Amsterdam Linguist Ad Welschen.<br /> A dialect of Zuid-Gelders origin spoken in the United States is <!--del_lnk--> Pella Dutch. Among the local variants of <i>Zuid-Gelders</i> spoken in the Netherlands are <i>Zevenaars</i>, <i>Waals</i> and <i>Nijmegens</i>.<p><a id="External_link" name="External_link"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuid-Gelders"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zulu</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.htm">African Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; background-color:#b08261; color:#fee8ab;"><b>Zulus</b></th>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/150/15005.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZuluWarriors.jpg" src="../../images/150/15005.jpg" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>Zulu Warriors, late 19th century (with some Europeans in the background)</td>
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<th style="background-color:#fee8ab;">Total population</th>
<td style="background-color:#fff6d9;"><b>10.4 million</b> (2001 est. <sup>1</sup>)</td>
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<th style="background-color:#fee8ab;">Regions with significant populations</th>
<td style="background-color:#fff6d9;"><!--del_lnk--> KwaZulu-Natal Province: <b>7.6 million</b><br />
<p><!--del_lnk--> Gauteng Province: <b>1.9 million</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Mpumalanga Province: <b>0.8 million</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Free State Province: <b>0.14 million</b> (2001 est. <sup>1</sup>)</td>
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<th style="background-color:#fee8ab;">Language</th>
<td style="background-color:#fff6d9;"><!--del_lnk--> Zulu, many also speak <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Afrikaans or <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> or other African tribal languages such as <!--del_lnk--> Xhosa.</td>
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<th style="background-color:#fee8ab;">Religion</th>
<td style="background-color:#fff6d9;"><a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Animist</td>
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<th style="background-color:#fee8ab;">Related ethnic groups</th>
<td style="background-color:#fff6d9;"><a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a><p><!--del_lnk--> Nguni <!--del_lnk--> Basotho <!--del_lnk--> Xhosa <!--del_lnk--> Swazi <!--del_lnk--> Matabele<!--del_lnk--> Khoisan</td>
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<p>The <b>Zulu</b> (<!--del_lnk--> South African English and <!--del_lnk--> isiZulu: <i><b>amaZulu</b></i>) are an African ethnic group of about 11 million people who live mainly in the province of <!--del_lnk--> KwaZulu-Natal, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. Small numbers also live in <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/Zambia.htm" title="Zambia">Zambia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>. Their language, <!--del_lnk--> isiZulu, is a <!--del_lnk--> Bantu language; more specifically, part of the <!--del_lnk--> Nguni subgroup. The Zulu Kingdom played a major role in <a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa.htm" title="History of South Africa">South African History</a> during the 19th and 20th centuries. Under <!--del_lnk--> apartheid, Zulu people were classed as <!--del_lnk--> second-class citizens and severely discriminated against. Today, they are the most numerous ethnic group in the country, and have equal rights along with all other South Africans.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h3>
<p>The Zulu were originally a minor clan in what is today Northern <!--del_lnk--> KwaZulu-Natal, founded ca. 1709 by <!--del_lnk--> Zulu kaNtombhela. In the Zulu language, <i>Zulu</i> means <i>heaven</i>, or <i>sky</i>. At that time, the area was occupied by many small <!--del_lnk--> Nguni tribes and clans (also called <i>isizwe</i>=nation, people or "isibongo"=clan). Nguni tribes had migrated down Africa's east coast over thousands of years, probably arriving in what is now South Africa in about the year 800 AD<p><a id="Kingdom" name="Kingdom"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Kingdom</span></h3>
<p><a id="The_rise_of_the_Zulu_kingdom_under_Shaka" name="The_rise_of_the_Zulu_kingdom_under_Shaka"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The rise of the Zulu kingdom under Shaka</span></h4>
<p><a href="../../wp/s/Shaka.htm" title="Shaka">Shaka</a> Zulu was the <!--del_lnk--> illegitimate son of <!--del_lnk--> Senzangakona, chief of the Zulus. He was born ca 1787. He and his mother, <!--del_lnk--> Nandi, were exiled by Senzangakona, and found refuge in the <!--del_lnk--> Mthethwa. Shaka fought as a warrior under <!--del_lnk--> Dingiswayo, chief of the Mthethwa. When Senzangakona died, Dingiswayo helped Shaka claim his place as chief of the Zulu Kingdom.<p><a id="The_bloody_ascendancy_of_Dingane" name="The_bloody_ascendancy_of_Dingane"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The bloody ascendancy of Dingane</span></h4>
<p>Shaka was succeeded by <!--del_lnk--> Dingane, his half brother, who conspired with <!--del_lnk--> Mhlangana, another half-brother, to murder him. Following this assassination, Dingane murdered Mhlangana, and took over the throne. One of his first royal acts was to execute several more of his royal kin. In the years that followed, he also executed many past supporters of Shaka in order to secure his position. One exception to these purges was <!--del_lnk--> Mpande, another half-brother, who was considered too weak to be a threat at the time.<p><a id="Clashes_with_the_Voortrekkers_and_the_ascendancy_of_Mpande" name="Clashes_with_the_Voortrekkers_and_the_ascendancy_of_Mpande"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Clashes with the Voortrekkers and the ascendancy of Mpande</span></h4>
<p>In October 1837, the <!--del_lnk--> Voortrekker leader <!--del_lnk--> Piet Retief visited Dingane at his royal kraal, to negotiate a land deal for the voortrekkers. In November, about 1000 Voortrekker wagons began descending the <!--del_lnk--> Drakensberg mountains from the <!--del_lnk--> Orange Free State into what is now <!--del_lnk--> KwaZulu-Natal.<p>Dingane asked that Retief and his party retrieve some cattle stolen from him by a local chief. This Retief and his men did, returning on <!--del_lnk--> 3 February <!--del_lnk--> 1838. The next day, a treaty was signed, wherein Dingane ceded all the land south of the <!--del_lnk--> Tugela River to the <!--del_lnk--> Mzimvubu River to the Voortrekkers. Celebrations followed. On <!--del_lnk--> 6 February, at the end of the celebrations, Retief's party were invited to a dance, and asked to leave their weapons behind. At the peak of the dance, Dingane leapt to his feet and yelled <i>"Bambani aba thakathi!"</i>(<!--del_lnk--> isiZulu for "Kill the wizards"). Retief and his men were overpowered, taken to the nearby hill kwaMatiwane, and executed. It is believed that they were killed for withholding some of the cattle they recovered. Dingane's army then attacked and massacred a group of 500 Voortrekker men, women and children camped nearby. The site of this massacre is today called <!--del_lnk--> Weenen, (Dutch for "to weep").<p>The remaining Voortrekkers elected a new leader, <!--del_lnk--> Andries Pretorius, and Dingane suffered a crushing defeat at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Blood River on <!--del_lnk--> 16 December <!--del_lnk--> 1838, when he attacked a group of 470 Voortrekker settlers led by Pretorius.<p>Following his defeat, Dingane burned his royal household and fled north. Mpande, the half-brother who had been spared from Dingane's purges, defected with 17,000 followers, and, together with Pretorius and the Voortrekkers, went to war with Dingane. Dingane was assassinated near the modern <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a> border. Mpande then took over rulership of the Zulu nation.<p><a id="Succession_of_Cetshwayo" name="Succession_of_Cetshwayo"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Succession of Cetshwayo</span></h4>
<p>Following the campaign against Dingane, in 1839 the Voortrekkers, under Pretorius, formed the <!--del_lnk--> Boer republic of <!--del_lnk--> Natalia, south of the Thukela, and west of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> settlement of Port Natal (now <!--del_lnk--> Durban). Mpande and Pretorius maintained peaceful relations. However, in 1842, war broke out between the British and the Boers, resulting in the British annexation of Natalia. Mpande shifted his allegiance to the British, and remained on good terms with them.<p>In 1843, Mpande ordered a purge of perceived dissidents within his kingdom. This resulted in numerous deaths, and the fleeing of thousands of refugees into neighbouring areas (including the British-controlled <!--del_lnk--> Natal). Many of these refugees fled with cattle. Mpande began raiding the surrounding areas, culminating in the invasion of <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a> in 1852. However, the British pressured him into withdrawing, which he did shortly.<p>At this time, a battle for the succession broke out between two of Mpande's sons, <!--del_lnk--> Cetshwayo and <!--del_lnk--> Mbuyazi. This culminated in 1856 with a battle that left Mbuyazi dead. Cetshwayo then set about usurping his father's authority. In 1872, Mpande died of old age, and Cetshwayo took over rulership.<p><a id="Fall_of_the_kingdom" name="Fall_of_the_kingdom"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fall of the kingdom</span></h3>
<p><a id="Anglo-Zulu_War" name="Anglo-Zulu_War"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Anglo-Zulu War</span></h4>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 11 December <!--del_lnk--> 1878, agents of the British delivered an ultimatum to 14 chiefs representing Cetshwayo. The terms of the ultimatum were unacceptable to Cetshwayo. British forces crossed the Thukela river at the end of December 1878. The war took place in 1879. Early in the war, the Zulus defeated the British at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Isandlwana on <!--del_lnk--> January 22. However, the war ended in Zulu defeat at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ulundi on <!--del_lnk--> July 4.<p><a id="Division_and_the_death_of_Cetshwayo" name="Division_and_the_death_of_Cetshwayo"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Division and the death of Cetshwayo</span></h4>
<p>Cetshwayo was captured a month after his defeat, and then exiled to <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>. The British passed rule of the Zulu kingdom onto 13 "kinglets", each with their own subkingdom. Conflict soon erupted between these subkingdoms, and in 1882, Cetshwayo was allowed to visit England. He had audiences with <!--del_lnk--> Queen Victoria, and other famous personages, before being allowed to return to Zululand, to be reinstated as king.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1883, Cetshwayo was put in place as king over a buffer reserve territory, much reduced from his original kingdom. Later that year, however, Cetshwayo was attacked at Ulundi by <!--del_lnk--> Zibhebhu, one of the 13 kinglets, supported by Boer mercenaries. Cetshwayo was wounded and fled. Cetshwayo died in February 1884, possibly poisoned. His son, <!--del_lnk--> Dinuzulu, then 15, inherited the throne.<p><a id="Dinuzulu_and_the_Boer_mercenaries" name="Dinuzulu_and_the_Boer_mercenaries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Dinuzulu and the Boer mercenaries</span></h4>
<p>In order to fight back against Zibhebhu, Dinuzulu recruited Boer mercenaries of his own, promising them land in return for their aid. These mercenaries called themselves "Dinuzulu's Volunteers", and were led by <!--del_lnk--> Louis Botha. Dinuzulu's Volunteers defeated Zibhebhu in 1884, and duly demanded their land. They were granted about half of Zululand individually as farms, and formed an independent republic. This alarmed the British, who then annexed Zululand in 1887. Dinuzulu became involved in later conflicts with rivals. In 1906 Dinuzulu was accused of being behind the <!--del_lnk--> Bambatha Rebellion. He was arrested and put on trial by the British for "high treason and public violence". In 1909, he was sentenced to ten year's imprisonment on <!--del_lnk--> St Helena island. When the Union of South Africa was formed, Louis Botha became its first prime minister, and he arranged for his old ally Dinuzulu to live in exile on a farm in the Transvaal, where Dinuzulu died in 1913.<p>Dinuzulu's son Solomon <!--del_lnk--> Solomon kaDinuzulu was never recognized by South African authorities as the Zulu king, only as a local chief, but he was increasingly regarded as king by chiefs, by political intellectuals such as <!--del_lnk--> John Langalibalele Dube and by ordinary Zulu people. In 1923 Solomon founded the organization Inkatha YaKwaZulu to promote his royal claims, which became moribund and then was revived in the 1970s by <!--del_lnk--> Mangosuthu Buthelezi, chief minister of the KwaZulu bantustan. In December 1951, Solomon's son <!--del_lnk--> Cyprian Bhekuzulu kaSolomon was officially recognized as the Paramount Chief of the Zulu people, but real power over ordinary Zulu people lay with white South African officials working through local chiefs who could be removed from office for failure to cooperate.<p><a id="Apartheid_years" name="Apartheid_years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Apartheid years</span></h3>
<p><a id="The_KwaZulu_homeland" name="The_KwaZulu_homeland"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The KwaZulu homeland</span></h4>
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<p>Under <!--del_lnk--> apartheid, the <!--del_lnk--> homeland of <!--del_lnk--> KwaZulu was created for Zulu people. In 1970, the <!--del_lnk--> Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act provided that all Zulus would become citizens of KwaZulu, losing their South African citizenship. KwaZulu consisted of a large number of disconnected pieces of land, in what is now KwaZulu-Natal. Hundreds of thousands of Zulu people living on privately owned "black spots" outside of KwaZulu were dispossessed and forcibly moved to worse land previously reserved for whites contiguous to existing areas of KwaZulu in the name of "consolidation." By 1993, approximately 5.2 million Zulu people lived in KwaZulu, and approximately 2 million lived in the rest of South Africa. The <!--del_lnk--> Chief Minister of KwaZulu, from its creation in 1970 (as Zululand) was Chief <!--del_lnk--> Mangosuthu Buthelezi. In 1994, KwaZulu was joined with the province of Natal, to form modern KwaZulu-Natal.<p><a id="Inkatha" name="Inkatha"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Inkatha</span></h4>
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<p>In 1975, Buthelezi revived the Inkatha YaKwaZulu, predecessor of the <!--del_lnk--> Inkatha Freedom Party. This organisation was nominally a protest movement against apartheid, but held more conservative views than the <!--del_lnk--> ANC. For example, Inkatha was opposed to the armed struggle, and to sanctions against South Africa. Inkatha was initially on good terms with the ANC, but the two organizations came into increasing conflict beginning in 1979 in the aftermath of the <!--del_lnk--> Soweto Uprising.<p>Because its stances were more in accordance with the apartheid government's views, Inkatha was the only mass organisation recognised as being representative of the views of black South Africans by the apartheid government. (The ANC, and other movements, were banned.) In the last years of apartheid, this acceptance extended to the covert provision of funds and guerilla warfare training to Inkatha by the government. Yet unlike the leaders of the <!--del_lnk--> Transkei, <!--del_lnk--> Ciskei, <!--del_lnk--> Bophuthatswana and <!--del_lnk--> Venda bantustans, Buthelezi never accepted the pseudo-independence offered under the policy of Separate Development, despite strong pressure from the ruling white government.<p><a id="Political_violence" name="Political_violence"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Political violence</span></h4>
<p>From 1985, members of opposing protest movements in what is now KwaZulu-Natal began engaging in bloody armed clashes, with combatants armed with <a href="../../wp/a/AK-47.htm" title="AK-47">AK-47</a>'s. This political violence occurred primarily between Inkatha and ANC members, and included atrocities committed by both sides. It was believed to be frequently instigated by a branch of the apartheid government's security forces, which became known as the "third force". The violence continued through the 1980s, and escalated in the 1990s in the build up to the first national elections in 1994.<p><a id="The_modern_Zulu_population" name="The_modern_Zulu_population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The modern Zulu population</span></h2>
<p>The modern Zulu population is fairly evenly distributed in both urban and rural areas. Although KwaZulu-Natal is still their heartland, large numbers have been attracted to the relative economic prosperity of Gauteng province. Indeed, <!--del_lnk--> isiZulu is the most widely spoken home language in the province, followed by <!--del_lnk--> Sesotho. IsiZulu is also widely spoken in rural and small-town Mpumalanga province.<p>Zulus also play an important part in South African politics. Mangosuthu Buthelezi served for a number of years as a <!--del_lnk--> Deputy President in a government of national unity in the 1990s, when reduction of civil conflict between ANC and IFP followers was a key national issue. Within the ANC, both the immediate past (<!--del_lnk--> Jacob Zuma) and current (<!--del_lnk--> Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka) <!--del_lnk--> Deputy President of the country have been Zulu, in part to bolster the ANC's claim to be a pan-ethnic national party and refute IFP claims that it was primarily a <!--del_lnk--> Xhosa party.<p><a id="Zulu_music" name="Zulu_music"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Zulu music</span></h2>
<p>The singing styles of the Zulu people and their <!--del_lnk--> Nguni heritage are worthy of special mention. As in much of Africa, music is highly regarded, enabling the communication of emotions and situations which could not be explained by talking. Zulu music incorporates rhythm, melody and harmony — the latter is usually dominant and known as "<!--del_lnk--> isigubudu" (which can be translated as converging horns on a beast, with tips touching the animal, a spiralling inward that reflects inner feelings).<p><!--del_lnk--> Maskanda and <!--del_lnk--> Mbaqanga are other Zulu music genres. Notable Maskandi musicians include <!--del_lnk--> Phuzekhemisi and <!--del_lnk--> Mfazomnyama.<p>Zulu music has also been carried worldwide, often by white musicians using Zulu backing singers, or performing songs by Zulu composers. Examples of the former are <!--del_lnk--> Paul Simon and South African <!--del_lnk--> Johnny Clegg. Examples of the latter are the song "<!--del_lnk--> Wimoweh" and several tunes on the first non-cassette album by <!--del_lnk--> Bow Wow Wow. In the case of both Bow Wow Wow and to a lesser extent "Wimoweh", the original Zulu musicians went largely unidentified and uncompensated by the white musicians.<p>The internationally successful Zulu group <a href="../../wp/l/Ladysmith_Black_Mambazo.htm" title="Ladysmith Black Mambazo">Ladysmith Black Mambazo</a> are among the artists who have made Zulu musical traditions known throughout the world. After contributing to <!--del_lnk--> Paul Simon's <!--del_lnk--> Graceland album they have toured the world with numerous stars and received two <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards.<p><a id="Language" name="Language"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Language</span></h2>
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<p>The language of the Zulu people is <!--del_lnk--> Zulu or <i>isiZulu</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> Bantu language; more specifically, part of the <!--del_lnk--> Nguni subgroup. Zulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa, with more than half of the South African population able to understand it (Ethnologue 2005). Many Zulu people also speak <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, SeSotho and others from among <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>'s 11 official languages.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h2>
<p>Zulu can be <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christians</a> (whether <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholics or <!--del_lnk--> Protestants in Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, or part-Christian, part-<!--del_lnk--> animist-African in Zimbabwe) or pure-animists.<p>Zulu religion includes belief in a creator god (Nkulunkulu), who is above interacting in day-to-day human affairs. It is possible to appeal to the spirit world only by invoking the ancestors (AmaDlozi) through divination processes. As such, the diviner, who is almost always a woman, plays an important part in the daily lives of the Zulu. It is believed that all bad things, including death, are the result of evil sorcery or offended spirits. No misfortune is ever seen as the result of natural causes. Another important aspect of Zulu religion is cleanliness. Separate utensils and plates were used for different foods, and bathing often occurred up to three times a day. Christianity had difficulty gaining a foothold among the Zulu, and when it did it was in a syncretic fashion. Isaiah Shambe, considered the Zulu messiah, presented a form of Christianity which incorporated traditional customs.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulu"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Zürich</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<p><span class="plainlinksneverexpand" id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 47°22′N 8°33′E</span></span><table border="border" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; clear:right; margin-left:0.5em; border-collapse: collapse; background:white" width="265px">
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<th align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFAA" colspan="2">Zürich</th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/132/13209.gif.htm" title="Coat of Arms of Zürich"><img alt="Coat of Arms of Zürich" height="66" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ch_zh_wappen_stadt.gif" src="../../images/132/13209.gif" width="90" /></a></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Canton</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Zürich</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%;"><!--del_lnk--> District</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%">Zürich</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates</span> </td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%"><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 47°22′N 8°33′E</span></span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Population</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%">366,809 </span> <span style="font-size:80%">(<!--del_lnk--> December 2005)</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Area</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%">91.88 <!--del_lnk--> km²</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%">408 <!--del_lnk--> m</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Postal code</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%">8000-8099</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Mayor</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Elmar Ledergerber</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%">Website</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> www.stzh.ch</span></td>
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<td><span style="font-size:90%"><!--del_lnk--> Twin towns</span></td>
<td><span style="font-size:80%"><!--del_lnk--> Kunming PRC</span></td>
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<div style="font-size:90%;line-height:110%;position:relative;top:-1.5em;left:0.5em;text-align:left;width:6em;z-index:202;"><span style="padding:1px;background:none">Zürich</span></div>
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<p><b>Zürich</b> (<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>: <span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> Zürich</span> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈtsyːʁɪç]</span>, <!--del_lnk--> Zürich German: <i>Züri</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈtsyri]</span>, in English generally <b>Zurich</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Italian: <i>Zurigo</i>) is the largest city in <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> (population: 366,145 in <!--del_lnk--> 2004; population of urban area: 1,091,732) and <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of the <!--del_lnk--> canton of Zürich. The metropolitan population is around 1.3 million. The city is Switzerland's main commercial and cultural centre (the political capital of Switzerland being <!--del_lnk--> Bern), and is widely considered to be one of the world's <!--del_lnk--> global cities. According to a survey in 2006, it is the city with the best quality of life in the world.<p>The origin of the name is probably the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic word <i>Turus</i>, a corroborating reference to which was found on a tomb inscription dating from the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> occupation in the 2nd century; the antique name of the town in its romanized form was <i>Turicum</i>.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13210.jpg.htm" title="Satellite photo of central Zürich"><img alt="Satellite photo of central Zürich" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zurich.jpg" src="../../images/132/13210.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13210.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite photo of central Zürich</div>
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<p>The city is situated where the river <!--del_lnk--> Limmat leaves the northern end of <!--del_lnk--> Lake Zürich and is surrounded by wooded hills including (from the north) the Gubrist, the Hönggerberg, the <!--del_lnk--> Zürichberg, the Adlisberg and the Oettlisberg on the eastern shore; and the <!--del_lnk--> Uetliberg on the western shore. The river <!--del_lnk--> Sihl meets with the Limmat at the end of Platzspitz, which borders the <!--del_lnk--> Swiss National Museum (<i>Landesmuseum</i>). The geographic (and historic) centre of the city is the 'Lindenhof' a small natural hill on the left bank of the river <!--del_lnk--> Limmat, about 700 meters north of where the river leaves the <!--del_lnk--> Lake Zürich. Today the incorporated city stretches somewhat beyond it natural hydrographic confines given by its hills and includes some neighborhoods to the northeast in the Glattal (valley of the river Glatt).<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13212.jpg.htm" title="General view showing Grossmünster church."><img alt="General view showing Grossmünster church." height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zurich.jpeg" src="../../images/132/13212.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13212.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> General view showing Grossmünster church.</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Roman times, <i>Turicum</i> was a tax-collecting point at the border of <!--del_lnk--> Gallia Belgica (from AD 90 <!--del_lnk--> Germania superior) and <!--del_lnk--> Raetia for goods trafficked on the <!--del_lnk--> Limmat river. A <!--del_lnk--> Carolingian castle, built on the site of the Roman castle by the grandson of <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Louis the German, is mentioned in <!--del_lnk--> 835 (<i>"in castro Turicino iuxta fluvium Lindemaci"</i>). Louis also founded the <!--del_lnk--> Fraumünster abbey in <!--del_lnk--> 853 for his daughter Hildegard. He endowed the <!--del_lnk--> Benedictine convent with the lands of Zürich, <!--del_lnk--> Uri, and the <!--del_lnk--> Albis forest, and granted the convent immunity, placing it under his direct authority.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1045, King <!--del_lnk--> Henry III granted the convent the right to hold markets, collect tolls, and mint coins, and thus effectively made the abbess the ruler of the city.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13215.jpg.htm" title="The Murerplan of 1576"><img alt="The Murerplan of 1576" height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Murerplan_Zuerich.jpg" src="../../images/132/13215.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13215.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i><!--del_lnk--> Murerplan</i> of 1576</div>
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<p>Zürich became <i><!--del_lnk--> reichsunmittelbar</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1218 with the extinction of the main line of the <!--del_lnk--> Zähringer family. A city wall was built during the <!--del_lnk--> 1230s, enclosing 38 hectares. Emperor <a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> promoted the abbess of the Fraumünster to the rank of a duchess in <!--del_lnk--> 1234. The abbess assigned the <!--del_lnk--> mayor, and she frequently delegated the minting of coins to citizens of the city. However, the political power of the convent slowly waned in the 14th century, beginning with the establishment of the <i>Zunftordnung</i> (<!--del_lnk--> guild laws) in <!--del_lnk--> 1336 by <!--del_lnk--> Rudolf Brun, who also became the first independent mayor, i.e. not assigned by the abbess.<p>Zürich joined the <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Swiss confederation</a> (which at that time was a loose confederation of <i>de facto</i> <!--del_lnk--> independent states) as the fifth member in <!--del_lnk--> 1351. Zürich was expelled from the confederation in <!--del_lnk--> 1440 due to a war with the other member states over the territory of <!--del_lnk--> Toggenburg (the <!--del_lnk--> Old Zürich War). Zürich was defeated in <!--del_lnk--> 1446, and re-admitted to the confederation in <!--del_lnk--> 1450.<p><!--del_lnk--> Zwingli started the Swiss reformation at the time when he was the main preacher in Zürich. He lived there from <!--del_lnk--> 1484 until his death in <!--del_lnk--> 1531.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1839, the city had to yield to the demands of its rural subjects, following the <!--del_lnk--> Züriputsch of <!--del_lnk--> 6 September. Most of the ramparts built in the 17th century were torn down, without ever having been sieged, to allay rural concerns over the city's <!--del_lnk--> hegemony. The <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Zurich between <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Sardinia was signed in <!--del_lnk--> 1859. <p>From <!--del_lnk--> 1847, the <i>Spanisch-Brötli-Bahn</i>, the first railway on Swiss territory, connected Zürich with <!--del_lnk--> Baden, putting the <!--del_lnk--> Zürich Main Station at the origin of the Swiss rail network. The present building of the Hauptbahnhof (chief railway station) dates to <!--del_lnk--> 1871.<p><a id="Coat_of_arms" name="Coat_of_arms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Coat of arms</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13221.jpg.htm" title="Banner bearer of Zürich, from a 1585 painting by Humbert Mareschet"><img alt="Banner bearer of Zürich, from a 1585 painting by Humbert Mareschet" height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Banner_Zuerich_1585.jpg" src="../../images/132/13221.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13221.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Banner bearer of Zürich, from a 1585 painting by Humbert Mareschet</div>
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<p>The blue and white coat of arms of Zürich is attested from 1389, and was derived from banners with blue and white stripes in use since <!--del_lnk--> 1315. The first certain testimony of banners with the same design is from 1434. The coat of arms is flanked by two lions. The red <i>Schwenkel</i> on top of the banner had varying interpretations: For the people of Zürich, it was a mark of honour, granted by <!--del_lnk--> Rudolph I. Zürich's neighbors mocked it as a sign of shame, commemorating the loss of the banner at <!--del_lnk--> Winterthur in <!--del_lnk--> 1292. Today, the Canton of Zürich uses the same coat of arms as the city.<p><a id="Sights" name="Sights"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sights</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13241.jpg.htm" title="View of the inner city with the four main churches visible, and the Albis in the backdrop"><img alt="View of the inner city with the four main churches visible, and the Albis in the backdrop" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zuerich_vier_Kirchen.jpg" src="../../images/132/13241.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13241.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View of the inner city with the four main churches visible, and the Albis in the backdrop</div>
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<p><a id="Churches" name="Churches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Churches</span></h3>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Grossmünster (great <!--del_lnk--> minster) (near Lake Zürich, in the old city), where <!--del_lnk--> Zwingli was pastor; first building around 820; declared by <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> imperial church<li><!--del_lnk--> Fraumünster (our lady's minster) first church built before 874; the <!--del_lnk--> Romanesque choir dates from 1250-70; <!--del_lnk--> Marc Chagall stained glass choir windows; (on the opposite side of the Limmat). During 2004 the Fraumünster was fully renovated. During this period the installed scaffolding went above the tip of the tower allowing a unique and exceptional 360° panoramic view of Zürich.<li><!--del_lnk--> St. Peter (downstream from the Fraumünster, in the old city); with the <!--del_lnk--> largest clock face in Europe</ul>
<p><a id="Museums" name="Museums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Museum Bärengasse, history of the city in the 18th century<li><!--del_lnk--> Kunsthaus Zürich, one of the largest collections in Classic Modern Art in the world (Munch, Picasso, Braque, Giacometti, etc.) <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Museum Rietberg, Antique Asian Art <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Museum Bellerive, Museum for fashion, architecture and design <!--del_lnk--> , located in a villa on the beach of the lake<li><!--del_lnk--> Kunsthalle Zürich <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Migros Museum, modern and avantgarde international Art. <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Museum of Design Zürich <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Swiss National Museum (<i>Landesmuseum</i>) <!--del_lnk--> , located in the Platzspitz park opposit the main station<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Jacobs Museum, history of colonial Fine Food and coffee <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Johanna Spyri Museum <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Haus Konstruktiv <!--del_lnk--> , constructive, concrete and conceptual art and design<li><!--del_lnk--> NONAM North American Native Museum <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Museum of the History of Medicine</ul>
<p><a id="Other_sights" name="Other_sights"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other sights</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13252.jpg.htm" title="View over Zürich from the Üetliberg"><img alt="View over Zürich from the Üetliberg" height="99" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Uetliberg_Zurich.jpg" src="../../images/132/13252.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13252.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View over Zürich from the Üetliberg</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13253.jpg.htm" title="View over Zürich from the Waid"><img alt="View over Zürich from the Waid" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zueri_waid.jpg" src="../../images/132/13253.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13253.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View over Zürich from the Waid</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Lindenhof near St. Peter; site of the Roman and medieval castle. V<li>Guild houses along the river (downstream from the Grossmünster)<li>Old town (Altstadt), District 1, on both sides of the river<li><!--del_lnk--> Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich (shopping avenue) starting at main train station<li><!--del_lnk--> Parade-Platz, Plaza in the middle of <!--del_lnk--> Bahnhofstrasse, Zürich, centre of financial activity, with world-headquarters of several Swiss banks: <!--del_lnk--> UBS and <!--del_lnk--> Credit Suisse.<li><!--del_lnk--> Zoological garden <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Masoala Rainforest Ecosystem Great Glass Hall in the Zoological garden with trees, flowers and animals in liberty from the rainforest of <!--del_lnk--> Masoala National Park in Madagascar <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Botanical Garden of the University of Zürich <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Chinese Garden, Zürich <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Neu Oerlikon, part of City District <!--del_lnk--> Zürich Oerlikon: north quarter of the city - Oerliker Park, MFO-Park, Centre-11-Building, Price-Waterhouse-Building, ABB-Building, UBS-Building and other modern public spaces. <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Lake Zürich, running from Zürich to <!--del_lnk--> Rapperswil and linking with the <!--del_lnk--> Obersee<li><!--del_lnk--> Üetliberg, at an altitude 813 metres above sea level, with <!--del_lnk--> Uetlibergturm TV-tower<li><!--del_lnk--> Fluntern Cemetery</ul>
<p><a id="Industry_and_commerce" name="Industry_and_commerce"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Industry and commerce</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13258.jpg.htm" title="Goldman Sachs offices on the Fraumünsterplatz (the light-colored building at the left)"><img alt="Goldman Sachs offices on the Fraumünsterplatz (the light-colored building at the left)" height="154" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Z%C3%BCrich.Fraum%C3%BCnsterplatz.jpg" src="../../images/132/13258.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13258.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Goldman Sachs offices on the Fraumünsterplatz (the light-colored building at the left)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> UBS, <!--del_lnk--> Credit Suisse, <!--del_lnk--> Swiss Re, and many other financial institutions have their headquarters in Zürich, the commercial centre of Switzerland. Zürich is the world's primary centre for offshore banking, mainly due to Swiss bank secrecy. The financial sector accounts for about one quarter of the city's economic activities. The <!--del_lnk--> Swiss Stock Exchange has its headquarters in Zürich (see also <!--del_lnk--> Swiss banking).<p><a id="Business" name="Business"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Business</span></h2>
<p>Zürich is a leading financial centre and has repeatedly been proclaimed the <a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" title="Global city">global city</a> with the best quality of life anywhere in the world. The Greater Zürich Area is Switzerland’s economic centre and home to a vast number of international companies. The <b><!--del_lnk--> GDP</b> of the Zürich Area is CHF 210 billion (USD 160 billion) or CHF 58'000 (USD 45'000) per capita (2005).<p><a id="Economic_success_reasons" name="Economic_success_reasons"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Economic success reasons</span></h3>
<p>The success of the Greater Zürich Economic Area as one of the most important in the world is probably due to more than one factor. The very <b>low <!--del_lnk--> tax rate</b> and the possibility for foreign companies and private persons to optimize their tax burden by personalized tax agreement with the Tax Authorities is surely one of the key points - a practice that often brings conflicts with Switzerland's neighbours in Europe, who do not like this type of successful and aggressive strategy for establishing European headquarters or service/research centres by known global economic players (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> IBM, <!--del_lnk--> General Motors Europe, <a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" title="Google">Google</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft.htm" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Pfizer). The fact that Switzerland doesn't have an inheritance tax is also an important factor for rich private persons.<p>Another reason for the economic success of Zürich can be seen in the <b>research and educational</b> (R&D) field of the city. The <!--del_lnk--> ETH Zurich is ranked alongside the <!--del_lnk--> University of Zurich: there are more than 58,000 students. The reservoir for qualified employees is therefore impressive.<p>Other data: Switzerland made an excellent showing in the <b>IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005</b>, scoring in the Top 10 in the following categories:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prizes per resident (No.2)<li>Active patents per resident (No.2)<li>Private research expenditure (No.6)<li>R&D expenditure per resident (No.6)<li>R&D employees per resident (No.8)<li>R&D expenditure as % of the <!--del_lnk--> GNP (No.10)</ul>
<p>Most of the Swiss R&D institutions are concentrated in the Zürich area.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13260.jpg.htm" title="Zürich's old town at night"><img alt="Zürich's old town at night" height="244" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zurich_late.jpg" src="../../images/132/13260.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13260.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Zürich's old town at night</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Of course also the <b>quality of life</b> is very important in the possible reasons for the international economic growth. William M. <!--del_lnk--> Mercer, an HR consulting firm based in London, has ranked Zürich as the city with the highest quality of life anywhere in the world for the fourth consecutive time. <!--del_lnk--> Berne and <a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> were also ranked among the Top 10 – in fact, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> was the only country with more than one city in the Top 10.<p>Thanks to extremely low <!--del_lnk--> crime rates, <b>personal safety</b> can be assured without extra charges. And the importance of security as an economic factor should not be underestimated.<p><a id="The_Swiss_stock_exchange" name="The_Swiss_stock_exchange"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Swiss stock exchange</span></h3>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/132/13281.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:B%C3%B6rsez%C3%BCrich.jpg" src="../../images/132/13281.jpg" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<p>The Swiss stock exchange is called <!--del_lnk--> SWX Swiss Exchange. The <!--del_lnk--> SWX is the head group of several different worldwide operative financial systems: <!--del_lnk--> virt-x, <!--del_lnk--> Eurex, <!--del_lnk--> Eurex US, <!--del_lnk--> EXFEED and <!--del_lnk--> STOXX. The exchange turnover generated at the SWX was in 2004 of 1,244,045 million <!--del_lnk--> CHF; the number of transactions arrived in the same period at 14,697,381 and the <!--del_lnk--> Swiss Performance Index (SPI) arrived at a total market capitalisation of 780,320 million <!--del_lnk--> CHF.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> SWX Swiss Exchange goes back more than 150 years. In 1996, fully electronic trading replaced the traditional floor trading system at the <!--del_lnk--> stock exchanges of <a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> (founded in 1850), Zurich (1873) and <!--del_lnk--> Basle (1876).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> SWX is subject to Swiss law. The Federal Act on <!--del_lnk--> Stock Exchanges and Securities Trading (SESTA) prescribes the concept of self-regulation, which obligates the SWX to meet international standards in its regulatory activities. The SWX itself is supervised by the Swiss Federal Banking Commission (SFBC).<p>The shares traded on SWX are mainly held in the Swiss-based accounts of domestic and international investors. Other products traded on the SWX Platform are <!--del_lnk--> bonds (CHF-denominated bonds as well as international bonds), traditional investments, Exchange Traded <!--del_lnk--> Funds (ETFs, known as exchange-traded index funds) and non-standardised <!--del_lnk--> derivatives. In terms of turnover, the SWX Swiss Exchange operates Europe's largest market segment for listed and exchange-traded <!--del_lnk--> warrants.<p>Chairman of the Board of Directors of the <!--del_lnk--> SWX Group is Prof. Dr. Peter Gomez. Gomez is a business professor at St. Gallen business school. <!--del_lnk--> <h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education and research</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> ETH Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> University of Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> IBM Zürich Research Laboratory<li><!--del_lnk--> Swiss Re's Centre for Global Dialogue<li><!--del_lnk--> SIK Swiss Institute for Art Research - Schweizerisches Institut für Kunstwissenschaften<li><!--del_lnk--> HGKZ - University of Applied Sciences and Designs<li><!--del_lnk--> Avenir Suisse - Liberal Think Tank<li><!--del_lnk--> Swiss Institute of International Studies<li><!--del_lnk--> HMT School of Music, Drama and Dance - Hochschule für Musik und Theatre<li><!--del_lnk--> ZFH College of Applied Sciences and Technologies Zurich - Zürcher Fachhochschule<li><!--del_lnk--> Graduate School of Business Administration Zurich<li><!--del_lnk--> National Centre of Competence in Research - Financial Valuation and Risk Management<li><!--del_lnk--> Inter-Community School Zurich<li><!--del_lnk--> Zurich International School</ul>
<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Grasshopper-Club Zürich Football <!--del_lnk--> <span style="font-size: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; color:#555; position: relative;">(German)</span><li><!--del_lnk--> ZSC Lions Ice Hockey Club <!--del_lnk--> <span style="font-size: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; color:#555; position: relative;">(German)</span><li><!--del_lnk--> FC Zürich Football Club <!--del_lnk--> <span style="font-size: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; color:#555; position: relative;">(German)</span><li>Challengers Baseball Club Zürich <!--del_lnk--> <li>Zürich Lions Baseball Club <!--del_lnk--> <li>Zürich Renegades American Football Club <!--del_lnk--> <span style="font-size: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; color:#555; position: relative;">(German)</span><li><a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" title="FIFA">Federation Internationale de Football Association</a> (FIFA) headquarters.<li><!--del_lnk--> Weltklasse Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)<li>Swimming in the lake, in the river or in several outdoor swimming pools (June-September)</ul>
<p><a id="Events" name="Events"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Events</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Street Parade<li><!--del_lnk--> Sechseläuten, spring festival of the guilds and burning of the <!--del_lnk--> Böögg<li>Zurich International Theater Festival - Zürcher Theatre Spektakel, it ranks among the most important European festivals for the contemporary performing arts. <!--del_lnk--> <li>Kunst Zürich, international art fair with an annual guest city (New York in 2005); combines most recent and youngest art with the works of well-established artists. <!--del_lnk--> <li>Annual public art program each summer, sponsored by the Zürich City Association (the local equivalent of a <!--del_lnk--> chamber of commerce) with the cooperation of the city government. The theme for 2005 was <!--del_lnk--> teddy bears.<li>Weltklasse Zürich, anually in August www.weltklasse.ch<li>freestyle.ch, one of the biggest freestyle events in europe, www.freestyle.ch</ul>
<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13284.jpg.htm" title="Trams in Zürich"><img alt="Trams in Zürich" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Trams_in_Zurich.jpg" src="../../images/132/13284.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13284.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Trams in Zürich</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Zürich is a hub for rail, road, and air traffic. It has several railway stations, including <b><!--del_lnk--> Zürich Main Station</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Zürich Oerlikon, <!--del_lnk--> Zürich Stadelhofen, and <!--del_lnk--> Zürich Altstetten. The <!--del_lnk--> Cisalpino, <!--del_lnk--> InterCity Express, and even the <a href="../../wp/t/TGV.htm" title="TGV">TGV</a> high-speed trains stop in Zürich.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> A1, <!--del_lnk--> A3 and <!--del_lnk--> A4 motorways pass close to Zürich. The A1 heads west towards <!--del_lnk--> Bern and <a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> and eastwards towards <!--del_lnk--> St. Gallen; the A4 leads northwards to <!--del_lnk--> Schaffhausen; and the A3 heads northwest towards <a href="../../wp/b/Basel.htm" title="Basel">Basel</a> and southeast along Lake Zurich and Lake Walen towards <!--del_lnk--> Sargans.<p>Zürich has a major <!--del_lnk--> international airport at Kloten, less than 10 kilometres northeast of the city. There is also an airfield in <!--del_lnk--> Dübendorf, although it is not used for civil aviation.<p>Within Zürich and throughout the canton of Zürich, the <!--del_lnk--> ZVV network of public transport has traffic density rating among the highest worldwide. If you add frequency, which in Zürich can be as often as 7 minutes, it does become the densest across all dimensions. Three means of mass-transit exist: the S-Bahn (local trains), <!--del_lnk--> trams, and <!--del_lnk--> buses (both diesel and electric, also called trolley buses). Rumour has it that no point exists on the ground floor within the central district which is farther than 150 metres from the next bus, tram, or train stop.<p>In addition the public transport network includes boats on the lake and river, funicular railways and even a cable car between Adliswil and Felsenegg. Tickets purchased for a trip are valid on all means of public transportation (train, tram, bus, boat).<p><a id="Notable_people" name="Notable_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable people</span></h2>
<p>People who were born or died in Zürich:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Huldrych Zwingli (<!--del_lnk--> 1484 - <!--del_lnk--> 1531), reformer<li><!--del_lnk--> Conrad Gessner (<!--del_lnk--> 1516 - <!--del_lnk--> 1565), naturalist, born and died in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Jakob Scheuchzer (<!--del_lnk--> 1672 - <!--del_lnk--> 1733), scholar, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Kaspar Lavater (<!--del_lnk--> 1741 - <!--del_lnk--> 1801), poet and physiognomist, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (<!--del_lnk--> 1746 - <!--del_lnk--> 1827), educational reformer, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> James Sadleir (c. <!--del_lnk--> 1815 - <!--del_lnk--> 1881), fugitive swindler, murdered in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Gottfried Keller (<!--del_lnk--> 1819 - <!--del_lnk--> 1890), poet, born and died in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Conrad Ferdinand Meyer (<!--del_lnk--> 1825 - <!--del_lnk--> 1898), poet, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Johanna Spyri (<!--del_lnk--> 1827 - <!--del_lnk--> 1901), author of <i><!--del_lnk--> Heidi</i>, died in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna of Russia (<!--del_lnk--> 1853) - (<!--del_lnk--> 1920) Duchess of Edinburgh, died in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm Filchner (<!--del_lnk--> 1877 - <!--del_lnk--> 1957), explorer, died in Zürich<li><a href="../../wp/j/James_Joyce.htm" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1882 - <!--del_lnk--> 1941), Irish novelist, died in Zürich (buried at Fluntern cemetery in Zürich)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pancho Vladigerov (<!--del_lnk--> 1899 - <!--del_lnk--> 1978), Bulgarian composer, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Felix Bloch (<!--del_lnk--> 1905 - <!--del_lnk--> 1983), physicist, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Elias Canetti (<!--del_lnk--> 1905 - <!--del_lnk--> 1994), novelist, died in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Max Frisch (<!--del_lnk--> 1911 - <!--del_lnk--> 1991), novelist, born and died in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Hugo Koblet (<!--del_lnk--> 1925 - <!--del_lnk--> 1964), cycling champion<li><!--del_lnk--> Bruno Ganz (born <!--del_lnk--> 1941), actor, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Martin Suter (born <!--del_lnk--> 1948), author, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Lucinda Ruh (born <!--del_lnk--> 1979), figure skater, born in Zürich<li><!--del_lnk--> Heinz Gunthardt (born <!--del_lnk--> 1959), professional tennis player, born in Zürich</ul>
<p>Famous residents:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tristan Tzara (<!--del_lnk--> 1915-<!--del_lnk--> 1919)<li><a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Wagner.htm" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1849–<!--del_lnk--> 1861)<li><a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1896–<!--del_lnk--> 1900, <!--del_lnk--> 1909–<!--del_lnk--> 1911, <!--del_lnk--> 1912–<!--del_lnk--> 1914)<li><a href="../../wp/v/Vladimir_Lenin.htm" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1917)<li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Mann (<!--del_lnk--> 1933–<!--del_lnk--> 1942)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kurt Tucholsky (<!--del_lnk--> 1932–<!--del_lnk--> 1933)<li><a href="../../wp/j/James_Joyce.htm" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1915–<!--del_lnk--> 1919)<li><!--del_lnk--> Harald Naegeli<li><!--del_lnk--> Tina Turner<li><!--del_lnk--> Elisabeth Schwarzkopf<li><!--del_lnk--> Andreas Vollenweider<li><!--del_lnk--> Moritz Leuenberger<li><!--del_lnk--> Kimi Räikkönen<li><!--del_lnk--> Fernando Alonso<li><!--del_lnk--> Yves Netzhammer</ul>
<p><i>See also:</i> <!--del_lnk--> List of mayors of Zürich<p><a id="Hotels" name="Hotels"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Hotels</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13290.jpg.htm" title="St. Peter church"><img alt="St. Peter church" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZurichStPeter.jpg" src="../../images/132/13290.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/132/13290.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> St. Peter church</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>Savoy Baur en Ville (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Baur au Lac (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Dolder (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Alden Splügenschloss (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Eden au Lac (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Park <!--del_lnk--> Hyatt Zürich (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Widder (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Marriott (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Ascot (<!--del_lnk--> )<li>Swissotel (<!--del_lnk--> )</ul>
<p><i>Map Overview:</i> <!--del_lnk--> Hotels in Zurich<br /><i>See also:</i> <!--del_lnk--> Zürich Tourismus<p><a id="Sister_cities" name="Sister_cities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco</a>, United States (private initiative)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kunming, Peoples Republic of China</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich"</div>
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| ['German language', 'Switzerland', 'Capital', 'Roman Empire', 'Charlemagne', 'Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor', 'Switzerland', 'Austria', 'France', 'Charlemagne', 'Global city', 'Google', 'Microsoft', 'Geneva', 'Switzerland', 'Geneva', 'FIFA', 'TGV', 'Geneva', 'Basel', 'James Joyce', 'Richard Wagner', 'Albert Einstein', 'Vladimir Lenin', 'James Joyce', 'San Francisco, California'] |
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<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : A</title>
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<table><tr><th>a</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A._E._J._Collins.htm" target="_top">A. E. J. Collins</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_Christmas_Carol.htm" target="_top">A Christmas Carol</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_Tale_of_a_Tub.htm" target="_top">A Tale of a Tub</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_Wrinkle_in_Time.htm" target="_top">A Wrinkle in Time</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_cappella.htm" target="_top">A cappella</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: A.D. A._D.">Anno Domini</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: A_King's_Story">Edward VIII of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: A_frog">Frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rainbow.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: A_pot_of_gold">Rainbow</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>a380</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" target="_top">Airbus A380</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>a380f</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: A380F">Airbus A380</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>aachen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aachen.htm" target="_top">Aachen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aaiún</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Aai%25C3%25BAn.htm" target="_top">El Aaiún</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aapaok</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ammolite.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aapaok">Ammolite</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aardvark</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aardvark.htm" target="_top">Aardvark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aarhus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aarhus.htm" target="_top">Aarhus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><table><tr><th>ababa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Addis_Ababa.htm" target="_top">Addis Ababa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abacá</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abac%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top">Abacá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abacus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abacus.htm" target="_top">Abacus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abadan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abadan.htm" target="_top">Abadan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abakanowicz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Magdalena_Abakanowicz.htm" target="_top">Magdalena Abakanowicz</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbadan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abadan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: 'Abbadan">Abadan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbadid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbadid.htm" target="_top">Abbadid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbas_I_of_Persia.htm" target="_top">Abbas I of Persia</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahmoud_Abbas.htm" target="_top">Mahmoud Abbas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbasid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbasid.htm" target="_top">Abbasid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbassia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abbassia">Cairo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niccol%25C3%25B2_dell%2527Abbate.htm" target="_top">Niccolò dell'Abbate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbey.htm" target="_top">Abbey</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbey_Theatre.htm" target="_top">Abbey Theatre</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_Abbey.htm" target="_top">Westminster Abbey</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbot.htm" target="_top">Abbot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbysinia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abbysinia">Ethiopia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abbysinnia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abbysinnia">Ethiopia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Muhammad_ibn_Abd-Allah">Muhammad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abdomen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human_abdomen.htm" target="_top">Human abdomen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abe_Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abel_Tasman.htm" target="_top">Abel Tasman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aberdeen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aberdeen.htm" target="_top">Aberdeen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aberration</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aberration_of_light.htm" target="_top">Aberration of light</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chromatic_aberration.htm" target="_top">Chromatic aberration</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spherical_aberration.htm" target="_top">Spherical aberration</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aberrations</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chromatic_aberration.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chromatic_aberrations">Chromatic aberration</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spherical_aberration.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Spherical_aberrations">Spherical aberration</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aberystwyth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aberystwyth.htm" target="_top">Aberystwyth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aberyswyth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aberystwyth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aberyswyth">Aberystwyth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abhidhamma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abhidhamma_Pitaka.htm" target="_top">Abhidhamma Pitaka</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abidjan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abidjan.htm" target="_top">Abidjan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abilities</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Batman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Skills_and_abilities_of_Batman">Batman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abkhazia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abkhazia.htm" target="_top">Abkhazia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abkhazian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abkhazia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abkhazian_Republic">Abkhazia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>able</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Able_Archer_83.htm" target="_top">Able Archer 83</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ABO_blood_group_system.htm" target="_top">ABO blood group system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abode</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brunei.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: State_of_Brunei,_Abode_of_Peace">Brunei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>about</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Panda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Information_About_Giant_Pandas">Giant Panda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abrahahm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abrahahm_lincon">Abraham Lincoln</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abraham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Goldfaden.htm" target="_top">Abraham Goldfaden</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" target="_top">Abraham Lincoln</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>absent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Absent-Minded_Beggar.htm" target="_top">The Absent-Minded Beggar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>absinthe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Absinthe.htm" target="_top">Absinthe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>absinthisme</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Absinthe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Absinthisme">Absinthe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>absolute</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Absolute_zero.htm" target="_top">Absolute zero</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abstinthe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Absinthe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abstinthe">Absinthe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abstract</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abstract_art.htm" target="_top">Abstract art</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Existentialism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abstract_existentialism">Existentialism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abstractionist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abstract_art.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abstractionist">Abstract art</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abu_Dhabi.htm" target="_top">Abu Dhabi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abuja</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abuja.htm" target="_top">Abuja</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abuses</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Human_right_abuses">Human rights</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>abyssinia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abyssinia">Ethiopia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="c"></a><table><tr><th>ac</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/AC_DC.htm" target="_top">AC DC</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_AC_power_plugs_and_sockets.htm" target="_top">Domestic AC power plugs and sockets</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AC/DC_(electrical)">Electrical engineering</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>academic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Academic_Marxism">Marxism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>academy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sabio_Academy">Education</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accapella</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_cappella.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Accapella">A cappella</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accelerated</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acceleration.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Accelerated_motion Accelerated_Motion">Acceleration</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acceleration</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acceleration.htm" target="_top">Acceleration</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Acceleration_of_gravity">Gravitation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_English.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Canadian_accent Canadian_Accent">Canadian English</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accession</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_European_Union_member_states_by_accession.htm" target="_top">List of European Union member states by accession</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accident</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bourbonnais_train_accident.htm" target="_top">Bourbonnais train accident</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chernobyl_disaster.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: 1986_Chernobyl_Nuclear_Accident">Chernobyl disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Three_Mile_Island_accident.htm" target="_top">Three Mile Island accident</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accolades</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Queen_accolades">Queen (band)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accountancy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Accountancy.htm" target="_top">Accountancy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accouterment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clothing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Accouterment">Clothing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>accra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Accra.htm" target="_top">Accra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acetic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acetic_acid.htm" target="_top">Acetic acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acetone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acetone.htm" target="_top">Acetone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acevedo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jorge_Luis_Borges.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Isidoro_Acevedo">Jorge Luis Borges</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>achilles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Achilles.htm" target="_top">Achilles</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Achilles_tendon.htm" target="_top">Achilles tendon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acetic_acid.htm" target="_top">Acetic acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acid_rain.htm" target="_top">Acid rain</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Doexyribonucleic_acid">DNA</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fatty_acid.htm" target="_top">Fatty acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" target="_top">Folic acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Formic_acid.htm" target="_top">Formic acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" target="_top">Hydrochloric acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Omega-3_fatty_acid.htm" target="_top">Omega-3 fatty acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sulfuric_acid.htm" target="_top">Sulfuric acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acinonyx</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cheetah.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Acinonyx_jubatus_jubatus">Cheetah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acorn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acorn_Computers.htm" target="_top">Acorn Computers</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acoustic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Double_bass.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Acoustic_Bass">Double bass</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>act</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FairTax.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fair_Tax_Act_of_2007">FairTax</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Act_of_Union,_1536 1536_Act_of_Union Laws_in_Wales_Act,_1535 Act_of_Union_1536 Laws_in_Wales_Act">Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>actinium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Actinium.htm" target="_top">Actinium</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Actinium_K">Francium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>action</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Action_potential.htm" target="_top">Action potential</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Action_Party.htm" target="_top">Democratic Action Party</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_Entertainment_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: NES_Action_Set">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>active</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Active_oxygen">Oxygen</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Protein_active_site">Protein</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sleep.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Active_sleep Active_Sleep">Sleep</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>activity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Economic_activity">Economics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>actor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" target="_top">Actor</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Stewart_%2528actor%2529.htm" target="_top">James Stewart (actor)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>actraphane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Insulin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Actraphane">Insulin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>actrapid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Insulin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Actrapid">Insulin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>actress</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Television_actress">Television</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acts_of_Union_1707.htm" target="_top">Acts of Union 1707</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" target="_top">Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>actuary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Actuary.htm" target="_top">Actuary</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>acute</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_cold.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Acute_viral_nasopharyngitis Acute_respiratory_infection">Common cold</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="d"></a><table><tr><th>ad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fifth_century_AD">5th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: 8th_century_AD">8th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: AD BC_vs_AD">Anno Domini</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adam_Smith.htm" target="_top">Adam Smith</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Adams.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: John_Adam's_Administration">John Adams</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adams</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Douglas_Adams.htm" target="_top">Douglas Adams</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Adams.htm" target="_top">John Adams</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niagara_Falls.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Edward_Dean_Adams_Station">Niagara Falls</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adapter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_Graphics_Adapter.htm" target="_top">Color Graphics Adapter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adaptor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_Graphics_Adapter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Color_Graphics_Adaptor">Color Graphics Adapter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>add</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carolingian_Gospel_Book_%2528British_Library%252C_MS_Add._11848%2529.htm" target="_top">Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>addertongue</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alice_Addertongue">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>addis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Addis_Ababa.htm" target="_top">Addis Ababa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>address</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gettysburg_Address.htm" target="_top">Gettysburg Address</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adelaide</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adelaide.htm" target="_top">Adelaide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adenosine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adenosine_triphosphate.htm" target="_top">Adenosine triphosphate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adhd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: ADHD">Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adi_Shankara.htm" target="_top">Adi Shankara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>administration</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Washington's_administration">George Washington</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_K._Polk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Polk_Administration">James K. Polk</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Adams.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: John_Adam's_Administration">John Adams</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nixon_Administration">Richard Nixon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>administrative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Central_African_Republic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Administrative_divisions_of_the_Central_African_Republic">Central African Republic</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Administrative_divisions_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>admiral</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Portsmouth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Admiral_Lord_Nelson_School_(Portsmouth)">Portsmouth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adolf</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" target="_top">Adolf Hitler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adolph</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Adolph_Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adonis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Venus_and_Adonis_%2528opera%2529.htm" target="_top">Venus and Adonis (opera)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adoph</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Adoph_hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adress</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gettysburg_Address.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gettysburg_adress">Gettysburg Address</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adriaen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adriaen_van_der_Donck.htm" target="_top">Adriaen van der Donck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adurna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Adurna">Water</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>advanced</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Advanced_culture">Civilization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adventure</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_Adventure.htm" target="_top">Final Fantasy Adventure</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>adventures</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alice%2527s_Adventures_in_Wonderland.htm" target="_top">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Adventures_of_Tintin.htm" target="_top">The Adventures of Tintin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>advertising</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" target="_top">Advertising</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="e"></a><table><tr><th>aedan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2581ed%25C3%25A1n_mac_Gabr%25C3%25A1in.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aedan_mac_Gabrain">Áedán mac Gabráin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>áedán</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2581ed%25C3%25A1n_mac_Gabr%25C3%25A1in.htm" target="_top">Áedán mac Gabráin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aeneas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dido_and_Aeneas.htm" target="_top">Dido and Aeneas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aeroplane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Concorde_(aeroplane)">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aerospace</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aerospatiale-British_Aerospace_Concorde">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aerospatiale</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Aerospatiale-BAC_Concorde Aerospatiale-British_Aerospace_Concorde">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aérospatiale</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aérospatiale-BAC_Concorde">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aesthetics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aesthetics.htm" target="_top">Aesthetics</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kantian_aesthetics">Immanuel Kant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aether</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Luminiferous_aether.htm" target="_top">Luminiferous aether</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="f"></a><table><tr><th>afars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Territoire_français_des_Afars_et_des_Issas">Djibouti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afaxin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Retinol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Afaxin">Retinol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afganhistan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Afganhistan">Afghanistan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afghan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Afghan_Hound.htm" target="_top">Afghan Hound</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afghanistan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" target="_top">Afghanistan</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Or_(Afghanistan)">Iraq</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AFL_fencing">Fencing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>africa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" target="_top">Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capetown,_South_Africa">Cape Town</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_South_Africa.htm" target="_top">Demographics of South Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/East_Africa.htm" target="_top">East Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_Africa.htm" target="_top">Economy of Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_South_Africa.htm" target="_top">Flag of South Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geography_of_Africa.htm" target="_top">Geography of Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HIV_AIDS_in_Africa.htm" target="_top">HIV AIDS in Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa.htm" target="_top">History of South Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era.htm" target="_top">History of South Africa in the apartheid era</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horn_of_Africa.htm" target="_top">Horn of Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" target="_top">North Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Northwest_Africa.htm" target="_top">Northwest Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scramble_for_Africa.htm" target="_top">Scramble for Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" target="_top">South Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Africa.htm" target="_top">Southern Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sub-Saharan_Africa.htm" target="_top">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>african</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: African_continent">Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_American_literature.htm" target="_top">African American literature</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Black_Oystercatcher.htm" target="_top">African Black Oystercatcher</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Brush-tailed_Porcupine.htm" target="_top">African Brush-tailed Porcupine</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Buffalo.htm" target="_top">African Buffalo</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Darter.htm" target="_top">African Darter</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Great_Lakes.htm" target="_top">African Great Lakes</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Grey_Hornbill.htm" target="_top">African Grey Hornbill</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Grey_Parrot.htm" target="_top">African Grey Parrot</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Jacana.htm" target="_top">African Jacana</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Penguin.htm" target="_top">African Penguin</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" target="_top">African Union</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Wild_Dog.htm" target="_top">African Wild Dog</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_clawed_frog.htm" target="_top">African clawed frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_dwarf_frog.htm" target="_top">African dwarf frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_slave_trade.htm" target="_top">African slave trade</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: African_Jungleball">Basketball</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Central_African_Republic.htm" target="_top">Central African Republic</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Central_African_Republic.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Central African Republic</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: African_Filipinos African-Filipinos Philippine_African African-Filipino African_Filipino">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Famine.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis 2005_Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis">Famine</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Rift_Valley.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: East_African_rift_zone">Great Rift Valley</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horn_of_Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: African_horn">Horn of Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: North_African_Lion African_Lion African_lion">Lion</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_African_countries.htm" target="_top">List of African countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sorghum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: African_Sorghum_Beer">Sorghum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>africans</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Philippine_Africans Africans_in_the_Philippines">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afrika</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Zuid-Afrika Zuid_Afrika">South Africa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afrikaans</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Afrikaans.htm" target="_top">Afrikaans</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Afro-Filipino Afro_Filipinos Afro_Filipino Afro-Filipinos">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>after</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_War_After_the_War_to_End_All_Wars">World War II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>afterwit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anthony_Afterwit">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="g"></a><table><tr><th>against</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crusade_against_Bolshevism">World War II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agamemnon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Agamemnon.htm" target="_top">Agamemnon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>age</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" target="_top">Age of Enlightenment</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bronze_Age.htm" target="_top">Bronze Age</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cinema_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Golden_Age_of_Hollywood">Cinema of the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_Dark_Age">Dark Ages</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hubble_Age">Hubble's law</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" target="_top">Ice age</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" target="_top">Iron Age</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Middle_Age">Middle Ages</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Permian.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Permian_Age">Permian</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Renaissance_Age">Renaissance</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Age_of_Romanticism">Romanticism</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stone_Age.htm" target="_top">Stone Age</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agency</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Space_Agency.htm" target="_top">European Space Agency</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Birth_control.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Contraceptive_agent">Birth control</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: FBI_Agent Special_Agent_in_Charge">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agents</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: FBI_agents">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ages</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allegory_in_the_Middle_Ages.htm" target="_top">Allegory in the Middle Ages</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" target="_top">Dark Ages</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medieval_music.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Music_of_the_Middle_Ages">Medieval music</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" target="_top">Middle Ages</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages.htm" target="_top">Scotland in the High Middle Ages</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aggregator</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aggregator.htm" target="_top">Aggregator</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agnosticism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Agnosticism.htm" target="_top">Agnosticism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agouti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_agouti.htm" target="_top">Common agouti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agouza</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Agouza">Cairo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agreement</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bretton_Woods_system.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bretton_Woods_agreement">Bretton Woods system</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_Trade_Organization.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Marakesh_Agreement Marrakech_Agreement Marrakesh_Agreement">World Trade Organization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agreements</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bretton_Woods_system.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bretton_Woods_agreements">Bretton Woods system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agricultural</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Agricultural_systems">Agriculture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agriculture</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" target="_top">Agriculture</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grain_(agriculture)">Cereal</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Michigan_State_University.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Michigan_State_College_of_Agriculture">Michigan State University</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aguilara</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christina_Aguilara">Christina Aguilera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aguilera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" target="_top">Christina Aguilera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aguillera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christina_Aguillera">Christina Aguilera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>agulara</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christina_Agulara">Christina Aguilera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="h"></a><table><tr><th>ahvenamaa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2585land.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ahvenamaa">Åland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>ai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Taipei.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: T'ai-pei T'ai-pei,_Taiwan">Taipei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aicraft</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aicraft">Aircraft</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aids</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" target="_top">AIDS</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HIV_AIDS_in_Africa.htm" target="_top">HIV AIDS in Africa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ailuris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Red_Panda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ailuris">Red Panda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>air</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Air_bus">Airbus</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airship.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Air_ship">Airship</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Air Air_(mixture_of_gases)">Earth's atmosphere</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hot_air_balloon.htm" target="_top">Hot air balloon</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Air_Force.htm" target="_top">Royal Air Force</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>airbender</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avatar__The_Last_Airbender.htm" target="_top">Avatar The Last Airbender</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>airbus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airbus.htm" target="_top">Airbus</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airbus_A380.htm" target="_top">Airbus A380</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aircraft</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" target="_top">Aircraft</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft_carrier.htm" target="_top">Aircraft carrier</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Douglas_DC-4.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: North_Star_(aircraft)">Douglas DC-4</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aires</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" target="_top">Buenos Aires</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aíres</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Buenos_Aíres">Buenos Aires</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>airness</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Jordan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: His_Airness">Michael Jordan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>airplane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Concorde_(airplane)">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>airs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Uluru.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Airs_rock">Uluru</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>airship</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airship.htm" target="_top">Airship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>airtime</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Broadcasting.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Airtime">Broadcasting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><table><tr><th>ajax</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ajax_%2528programming%2529.htm" target="_top">Ajax (programming)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="k"></a><table><tr><th>ak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/AK-47.htm" target="_top">AK-47</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ak47</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/AK-47.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AK47">AK-47</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>akbar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akbar.htm" target="_top">Akbar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>akhenaten</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akhenaten.htm" target="_top">Akhenaten</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>akira</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akira_Kurosawa.htm" target="_top">Akira Kurosawa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>akkad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akkadian_Empire.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Akkad_dynasty_period">Akkadian Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>akkadian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akkadian_Empire.htm" target="_top">Akkadian Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>akrotiri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia.htm" target="_top">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Union_Flag.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flag_of_Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia">Union Flag</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aksumite</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aksumite_currency.htm" target="_top">Aksumite currency</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="l"></a><table><tr><th>al</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Al_Jazeera.htm" target="_top">Al Jazeera</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allosaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Al_(fossil)">Allosaurus</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlanta%252C_Georgia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mobile,_AL">Atlanta, Georgia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dubai.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Family_tree_of_the_Al_Maktoum_rulers">Dubai</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lithium_aluminium_hydride.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Red-Al">Lithium aluminium hydride</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_X.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Al-Hajj_Malik_El-Shabazz">Malcolm X</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi.htm" target="_top">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saladin.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Salahuddin_al-Ayyubi Salah_al-Din Salahuddin_Al_Ayyubi">Saladin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alaihi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Holy_Prophet_MUHAMMAD_(Salalahu_alaihi_wasalam)">Muhammad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alakija</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Titi_Alakija">Kofi Annan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alamosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alamosaurus.htm" target="_top">Alamosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alan_Turing.htm" target="_top">Alan Turing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>åland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2585land.htm" target="_top">Åland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alaska</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Alaska.htm" target="_top">History of Alaska</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albania</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" target="_top">Albania</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Albania.htm" target="_top">Music of Albania</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albaro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Albaro">Genoa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albatross</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albatross.htm" target="_top">Albatross</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" target="_top">Albert Einstein</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Albert.htm" target="_top">Lake Albert</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alberto</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alberto_Santos-Dumont.htm" target="_top">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albertosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albertosaurus.htm" target="_top">Albertosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albigensenist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albigensian_Crusade.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Albigensenist_heresy">Albigensian Crusade</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albigensian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albigensian_Crusade.htm" target="_top">Albigensian Crusade</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albinism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albinistic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 8 redirects: Albinistic Albinistic_people Albinistic_person Albinistic_persons Albinistic_human Albinistic_humans Albinistic_animal Albinistic_animals">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albinistics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Albinistics">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albino</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 8 redirects: Albino_person Albino_persons Albino_human Albino_humans Albino_animal Albino_animals Human_albino Albino_people">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albinoes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Albinoes">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albinoism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Albinoism">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albinos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Human_albinos">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albrecht</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" target="_top">Albrecht Dürer</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_Rodenbach.htm" target="_top">Albrecht Rodenbach</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>album</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flower_(album)">Flower</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tupac_Shakur.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: 2Face_(2pac+Scarface_Album)">Tupac Shakur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>albums</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles_discography.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_albums_by_the_Beatles">The Beatles discography</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alcalinium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alcalinium">Francium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alchemy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" target="_top">Alchemy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alcibiades</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alcibiades.htm" target="_top">Alcibiades</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alcides</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heracles.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alcides">Heracles</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ALCO_FA.htm" target="_top">ALCO FA</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alcohol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" target="_top">Alcohol</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder.htm" target="_top">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ale</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Ali.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ale_Muhammad">Muhammad Ali</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aleksandr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aleksandr_Pushkin.htm" target="_top">Aleksandr Pushkin</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aleksandr_Vasilevsky.htm" target="_top">Aleksandr Vasilevsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alekseevič</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yuri_Gagarin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jurij_Alekseevič_Gagarin">Yuri Gagarin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aleksey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aleksey_Arakcheyev.htm" target="_top">Aleksey Arakcheyev</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alesia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Alesia.htm" target="_top">Battle of Alesia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alex</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Alex_%25282004%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Alex (2004)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alexander</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aleksandr_Vasilevsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alexander_Vaslievsky">Aleksandr Vasilevsky</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Graham_Bell.htm" target="_top">Alexander Graham Bell</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Hamilton.htm" target="_top">Alexander Hamilton</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Alexander the Great</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anton_Alexander_von_Werner.htm" target="_top">Anton Alexander von Werner</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jason_Allen_Alexander">Britney Spears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alexandra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elizabeth_Alexandra_Mary_Windsor,_Queen_Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom">Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alexandria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Donations_of_Alexandria">Cleopatra VII</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Alexandria.htm" target="_top">Library of Alexandria</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria.htm" target="_top">Lighthouse of Alexandria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alexandrina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Alexandrina_Victoria_von_Wettin Alexandrina_Victoria_von_Wettin,_née_Hanover">Victoria of the United Kingdom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alexeievna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Catherine_Alexeievna_of_Anhalt-Zerbst">Catherine II of Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alfather</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Odin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alfather">Odin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alfred</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_Hitchcock.htm" target="_top">Alfred Hitchcock</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_Nobel.htm" target="_top">Alfred Nobel</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Alfred the Great</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>algebra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algebra.htm" target="_top">Algebra</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elementary_algebra.htm" target="_top">Elementary algebra</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Linear_algebra.htm" target="_top">Linear algebra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>algeria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" target="_top">Algeria</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Algeria.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Algeria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>algerian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algerian_Civil_War.htm" target="_top">Algerian Civil War</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Algeria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Algerian_people">Demographics of Algeria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>algiers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algiers.htm" target="_top">Algiers</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>algol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algol.htm" target="_top">Algol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>algoma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algoma_Central_Railway.htm" target="_top">Algoma Central Railway</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>algorithm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algorithm.htm" target="_top">Algorithm</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ali</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ayaan_Hirsi_Ali.htm" target="_top">Ayaan Hirsi Ali</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Ali.htm" target="_top">Muhammad Ali</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah.htm" target="_top">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alice</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alice%2527s_Adventures_in_Wonderland.htm" target="_top">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alice_Addertongue">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aligator</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alligator.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aligator">Alligator</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alighieri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" target="_top">Dante Alighieri</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alignment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Multiple_sequence_alignment.htm" target="_top">Multiple sequence alignment</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sequence_alignment.htm" target="_top">Sequence alignment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fastest_thing_alive">Sonic the Hedgehog (character)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aljazeera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Al_Jazeera.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aljazeera.net">Al Jazeera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aljazera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Al_Jazeera.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aljazera">Al Jazeera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>all</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_Blacks.htm" target="_top">All Blacks</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_You_Need_Is_Love_%2528The_JAMs_song%2529.htm" target="_top">All You Need Is Love (The JAMs song)</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top">All your base are belong to us</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/E._E._Cummings.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: All_in_green_went_my_love_riding">E. E. Cummings</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_War_to_End_All_Wars">World War I</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_War_After_the_War_to_End_All_Wars">World War II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allah.htm" target="_top">Allah</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Muhammad_ibn_Abd-Allah">Muhammad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allama</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Iqbal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Allama_Moahammad_Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edgar_Allan_Poe.htm" target="_top">Edgar Allan Poe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alleged</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Plesiosaur.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Alleged_living_plesiosaurs Alleged_living_plesiosaurs_in_Europe">Plesiosaur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allegory</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allegory_in_the_Middle_Ages.htm" target="_top">Allegory in the Middle Ages</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allele</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cystic_fibrosis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cystic_fibrosis_allele">Cystic fibrosis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jason_Allen_Alexander">Britney Spears</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edgar_Allan_Poe.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Edgar_Allen_Poe Edgar_allen_poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Marcus_Allen.htm" target="_top">Marcus Allen</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Screw.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Allen_screw">Screw</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allergic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asthma.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Allergic_Asthma Allergic_asthma">Asthma</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alligator</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alligator.htm" target="_top">Alligator</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allison</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Allison.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Allison</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alliterative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alliterative_verse.htm" target="_top">Alliterative verse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allosaur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allosaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: USA's_Allosaur">Allosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allosaurus.htm" target="_top">Allosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>allotment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swedish_allotment_system.htm" target="_top">Swedish allotment system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>almaty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Almaty.htm" target="_top">Almaty</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>almond</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Almond.htm" target="_top">Almond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>almonds</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Almond.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Marcona_almonds Marcona_Almonds">Almond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alois</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Benedict_XVI.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Josef_Alois_Ratzinger">Pope Benedict XVI</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>along</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tagging_along">Cattle</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_cities_along_the_Great_Lakes">Great Lakes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alpaca</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alpaca.htm" target="_top">Alpaca</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alpha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alpha_city">Global city</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/International_Space_Station.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Space_Station_Alpha">International Space Station</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alphabet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alphabet.htm" target="_top">Alphabet</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" target="_top">Latin alphabet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alternate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alternating_current.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alternate_Current">Alternating current</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alternating</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alternating_current.htm" target="_top">Alternating current</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alternation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alternation_of_generations.htm" target="_top">Alternation of generations</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alternative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alternative_rock.htm" target="_top">Alternative rock</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alternative_Tea">Tea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>altgens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ike_Altgens.htm" target="_top">Ike Altgens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alumina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corundum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Transparent_alumina">Corundum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aluminium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" target="_top">Aluminium</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium_chloride.htm" target="_top">Aluminium chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lithium_aluminium_hydride.htm" target="_top">Lithium aluminium hydride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aluminum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aluminum">Aluminium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>always</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: We've_Always_Been_At_War_With_Eurasia">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alzheimer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top">Alzheimer's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alzheimers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alzheimers">Alzheimer's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alzhemiers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alzhemiers'_disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>alzhiemers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alzhiemers">Alzheimer's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>am</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Am._eng.">American English</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: I_am_the_republic">Julius Caesar</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pan_Am_Flight_103.htm" target="_top">Pan Am Flight 103</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amadeus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart.htm" target="_top">Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amanda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Louis_Pasteur.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Amanda_Pennington">Louis Pasteur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amaranth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amaranth_oil.htm" target="_top">Amaranth oil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amarillo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amarillo%252C_Texas.htm" target="_top">Amarillo, Texas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amazing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_and_the_Amazing_Technicolor_Dreamcoat.htm" target="_top">Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amazon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Basin.htm" target="_top">Amazon Basin</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Rainforest.htm" target="_top">Amazon Rainforest</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_River.htm" target="_top">Amazon River</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_parrot.htm" target="_top">Amazon parrot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amazonas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_River.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Amazonas_River">Amazon River</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amber</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amber.htm" target="_top">Amber</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amda_Seyon_I.htm" target="_top">Amda Seyon I</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amefoot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Amefoot">American football</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amefuto</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Amefuto">American football</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amendment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution.htm" target="_top">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amendments</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Bill_of_Rights.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Amendments">United States Bill of Rights</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amendoim</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peanut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Amendoim">Peanut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>america</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: America's_pasttime America's_past-time">Baseball</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eagle_Scout_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top">Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" target="_top">Latin America</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Music_in_America">Music of the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" target="_top">North America</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Presidents_Of_The_United_States_Of_America">President of the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" target="_top">South America</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: States_of_the_United_States_of_America 50_United_States_of_America">U.S. state</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: United_States_of_America America,_United_States Unites_States_of_America The_Unites_States_of_America">United States</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>american</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abraham_Lincoln_and_the_American_Civil_War">Abraham Lincoln</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_American_literature.htm" target="_top">African American literature</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" target="_top">American Civil War</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" target="_top">American English</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" target="_top">American Revolutionary War</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Samoa.htm" target="_top">American Samoa</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" target="_top">American football</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_popular_music.htm" target="_top">American popular music</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Delicious">Apple</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijani_people.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Azerbaijani_American">Azerbaijani people</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_baseball">Baseball</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battles_of_the_Mexican-American_War.htm" target="_top">Battles of the Mexican-American War</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education_in_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Educational_System">Education in the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War.htm" target="_top">France in the American Revolutionary War</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Latin-american">Latin America</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_North_American_countries.htm" target="_top">List of North American countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_South_American_countries.htm" target="_top">List of South American countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nirvana_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nirvana_(American_band)">Nirvana (band)</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Passenger_Pigeon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: North_american_passer_pigeon">Passenger Pigeon</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Population_history_of_American_indigenous_peoples.htm" target="_top">Population history of American indigenous peoples</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Presidency">President of the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spirit_of_the_American_Doughboy.htm" target="_top">Spirit of the American Doughboy</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Truth,_Justice,_and_the_American_Way Truth_justice_and_the_american_way">Superman</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Bill_of_Rights.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Bill_of_Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Congress.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Parliament">United States Congress</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_declaration_of_independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_war">Vietnam War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>americanus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Americanus">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>americas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: North_America_(Americas)">North America</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>americium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" target="_top">Americium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amerika</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: South_amerika South_Amerika">South America</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amiens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Amiens.htm" target="_top">Battle of Amiens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amish.htm" target="_top">Amish</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ammolite</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ammolite.htm" target="_top">Ammolite</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ammonia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" target="_top">Ammonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ammoniac</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ammoniac">Ammonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ammonite</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ammonite.htm" target="_top">Ammonite</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ammosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ammosaurus.htm" target="_top">Ammosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Krung_Thep_Maha_Nakhon_Amon_Rattanakosin_Mahinthara_Ayutthaya_Mahadilok_Phop_Noppharat_Ratchathani_Burirom_Udom_Ratchaniwet_Mahasathan_Amon_Phiman_Awatan_Sathit_Sakkathattiya_Witsanu_Kamprasit Krung_Thep_Maha_Nakhon_Amon_Rattanakosin_Mahinthara_Ayutthaya_Mahadilok_Phop_Noppharat_Ratchathani_Burirom_Udom_Ratchaniwet_Mahasathan_Amon_Phiman_Awatan_Sathit_Sakkathattiya_Witsanu_Kamprasit">Bangkok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blaise_Pascal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Amos_Dettonville">Blaise Pascal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amphibian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frog_(amphibian)">Frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amplifier</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electronic_amplifier.htm" target="_top">Electronic amplifier</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/IPod.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: IPod_amplifier">IPod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amsterdam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" target="_top">Amsterdam</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amtrak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" target="_top">Amtrak</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Union_Station_%2528San_Diego%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Diego_(Amtrak_station)">Union Station (San Diego)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amtz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AMTZ">Amtrak</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amundsen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roald_Amundsen.htm" target="_top">Roald Amundsen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amur.htm" target="_top">Amur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>amused</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: We_are_not_amused">Victoria of the United Kingdom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><table><tr><th>an</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_India.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: India_as_an_Economic_Super_powerhouse">Economy of India</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mass_of_an_electron">Electron</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Eyre.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jane_Eyre:_An_Autobiography">Jane Eyre</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" target="_top">Qur'an</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Ana_%25282003%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Ana (2003)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anaconda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anaconda.htm" target="_top">Anaconda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anaemia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anaemia">Anemia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anakin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darth_Vader.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Anakin_Skywalker Anakin_Skywalker_and_Darth_Vader">Darth Vader</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>analog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clock.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Analog_clock">Clock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>analogue</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clock.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Analogue_clock">Clock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>analysis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forensic_facial_reconstruction.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Facial_analysis">Forensic facial reconstruction</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mathematical_analysis.htm" target="_top">Mathematical analysis</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Political_science.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Political_Analysis">Political science</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>analytical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Analytical_Marxism.htm" target="_top">Analytical Marxism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anarchism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anarchism.htm" target="_top">Anarchism</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anarcho-capitalism.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Free_market_anarchism Private_property_anarchism">Anarcho-capitalism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anarchist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anarchism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anarchist">Anarchism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anarcho</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anarcho-capitalism.htm" target="_top">Anarcho-capitalism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anarchy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Anarchy.htm" target="_top">The Anarchy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anatinus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Platypus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ornithorhynchus_anatinus">Platypus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anatomy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" target="_top">Anatomy</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lens_%2528anatomy%2529.htm" target="_top">Lens (anatomy)</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Orbit_%2528anatomy%2529.htm" target="_top">Orbit (anatomy)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anax</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anax_Imperator">Binomial nomenclature</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anchluss</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anschluss.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anchluss">Anschluss</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ancient</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" target="_top">Ancient Egypt</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" target="_top">Ancient Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" target="_top">Ancient Rome</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_history.htm" target="_top">Ancient history</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ancient_Athens">Athens</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ancient_Atlantis">Atlantis</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indus_Valley_Civilization.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ancient_Indus_Valley_units_of_measurement Ancient_Indus_Valley_weights_and_measures">Indus Valley Civilization</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Alexandria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ancient_Library_of_Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Macedon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ancient_Macedon">Macedon</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Rime_of_the_Ancient_Mariner.htm" target="_top">The Rime of the Ancient Mariner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ancrum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dundee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ancrum_Road_Primary_School">Dundee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>and</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andaconda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anaconda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andaconda">Anaconda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andean_mountains">Andes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" target="_top">Andes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andorra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andorra.htm" target="_top">Andorra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andrea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andrea_Cavalcanti">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andreas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Pachelbel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Johann_Andreas_Pachelbel">Johann Pachelbel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andrée</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/S._A._Andr%25C3%25A9e%2527s_Arctic_balloon_expedition_of_1897.htm" target="_top">S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andrés</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andr%25C3%25A9s_Nocioni.htm" target="_top">Andrés Nocioni</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andrew</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Carnegie.htm" target="_top">Andrew Carnegie</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Dickson_White.htm" target="_top">Andrew Dickson White</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Gonzalez.htm" target="_top">Andrew Gonzalez</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Jackson.htm" target="_top">Andrew Jackson</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" target="_top">Andrew Johnson</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Robinson.htm" target="_top">Andrew Robinson</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Andrew.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Andrew</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andriyivs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andriyivskyy_Descent.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andriyivs’kyi_uzviz">Andriyivskyy Descent</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andriyivskyi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andriyivskyy_Descent.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Andriyivskyi_Descent Andriyivskyi_Uzviz">Andriyivskyy Descent</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andriyivskyy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andriyivskyy_Descent.htm" target="_top">Andriyivskyy Descent</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andromeda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andromeda_Galaxy.htm" target="_top">Andromeda Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andromedae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Upsilon_Andromedae.htm" target="_top">Upsilon Andromedae</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Upsilon_Andromedae_b.htm" target="_top">Upsilon Andromedae b</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Upsilon_Andromedae_c.htm" target="_top">Upsilon Andromedae c</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Upsilon_Andromedae_d.htm" target="_top">Upsilon Andromedae d</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>andy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andy_Warhol.htm" target="_top">Andy Warhol</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Shawshank_Redemption.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andy_Dufresne">The Shawshank Redemption</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anemia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" target="_top">Anemia</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pernicious_anemia.htm" target="_top">Pernicious anemia</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sickle-cell_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sickle-cell_Anemia">Sickle-cell disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anemias</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anemias">Anemia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anemic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anemic">Anemia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Angel_shark.htm" target="_top">Angel shark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angela</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boris_Becker.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Angela_Ermakova">Boris Becker</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angeles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" target="_top">Los Angeles, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angeli</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli.htm" target="_top">Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angelica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Angelica.htm" target="_top">Angelica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angélil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celine_Dion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: René-Charles_Dion_Angélil">Celine Dion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angilican</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Angilican">Anglicanism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angilicanism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Angilicanism">Anglicanism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angkor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Angkor.htm" target="_top">Angkor</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Angkor_Wat.htm" target="_top">Angkor Wat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anglica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drosera_anglica.htm" target="_top">Drosera anglica</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tabes_Anglica">Tuberculosis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anglican</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Church_of_Australia.htm" target="_top">Anglican Church of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" target="_top">Anglican Communion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anglicanism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglicanism.htm" target="_top">Anglicanism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anglo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglo-Saxon_literature.htm" target="_top">Anglo-Saxon literature</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anglo-Celtic_Isles">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.htm" target="_top">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angola</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" target="_top">Angola</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angolmois</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nostradamus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Angolmois">Nostradamus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anguilla</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anguilla.htm" target="_top">Anguilla</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>angus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2593engus_I_of_the_Picts.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Angus_I Angus_mac_Forgesso">Óengus I of the Picts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anhalt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Sophie_of_Anhalt-Zerbst Sophie_Frederica_of_Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia_Augusta_Frederica_of_Anhalt-Zerbst Catherine_Alexeievna_of_Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia_Augusta_Fredericka_of_Anhalt-Zerbst">Catherine II of Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>animal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Albino_animal Animal_with_albinism Albinistic_animal">Albinism</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" target="_top">Animal</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Animal_law.htm" target="_top">Animal law</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Animal_rights.htm" target="_top">Animal rights</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Animal_cells">Cell (biology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evolution_of_the_Atmosphere_and_its_effect_on_Animal_Life">Earth's atmosphere</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_animal_welfare_groups.htm" target="_top">List of animal welfare groups</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mole_%2528animal%2529.htm" target="_top">Mole (animal)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>animalia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Animalia">Animal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>animals</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Albino_animals Animals_with_albinism Albinistic_animals">Albinism</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arctic_Animals">Arctic Ocean</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effects_of_global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Effects_of_global_warming_on_animals">Effects of global warming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>animation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Animation.htm" target="_top">Animation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anise</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_anise.htm" target="_top">Star anise</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aniseed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_anise.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Star_aniseed">Star anise</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ankylosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ankylosaurus.htm" target="_top">Ankylosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ann</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ann_Arbor%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anna_Karenina.htm" target="_top">Anna Karenina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>annan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" target="_top">Kofi Annan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anne_Frank.htm" target="_top">Anne Frank</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anne_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">Anne of Great Britain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>annibale</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Annibale_Bugnini.htm" target="_top">Annibale Bugnini</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anno</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" target="_top">Anno Domini</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>annual</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Average_annual_temperature">Climate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anomalous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_blindness.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anomalous_trichromacy">Color blindness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anschlub</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anschluss.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AnschluB">Anschluss</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anschluss</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anschluss.htm" target="_top">Anschluss</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" target="_top">Ant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antananarivo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antananarivo.htm" target="_top">Antananarivo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antanànarìvo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antananarivo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Antanànarìvo,_Madagascar">Antananarivo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antarctic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antarctic_Treaty_System.htm" target="_top">Antarctic Treaty System</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antarctic_krill.htm" target="_top">Antarctic krill</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" target="_top">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antarctica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" target="_top">Antarctica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antarctiques</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire,_French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antarctosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antarctosaurus.htm" target="_top">Antarctosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anteater</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anteater.htm" target="_top">Anteater</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antelope</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" target="_top">Antelope</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bongo_%2528antelope%2529.htm" target="_top">Bongo (antelope)</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bushbuck.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bushbuck_antelope">Bushbuck</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roan_Antelope.htm" target="_top">Roan Antelope</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anthem</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Himno_Nacional_Mexicano.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mexico's_National_Anthem">Himno Nacional Mexicano</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/National_Anthem_of_Russia.htm" target="_top">National Anthem of Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anthony</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anthony_van_Dyck.htm" target="_top">Anthony van Dyck</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anthony_Afterwit">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anthropology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" target="_top">Anthropology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Junior_Anti-Sex-League">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spyware.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Anti_spyware Rogue_anti-spyware">Spyware</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antigua</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antigua_and_Barbuda.htm" target="_top">Antigua and Barbuda</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.htm" target="_top">Music of Antigua and Barbuda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antilles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_the_Lesser_Antilles.htm" target="_top">Music of the Lesser Antilles</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands_Antilles.htm" target="_top">Netherlands Antilles</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antimony</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antimony.htm" target="_top">Antimony</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antioch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Siege_of_Antioch.htm" target="_top">Siege of Antioch</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antiquarks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Antiquarks">Quark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antlion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antlion.htm" target="_top">Antlion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antoine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antoine_Lavoisier.htm" target="_top">Antoine Lavoisier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anton_Alexander_von_Werner.htm" target="_top">Anton Alexander von Werner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antonin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anton%25C3%25ADn_Dvo%25C5%2599%25C3%25A1k.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Antonin_Dvorjak">Antonín Dvořák</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antonín</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anton%25C3%25ADn_Dvo%25C5%2599%25C3%25A1k.htm" target="_top">Antonín Dvořák</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antonio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antonio_Vivaldi.htm" target="_top">Antonio Vivaldi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antony</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Antony.htm" target="_top">Mark Antony</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ants</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ants">Ant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>antwerp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" target="_top">Antwerp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anxiety</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Social_anxiety.htm" target="_top">Social anxiety</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>anything</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Looney_Tunes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hold_Anything">Looney Tunes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>ao</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Ossetia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Ossetian_AO">South Ossetia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>apaochi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apaochi.htm" target="_top">Apaochi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apartheid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era.htm" target="_top">History of South Africa in the apartheid era</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aparthid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aparthid">History of South Africa in the apartheid era</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apatosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apatosaurus.htm" target="_top">Apatosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ape</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ape.htm" target="_top">Ape</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aphid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aphid.htm" target="_top">Aphid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apolllo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apollo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Apolllo">Apollo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apollo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apollo.htm" target="_top">Apollo</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" target="_top">Apollo 11</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_8.htm" target="_top">Apollo 8</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Moon_landing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Apollo_moon_landings">Moon landing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apostolic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apostolic_Succession.htm" target="_top">Apostolic Succession</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>appatasaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apatosaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Appatasaurus">Apatosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>appatosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apatosaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Appatosaurus">Apatosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apple</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" target="_top">Apple</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Macintosh.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Apple_Macintosh">Macintosh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apples</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Apples">Apple</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>appleseed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Johnny_Appleseed.htm" target="_top">Johnny Appleseed</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>application</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Win_16_application">Microsoft Windows</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>applications</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Computer_Applications">Computer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>applied</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Applied_mathematics.htm" target="_top">Applied mathematics</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Applied_chemistry Applied_Chemistry">Chemistry</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Applied_philosophy">Philosophy</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Applied_Sciences">Science</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Applied_Statistics Applied_statistics Statistics/Applied">Statistics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>appliedstatistics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AppliedStatistics">Statistics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>apricot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apricot.htm" target="_top">Apricot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aptenodytes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emperor_Penguin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aptenodytes_forsteri">Emperor Penguin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><table><tr><th>aquaria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aquaria">Aquarium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aquarium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" target="_top">Aquarium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aqueduct</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eifel_Aqueduct.htm" target="_top">Eifel Aqueduct</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aqueous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aqueous_Hydrogen_Chloride">Hydrochloric acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aquin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Aquinas.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: St._Thomas_of_Aquin Saint_Thomas_of_Aquin">Thomas Aquinas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aquinas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Aquinas.htm" target="_top">Thomas Aquinas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aquino</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Aquinas.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: St._Thomas_Aquino Saint_Thomas_Aquino">Thomas Aquinas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>arab</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arab-Israeli_conflict.htm" target="_top">Arab-Israeli conflict</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" target="_top">Arab League</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" target="_top">United Arab Emirates</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arabia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saudi_Arabia.htm" target="_top">Saudi Arabia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arabic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" target="_top">Arabic language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arable</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arable_land.htm" target="_top">Arable land</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arachis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peanut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arachis_hipogea">Peanut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aradia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aradia%252C_or_the_Gospel_of_the_Witches.htm" target="_top">Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mu_Arae.htm" target="_top">Mu Arae</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aragon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Habsburg_Spain.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Aragon_and_Castile Castile_and_Aragon">Habsburg Spain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arakcheyev</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aleksey_Arakcheyev.htm" target="_top">Aleksey Arakcheyev</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aral</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aral_Sea.htm" target="_top">Aral Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arbiter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/StarCraft.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arbiter_(Protoss)">StarCraft</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arbor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ann_Arbor%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arboreus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arboreus">Tree</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_metal_arc_welding.htm" target="_top">Gas metal arc welding</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding.htm" target="_top">Gas tungsten arc welding</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joan_of_Arc.htm" target="_top">Joan of Arc</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Shielded_metal_arc_welding.htm" target="_top">Shielded metal arc welding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arcadia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arcadia_%2528play%2529.htm" target="_top">Arcadia (play)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archaelogy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Archaelogy">Archaeology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archaeoastronomy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archaeoastronomy.htm" target="_top">Archaeoastronomy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archaeology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" target="_top">Archaeology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archaeopteryx</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archaeopteryx.htm" target="_top">Archaeopteryx</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archbishop</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" target="_top">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archbishops</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Archbishops_of_Canterbury.htm" target="_top">List of Archbishops of Canterbury</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archdiocese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wellington.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Archdiocese_of_Wellington">Wellington</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archemedies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archimedes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Archemedies">Archimedes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Able_Archer_83.htm" target="_top">Able Archer 83</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archimedes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archimedes.htm" target="_top">Archimedes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archimedies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archimedes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Archimedies">Archimedes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archipelago</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Archipelago_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland North_East_Atlantic_Archipelago North_east_atlantic_archipelago">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Philippine_Archipelago">Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>architect</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chief_Architect">Architecture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>architectural</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Architectural_work">Architecture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>architecture</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" target="_top">Architecture</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture_of_Windows_NT.htm" target="_top">Architecture of Windows NT</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture_of_the_California_missions.htm" target="_top">Architecture of the California missions</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Palladian_architecture.htm" target="_top">Palladian architecture</a>
<a href="../../wp/x/X_Window_System_protocols_and_architecture.htm" target="_top">X Window System protocols and architecture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nicolaus_Copernicus.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Nicolaus_Copernicus/Archive_2 Nicolaus_Copernicus/Archive_3">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>archive1</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Natalie_Portman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Natalie_Portman/Archive1">Natalie Portman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arctic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" target="_top">Arctic</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Circle.htm" target="_top">Arctic Circle</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Monkeys.htm" target="_top">Arctic Monkeys</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" target="_top">Arctic Ocean</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Tern.htm" target="_top">Arctic Tern</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/S._A._Andr%25C3%25A9e%2527s_Arctic_balloon_expedition_of_1897.htm" target="_top">S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arcturan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arcturan_mega-donkey">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>are</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top">All your base are belong to us</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fermi_paradox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Where_are_they?">Fermi paradox</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: We_are_not_amused">Victoria of the United Kingdom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>area</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bay_Area_Rapid_Transit.htm" target="_top">Bay Area Rapid Transit</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boundary_Waters_Canoe_Area_Wilderness.htm" target="_top">Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geology_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">Geology of the Grand Canyon area</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">History of the Grand Canyon area</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isles_of_Scilly.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Isles_of_Scilly_Area_of_Outstanding_Natural_Beauty">Isles of Scilly</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_war_crimes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: War_crimes_in_the_Pacific_area">Japanese war crimes</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Canadian_provinces_and_territories_by_area.htm" target="_top">List of Canadian provinces and territories by area</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Border_Area_(Western_Sahara)">Western Sahara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>areas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_areas_in_the_National_Park_System_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top">List of areas in the National Park System of the United States</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arecaceae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arecaceae.htm" target="_top">Arecaceae</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>argan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Argan.htm" target="_top">Argan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>argentina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" target="_top">Argentina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>argon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Argon.htm" target="_top">Argon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>argyle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Argyle_diamond_mine.htm" target="_top">Argyle diamond mine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arid_Region">Desert</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ariel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ariel_Sharon.htm" target="_top">Ariel Sharon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aries</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Buenos_Aries">Buenos Aires</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aristarchus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aristarchus_%2528crater%2529.htm" target="_top">Aristarchus (crater)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aristotelean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aristotelean_philosophy">Aristotle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aristotle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" target="_top">Aristotle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arithmatic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arithmetic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arithmatic">Arithmetic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arithmetic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arithmetic.htm" target="_top">Arithmetic</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elementary_arithmetic.htm" target="_top">Elementary arithmetic</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic.htm" target="_top">Fundamental theorem of arithmetic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arizona</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Arizona.htm" target="_top">History of Arizona</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Diego_and_Arizona_Railway.htm" target="_top">San Diego and Arizona Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Route_66.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: U.S._Route_66_(Arizona)">U.S. Route 66</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arkebe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Addis_Ababa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arkebe_Oqubay">Addis Ababa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armada</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" target="_top">Spanish Armada</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armadillo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armadillo.htm" target="_top">Armadillo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armadillos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armadillo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Armadillos">Armadillo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armand_Jean_du_Plessis%252C_Cardinal_Richelieu.htm" target="_top">Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armée</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/La_Grande_Arm%25C3%25A9e.htm" target="_top">La Grande Armée</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armenia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" target="_top">Armenia</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tiridates_I_of_Armenia.htm" target="_top">Tiridates I of Armenia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armia_Krajowa.htm" target="_top">Armia Krajowa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armja</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armia_Krajowa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Armja_Krajowa">Armia Krajowa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armoured</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tank.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Armoured_defence/ground_strike_vehicle">Tank</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arms</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ireland_King_of_Arms.htm" target="_top">Ireland King of Arms</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>armstrong</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lance_Armstrong.htm" target="_top">Lance Armstrong</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Louis_Armstrong.htm" target="_top">Louis Armstrong</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" target="_top">Neil Armstrong</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>army</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armia_Krajowa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Polish_Underground_Army">Armia Krajowa</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dad%2527s_Army.htm" target="_top">Dad's Army</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lord%2527s_Resistance_Army.htm" target="_top">Lord's Resistance Army</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trojan_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Trojan_Army">Trojan War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arnold</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" target="_top">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aromatique</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Gentile-Aromatique Gentile_Aromatique Gentil-Aromatique">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arp2</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arp2_3_complex.htm" target="_top">Arp2 3 complex</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>array</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Photovoltaic_array.htm" target="_top">Photovoltaic array</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arrestor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lightning_rod.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lightning_arrestor">Lightning rod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arroz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arroz">Rice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ars_moriendi.htm" target="_top">Ars moriendi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arsenal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arsenal_F.C..htm" target="_top">Arsenal F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arsenic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" target="_top">Arsenic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>art</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abstract_art.htm" target="_top">Abstract art</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aesthetics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Philosophy_of_Art">Aesthetics</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ars_moriendi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Art_of_dying">Ars moriendi</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" target="_top">Art</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buddhist_art.htm" target="_top">Buddhist art</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constructivism_%2528art%2529.htm" target="_top">Constructivism (art)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fine_art.htm" target="_top">Fine art</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heraldry.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Heraldic_art">Heraldry</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kitsch.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kitsch_art">Kitsch</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: First_Art">Music</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sand_art_and_play.htm" target="_top">Sand art and play</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Three_dimensional_art">Sculpture</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/White_Mountain_art.htm" target="_top">White Mountain art</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>artemis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Temple_of_Artemis.htm" target="_top">Temple of Artemis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arthropod</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" target="_top">Arthropod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arthur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Ernest_Percival.htm" target="_top">Arthur Ernest Percival</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Sullivan.htm" target="_top">Arthur Sullivan</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Upfield.htm" target="_top">Arthur Upfield</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Wellesley%252C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington.htm" target="_top">Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chester_A._Arthur.htm" target="_top">Chester A. Arthur</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/King_Arthur.htm" target="_top">King Arthur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>article</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: References_for_the_article_Mahatma_Gandhi The_References_of_the_Article_Mahatma_Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wikipedia_article">Wikipedia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>articles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Articles_of_the_United_States_Constitution">United States Constitution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>artificial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Artificial_dam">Dam</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>artist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rapping.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rap_artist">Rapping</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tupac_Shakur.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pac_(artist)">Tupac Shakur</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Watercolor_painting.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Watercolour_Artist">Watercolor painting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>artists</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Visual_arts.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Visual_artists">Visual arts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arts_and_crafts.htm" target="_top">Arts and crafts</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glastonbury_Festival.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Glastonbury_Festival_of_Contemporary_Performing_Arts">Glastonbury Festival</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Visual_arts.htm" target="_top">Visual arts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aruba</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aruba.htm" target="_top">Aruba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aruban</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aruba.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aruban">Aruba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>arugula</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arugula.htm" target="_top">Arugula</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><table><tr><th>as</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_India.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: India_as_an_Economic_Super_powerhouse">Economy of India</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Countries_that_teach_english_as_a_foreign_language">English language</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fascism_as_a_political_movement">Fascism</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jesus_as_Jew">Jesus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asburger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Asburger Asburger_syndrome Asburger's_syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ascariasis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ascariasis.htm" target="_top">Ascariasis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ascii</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ASCII.htm" target="_top">ASCII</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asciiz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ASCII.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: ASCIIZ">ASCII</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ascorbate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ascorbate">Vitamin C</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ashes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Ashes.htm" target="_top">The Ashes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ashmole</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elias_Ashmole.htm" target="_top">Elias Ashmole</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" target="_top">Asia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Central_Asia.htm" target="_top">History of Central Asia</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_war_crimes.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Japanese_war_crimes_in_mainland_Asia War_Crimes_in_Asia_Mainland">Japanese war crimes</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia.htm" target="_top">Mongol invasion of Central Asia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Asian_countries.htm" target="_top">List of Asian countries</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asians</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Asians_in_the_Philippines">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asimov</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Asimov.htm" target="_top">Isaac Asimov</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Three_Laws_of_Robotics.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Asimov's_laws Asimov's_Laws">Three Laws of Robotics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asp_%2528reptile%2529.htm" target="_top">Asp (reptile)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asparagus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asparagus.htm" target="_top">Asparagus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aspberger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aspberger's">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asperger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asphaltic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dead_Sea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Asphaltic_Lake">Dead Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ass-burgers Ass-Burger">Asperger syndrome</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ass._football">Football (soccer)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assasination</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy_assassination.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: JFK_assasination">John F. Kennedy assassination</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assassination</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy_assassination.htm" target="_top">John F. Kennedy assassination</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assault</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Invasion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Assault_fleet">Invasion</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Fox__Assault.htm" target="_top">Star Fox Assault</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assburger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Assburger's_syndrome Assburger">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assburgers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Assburgers">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assimov</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Asimov.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Issac_assimov">Isaac Asimov</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assisi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_San_Francesco_d%2527Assisi.htm" target="_top">Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_of_Assisi.htm" target="_top">Francis of Assisi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>association</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_(FIFA) Federation_of_International_Football_Association">FIFA</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_World_Cup">FIFA World Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Association_football_(soccer) Association_football">Football (soccer)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>associative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CPU_cache.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Set-associative Set_associative Fully_associative Full_associative">CPU cache</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assyria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Assyria.htm" target="_top">Assyria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>assyrian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Assyria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Neo-Assyrian">Assyria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>astatine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Astatine.htm" target="_top">Astatine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asteroid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/3/3_Juno.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Juno_(asteroid)">3 Juno</a>
<a href="../../wp/4/4_Vesta.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vesta_(asteroid)">4 Vesta</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asteroid.htm" target="_top">Asteroid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asthma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asthma.htm" target="_top">Asthma</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>astma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asthma.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Astma">Asthma</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>astrology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Astrology.htm" target="_top">Astrology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>astronomic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Astronomic_telescope">Telescope</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>astronomy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/3/3_Juno.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Juno_(astronomy)">3 Juno</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" target="_top">Astronomy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>astrophysics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Astrophysics_Data_System.htm" target="_top">Astrophysics Data System</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oxford.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Oxford_astrophysics">Oxford</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>asunción</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asunci%25C3%25B3n.htm" target="_top">Asunción</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="t"></a><table><tr><th>at</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/AT%2526T.htm" target="_top">AT&T</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Great_Pyramid_at_Giza The_Great_Pyramid_at_Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: We've_Always_Been_At_War_With_Eurasia">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia.htm" target="_top">Statue of Zeus at Olympia</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Texas_at_Austin.htm" target="_top">University of Texas at Austin</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/WorkChoices.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Your_rights_at_work Your_Rights_at_Work Your_Rights_At_Work">WorkChoices</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atari</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/E.T._the_Extra-Terrestrial_%2528Atari_2600%2529.htm" target="_top">E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (Atari 2600)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ateneo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ateneo_de_Manila_University.htm" target="_top">Ateneo de Manila University</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ater</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coal_Tit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Periparus_ater">Coal Tit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>athanasius</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athanasius_Kircher.htm" target="_top">Athanasius Kircher</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atheism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" target="_top">Atheism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atheist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Atheist_Right Atheist_Left Militant_atheist">Atheism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atheists</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Atheists">Atheism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>athena</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athena.htm" target="_top">Athena</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>athene</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athena.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pallas_Athene">Athena</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>athenian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Athenian">Athens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>athens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" target="_top">Athens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>athletics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athletics_%2528track_and_field%2529.htm" target="_top">Athletics (track and field)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atlant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Atlant">Atlantis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atlanta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlanta%252C_Georgia.htm" target="_top">Atlanta, Georgia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atlantic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/2/2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" target="_top">2003 Atlantic hurricane season</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" target="_top">2004 Atlantic hurricane season</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" target="_top">2005 Atlantic hurricane season</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Coast_Line_Railroad.htm" target="_top">Atlantic Coast Line Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" target="_top">Atlantic Ocean</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_herring.htm" target="_top">Atlantic herring</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_slave_trade.htm" target="_top">Atlantic slave trade</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: North_East_Atlantic_Archipelago North_east_atlantic_archipelago">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: North_Atlantic_Treaty_Organization">NATO</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Atlantic_oscillation.htm" target="_top">North Atlantic oscillation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atlantis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantis.htm" target="_top">Atlantis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atlas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ATLAS_experiment.htm" target="_top">ATLAS experiment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atli</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Atli">Attila the Hun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atmosphere</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top">Earth's atmosphere</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atmospheric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Atmospheric_layers Atmospheric_Layers Atmospheric_gasses">Earth's atmosphere</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atoll</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Johnston_Atoll.htm" target="_top">Johnston Atoll</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Midway_Atoll.htm" target="_top">Midway Atoll</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Palmyra_Atoll.htm" target="_top">Palmyra Atoll</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" target="_top">Atom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atomic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Atomic_oxygen">Oxygen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atomos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Atomos">Atom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>atonality</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atonality.htm" target="_top">Atonality</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>at+t</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/AT%2526T.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AT+T">AT&T</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attack</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.htm" target="_top">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brute_force_attack.htm" target="_top">Brute force attack</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pikachu.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Thunderbolt_Pokémon_Attack">Pikachu</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: 9/11_attack">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brain_Attack">Stroke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attacks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" target="_top">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attalus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attalus_I.htm" target="_top">Attalus I</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attenborough</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Attenborough.htm" target="_top">David Attenborough</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attention</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder.htm" target="_top">Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attila</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" target="_top">Attila the Hun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attraction</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gravitational_attraction">Gravitation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>attributes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Divine_Nature_and_Attributes">God</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>aubrey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_T._Aubrey%252C_Jr..htm" target="_top">James T. Aubrey, Jr.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>auckland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Auckland.htm" target="_top">Auckland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>auction</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Numismatics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Numismatic_auction_catalogs">Numismatics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>audio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Audio_CD CD_audio">Compact Disc</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AUDIO_TS">DVD</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sound.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wave_audio">Sound</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Synthesizer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Audio_synthesis">Synthesizer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>audrey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dr._Seuss.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Audrey_Geisel">Dr. Seuss</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aufklarung</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aufklarung">Age of Enlightenment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>august</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Auguste_Rodin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: August_Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>augusta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Augusta%252C_Lady_Gregory.htm" target="_top">Augusta, Lady Gregory</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Sophia_Augusta_Frederica_of_Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia_Augusta_Fredericka_of_Anhalt-Zerbst">Catherine II of Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>augustan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Augustan_literature.htm" target="_top">Augustan literature</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>auguste</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Auguste_Rodin.htm" target="_top">Auguste Rodin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>augustin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Saint_Augustin">Augustine of Hippo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>augustine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" target="_top">Augustine of Hippo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>augustus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Augustus.htm" target="_top">Augustus</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Romulus_Augustus.htm" target="_top">Romulus Augustus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>auk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Auk.htm" target="_top">Great Auk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aunt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Famous_Five_%2528characters%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aunt_Fanny_(Famous_Five)">The Famous Five (characters)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>auntie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Auntie_Beeb">BBC</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aunuu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Samoa.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Aunuu Aunuu_Island">American Samoa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ausen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AusEn">Australian English</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aussie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aussie_open">Australian Open</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Austen.htm" target="_top">Jane Austen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austerlitz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Austerlitz.htm" target="_top">Battle of Austerlitz</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Texas_at_Austin.htm" target="_top">University of Texas at Austin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austraila</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Austraila">Australia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>australes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire,_French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>australia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Church_of_Australia.htm" target="_top">Anglican Church of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" target="_top">Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bodyline.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: English_cricket_team_in_Australia_in_1932-33">Bodyline</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brisbane.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brisebane,_Australia">Brisbane</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fauna_of_Australia.htm" target="_top">Fauna of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Australia.htm" target="_top">Flag of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Osmond%252C_South_Australia.htm" target="_top">Mount Osmond, South Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Perth%252C_Western_Australia.htm" target="_top">Perth, Western Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_Cross.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Victoria_Cross_(Australia)">Victoria Cross</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>australian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" target="_top">Australian English</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Green_Tree_Frog.htm" target="_top">Australian Green Tree Frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" target="_top">Australian Open</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Ringneck.htm" target="_top">Australian Ringneck</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_constitutional_law.htm" target="_top">Australian constitutional law</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_rules_football.htm" target="_top">Australian rules football</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Australia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Australian_Flag">Flag of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Australian_Capital_Territory.htm" target="_top">History of the Australian Capital Territory</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Royal_Australian_Navy.htm" target="_top">History of the Royal Australian Navy</a>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yarralumla%252C_Australian_Capital_Territory.htm" target="_top">Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>australlia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Australlia">Australia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" target="_top">Austria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austrian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Austrian_Filipino Austrian-Filipinos Austrian_Filipinos Austrian-Filipino Philippine_Austrian">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austrians</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Philippine_Austrians">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>austrlia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Austrlia">Australia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>authority</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Milgram_experiment.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Obedience_to_authority">Milgram experiment</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Snowdonia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Snowdonia_National_Park_Authority">Snowdonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autisim</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Autisim">Autism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autism.htm" target="_top">Autism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autists</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Autists">Autism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>auto</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Auto_racing.htm" target="_top">Auto racing</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autorack.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Auto_rack">Autorack</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autobianchi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autobianchi_Primula.htm" target="_top">Autobianchi Primula</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autobiography</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Eyre.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jane_Eyre:_An_Autobiography">Jane Eyre</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autocracies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autocracy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Autocracies">Autocracy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autocracy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autocracy.htm" target="_top">Autocracy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>automaker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lincoln_%2528automobile%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lincoln_(automaker)">Lincoln (automobile)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>automated</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automated_teller_machine.htm" target="_top">Automated teller machine</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automatic_number_plate_recognition.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Automated_number_plate_recognition">Automatic number plate recognition</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>automatic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automatic_number_plate_recognition.htm" target="_top">Automatic number plate recognition</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>automobil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Automobil">Automobile</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>automobile</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" target="_top">Automobile</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lincoln_%2528automobile%2529.htm" target="_top">Lincoln (automobile)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autonomous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Autonomous_Region_of_Kosovo_and_Metohija">Kosovo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autorack</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autorack.htm" target="_top">Autorack</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autostereogram</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autostereogram.htm" target="_top">Autostereogram</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>autumn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autumn.htm" target="_top">Autumn</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Bulge.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Operation_Autumn_Mist">Battle of the Bulge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><table><tr><th>ava</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood%252C_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava.htm" target="_top">Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avacha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avacha_Volcano.htm" target="_top">Avacha Volcano</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avalanche</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avalanche.htm" target="_top">Avalanche</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avatar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avatar__The_Last_Airbender.htm" target="_top">Avatar The Last Airbender</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>average</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Average_annual_temperature">Climate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aviv</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" target="_top">Tel Aviv</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avocado</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avocado.htm" target="_top">Avocado</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avocet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pied_Avocet.htm" target="_top">Pied Avocet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avokado</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avocado.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Avokado">Avocado</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avon_Gorge.htm" target="_top">Avon Gorge</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath%252C_Somerset.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bath,_Avon">Bath, Somerset</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stratford-upon-Avon.htm" target="_top">Stratford-upon-Avon</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Bard_of_Avon">William Shakespeare</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>avro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avro_Lancaster.htm" target="_top">Avro Lancaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="w"></a><table><tr><th>awatan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Krung_Thep_Maha_Nakhon_Amon_Rattanakosin_Mahinthara_Ayutthaya_Mahadilok_Phop_Noppharat_Ratchathani_Burirom_Udom_Ratchaniwet_Mahasathan_Amon_Phiman_Awatan_Sathit_Sakkathattiya_Witsanu_Kamprasit">Bangkok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="x"></a><table><tr><th>axe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Axe.htm" target="_top">Axe</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beeching_Axe.htm" target="_top">Beeching Axe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>axioms</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclidean_geometry.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Euclid's_axioms Euclid_axioms">Euclidean geometry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>axon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_synapse.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Axon_terminal">Chemical synapse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>ayaan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ayaan_Hirsi_Ali.htm" target="_top">Ayaan Hirsi Ali</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aye</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aye-aye.htm" target="_top">Aye-aye</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aymer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aymer_de_Valence%252C_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke.htm" target="_top">Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aysel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/z/Ziad_Jarrah.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Aysel_Senguen Aysel_Sengün">Ziad Jarrah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ayutthaya</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Krung_Thep_Maha_Nakhon_Amon_Rattanakosin_Mahinthara_Ayutthaya_Mahadilok_Phop_Noppharat_Ratchathani_Burirom_Udom_Ratchaniwet_Mahasathan_Amon_Phiman_Awatan_Sathit_Sakkathattiya_Witsanu_Kamprasit">Bangkok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ayyubi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saladin.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Salahuddin_al-Ayyubi Salahuddin_Al_Ayyubi">Saladin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="z"></a><table><tr><th>azam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah.htm" target="_top" title="from 8 redirects: Quid-e-Azam Quaid-e-Azam,_Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah Quaid_e_Azam Quaid_i_Azam Quaid-e-Azam_Muhammad_Ali_Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam_Mohammad_Ali_Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam_Mohammed_Ali_Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam_Muhammed_Ali_Jinnah">Muhammad Ali Jinnah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>azerbaidschan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Azerbaidschan">Azerbaijan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>azerbaijan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijan.htm" target="_top">Azerbaijan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>azerbaijani</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijani_people.htm" target="_top">Azerbaijani people</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>azeri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijani_people.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Azeri">Azerbaijani people</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>azeribajani</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijani_people.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Azeribajani_people">Azerbaijani people</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>azeridontknowhowtospellistan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Azeridontknowhowtospellistan">Azerbaijan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>aztec</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aztec.htm" target="_top">Aztec</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>α</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Α_CMa">Sirius</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>άρχιμήδης</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archimedes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Άρχιμήδης">Archimedes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>алексе́евич</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yuri_Gagarin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ю́рий_Алексе́евич_Гага́рин">Yuri Gagarin</a>
</td></tr></table>
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<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : A</h2>
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<a href="a-list.htm#a" target="list"> a </a><a href="a-list.htm#b" target="list"> b </a><a href="a-list.htm#c" target="list"> c </a><a href="a-list.htm#d" target="list"> d </a><a href="a-list.htm#e" target="list"> e </a><a href="a-list.htm#f" target="list"> f </a><a href="a-list.htm#g" target="list"> g </a><a href="a-list.htm#h" target="list"> h </a><a href="a-list.htm#i" target="list"> i </a><a href="a-list.htm#j" target="list"> j </a><a href="a-list.htm#k" target="list"> k </a><a href="a-list.htm#l" target="list"> l </a><a href="a-list.htm#m" target="list"> m </a><a href="a-list.htm#n" target="list"> n </a><a href="a-list.htm#o" target="list"> o </a><a href="a-list.htm#p" target="list"> p </a><a href="a-list.htm#q" target="list"> q </a><a href="a-list.htm#r" target="list"> r </a><a href="a-list.htm#s" target="list"> s </a><a href="a-list.htm#t" target="list"> t </a><a href="a-list.htm#u" target="list"> u </a><a href="a-list.htm#v" target="list"> v </a><a href="a-list.htm#w" target="list"> w </a><a href="a-list.htm#x" target="list"> x </a><a href="a-list.htm#y" target="list"> y </a><a href="a-list.htm#z" target="list"> z </a></div>
</body>
</html>
| [] |
a | <!doctype html public "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/frameset.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Title Word Index : A</title>
</head>
<frameset rows="110,*">
<frame name="top" src="a-top.htm" noresize scrolling="no">
<frame name="list" src="a-list.htm">
<noframes><p>You need a frames capable browser to view this index</p></noframes>
</frameset>
</html>
| [] |
alpha-bottom | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>${ \(WpConfig->configBase->{title}) } : Alphabetical Index : $ucfirst_letter</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/schools-wikipedia-alpha-index.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
</head>
<body>
<img src="../../Wikipedia-logo-100-matte-white.gif" width="100" height="100" style="float:left;margin-right: 20px;"/>
<p>
<br/>To find a word in the index, click the first letter or the word in the top row of letters and the second letter of the word in the second row.
</p>
<p>
The index includes words from all article titles included in the selection and any redirects which point to those articles. If an article is listed against a word which is not in it's title, then there is a redirect with the word in which points to the article. Hover your mouse over the article title to see the redirect.
</p>
</body>
</html>
| [] |
alpha-top | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Title Word Index</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/schools-wikipedia-alpha-index.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
</head>
<body>
<h3 style="float:right;"><a href="subject.htm" target="_top">Subject Index</a></h3>
<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a></h2>
<div class="firstletter">
<a href="a.htm" target="_top"> A </a></a><a href="b.htm" target="_top"> B </a></a><a href="c.htm" target="_top"> C </a></a><a href="d.htm" target="_top"> D </a></a><a href="e.htm" target="_top"> E </a></a><a href="f.htm" target="_top"> F </a></a><a href="g.htm" target="_top"> G </a></a><a href="h.htm" target="_top"> H </a></a><a href="i.htm" target="_top"> I </a></a><a href="j.htm" target="_top"> J </a></a><a href="k.htm" target="_top"> K </a></a><a href="l.htm" target="_top"> L </a></a><a href="m.htm" target="_top"> M </a></a><a href="n.htm" target="_top"> N </a></a><a href="o.htm" target="_top"> O </a></a><a href="p.htm" target="_top"> P </a></a><a href="q.htm" target="_top"> Q </a></a><a href="r.htm" target="_top"> R </a></a><a href="s.htm" target="_top"> S </a></a><a href="t.htm" target="_top"> T </a></a><a href="u.htm" target="_top"> U </a></a><a href="v.htm" target="_top"> V </a></a><a href="w.htm" target="_top"> W </a></a><a href="x.htm" target="_top"> X </a></a><a href="y.htm" target="_top"> Y </a></a><a href="z.htm" target="_top"> Z </a></a><a href="others.htm" target="_top"> Others </a></a></div>
</body>
</html>
| [] |
alpha | <!doctype html public "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/frameset.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Title Word Index</title>
</head>
<frameset rows="110,*">
<frame name="top" src="alpha-top.htm" noresize scrolling="no">
<frame name="list" src="alpha-bottom.htm">
<noframes><p>You need a frames capable browser to view this index</p></noframes>
</frameset>
</html>
| [] |
b-list | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : B</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/schools-wikipedia-alpha-index.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
</head>
<body class="alphaindex">
<table><tr><th>b</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" target="_top">B vitamins</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: B_Ball">Basketball</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boeing_747.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: B-747 B_747">Boeing 747</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>b1620</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/PSR_B1620-26c.htm" target="_top">PSR B1620-26c</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>b2</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hyakutake.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: C/1996_B2_(Hyakutake)">Comet Hyakutake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>babbage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Babbage.htm" target="_top">Charles Babbage</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>babe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Babe_Ruth.htm" target="_top">Babe Ruth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baboon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baboon.htm" target="_top">Baboon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>babur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Babur.htm" target="_top">Babur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baby</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baby_Gender_Mentor.htm" target="_top">Baby Gender Mentor</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baby_Bush">George W. Bush</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baby_grand">Piano</a>
<a href="../../wp/z/Zebra.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baby_zebra">Zebra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>babylonia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Babylonia.htm" target="_top">Babylonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bac</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Aerospatiale-BAC_Concorde BAC_Concorde Aérospatiale-BAC_Concorde">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bacatá</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Santa_Fé_de_Bacatá">Bogotá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bach</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.htm" target="_top">Johann Sebastian Bach</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>back</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Cat_in_the_Hat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Cat_in_the_Hat_Comes_Back">The Cat in the Hat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>backed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black-backed_Jackal.htm" target="_top">Black-backed Jackal</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Black-backed_Gull.htm" target="_top">Great Black-backed Gull</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>backgammon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Backgammon.htm" target="_top">Backgammon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>background</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" target="_top">Cosmic microwave background radiation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>backstage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stage_%2528theatre%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Backstage">Stage (theatre)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bacon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Bacon.htm" target="_top">Francis Bacon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bacteria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" target="_top">Bacteria</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_fixation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nitrogen-fixing_bacteria">Nitrogen fixation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bacterias</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bacterias">Bacteria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bacterium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bacterium">Bacteria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Strong_Bad_Email">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baddie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Badminton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baddie">Badminton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baden</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baden-Powell_House.htm" target="_top">Baden-Powell House</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Baden-Powell%252C_1st_Baron_Baden-Powell.htm" target="_top">Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Merit_Badge_Collecting Merit_badge_collecting Merit_badge_collecting_(BSA) Merit_badge_design_history_(BSA) Merit_badge_types_(BSA)">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Badger.htm" target="_top">Badger</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badges</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badminton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Badminton.htm" target="_top">Badminton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badmitten</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Badminton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Badmitten">Badminton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badmitton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Badminton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Badmitton">Badminton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Bristol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Badock_Hall">University of Bristol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Badr.htm" target="_top">Battle of Badr</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>badugi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Badugi.htm" target="_top">Badugi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BAE_Systems.htm" target="_top">BAE Systems</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baghdad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" target="_top">Baghdad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Baha'i_youth Baha’i Baha'i_religion">Bahá'í Faith</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahá</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" target="_top">Bahá'í Faith</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Bahai_World_Faith The_Bahai_Faith Bahai_religion">Bahá'í Faith</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahama</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Bahama Bahama_Islands Bahama's">The Bahamas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahaman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bahaman">The Bahamas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahamas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bahamas.htm" target="_top">Bahamas</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_the_Bahamas.htm" target="_top">Music of the Bahamas</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" target="_top">The Bahamas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahamian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bahamian">The Bahamas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahrain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" target="_top">Bahrain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bahrainis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bahrainis">Bahrain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baikal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Baikal.htm" target="_top">Lake Baikal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baines</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lyndon_B._Johnson.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: President_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baird</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Logie_Baird.htm" target="_top">John Logie Baird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baires</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baires">Buenos Aires</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baker_Island.htm" target="_top">Baker Island</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Baker.htm" target="_top">Mount Baker</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Charles_Baker_Harris">To Kill a Mockingbird</a>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baker's_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baking</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Yeast_(baking)">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bald</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bald_Eagle.htm" target="_top">Bald Eagle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baldwin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stanley_Baldwin.htm" target="_top">Stanley Baldwin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bale</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christian_Bale.htm" target="_top">Christian Bale</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ball</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: B_Ball">Basketball</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>balloon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hot_air_balloon.htm" target="_top">Hot air balloon</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mario.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: P-balloon">Mario</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/S._A._Andr%25C3%25A9e%2527s_Arctic_balloon_expedition_of_1897.htm" target="_top">S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ballymurphy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belfast.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ballymurphy">Belfast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>balm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lemon_balm.htm" target="_top">Lemon balm</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baltic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" target="_top">Baltic Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baltimore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baltimore%252C_Maryland.htm" target="_top">Baltimore, Maryland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baluchistan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indricotherium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beast_of_Baluchistan">Indricotherium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bama</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: O'Bama">Barack Obama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bamako</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bamako.htm" target="_top">Bamako</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" target="_top">Banana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bananas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bananas">Banana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banares</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Varanasi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Banares">Varanasi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bancomat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automated_teller_machine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bancomat">Automated teller machine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>band</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diffuse_interstellar_band.htm" target="_top">Diffuse interstellar band</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Maiden.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Iron_maiden_(band)">Iron Maiden</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/McFly_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top">McFly (band)</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nirvana_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top">Nirvana (band)</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oasis_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top">Oasis (band)</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top">Queen (band)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sgt._Pepper%2527s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band.htm" target="_top">Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Van_Halen.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Van_Halen_(band)">Van Halen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bandaiyan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bandaiyan">Australia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bandicoot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bandicoot.htm" target="_top">Bandicoot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baneb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Osiris.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baneb-djedet">Osiris</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banebdjedet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Osiris.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Banebdjedet">Osiris</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bang</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bang_Makok">Bangkok</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Big_Bang.htm" target="_top">Big Bang</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bangalooru</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bangalooru">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bangalore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banggalore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Banggalore">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bangkock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bangkock">Bangkok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bangkok</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" target="_top">Bangkok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bangladesh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" target="_top">Bangladesh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banglore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Banglore">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banjul</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Banjul.htm" target="_top">Banjul</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bank</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bank_of_China_%2528Hong_Kong%2529.htm" target="_top">Bank of China (Hong Kong)</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Bank,_London">London</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" target="_top">West Bank</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_Bank_Group.htm" target="_top">World Bank Group</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banking</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Investment_banking.htm" target="_top">Investment banking</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banknote</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Banknote.htm" target="_top">Banknote</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>banksy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Banksy.htm" target="_top">Banksy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bantu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" target="_top">Bantu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bapu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bapu_Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barack</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top">Barack Obama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Barak_Obama Barak_hussein_obama">Barack Obama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barbados</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barbados.htm" target="_top">Barbados</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Barbados.htm" target="_top">Music of Barbados</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barbara</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barbara_McClintock.htm" target="_top">Barbara McClintock</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/RMS_Titanic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barbara_Joyce_West">RMS Titanic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barbary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barbary_Lion.htm" target="_top">Barbary Lion</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barbary_Macaque.htm" target="_top">Barbary Macaque</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barbuda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Antigua_and_Barbuda.htm" target="_top">Antigua and Barbuda</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.htm" target="_top">Music of Antigua and Barbuda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barca</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hannibal_Barca.htm" target="_top">Hannibal Barca</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barcelona</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barcelona.htm" target="_top">Barcelona</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Bard_of_Avon">William Shakespeare</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barents</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Willem_Barents.htm" target="_top">Willem Barents</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barium.htm" target="_top">Barium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barley</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" target="_top">Barley</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barn_Owl.htm" target="_top">Barn Owl</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barnacle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barnacle.htm" target="_top">Barnacle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barnicle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barnacle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barnicle">Barnacle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barnstaple</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lynton_and_Barnstaple_Railway.htm" target="_top">Lynton and Barnstaple Railway</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barock">Baroque</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baroke</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baroke">Baroque</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baron</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Britten.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Benjamin_Britten,_1st_Baron_Britten">Benjamin Britten</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Byron%252C_6th_Baron_Byron.htm" target="_top">George Byron, 6th Baron Byron</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Baden-Powell%252C_1st_Baron_Baden-Powell.htm" target="_top">Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Thomson%252C_1st_Baron_Kelvin.htm" target="_top">William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baroque</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" target="_top">Baroque</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sicilian_Baroque.htm" target="_top">Sicilian Baroque</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barrack</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barrack_Obama">Barack Obama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barracuda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barracuda.htm" target="_top">Barracuda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barrak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barrak_Obama">Barack Obama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barrientos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lope_de_Barrientos.htm" target="_top">Lope de Barrientos</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barrier</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Barrier_Reef.htm" target="_top">Great Barrier Reef</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barry_Obama">Barack Obama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bartholdy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Felix_Mendelssohn.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Felix_Mendelssohn_Bartholdy Ludwig_Felix_Mendelssohn_Bartholdy Jacob_Ludwig_Felix_Mendelssohn_Bartholdy Felix_mandelssohn-bartholdy">Felix Mendelssohn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bartoldy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Felix_Mendelssohn.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bartoldy">Felix Mendelssohn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baruch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baruch_Spinoza.htm" target="_top">Baruch Spinoza</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>barzini</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Godfather.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barzini_Crime_Family">The Godfather</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>base</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top">All your base are belong to us</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baseball</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" target="_top">Baseball</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>based</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Intel_Corporation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Intel_based Intel-based_system">Intel Corporation</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/PONG.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pong-based_Units">PONG</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Petroleum-based_fuel">Petroleum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basel.htm" target="_top">Basel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basho</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matsuo_Bash%25C5%258D.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Basho_Matsuo Matsuo_Basho">Matsuo Bashō</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bashō</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matsuo_Bash%25C5%258D.htm" target="_top">Matsuo Bashō</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bashou</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matsuo_Bash%25C5%258D.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Matsuo_Bashou">Matsuo Bashō</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arithmetic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Basic_arithmetic_operations">Arithmetic</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/BASIC.htm" target="_top">BASIC</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/OpenOffice.org.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: OpenOffice.org_Basic">OpenOffice.org</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basset_Hound.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Basid_hound">Basset Hound</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basil.htm" target="_top">Basil</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basil_Brush.htm" target="_top">Basil Brush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basilica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_San_Francesco_d%2527Assisi.htm" target="_top">Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli.htm" target="_top">Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basilisk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Basilisk.htm" target="_top">Common Basilisk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Basin.htm" target="_top">Amazon Basin</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Atlantic_basin">Atlantic Ocean</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caloris_Basin.htm" target="_top">Caloris Basin</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Congo_River.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Congo_basin">Congo River</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basketball</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" target="_top">Basketball</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basketballer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Basketballer">Basketball</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baskin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basking_shark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baskin_shark">Basking shark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basking</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basking_shark.htm" target="_top">Basking shark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basoon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bassoon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Basoon">Bassoon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bass_%2528fish%2529.htm" target="_top">Bass (fish)</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Double_bass.htm" target="_top">Double bass</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drum_and_bass.htm" target="_top">Drum and bass</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Recorder.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_bass_recorder">Recorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>basset</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basset_Hound.htm" target="_top">Basset Hound</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bassett</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basset_Hound.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bassett_hound">Basset Hound</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bassoon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bassoon.htm" target="_top">Bassoon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baßoon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bassoon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baßoon">Bassoon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bat-eared_Fox.htm" target="_top">Bat-eared Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bat.htm" target="_top">Bat</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vampire_bat.htm" target="_top">Vampire bat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bath</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath%252C_Somerset.htm" target="_top">Bath, Somerset</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath_School_disaster.htm" target="_top">Bath School disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Bath.htm" target="_top">Order of the Bath</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>batholith</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Batholith.htm" target="_top">Batholith</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>batman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Batman.htm" target="_top">Batman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>batmania</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Batman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Batmania">Batman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>batrachian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Batrachian">Frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>battle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Alesia.htm" target="_top">Battle of Alesia</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Amiens.htm" target="_top">Battle of Amiens</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Austerlitz.htm" target="_top">Battle of Austerlitz</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Badr.htm" target="_top">Battle of Badr</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Bicocca.htm" target="_top">Battle of Bicocca</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Britain.htm" target="_top">Battle of Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Cannae.htm" target="_top">Battle of Cannae</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_France.htm" target="_top">Battle of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Gettysburg.htm" target="_top">Battle of Gettysburg</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Grunwald.htm" target="_top">Battle of Grunwald</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Hastings.htm" target="_top">Battle of Hastings</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Jutland.htm" target="_top">Battle of Jutland</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Lechaeum.htm" target="_top">Battle of Lechaeum</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf.htm" target="_top">Battle of Leyte Gulf</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Marathon.htm" target="_top">Battle of Marathon</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Midway.htm" target="_top">Battle of Midway</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Moscow.htm" target="_top">Battle of Moscow</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Normandy.htm" target="_top">Battle of Normandy</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Rennell_Island.htm" target="_top">Battle of Rennell Island</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Sitka.htm" target="_top">Battle of Sitka</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Smolensk_%25281943%2529.htm" target="_top">Battle of Smolensk (1943)</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Stalingrad.htm" target="_top">Battle of Stalingrad</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Tours.htm" target="_top">Battle of Tours</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Vaslui.htm" target="_top">Battle of Vaslui</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Warsaw_%25281920%2529.htm" target="_top">Battle of Warsaw (1920)</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Bulge.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Bulge</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Eastern Solomons</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Santa_Cruz_Islands.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Somme_%25281916%2529.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Somme (1916)</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal.htm" target="_top">Naval Battle of Guadalcanal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>battles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battles_of_the_Mexican-American_War.htm" target="_top">Battles of the Mexican-American War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>battleship</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iowa_class_battleship.htm" target="_top">Iowa class battleship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>battouta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ibn_Battuta.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ibn_Battouta">Ibn Battuta</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>battoutah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ibn_Battuta.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ibn_Battoutah">Ibn Battuta</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>battuta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ibn_Battuta.htm" target="_top">Ibn Battuta</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>batutah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ibn_Battuta.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ibnu_Batutah">Ibn Battuta</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>baxter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/King_Kong_%25282005_film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bruce_Baxter">King Kong (2005 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bay</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bay_Area_Rapid_Transit.htm" target="_top">Bay Area Rapid Transit</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bay_of_Bengal.htm" target="_top">Bay of Bengal</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hudson_Bay.htm" target="_top">Hudson Bay</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Morecambe_Bay.htm" target="_top">Morecambe Bay</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bayrut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beirut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bayrut">Beirut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><table><tr><th>bb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/16_Cygni_Bb.htm" target="_top">16 Cygni Bb</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/USS_Wisconsin_%2528BB-64%2529.htm" target="_top">USS Wisconsin (BB-64)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bbc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" target="_top">BBC</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC_television_drama.htm" target="_top">BBC television drama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="c"></a><table><tr><th>bc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" target="_top">1st century BC</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: BC_vs_AD">Anno Domini</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nickel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nickel_mining_in_BC">Nickel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="d"></a><a name="e"></a><table><tr><th>be</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: May_the_Force_be_with_you">Star Wars</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Pilgrim%2527s_Progress.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: He_who_would_valiant_be He_Who_Would_Valiant_Be">The Pilgrim's Progress</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bé</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lom%25C3%25A9.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bé">Lomé</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beach</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beach.htm" target="_top">Beach</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beaconsfield</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beaked</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Short-beaked_Echidna.htm" target="_top">Short-beaked Echidna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electron_beam_welding.htm" target="_top">Electron beam welding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bean.htm" target="_top">Bean</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beano</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beano.htm" target="_top">The Beano</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beans</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vicia_faba.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fava_Beans">Vicia faba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beantown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beantown">Boston, Massachusetts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bear</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bear.htm" target="_top">Bear</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bear_holding_a_shark">Homestar Runner</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Red_Panda.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cat_bear Red_Cat-bear">Red Panda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Stallman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: UNIX_beard">Richard Stallman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bears</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicago_Bears.htm" target="_top">Chicago Bears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beast</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indricotherium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beast_of_Baluchistan">Indricotherium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beatles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beatles_for_Sale.htm" target="_top">Beatles for Sale</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" target="_top">The Beatles</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles_discography.htm" target="_top">The Beatles discography</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beato</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Felice_Beato.htm" target="_top">Felice Beato</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beauty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bratislava.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beauty_on_the_Danube">Bratislava</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isles_of_Scilly.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Isles_of_Scilly_Area_of_Outstanding_Natural_Beauty">Isles of Scilly</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beaver</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beaver.htm" target="_top">Beaver</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Full_moon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beaver_moon">Full moon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>becham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Beckham.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: David_becham">David Beckham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beckam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Beckham.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beckam">David Beckham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>becker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boris_Becker.htm" target="_top">Boris Becker</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>becket</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Becket.htm" target="_top">Thomas Becket</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beckett</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Samuel_Beckett.htm" target="_top">Samuel Beckett</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beckham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Beckham.htm" target="_top">David Beckham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garden.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flower_bed">Garden</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bedbug</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bedbug.htm" target="_top">Bedbug</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bede</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bede.htm" target="_top">Bede</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bee.htm" target="_top">Bee</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beekeeping.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bee_keepers">Beekeeping</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honey_bee.htm" target="_top">Honey bee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beeb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Auntie_Beeb">BBC</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beebalm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monarda_didyma.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Scarlet_beebalm">Monarda didyma</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beeching</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beeching_Axe.htm" target="_top">Beeching Axe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beef</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beef_cow">Cattle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beefcow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beefcow">Cattle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beekeeping</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beekeeping.htm" target="_top">Beekeeping</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>been</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: We've_Always_Been_At_War_With_Eurasia">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vicia_faba.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fava_beens">Vicia faba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beep</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beep_%2528SWBLW%2529.htm" target="_top">Beep (SWBLW)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" target="_top">Beer</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guinness.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guinness_(beer)">Guinness</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sorghum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: African_Sorghum_Beer">Sorghum</a>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beer_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bees</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honey_bee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hony_bees">Honey bee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beet.htm" target="_top">Beet</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sugar_beet.htm" target="_top">Sugar beet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beethoven</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_van_Beethoven.htm" target="_top">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beethovens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_van_Beethoven.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beethovens">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beetis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diabetes_mellitus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beetis">Diabetes mellitus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beetle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beetle.htm" target="_top">Beetle</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stag_beetle.htm" target="_top">Stag beetle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beetoven</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_van_Beethoven.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beetoven">Ludwig van Beethoven</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beetroot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beetroot">Beet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beggar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Absent-Minded_Beggar.htm" target="_top">The Absent-Minded Beggar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>begium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Begium">Belgium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>behavioral</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Behavioral_finance.htm" target="_top">Behavioral finance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>behaviour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Shark_behaviour">Shark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>behistun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Behistun_Inscription.htm" target="_top">Behistun Inscription</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beijing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" target="_top">Beijing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>being</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_Christmas_Carol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: A_Christmas_Carol_in_Prose,_Being_a_Ghost_Story_of_Christmas">A Christmas Carol</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest.htm" target="_top">The Importance of Being Earnest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beirut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beirut.htm" target="_top">Beirut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bekenstein</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawking_radiation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bekenstein-Hawking_radiation">Hawking radiation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belarus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belarus.htm" target="_top">Belarus</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Belarus.htm" target="_top">Flag of Belarus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belarussi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belarus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Belarussi">Belarus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beldjike</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beldjike">Belgium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belfast</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belfast.htm" target="_top">Belfast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belgium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" target="_top">Belgium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belguim</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Belguim">Belgium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belgum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Belgum">Belgium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belinda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Ali.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Khalilah_'Belinda'_Ali">Muhammad Ali</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belize</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belize.htm" target="_top">Belize</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Graham_Bell.htm" target="_top">Alexander Graham Bell</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galerina.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Funeral_bell">Galerina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bellum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bellum">War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belong</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top">All your base are belong to us</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kuiper_belt.htm" target="_top">Kuiper belt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>belton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belton_House.htm" target="_top">Belton House</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ben</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Ben-Hur_%25281959_film%2529.htm" target="_top">Ben-Hur (1959 film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Ben_Jonson.htm" target="_top">Ben Jonson</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Ben_Nevis.htm" target="_top">Ben Nevis</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ben_Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Yeshua_ben_yoseph">Jesus</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Obi-Wan_Kenobi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Old_Ben_Kenobi">Obi-Wan Kenobi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benares</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Varanasi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Benares">Varanasi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bench</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bench_language.htm" target="_top">Bench language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bend</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Danube_Bend">Danube</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benedict</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Benedict_XVI.htm" target="_top">Pope Benedict XVI</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rule_of_St_Benedict.htm" target="_top">Rule of St Benedict</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benedictine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rule_of_St_Benedict.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Benedictine_monasticism">Rule of St Benedict</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benedikt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Benedict_XVI.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Benedikt_xvi">Pope Benedict XVI</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bengal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bay_of_Bengal.htm" target="_top">Bay of Bengal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bengalooru</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bengalooru">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bengaluru</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bengaluru">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bengalūru</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bengalūru">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bengaluuru</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bengaluuru">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bengulooru</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bengulooru">Bangalore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benin.htm" target="_top">Benin</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Benin.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Benin</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Porto-Novo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Porto_Novo,_Benin">Porto-Novo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benito</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benito_Mussolini.htm" target="_top">Benito Mussolini</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benjamin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Britten.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Britten</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Franklin</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Harrison.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Harrison</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Mountfort.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Mountfort</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_of_Tudela.htm" target="_top">Benjamin of Tudela</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Karl_Benz.htm" target="_top">Karl Benz</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>benzene</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benzene.htm" target="_top">Benzene</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>berber</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Berber_languages.htm" target="_top">Berber languages</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Delhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fatehpur_beri">Delhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beriberi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beriberi.htm" target="_top">Beriberi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bering</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vitus_Bering.htm" target="_top">Vitus Bering</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>berkelium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Berkelium.htm" target="_top">Berkelium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>berkleium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Berkelium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Berkleium">Berkelium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>berlin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" target="_top">Berlin</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Berlin_Wall.htm" target="_top">Berlin Wall</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bermuda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" target="_top">Bermuda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bernard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bernard_Hinault.htm" target="_top">Bernard Hinault</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>berners</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tim_Berners-Lee.htm" target="_top">Tim Berners-Lee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>berry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Juniper_berry.htm" target="_top">Juniper berry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bertrand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bertrand_Russell.htm" target="_top">Bertrand Russell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beryllium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beryllium.htm" target="_top">Beryllium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>besarionis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ioseb_Besarionis_Dze_Jughashvili">Joseph Stalin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>besh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Backgammon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Shesh_besh">Backgammon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bess</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Porgy_and_Bess.htm" target="_top">Porgy and Bess</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>best</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bugblatter_best_of_trall">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>betelgeuse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Betelgeuse_incident.htm" target="_top">Betelgeuse incident</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bethad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Macbeth_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Mac_Bethad Mac_Bethad_mac_Findláich">Macbeth of Scotland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>betrand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bertrand_Russell.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Betrand_Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bette</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bette_Davis.htm" target="_top">Bette Davis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bettie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bette_Davis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bettie_Davis">Bette Davis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>betty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Betty_Diligent">Benjamin Franklin</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sunset_Boulevard_%25281950_film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Betty_Schaefer">Sunset Boulevard (1950 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beverage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Distilled_beverage.htm" target="_top">Distilled beverage</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>beyrout</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beirut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beyrout">Beirut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bezier</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Synthesizer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bezier_synthesis">Synthesizer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="f"></a><a name="g"></a><a name="h"></a><table><tr><th>bheer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bheer">Beer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bhoys</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bhoys">Celtic F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bhutan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bhutan.htm" target="_top">Bhutan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>bi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ren_Min_Bi Ren_min_bi">Renminbi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bianco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Palazzo_Bianco_and_Palazzo_Rosso_Genoa">Genoa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bibical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bibical">Bible</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bible</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" target="_top">Bible</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bibliography</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/J._R._R._Tolkien.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bibliography_of_J._R._R._Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bicocca</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Bicocca.htm" target="_top">Battle of Bicocca</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bicycle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bicycle.htm" target="_top">Bicycle</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bicycle_Thieves.htm" target="_top">Bicycle Thieves</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bicycles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nine_Million_Bicycles.htm" target="_top">Nine Million Bicycles</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biddy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biddy">Chicken</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>big</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allosaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Al_(fossil)">Allosaurus</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Big_Bang.htm" target="_top">Big Bang</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Firefly_%2528TV_series%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Damn_Heroes">Firefly (TV series)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Brown.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_clunking_fist">Gordon Brown</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Serenity_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Damn_Movie">Serenity (film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bighorn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bijeli</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rizling_Rajinski_Bijeli">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bilbe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bilbe The_Bilbe">Bible</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bilis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Bilis_%25282006%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Bilis (2006)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bill</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Clinton.htm" target="_top">Bill Clinton</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Gates.htm" target="_top">Bill Gates</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ivory-billed_Woodpecker.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ivory-bill">Ivory-billed Woodpecker</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Bill_of_Rights.htm" target="_top">United States Bill of Rights</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>billed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ivory-billed_Woodpecker.htm" target="_top">Ivory-billed Woodpecker</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Long-billed_Vulture.htm" target="_top">Long-billed Vulture</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Platypus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Duck_billed_platypus">Platypus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>billie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Billie_Holiday.htm" target="_top">Billie Holiday</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>billow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wave.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Billow">Wave</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>billy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Billy_goat">Domestic goat</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sgt._Pepper%2527s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Billy_Shears">Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Osama_bin_Laden.htm" target="_top">Osama bin Laden</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>binaries</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Spectroscopic_binaries">Binary star</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>binary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" target="_top">Binary star</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>binayak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ganesha.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Binayak">Ganesha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bini</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/MINI_%2528BMW%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bini BINI">MINI (BMW)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>binoculars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binoculars.htm" target="_top">Binoculars</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>binomial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" target="_top">Binomial nomenclature</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bio-energy">Biofuel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biodiesel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biodiesel.htm" target="_top">Biodiesel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biodieses</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biodiesel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biodieses">Biodiesel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biodiversity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" target="_top">Biodiversity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biofuel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" target="_top">Biofuel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biography</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biography_of_Mahatma_Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bioinformatics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bioinformatics.htm" target="_top">Bioinformatics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bioinformatics1</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bioinformatics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bioinformatics1">Bioinformatics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bioinformatist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bioinformatics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bioinformatist">Bioinformatics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biological</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biological_nomenclature">Binomial nomenclature</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biological_Sciences">Biology</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biological_technology">Biotechnology</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extraterrestrial_life.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Extraterrestrial_biological_entities">Extraterrestrial life</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biological_ice_nuclei">Ice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" target="_top">Biology</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" target="_top">Cell (biology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evolution_(biology)">Evolution</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Extinction_(biology)">Extinction</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genetic_code.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Universal_Code_(biology)">Genetic code</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bionicle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bionicle__Mask_of_Light.htm" target="_top">Bionicle Mask of Light</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biosphere</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biosphere.htm" target="_top">Biosphere</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biospheric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biospheric">Biosphere</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biotechnology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biotechnology.htm" target="_top">Biotechnology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biotite</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Granite_biotite">Granite</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bird</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" target="_top">Bird</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" target="_top">Bird migration</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bird_of_prey.htm" target="_top">Bird of prey</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Booby.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Booby_(bird)">Booby</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carrot.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bird's_Nest_Plant">Carrot</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dodo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Do-Do_Bird">Dodo</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elephant_bird.htm" target="_top">Elephant bird</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Eagle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Golden_Eagle_(bird)">Golden Eagle</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/H5N1.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bird_flu_virus">H5N1</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kite_%2528bird%2529.htm" target="_top">Kite (bird)</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rook_%2528bird%2529.htm" target="_top">Rook (bird)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swift.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Swift_(bird)">Swift</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thrush_%2528bird%2529.htm" target="_top">Thrush (bird)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Turkey_%2528bird%2529.htm" target="_top">Turkey (bird)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>birds</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Migration_birds">Bird migration</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bird_of_prey.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Raptor_birds">Bird of prey</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extinct_birds.htm" target="_top">Extinct birds</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>birmingham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" target="_top">Birmingham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>birth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Birth_control.htm" target="_top">Birth control</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Ford.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Birth_and_life_of_Gerald_Ford">Gerald Ford</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bismarck</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Otto_von_Bismarck.htm" target="_top">Otto von Bismarck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bismuth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bismuth.htm" target="_top">Bismuth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bison</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bison.htm" target="_top">Bison</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bissau</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bissau.htm" target="_top">Bissau</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Guinea-Bissau.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Guinea-Bissau</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guinea-Bissau.htm" target="_top">Guinea-Bissau</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bisutun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Behistun_Inscription.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bisutun_Inscription">Behistun Inscription</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>biz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Business.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Biz">Business</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><table><tr><th>björn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bj%25C3%25B6rn_Borg.htm" target="_top">Björn Borg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bjørnøya</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bj%25C3%25B8rn%25C3%25B8ya.htm" target="_top">Bjørnøya</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="k"></a><a name="l"></a><table><tr><th>bl2</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/EMD_BL2.htm" target="_top">EMD BL2</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>black</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Black_Oystercatcher.htm" target="_top">African Black Oystercatcher</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beetle.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Black-Beetle Black_Beetle">Beetle</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black-backed_Jackal.htm" target="_top">Black-backed Jackal</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black-footed_Cat.htm" target="_top">Black-footed Cat</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black-winged_Stilt.htm" target="_top">Black-winged Stilt</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" target="_top">Black Death</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Rhinoceros.htm" target="_top">Black Rhinoceros</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Robin.htm" target="_top">Black Robin</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" target="_top">Black Sea</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Seminoles.htm" target="_top">Black Seminoles</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Wildebeest.htm" target="_top">Black Wildebeest</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" target="_top">Black hole</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_panther.htm" target="_top">Black panther</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_pepper.htm" target="_top">Black pepper</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_widow_spider.htm" target="_top">Black widow spider</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Black-backed_Gull.htm" target="_top">Great Black-backed Gull</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Cormorant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Black_Shag">Great Cormorant</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Ladysmith_Black_Mambazo.htm" target="_top">Ladysmith Black Mambazo</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Black_gold_(liquid)">Petroleum</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Platinum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Platinum_black">Platinum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blackbird</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blackbird.htm" target="_top">Blackbird</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/SR-71_Blackbird.htm" target="_top">SR-71 Blackbird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blackcap</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blackcap.htm" target="_top">Blackcap</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blackcaps</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blackcap.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blackcaps">Blackcap</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blackholes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blackholes">Black hole</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blackjack</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blackjack.htm" target="_top">Blackjack</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blackpool</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blackpool.htm" target="_top">Blackpool</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blacks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_Blacks.htm" target="_top">All Blacks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blacktip</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blacktip_reef_shark.htm" target="_top">Blacktip reef shark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blackwood</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood%252C_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava.htm" target="_top">Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blade</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blade_Runner.htm" target="_top">Blade Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blair</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tony_Blair.htm" target="_top">Tony Blair</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blaise</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blaise_Pascal.htm" target="_top">Blaise Pascal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blanc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Riesling_Blanc">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blancefloer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floris_and_Blancheflour.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Floris_ende_Blancefloer">Floris and Blancheflour</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blancheflour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floris_and_Blancheflour.htm" target="_top">Floris and Blancheflour</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blanchflower</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Blanchflower.htm" target="_top">David Blanchflower</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mr._Bland">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blankers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fanny_Blankers-Koen.htm" target="_top">Fanny Blankers-Koen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blari</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tony_Blair.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tony_Blari">Tony Blair</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blasco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blessed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mother_Teresa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blessed_Teresa_of_Calcutta">Mother Teresa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bliar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tony_Blair.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tony_Bliar">Tony Blair</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blind</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_blindness.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colour_Blind">Color blindness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blindness</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_blindness.htm" target="_top">Color blindness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blinky</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pac-Man.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blinky_(monster)">Pac-Man</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blitz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Blitz.htm" target="_top">The Blitz</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blitzkrieg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blitzkrieg.htm" target="_top">Blitzkrieg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blokus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blokus.htm" target="_top">Blokus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blood</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ABO_blood_group_system.htm" target="_top">ABO blood group system</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tired_blood">Anemia</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blood_type.htm" target="_top">Blood type</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Family.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blood_relatives">Family</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bloodbath</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tiananmen_Square_Bloodbath">Tiananmen Square protests of 1989</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bloodless</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bloodless_Revolution Bloodless_revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blossom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_G._Fisher.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blossom_Heath">Carl G. Fisher</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blue</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Jay.htm" target="_top">Blue Jay</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Peter.htm" target="_top">Blue Peter</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Tit.htm" target="_top">Blue Tit</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Whale.htm" target="_top">Blue Whale</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Wildebeest.htm" target="_top">Blue Wildebeest</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_shark.htm" target="_top">Blue shark</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Peafowl.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Blue_Peafowl India_Blue_Peafowl Indian_Blue_Peafowl">Indian Peafowl</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quartz.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blue_Quartz">Quartz</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blue_hedgehog">Sonic the Hedgehog (character)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bluegrass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bluegrass_music.htm" target="_top">Bluegrass music</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blueprint</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_blueprint_of_life">DNA</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>blues</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chelsea_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Blues_(London)">Chelsea F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Classic_female_blues.htm" target="_top">Classic female blues</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rhythm_and_blues.htm" target="_top">Rhythm and blues</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bluetooth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bluetooth.htm" target="_top">Bluetooth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bluetooth™</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bluetooth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bluetooth™">Bluetooth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bluewhale</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Whale.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bluewhale">Blue Whale</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>bmw</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/MINI_%2528BMW%2529.htm" target="_top">MINI (BMW)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><table><tr><th>bnwt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fashion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: BNWT">Fashion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>bo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kofi_Bo_Bofi">Kofi Annan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boa.htm" target="_top">Boa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boac</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: G-BOAC">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>board</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Board_game.htm" target="_top">Board game</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Go_%2528board_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Go (board game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Joint-board">Local government in the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Monopoly_board_game">Monopoly (game)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boat.htm" target="_top">Boat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bob</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" target="_top">Bob Dylan</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Marley.htm" target="_top">Bob Marley</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Maiden.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bob_Sawyer">Iron Maiden</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seinfeld.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bob_Cobb">Seinfeld</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bobby</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bobby_Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bobcat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bobcat.htm" target="_top">Bobcat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boddah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kurt_Cobain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boddah">Kurt Cobain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>body</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arnold:_the_Education_of_a_Body-Builder">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Body_mass_index.htm" target="_top">Body mass index</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bodyline.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Body-line">Bodyline</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Endoscopic_foreign_body_retrieval.htm" target="_top">Endoscopic foreign body retrieval</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy_of_mind.htm" target="_top" title="from 6 redirects: Mind-body_problem Mind_body_problem Study_of_the_mind-body_problem The_study_of_the_mind-body_problem Study_of_the_mind/body_problem The_study_of_the_mind/body_problem">Philosophy of mind</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bodybuilder</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arnold:_The_Education_of_a_Bodybuilder">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bodyline</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bodyline.htm" target="_top">Bodyline</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boeing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boeing_747.htm" target="_top">Boeing 747</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Second_Boer_War.htm" target="_top">Second Boer War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boeselager</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_von_Boeselager.htm" target="_top">Georg von Boeselager</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bofi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kofi_Bo_Bofi">Kofi Annan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bog.htm" target="_top">Bog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bogota</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Bogota,_Colombia Santa_Fe_de_Bogota Bogota">Bogotá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bogotá</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top">Bogotá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bohamian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bohemian_Rhapsody.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bohamian_Rhapsody">Bohemian Rhapsody</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bohemian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bohemian_Rhapsody.htm" target="_top">Bohemian Rhapsody</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bohor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bohor_Reedbuck.htm" target="_top">Bohor Reedbuck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bohr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niels_Bohr.htm" target="_top">Niels Bohr</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bohrium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bohrium.htm" target="_top">Bohrium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boieng</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boeing_747.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boieng_74">Boeing 747</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boiled</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boiled_Rice">Rice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bolelli</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_White-Ortiz-Bolelli.htm" target="_top">Comet White-Ortiz-Bolelli</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bolivar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sim%25C3%25B3n_Bol%25C3%25ADvar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bolivar">Simón Bolívar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bolívar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sim%25C3%25B3n_Bol%25C3%25ADvar.htm" target="_top">Simón Bolívar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bolivia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" target="_top">Bolivia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bologna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bologna.htm" target="_top">Bologna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bologne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bologna.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bologne">Bologna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bolshevic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Soviet_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Polish-Bolshevic_War">Polish-Soviet War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bolshevik</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Soviet_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Polish-bolshevik_war">Polish-Soviet War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bolshevism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Neo-Bolshevism">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crusade_against_Bolshevism">World War II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boltysh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boltysh_crater.htm" target="_top">Boltysh crater</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bomb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: H-bomb Nukuler_bomb">Nuclear weapon</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tsar_Bomba.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Tsar_Bomb Czar_Bomb Czar_bomb Tzar_bomb">Tsar Bomba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bomba</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: O'Bomba">Barack Obama</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tsar_Bomba.htm" target="_top">Tsar Bomba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bombinatrices</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honey_bee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bombinatrices">Honey bee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bombing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Bombing_of_Pearl_Harbour The_Bombing_of_Pearl_Harbor Pearl_harbor_bombing">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bond</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Bond.htm" target="_top">James Bond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basking_shark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bone_shark">Basking shark</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ishango_bone.htm" target="_top">Ishango bone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bongo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bongo_%2528antelope%2529.htm" target="_top">Bongo (antelope)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bonnie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Bonnie_%25282004%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Bonnie (2004)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bonobo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bonobo.htm" target="_top">Bonobo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bontebok</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bontebok.htm" target="_top">Bontebok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>booby</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Booby.htm" target="_top">Booby</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>book</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Book.htm" target="_top">Book</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" target="_top">Book of Common Prayer</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Kells.htm" target="_top">Book of Kells</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carolingian_Gospel_Book_%2528British_Library%252C_MS_Add._11848%2529.htm" target="_top">Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848)</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domesday_Book.htm" target="_top">Domesday Book</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: 1984_book">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: To_kill_a_mockingbird_book">To Kill a Mockingbird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>books</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Book.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Books">Book</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Oz_books.htm" target="_top">The Oz books</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boolean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boolean_logic.htm" target="_top">Boolean logic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Curious_Incident_of_the_Dog_in_the_Night-time.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christopher_Boone">The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bopp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hale-Bopp.htm" target="_top">Comet Hale-Bopp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Borage.htm" target="_top">Borage</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>border</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Western_Sahara.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Border_Area_(Western_Sahara)">Western Sahara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bj%25C3%25B6rn_Borg.htm" target="_top">Björn Borg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borges</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jorge_Luis_Borges.htm" target="_top">Jorge Luis Borges</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borgesian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jorge_Luis_Borges.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Borgesian">Jorge Luis Borges</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borhap</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bohemian_Rhapsody.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: BoRhap">Bohemian Rhapsody</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boris_Becker.htm" target="_top">Boris Becker</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borlaug</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Norman_Borlaug.htm" target="_top">Norman Borlaug</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boron</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boron.htm" target="_top">Boron</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borrage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Borage.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Borrage">Borage</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>borreliosis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lyme_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lyme_borreliosis">Lyme disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bosne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Husein_Grada%25C5%25A1%25C4%258Devi%25C4%2587.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Zmaj_od_Bosne">Husein Gradaščević</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bosnia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" target="_top">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boston</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" target="_top">Boston, Massachusetts</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boston_RFC.htm" target="_top">Boston RFC</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boston_Terrier.htm" target="_top">Boston Terrier</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boston_and_Lowell_Railroad.htm" target="_top">Boston and Lowell Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lettuce.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boston_lettuce">Lettuce</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>botanical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nepenthes_rajah.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Nepenthes_rajah/Botanical_description_of_Nepenthes_rajah Botanical_Description_of_Nepenthes_rajah Nepenthes_rajah/Botanical_Description_of_Nepenthes_rajah">Nepenthes rajah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>botany</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" target="_top">Botany</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>botswana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" target="_top">Botswana</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Botswana.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Botswana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>botswanan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Botswanan">Botswana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bottle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bottlenose_Dolphin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bottle_nose_dolphin">Bottlenose Dolphin</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bottle_brush">Brush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bottled</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Juice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bottled_juice">Juice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bottlenose</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bottlenose_Dolphin.htm" target="_top">Bottlenose Dolphin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bottom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bottom_and_top_fermenting_yeast Top_and_bottom_fermenting_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boudica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boudica.htm" target="_top">Boudica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boudican</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boudica.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boudican_revolt">Boudica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boulevard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sunset_Boulevard_%25281950_film%2529.htm" target="_top">Sunset Boulevard (1950 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boulogne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matilda_of_Boulogne.htm" target="_top">Matilda of Boulogne</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boundary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boundary_Waters_Canoe_Area_Wilderness.htm" target="_top">Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bourbonnais</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bourbonnais_train_accident.htm" target="_top">Bourbonnais train accident</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bourbourg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Etienne_Brasseur_de_Bourbourg.htm" target="_top">Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bouton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_synapse.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Synaptic_bouton Bouton_(synapse) Terminal_bouton">Chemical synapse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boutons</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_synapse.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Terminal_boutons">Chemical synapse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bouvet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bouvet_Island.htm" target="_top">Bouvet Island</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bovines</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bovines">Cattle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Reggaeton.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Dem_bow Den_bow">Reggaeton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bowl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Super_Bowl_XL.htm" target="_top">Super Bowl XL</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>box</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Box_jellyfish.htm" target="_top">Box jellyfish</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lost_%2528TV_series%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_lost_and_found_box">Lost (TV series)</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wrench.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Box-end_wrench Box_wrench">Wrench</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boy_Scout.htm" target="_top">Boy Scout</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eagle_Scout_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top">Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Newshounds.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Boy_Shop_Pets">Newshounds</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boyle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boyle_Roche.htm" target="_top">Boyle Roche</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Boyle.htm" target="_top">Robert Boyle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>boznia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boznia_and_Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>bp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BP.htm" target="_top">BP</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>brabantian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brabantian.htm" target="_top">Brabantian</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brabbam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brabham.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brabbam">Brabham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brabham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brabham.htm" target="_top">Brabham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brachiosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brachiosaurus.htm" target="_top">Brachiosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brachium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cerebellum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brachium_restiformis">Cerebellum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bradman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Donald_Bradman.htm" target="_top">Donald Bradman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brahe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tycho_Brahe.htm" target="_top">Tycho Brahe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brahman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brahman.htm" target="_top">Brahman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bráhman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brahman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bráhman">Brahman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" target="_top">Brain</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brain_Attack">Stroke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brainy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brainy">Brain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bran</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bran.htm" target="_top">Bran</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>branch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Branch_water">Water</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joel_Brand.htm" target="_top">Joel Brand</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brandon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brandon_Routh.htm" target="_top">Brandon Routh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brasília</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bras%25C3%25ADlia.htm" target="_top">Brasília</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brass_instrument.htm" target="_top">Brass instrument</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brasseur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Etienne_Brasseur_de_Bourbourg.htm" target="_top">Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bratislava</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bratislava.htm" target="_top">Bratislava</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>braun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wernher_von_Braun.htm" target="_top">Wernher von Braun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>braunstone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leicester.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Braunstone_Frith">Leicester</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>braza</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Braza">Republic of the Congo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brazil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" target="_top">Brazil</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_slavery.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Slavery_in_Brazil">History of slavery</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brazilian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brazilian">Brazil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bread</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bread.htm" target="_top">Bread</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>breaker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Breaker_Morant.htm" target="_top">Breaker Morant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>breed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mixed-breed_dog.htm" target="_top">Mixed-breed dog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brettingham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matthew_Brettingham.htm" target="_top">Matthew Brettingham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bretton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bretton_Woods_system.htm" target="_top">Bretton Woods system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brewer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Brewer's_Yeast Brewer's_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brewers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Brewers'_yeast Brewers_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brewing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Brewing_yeast Brewing_Yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brian_Close.htm" target="_top">Brian Close</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bridge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bridge.htm" target="_top">Bridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chepstow_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Chepstow Bridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chinyingi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chinyingi_Bridge">Chinyingi</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clifton_Suspension_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Clifton Suspension Bridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forth_Bridge_%2528railway%2529.htm" target="_top">Forth Bridge (railway)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forth_Road_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Forth Road Bridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/London_Bridge.htm" target="_top">London Bridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tay_Rail_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Tay Rail Bridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Iron_Bridge.htm" target="_top">The Iron Bridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tower_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Tower Bridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bridges</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bridges_in_Saint_Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brigg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Meyers_brigg">Myers-Briggs Type Indicator</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>briggs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator.htm" target="_top">Myers-Briggs Type Indicator</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brighton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brighton.htm" target="_top">Brighton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brilliant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Wikipedia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brilliant_prose">History of Wikipedia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brinney</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brinney_Spears">Britney Spears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brintey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brintey_Spears">Britney Spears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brisbane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brisbane.htm" target="_top">Brisbane</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brisebane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brisbane.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brisebane,_Australia">Brisbane</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bristol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bristol.htm" target="_top">Bristol</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Bristol.htm" target="_top">University of Bristol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>britain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anne_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">Anne of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Britain.htm" target="_top">Battle of Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Archipelago_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cities_in_Britain">City status in the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Queen_Elizabeth_II_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland">Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_III_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George III of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_II_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">George II of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_IV_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George IV of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_I_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">George I of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_VI_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George VI of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_V_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George V of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_monarchs_in_the_British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_Kings_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">List of monarchs in the British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mary_II_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mary_II_of_Great_Britain">Mary II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Britain.htm" target="_top">Roman Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_&_Northern_Ireland">United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: William_III_of_Great_Britain">William III of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>britannica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>british</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Broadcasting_Corportation">BBC</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/BP.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Petroleum_Co._Ltd">BP</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" target="_top">British East India Company</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" target="_top">British Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_English.htm" target="_top">British English</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">British House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory.htm" target="_top">British Indian Ocean Territory</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles_%2528terminology%2529.htm" target="_top">British Isles (terminology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Virgin_Islands.htm" target="_top">British Virgin Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_monarchy.htm" target="_top">British monarchy</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carolingian_Gospel_Book_%2528British_Library%252C_MS_Add._11848%2529.htm" target="_top">Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848)</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aerospatiale-British_Aerospace_Concorde">Concorde</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georgetown%252C_Guyana.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Georgetown,_British_Guiana">Georgetown, Guyana</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Independent_sheikhdom_under_British_protectorate \"independent_sheikhdom_under_British_protectorate">Kuwait</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_monarchs_in_the_British_Isles.htm" target="_top">List of monarchs in the British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_local_government">Local government in the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Privy_Council">Privy Council of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Marines.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: British_Royal_Marine_Commandos British_Marines">Royal Marines</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from 7 redirects: British_naval_supremacy British_Navy British_Royal_Navy British_Fleet British_fleet British_Patrol_Ship British_navy">Royal Navy</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scramble_for_Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_colonization_of_Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Solomon_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Solomon_Islands_Protectorate">Solomon Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Speaker_of_the_British_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">Speaker of the British House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_parliamentary_system">Westminster System</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>britnee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Britnee_Spears">Britney Spears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>britney</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top">Britney Spears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brittania</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Encyclopedia_brittania Encyclopedia_Brittania">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brittanica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Encyclopaedia_Brittanica Enyclopedia_Brittanica Brittanica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brittannia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Encyclopedia_Brittannia Encyclopedia_brittannia">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brittannica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Encyclopedia_Brittannica Encyclopedia_brittannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brittany</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Brittany_Spears">Britney Spears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>britten</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Britten.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Britten</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>broad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hadrian%2527s_Wall.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Broad_Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>broadcaster</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Broadcasting.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Broadcaster">Broadcasting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>broadcasting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Broadcasting_Corportation">BBC</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Broadcasting.htm" target="_top">Broadcasting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>broads</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Broads.htm" target="_top">The Broads</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Brock.htm" target="_top">Isaac Brock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bromine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bromine.htm" target="_top">Bromine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bronchogenic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bronchogenic_carcinoma Bronchogenic_Carcinoma">Lung cancer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bronze</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bronze_Age.htm" target="_top">Bronze Age</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bros</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Super_Mario_Bros..htm" target="_top">Super Mario Bros.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brother</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wolf_Brother.htm" target="_top">Wolf Brother</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brotherhood</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood.htm" target="_top">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brothers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brothers_Grimm.htm" target="_top">Brothers Grimm</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Super_Mario_Bros..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Supa_Mario_Brothers">Super Mario Bros.</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Brothers_Karamazov.htm" target="_top">The Brothers Karamazov</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wright_brothers.htm" target="_top">Wright brothers</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brown_trout.htm" target="_top">Brown trout</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Brown.htm" target="_top">Gordon Brown</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bruce</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Batman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bruce_Wayne">Batman</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bruce_Lee.htm" target="_top">Bruce Lee</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bruce_Springsteen.htm" target="_top">Bruce Springsteen</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/King_Kong_%25282005_film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bruce_Baxter">King Kong (2005 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brunei</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brunei.htm" target="_top">Brunei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bruneian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brunei.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bruneian">Brunei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bruneians</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brunei.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bruneians">Brunei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brunel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel.htm" target="_top">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bruselas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bruselas">Brussels</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brush</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Brush-tailed_Porcupine.htm" target="_top">African Brush-tailed Porcupine</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basil_Brush.htm" target="_top">Basil Brush</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brush.htm" target="_top">Brush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brussels</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" target="_top">Brussels</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>brute</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brute_force_attack.htm" target="_top">Brute force attack</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bryce</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bryce_Canyon_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Bryce Canyon National Park</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><table><tr><th>bs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Basel_BS">Basel</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: ISO_3166-1:BS">The Bahamas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bsa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Merit_badge_collecting_(BSA) Merit_badge_design_history_(BSA) Merit_badge_types_(BSA)">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="t"></a><table><tr><th>bt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BT_Tower.htm" target="_top">BT Tower</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>btrieve</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Btrieve.htm" target="_top">Btrieve</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>btvs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: BTVS">Buffy the Vampire Slayer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>buchanan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Buchanan.htm" target="_top">James Buchanan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bucharest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bucharest.htm" target="_top">Bucharest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buckingham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buckingham_Palace.htm" target="_top">Buckingham Palace</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buckmaster</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buckminster_Fuller.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Buckmaster_Fuller">Buckminster Fuller</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buckminster</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buckminster_Fuller.htm" target="_top">Buckminster Fuller</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bucureşti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bucharest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bucureşti">Bucharest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>budapest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" target="_top">Budapest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>budapešt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Budapešt">Budapest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buddha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" target="_top">Buddha</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gautama_Buddha.htm" target="_top">Gautama Buddha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buddhasasana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Buddhasasana">Buddhism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buddhism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" target="_top">Buddhism</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greco-Buddhism.htm" target="_top">Greco-Buddhism</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Buddhism.htm" target="_top">History of Buddhism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buddhist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buddhist_art.htm" target="_top">Buddhist art</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>budding</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Budding_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buenos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" target="_top">Buenos Aires</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buffalo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Buffalo.htm" target="_top">African Buffalo</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Water_Buffalo.htm" target="_top">Water Buffalo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buffy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer.htm" target="_top">Buffy the Vampire Slayer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bugblatter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bugblatter_best_of_trall">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bugle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trumpet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Soprano_bugle">Trumpet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bugnini</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Annibale_Bugnini.htm" target="_top">Annibale Bugnini</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>build</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Minefield_(trunk_build)">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>builder</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arnold:_the_Education_of_a_Body-Builder">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>building</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/IG_Farben_Building.htm" target="_top">IG Farben Building</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buke</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Katana.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Buke-zukuri_mounting">Katana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bulaq</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bulaq">Cairo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bulbous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Onion_dome.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bulbous_dome">Onion dome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bulgaria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" target="_top">Bulgaria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bulge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Bulge.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Bulge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bull</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bull_shark.htm" target="_top">Bull shark</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Bull_%2528locomotive%2529.htm" target="_top">John Bull (locomotive)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sitting_Bull.htm" target="_top">Sitting Bull</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bullfinch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Bullfinch.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Bullfinch</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bundesländer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25E2%2582%25AC2_commemorative_coins.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: German_Bundesländer_commemorative_coin">€2 commemorative coins</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bunny</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rabbit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bunny_rabbits">Rabbit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bunting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Reed_Bunting.htm" target="_top">Reed Bunting</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rock_Bunting.htm" target="_top">Rock Bunting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buonaparte</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Napoleone_di_Buonaparte">Napoleon I of France</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buonarroti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Michelangelo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Michelangelo_di_Lodovico_Buonarroti_Simoni">Michelangelo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bureau</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" target="_top">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buren</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" target="_top">Martin Van Buren</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ass-Burger">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burgers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ass-burgers">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burgundy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Charles_II,_Duke_of_Burgundy Charles_II_of_Burgundy">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burirom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Krung_Thep_Maha_Nakhon_Amon_Rattanakosin_Mahinthara_Ayutthaya_Mahadilok_Phop_Noppharat_Ratchathani_Burirom_Udom_Ratchaniwet_Mahasathan_Amon_Phiman_Awatan_Sathit_Sakkathattiya_Witsanu_Kamprasit">Bangkok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burke</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" target="_top">Edmund Burke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burkean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Burkean_conservatism">Edmund Burke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burkina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" target="_top">Burkina Faso</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Burkina_Faso.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Burkina Faso</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ouagadougou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ougadougou,_Burkina_Faso">Ouagadougou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burkino</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Burkino_Faso">Burkina Faso</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burley</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Burley_Griffin.htm" target="_top">Lake Burley Griffin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Burma">Myanmar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burnside</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Burnside.htm" target="_top">History of Burnside</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hamilton-Burr_duel.htm" target="_top">Hamilton-Burr duel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Francis_Burton.htm" target="_top">Richard Francis Burton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>burundi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Burundi.htm" target="_top">Burundi</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Burundi.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Burundi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buryan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/St_Buryan.htm" target="_top">St Buryan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Air_bus">Airbus</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Double-decker_bus.htm" target="_top">Double-decker bus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bush</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bushpig.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Savanna_bush_pig">Bushpig</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" target="_top">George H. W. Bush</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bushbuck</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bushbuck.htm" target="_top">Bushbuck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bushpig</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bushpig.htm" target="_top">Bushpig</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>business</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Business.htm" target="_top">Business</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Photography_business">Photography</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Windows_Vista.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vista_Business">Windows Vista</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bustard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Bustard.htm" target="_top">Great Bustard</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>busting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Police.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Drug_busting">Police</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>but</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lynton_and_Barnstaple_Railway.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Perchance_it_is_not_dead_but_sleepeth">Lynton and Barnstaple Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>buter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Butter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Buter">Butter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>butler</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Butler_Yeats.htm" target="_top">William Butler Yeats</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>butter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Butter.htm" target="_top">Butter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>butterfly</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Madama_Butterfly.htm" target="_top">Madama Butterfly</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>button</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Button.htm" target="_top">Button</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><a name="w"></a><a name="x"></a><a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>by</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Animation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frame_by_frame">Animation</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_ciders_by_country">Cider</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_democratically_elected_governments_opposed_by_the_U.S.">Election</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tibet_glacier_completely_melted_down_by_2100">Global warming</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kurt_Cobain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_musical_equipment_used_by_Kurt_Cobain">Kurt Cobain</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Canadian_provinces_and_territories_by_area.htm" target="_top">List of Canadian provinces and territories by area</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_European_Union_member_states_by_accession.htm" target="_top">List of European Union member states by accession</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_statehood.htm" target="_top">List of U.S. states by date of statehood</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" target="_top">List of countries by system of government</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" target="_top">List of elements by name</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_date_joined.htm" target="_top">List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations by date joined</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_rivers_by_length.htm" target="_top">List of rivers by length</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles_discography.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_albums_by_the_Beatles">The Beatles discography</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>bypass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/M6_motorway.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Preston_Bypass">M6 motorway</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>byron</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Byron%252C_6th_Baron_Byron.htm" target="_top">George Byron, 6th Baron Byron</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>byzantine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" target="_top">Byzantine Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="z"></a>
</body>
</html>
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Slavery_in_Brazil', 'from redirect: Brazilian', "from 2 redirects: Brewer's_Yeast Brewer's_yeast", "from 2 redirects: Brewers'_yeast Brewers_yeast", 'from 2 redirects: Brewing_yeast Brewing_Yeast', 'from redirect: Chinyingi_Bridge', 'from redirect: Bridges_in_Saint_Petersburg', 'from redirect: Meyers_brigg', 'from redirect: Brilliant_prose', 'from redirect: Brinney_Spears', 'from redirect: Brintey_Spears', 'from redirect: Brisebane,_Australia', 'from redirect: Archipelago_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: Cities_in_Britain', 'from redirect: Queen_Elizabeth_II_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland', 'from redirect: George_III_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: George_IV_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: George_VI_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: George_V_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: List_of_Kings_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: Mary_II_of_Great_Britain', 'from 2 redirects: 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<h3 style="float:right;"><a href="subject.htm" target="_top">Subject Index</a></h3>
<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : B</h2>
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<a href="a.htm" target="_top"> A </a></a><b> B </b><a href="c.htm" target="_top"> C </a></a><a href="d.htm" target="_top"> D </a></a><a href="e.htm" target="_top"> E </a></a><a href="f.htm" target="_top"> F </a></a><a href="g.htm" target="_top"> G </a></a><a href="h.htm" target="_top"> H </a></a><a href="i.htm" target="_top"> I </a></a><a href="j.htm" target="_top"> J </a></a><a href="k.htm" target="_top"> K </a></a><a href="l.htm" target="_top"> L </a></a><a href="m.htm" target="_top"> M </a></a><a href="n.htm" target="_top"> N </a></a><a href="o.htm" target="_top"> O </a></a><a href="p.htm" target="_top"> P </a></a><a href="q.htm" target="_top"> Q </a></a><a href="r.htm" target="_top"> R </a></a><a href="s.htm" target="_top"> S </a></a><a href="t.htm" target="_top"> T </a></a><a href="u.htm" target="_top"> U </a></a><a href="v.htm" target="_top"> V </a></a><a href="w.htm" target="_top"> W </a></a><a href="x.htm" target="_top"> X </a></a><a href="y.htm" target="_top"> Y </a></a><a href="z.htm" target="_top"> Z </a></a><a href="others.htm" target="_top"> Others </a></a></div>
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<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Title Word Index : B</title>
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c-list | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
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<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : C</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
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<body class="alphaindex">
<table><tr><th>c++</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/C%252B%252B.htm" target="_top">C++</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>c</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/C._S._Lewis.htm" target="_top">C. S. Lewis</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: C_(element)">Carbon</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hyakutake.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: C/1996_B2_(Hyakutake)">Comet Hyakutake</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous-Tertiary_extinction_event.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: C-T_mass_extinction_event">Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: C_Vitamin">Vitamin C</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>c0nnery</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sean_Connery.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sean_C0nnery">Sean Connery</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>ca</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: US-CA">California</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Los_Angeles,CA">Los Angeles, California</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_francisco,_ca">San Francisco, California</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Jose%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa_Clara,_CA_MSA">San Jose, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cable</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/IPod.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ipod_cable">IPod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cabot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Cabot.htm" target="_top">John Cabot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cache</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CPU_cache.htm" target="_top">CPU cache</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cacl2</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calcium_chloride.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CaCl2">Calcium chloride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cactii</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cactus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cactii">Cactus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cactus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cactus.htm" target="_top">Cactus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cadmium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cadmium.htm" target="_top">Cadmium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cædmon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25A6dmon.htm" target="_top">Cædmon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caernarfon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_II_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Edward_of_Caernarfon">Edward II of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caerulea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Green_Tree_Frog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Litoria_caerulea">Australian Green Tree Frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caesar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caesar_cipher.htm" target="_top">Caesar cipher</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top">Julius Caesar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caesars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Caesars_death">Julius Caesar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caeser</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Julius_Caeser">Julius Caesar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caesium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caesium.htm" target="_top">Caesium</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caesium_fluoride.htm" target="_top">Caesium fluoride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caffer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Buffalo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Syncerus_caffer">African Buffalo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cai_Lun.htm" target="_top">Cai Lun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caicos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands.htm" target="_top">Turks and Caicos Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Citizen_Kane.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Citizen_Cain">Citizen Kane</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Citizen_Kane.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Citizen_Caine">Citizen Kane</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cairns</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Maiden.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Paul_Cairns">Iron Maiden</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cairo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top">Cairo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calcite</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calcite.htm" target="_top">Calcite</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calcium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" target="_top">Calcium</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calcium_chloride.htm" target="_top">Calcium chloride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calculating</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Calculating_local_time">Time zone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calculus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calculus.htm" target="_top">Calculus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calcutta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mother_Teresa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blessed_Teresa_of_Calcutta">Mother Teresa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caledonia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/New_Caledonia.htm" target="_top">New Caledonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calendar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_calendar.htm" target="_top">Hebrew calendar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calgary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calgary.htm" target="_top">Calgary</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>california</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture_of_the_California_missions.htm" target="_top">Architecture of the California missions</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" target="_top">California</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/California_Southern_Railroad.htm" target="_top">California Southern Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Goleta%252C_California.htm" target="_top">Goleta, California</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Island_Fox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: California_Channel_Island_Fox">Island Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" target="_top">Los Angeles, California</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" target="_top">San Francisco, California</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Jose%252C_California.htm" target="_top">San Jose, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>californium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Californium.htm" target="_top">Californium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caliphs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbasid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abbasid_Caliphs">Abbasid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>callaghan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Callaghan.htm" target="_top">James Callaghan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calligraphy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calligraphy.htm" target="_top">Calligraphy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caloris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caloris_Basin.htm" target="_top">Caloris Basin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calvijn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Johannes_Calvijn">John Calvin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calvin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" target="_top">Calvin Coolidge</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_and_Hobbes.htm" target="_top">Calvin and Hobbes</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" target="_top">John Calvin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calvinball</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_and_Hobbes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Calvinball">Calvin and Hobbes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>calvinus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Calvin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: John_Calvinus">John Calvin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camarasauridae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Camarasaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Camarasauridae">Camarasaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camarasaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Camarasaurus.htm" target="_top">Camarasaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cambodia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cambodia.htm" target="_top">Cambodia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cambrai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai.htm" target="_top">War of the League of Cambrai</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cambrian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cambrian.htm" target="_top">Cambrian</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cambrian_explosion.htm" target="_top">Cambrian explosion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cambridge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge.htm" target="_top">Cambridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trinity_College%252C_Cambridge.htm" target="_top">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" target="_top">University of Cambridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Camel.htm" target="_top">Camel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camels</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Camel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Camels">Camel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cameron</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Cameron.htm" target="_top">David Cameron</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cameroon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" target="_top">Cameroon</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Cameroon.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Cameroon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camerun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Camerun">Cameroon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camille</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Camille.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Camille</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Castra.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Roman_camp">Castra</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mauthausen-Gusen_concentration_camp.htm" target="_top">Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>campaigns</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: West_Indies_and_Gulf_Coast_campaigns">American Revolutionary War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>campbell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_W._Campbell.htm" target="_top">John W. Campbell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>camps</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Castra.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Roman_camps">Castra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canada</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" target="_top">Canada</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canada_Goose.htm" target="_top">Canada Goose</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_history_of_Canada.htm" target="_top">Military history of Canada</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_Canada.htm" target="_top">Order of Canada</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ottawa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_Canada">Ottawa</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_Canada.htm" target="_top">Parliament of Canada</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Senate_of_Canada.htm" target="_top">Senate of Canada</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canadian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Canadian_people">Canada</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canada_Goose.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Canadian_Goose Canadian_Geese">Canada Goose</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms.htm" target="_top">Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_English.htm" target="_top">Canadian English</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">Canadian House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Pacific_Railway.htm" target="_top">Canadian Pacific Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Senate.htm" target="_top">Canadian Senate</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_football.htm" target="_top">Canadian football</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Canadian_provinces_and_territories_by_area.htm" target="_top">List of Canadian provinces and territories by area</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Senate_of_Canada.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Canadian_senator">Senate of Canada</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Canadian.htm" target="_top">The Canadian</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canadians</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Canadians">Canada</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canal.htm" target="_top">Canal</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Erie_Canal.htm" target="_top">Erie Canal</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gowanus_Canal.htm" target="_top">Gowanus Canal</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canal_of_China.htm" target="_top">Grand Canal of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Panama_Canal.htm" target="_top">History of the Panama Canal</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Panama_Canal.htm" target="_top">Panama Canal</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" target="_top">Suez Canal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canaletto</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canaletto.htm" target="_top">Canaletto</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canaria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Las_Palmas_de_Gran_Canaria.htm" target="_top">Las Palmas de Gran Canaria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canaveral</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Canaveral.htm" target="_top">Cape Canaveral</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canberra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canberra.htm" target="_top">Canberra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cancer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" target="_top">Cancer</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" target="_top">Lung cancer</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Prostate_cancer.htm" target="_top">Prostate cancer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cancerophobia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cancerophobia">Cancer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cancerous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cancerous_tumor">Cancer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cancers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Prostate_cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Prostatic_cancers">Prostate cancer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cancri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri.htm" target="_top">55 Cancri</a>
<a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_b.htm" target="_top">55 Cancri b</a>
<a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_c.htm" target="_top">55 Cancri c</a>
<a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_d.htm" target="_top">55 Cancri d</a>
<a href="../../wp/5/55_Cancri_e.htm" target="_top">55 Cancri e</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cane_Toad.htm" target="_top">Cane Toad</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greater_Cane_Rat.htm" target="_top">Greater Cane Rat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Canis_familiaris Canis_Familaris">Dog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cannae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Cannae.htm" target="_top">Battle of Cannae</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cannola</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canola.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cannola">Canola</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canoe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boundary_Waters_Canoe_Area_Wilderness.htm" target="_top">Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canola</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canola.htm" target="_top">Canola</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pali_Canon.htm" target="_top">Pali Canon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canopy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lower_canopy">Rainforest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cantabrigiensis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Universitas_Cantabrigiensis">University of Cambridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canterbury</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" target="_top">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury.htm" target="_top">Canterbury</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury_Cathedral.htm" target="_top">Canterbury Cathedral</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Archbishops_of_Canterbury.htm" target="_top">List of Archbishops of Canterbury</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from 8 redirects: Canton,_China Canton,_Canton,_China Canton,_Canton,_China Canton_(city),_China Canton_City,_China Canton,_Canton Canton,_Canton Canton_(city)">Guangzhou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cantor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_Cantor.htm" target="_top">Georg Cantor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cantos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Cantos.htm" target="_top">The Cantos</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cantuar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rowan_Williams.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rowan_Cantuar">Rowan Williams</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canute</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canute_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Canute the Great</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canynon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grand_canynon">Grand Canyon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>canyon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bryce_Canyon_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Bryce Canyon National Park</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geology_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">Geology of the Grand Canyon area</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" target="_top">Grand Canyon</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">History of the Grand Canyon area</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cap</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polar_ice_cap.htm" target="_top">Polar ice cap</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capacitance</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Capacitance.htm" target="_top">Capacitance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cape</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Canaveral.htm" target="_top">Cape Canaveral</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Horn.htm" target="_top">Cape Horn</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Lion.htm" target="_top">Cape Lion</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Porcupine.htm" target="_top">Cape Porcupine</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" target="_top">Cape Town</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" target="_top">Cape Verde</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Cape_Verde.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Cape Verde</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1806_to_1870.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1870_to_1899.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1870 to 1899</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Praia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Praia,_Cape_Verde_Islands Praia_District,_Cape_Verde">Praia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caperton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Idit_Harel_Caperton.htm" target="_top">Idit Harel Caperton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capetonian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capetonian">Cape Town</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capetown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capetown,_South_Africa">Cape Town</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capital</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Chinese_capital Capital_of_China">Beijing</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bogotá,_Distrito_Capital">Bogotá</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" target="_top">Capital</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Delhi.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: National_Capital_Territory_of_Delhi National_Capital_Region,_India">Delhi</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hanoi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_vietnam">Hanoi</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Northwest_Territories_capital_cities.htm" target="_top">History of Northwest Territories capital cities</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Australian_Capital_Territory.htm" target="_top">History of the Australian Capital Territory</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_England">London</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monrovia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_liberia">Monrovia</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ottawa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_Canada">Ottawa</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pyongyang.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_North_Korea">Pyongyang</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Capital_of_Korea Capital_of_South_Korea">Seoul</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Social_capital.htm" target="_top">Social capital</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: National_Capital_Region_(Japan)">Tokyo</a>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yarralumla%252C_Australian_Capital_Territory.htm" target="_top">Yarralumla, Australian Capital Territory</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capitalism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anarcho-capitalism.htm" target="_top">Anarcho-capitalism</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Capitalism.htm" target="_top">Capitalism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capitalist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anarcho-capitalism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anarcho_capitalist">Anarcho-capitalism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capitals</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pyongyang.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capitals_of_North_Korea">Pyongyang</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Capitals_of_Korea Capitals_of_South_Korea">Seoul</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>capitoline</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Capitoline_Triad.htm" target="_top">Capitoline Triad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cappella</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_cappella.htm" target="_top">A cappella</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>captain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Captain_Marvel_%2528DC_Comics%2529.htm" target="_top">Captain Marvel (DC Comics)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Godfather.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Captain_McCluskey">The Godfather</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>car</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Car">Automobile</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Control_car_%2528rail%2529.htm" target="_top">Control car (rail)</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/IPod.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ipod_car_kit">IPod</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lincoln_Town_Car.htm" target="_top">Lincoln Town Car</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Refrigerator_car.htm" target="_top">Refrigerator car</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stock_car_%2528rail%2529.htm" target="_top">Stock car (rail)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caracas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caracas.htm" target="_top">Caracas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caratacus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caratacus.htm" target="_top">Caratacus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caravage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caravaggio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Caravage">Caravaggio</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caravaggio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caravaggio.htm" target="_top">Caravaggio</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caravaggism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caravaggio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Caravaggism">Caravaggio</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carbon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" target="_top">Carbon</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" target="_top">Carbon dioxide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carbonide</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carbonide">Carbon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carboniferous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carboniferous.htm" target="_top">Carboniferous</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carcinoma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hepatocellular_carcinoma.htm" target="_top">Hepatocellular carcinoma</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bronchogenic_carcinoma Bronchogenic_Carcinoma">Lung cancer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carcinophobia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carcinophobia">Cancer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carcinus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carcinus_maenas.htm" target="_top">Carcinus maenas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>card</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Card_game.htm" target="_top">Card game</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Nintendo_Playing_Card_Company_Limited Nintendo_Playing_Card_Company,_Limited">Nintendo</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_DS.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nintendo_DS_Game_Card">Nintendo DS</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Playing_card.htm" target="_top">Playing card</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pok%25C3%25A9mon_Trading_Card_Game.htm" target="_top">Pokémon Trading Card Game</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cardiff</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" target="_top">Cardiff</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cardinal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armand_Jean_du_Plessis%252C_Cardinal_Richelieu.htm" target="_top">Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cards</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Playing_card.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pack_of_cards">Playing card</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>career</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Paul_McCartney.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Paul_McCartney's_solo_career">Paul McCartney</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carefree</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chelsea_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carefree_(football)">Chelsea F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caribbean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" target="_top">Caribbean Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" target="_top">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_G._Fisher.htm" target="_top">Carl G. Fisher</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Jung.htm" target="_top">Carl Jung</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Lewis.htm" target="_top">Carl Lewis</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Sagan.htm" target="_top">Carl Sagan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carlos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Carlos_V Carlos_V_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carlsbad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carlsbad_Caverns_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Carlsbad Caverns National Park</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carnagie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Carnegie.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andrew_carnagie">Andrew Carnegie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carnegie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Carnegie.htm" target="_top">Andrew Carnegie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carnivore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carnivore.htm" target="_top">Carnivore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_Christmas_Carol.htm" target="_top">A Christmas Carol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carolina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Carolina.htm" target="_top">History of South Carolina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caroline</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caroline_Island.htm" target="_top">Caroline Island</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carolingian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carolingian_Gospel_Book_%2528British_Library%252C_MS_Add._11848%2529.htm" target="_top">Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carolus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" target="_top">Carolus Linnaeus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carribbean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carribbean_Sea">Caribbean Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carrier</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft_carrier.htm" target="_top">Aircraft carrier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carroll</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_and_Hobbes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mrs._Carroll">Calvin and Hobbes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carrolus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carrolus_Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carrot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carrot.htm" target="_top">Carrot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carrots</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carrot.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CARROTS">Carrot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Magna_Carta.htm" target="_top">Magna Carta</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" target="_top">Jimmy Carter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cartes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Des_cartes">René Descartes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cartesium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cartesium">René Descartes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cartier</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jacques_Cartier.htm" target="_top">Jacques Cartier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cartoon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Homestar_Runner_(cartoon)">Homestar Runner</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Cartoon_Intifada Danish_cartoon_controversy Danish_cartoon_crisis Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoon_crisis Jyllands_Posten_Muhammad_cartoon_crisis">Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cartoons</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy.htm" target="_top">Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>carvaggio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caravaggio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carvaggio">Caravaggio</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>casablanca</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Casablanca_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Casablanca (film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cash</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pat_Cash.htm" target="_top">Pat Cash</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cashpoint</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Automated_teller_machine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cashpoint">Automated teller machine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cashville</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cashville,_Tennessee">Nashville, Tennessee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>casimir</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Casimir_effect.htm" target="_top">Casimir effect</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caspian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" target="_top">Caspian Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cassini</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cassini-Huygens.htm" target="_top">Cassini-Huygens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cassius</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Ali.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cassius_Marcellus_Clay_(Muhammad_Ali)">Muhammad Ali</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cassowary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cassowary.htm" target="_top">Cassowary</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cast</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_film_trilogy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cast_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings_film_trilogy">The Lord of the Rings film trilogy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>castile</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Habsburg_Spain.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Aragon_and_Castile Castile_and_Aragon">Habsburg Spain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>castle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colditz_Castle.htm" target="_top">Colditz Castle</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Seoul_castle_town Seoul_castle">Seoul</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Windsor_Castle.htm" target="_top">Windsor Castle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>castra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Castra.htm" target="_top">Castra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>castro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fidel_Castro.htm" target="_top">Fidel Castro</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wars_of_Castro.htm" target="_top">Wars of Castro</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black-footed_Cat.htm" target="_top">Black-footed Cat</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat%2527s_Eye_Nebula.htm" target="_top">Cat's Eye Nebula</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top">Cat</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat_Stevens.htm" target="_top">Cat Stevens</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Felix_the_Cat.htm" target="_top">Felix the Cat</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Red_Panda.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cat_bear Red_Cat-bear">Red Panda</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Cat_in_the_Hat.htm" target="_top">The Cat in the Hat</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wild_cat.htm" target="_top">Wild cat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catalog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sears_Catalog_Home.htm" target="_top">Sears Catalog Home</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catalogs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Numismatics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Numismatic_auction_catalogs">Numismatics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cataract</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cataract.htm" target="_top">Cataract</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cataract_surgery.htm" target="_top">Cataract surgery</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catcher</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Catcher_in_the_Rye.htm" target="_top">The Catcher in the Rye</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cateracts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cataract.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cateracts">Cataract</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cathar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albigensian_Crusade.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cathar_Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cathedral</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury_Cathedral.htm" target="_top">Canterbury Cathedral</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cathedral_of_Magdeburg.htm" target="_top">Cathedral of Magdeburg</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Durham_Cathedral.htm" target="_top">Durham Cathedral</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/St_Paul%2527s_Cathedral.htm" target="_top">St Paul's Cathedral</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catherdral</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Durham_Cathedral.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Durham_Catherdral">Durham Cathedral</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catherine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_Cranston.htm" target="_top">Catherine Cranston</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" target="_top">Catherine II of Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catholcism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Catholcism">Roman Catholic Church</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catholic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catholic_social_teaching.htm" target="_top">Catholic social teaching</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Opus_Dei.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Opus_Dei_and_Catholic_Church_Leaders">Opus Dei</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top">Roman Catholic Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Catholic_Armada">Spanish Armada</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cathures</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cathures">Glasgow</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catlins</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Catlins.htm" target="_top">The Catlins</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cats</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: CATS_has_taken_over_your_entire_base Kimitachi_no_kichi_wa,_subete_CATS_ga_itadaita">All your base are belong to us</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cats Info_on_cats">Cat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cattle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top">Cattle</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stock_car_%2528rail%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cattle_truck">Stock car (rail)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cattus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Felis_cattus">Cat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>catus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Felis_silverstris_catus">Cat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cause</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bahá'í_Cause">Bahá'í Faith</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>causeway</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant%2527s_Causeway.htm" target="_top">Giant's Causeway</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cavalcanti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andrea_Cavalcanti">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cavanagh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cavanagh_Farrell">Jesus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cave</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cave.htm" target="_top">Cave</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mammoth_Cave_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Mammoth Cave National Park</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cavendish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fort_de_Chartres.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fort_Cavendish">Fort de Chartres</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cavern</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gajtan_cavern">Albania</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>caverns</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carlsbad_Caverns_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Carlsbad Caverns National Park</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cayman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cayman_Islands.htm" target="_top">Cayman Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><a name="c"></a><table><tr><th>cccp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cccp">Soviet Union</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="d"></a><table><tr><th>cd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" target="_top" title="from 6 redirects: Audio_CD CD CD_audio CD_drive CD-quality CD_quality">Compact Disc</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="e"></a><table><tr><th>ce</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: 9th_century_CE">9th century</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ceasar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Julius_Ceasar">Julius Caesar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ceaser</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Julius_Ceaser Julias_ceaser">Julius Caesar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cebu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abac%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cebu_hemp">Abacá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cecil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%252C_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury.htm" target="_top">Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/C%252B%252B.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cee_plus_plus Cee_Plus_Plus">C++</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ceiling</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling.htm" target="_top">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>celeriac</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celeriac.htm" target="_top">Celeriac</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>celery</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celery.htm" target="_top">Celery</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>celine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celine_Dion.htm" target="_top">Celine Dion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>céline</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celine_Dion.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Dion,_Céline Céline_Dion">Celine Dion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" target="_top">Cell (biology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Plant_cell.htm" target="_top">Plant cell</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sickle-cell_disease.htm" target="_top">Sickle-cell disease</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stem_cell.htm" target="_top">Stem cell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cello</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cello.htm" target="_top">Cello</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cells</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Animal_cells">Cell (biology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sickle-cell_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sickle_cells">Sickle-cell disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>celtic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Anglo-Celtic_Isles">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_F.C..htm" target="_top">Celtic F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_Park.htm" target="_top">Celtic Park</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_mythology.htm" target="_top">Celtic mythology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>censorious</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Censorious">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>centauri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Proxima_Centauri.htm" target="_top">Proxima Centauri</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>center</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Collapse_of_the_World_Trade_Center.htm" target="_top">Collapse of the World Trade Center</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cornell_Theory_Center">Cornell University</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guangzhou_International_Convention_and_Exhibition_Center">Guangzhou</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Seoul_International_Financial_Center">Seoul</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geometric_center_of_Slovenia">Slovenia</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telephone_exchange.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wire_center">Telephone exchange</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>central</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algoma_Central_Railway.htm" target="_top">Algoma Central Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Central_Baltic_Sea">Baltic Sea</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Central_African_Republic.htm" target="_top">Central African Republic</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Central_processing_unit.htm" target="_top">Central processing unit</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Central_African_Republic.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Central African Republic</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Central_Station_%2528Chicago%2529.htm" target="_top">Grand Central Station (Chicago)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Central_Terminal.htm" target="_top">Grand Central Terminal</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Central_Asia.htm" target="_top">History of Central Asia</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia.htm" target="_top">Mongol invasion of Central Asia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>centre</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthetic_reaction_centre.htm" target="_top">Photosynthetic reaction centre</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Seoul_International_Financial_Centre">Seoul</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: September_11,_2001_World_Trade_Centre_attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>centuries</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Test_cricket_triple_centuries.htm" target="_top">List of Test cricket triple centuries</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>century</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" target="_top">10th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" target="_top">11th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" target="_top">12th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" target="_top">13th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" target="_top">14th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" target="_top">15th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" target="_top">16th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" target="_top">17th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" target="_top">18th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" target="_top">19th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/1st_century.htm" target="_top">1st century</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/1st_century_BC.htm" target="_top">1st century BC</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" target="_top">20th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/21st_century.htm" target="_top">21st century</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" target="_top">2nd century</a>
<a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" target="_top">3rd century</a>
<a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" target="_top">4th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" target="_top">5th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" target="_top">6th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" target="_top">7th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/8/8th_century.htm" target="_top">8th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" target="_top">9th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Miami%252C_Florida.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Miami,_Florida_in_the_20th_century">History of Miami, Florida</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ceratopsidae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Ceratopsidae.htm" target="_top">Ceratopsidae</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ceratopsinae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Ceratopsidae.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ceratopsinae">Ceratopsidae</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cereak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cereak">Cereal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cereal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" target="_top">Cereal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cerebellar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cerebellum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cerebellar_lesion">Cerebellum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cerebellum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cerebellum.htm" target="_top">Cerebellum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cerebralis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Myxobolus_cerebralis.htm" target="_top">Myxobolus cerebralis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ceres</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1_Ceres.htm" target="_top">1 Ceres</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Ceres_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" target="_top">Ceres (dwarf planet)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cerium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cerium.htm" target="_top">Cerium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cervantes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Miguel_de_Cervantes.htm" target="_top">Miguel de Cervantes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cesar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Julius_Cesar Juluis_Cesar">Julius Caesar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ceska</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ceska_Republic">Czech Republic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cézanne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Paul_C%25C3%25A9zanne.htm" target="_top">Paul Cézanne</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="f"></a><table><tr><th>cf7</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CF7.htm" target="_top">CF7</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="g"></a><a name="h"></a><table><tr><th>ch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guqin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gu-ch'in">Guqin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chach</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tashkent.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chach">Tashkent</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chad.htm" target="_top">Chad</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Chad.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Chad</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Chad.htm" target="_top">Lake Chad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chadian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chadian-Sudanese_conflict.htm" target="_top">Chadian-Sudanese conflict</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chafer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beetle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chafer">Beetle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chaffinch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chaffinch.htm" target="_top">Chaffinch</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polymerase_chain_reaction.htm" target="_top">Polymerase chain reaction</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Supply_chain_management.htm" target="_top">Supply chain management</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chaina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chaina">China</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chair</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Feast_of_the_Chair_of_St._Peter">Pope</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>challenger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Challenger.htm" target="_top">Space Shuttle Challenger</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster.htm" target="_top">Space Shuttle Challenger disaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chamber</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Senate_of_Canada.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Red_chamber">Senate of Canada</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>championships</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" target="_top">The Championships, Wimbledon</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/WTA_Tour_Championships.htm" target="_top">WTA Tour Championships</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chaney</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Illuminatus%2521_Trilogy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Markoff_Chaney">The Illuminatus! Trilogy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>change</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" target="_top">Climate change</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pollution_contributed_climate_change">Global warming</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Historical_change">History</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>channel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" target="_top">Channel Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" target="_top">English Channel</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Island_Fox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: California_Channel_Island_Fox">Island Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jersey.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Channel_Islands/Jersey">Jersey</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gregorian_chant.htm" target="_top">Gregorian chant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chaoxian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chaoxian_Minzhuzhuyi_Renmin_Gongheguo">North Korea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chapel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling.htm" target="_top">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chaplin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charlie_Chaplin.htm" target="_top">Charlie Chaplin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chapu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andr%25C3%25A9s_Nocioni.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chapu_Nocioni">Andrés Nocioni</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>character</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Link_%2528The_Legend_of_Zelda%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Link_(Nintendo_character) Link_(character)">Link (The Legend of Zelda)</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mega_Man_X_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top">Mega Man X (character)</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Metallic_character">Metal</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top">Sonic the Hedgehog (character)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>characters</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ASCII.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_ascii_characters">ASCII</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Bond.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_James_Bond_characters">James Bond</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/King_Kong_%25282005_film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_characters_in_King_Kong_(2005)">King Kong (2005 film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Famous_Five_%2528characters%2529.htm" target="_top">The Famous Five (characters)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charels</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Charels_Dickens">Charles Dickens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aradia%252C_or_the_Gospel_of_the_Witches.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Charge_of_Aradia">Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electric_charge.htm" target="_top">Electric charge</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Special_Agent_in_Charge">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/IPod.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ipod_charger">IPod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charlemagne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" target="_top">Charlemagne</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celine_Dion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: René-Charles_Dion_Angélil">Celine Dion</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Babbage.htm" target="_top">Charles Babbage</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" target="_top">Charles Darwin</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" target="_top">Charles Dickens</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Etienne_Brasseur_de_Bourbourg.htm" target="_top">Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Charles II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Charles I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Sumner.htm" target="_top">Charles Sumner</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jean_Charles_de_Menezes.htm" target="_top">Jean Charles de Menezes</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Charles_Baker_Harris">To Kill a Mockingbird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charley</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Charley</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charlie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charlie_Chaplin.htm" target="_top">Charlie Chaplin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charlotte</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charlotte%2527s_Web.htm" target="_top">Charlotte's Web</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charming</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Snake_charming.htm" target="_top">Snake charming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chart</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mendeleev_periodic_chart">Periodic table</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>charter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms.htm" target="_top">Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chartered</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Geographical_Society.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chartered_Geographer">Royal Geographical Society</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chartism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chartism.htm" target="_top">Chartism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chartres</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fort_de_Chartres.htm" target="_top">Fort de Chartres</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chasmosaurinae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Ceratopsidae.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chasmosaurinae">Ceratopsidae</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chateau</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmonton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crowne_Plaza_Chateau_Lacombe">Edmonton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chazars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Khazars.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chazars">Khazars</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>che</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Che_Guevara.htm" target="_top">Che Guevara</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ho_Che_Min">Ho Chi Minh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cheers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cheers.htm" target="_top">Cheers</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cheese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" target="_top">Cheese</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cheeselog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cheeselog">Cheese</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cheetah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cheetah.htm" target="_top">Cheetah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cheeze</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cheeze">Cheese</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chelse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chelsea_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chelse_FC\\">Chelsea F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chelsea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chelsea_F.C..htm" target="_top">Chelsea F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chemdata</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Folic_acid_chemdata_supplement">Folic acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chemical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CS_gas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chemical_compound_CS">CS gas</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" target="_top">Chemical element</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_synapse.htm" target="_top">Chemical synapse</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chemical_compound_salt">Salt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chemistry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boron.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boron_Chemistry">Boron</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" target="_top">Chemistry</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computational_chemistry.htm" target="_top">Computational chemistry</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_chemistry.htm" target="_top">Quantum chemistry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chenai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chennai.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chenai">Chennai</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cheng</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/z/Zheng_He.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cheng_Ho">Zheng He</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chengiz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chengiz_Khan">Genghis Khan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chennai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chennai.htm" target="_top">Chennai</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chepstow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chepstow_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Chepstow Bridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chernobyl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chernobyl_disaster.htm" target="_top">Chernobyl disaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chess</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" target="_top">Chess</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chester</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chester_A._Arthur.htm" target="_top">Chester A. Arthur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chestnut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chestnut.htm" target="_top">Chestnut</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eleocharis_dulcis.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Water_Chestnut Water_chestnut Water-chestnut">Eleocharis dulcis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chestnuts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eleocharis_dulcis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Water_chestnuts">Eleocharis dulcis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chew</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chew_Magna.htm" target="_top">Chew Magna</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chew_Stoke.htm" target="_top">Chew Stoke</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chew_Valley.htm" target="_top">Chew Valley</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chew_Valley_Lake.htm" target="_top">Chew Valley Lake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh.htm" target="_top">Ho Chi Minh</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh_City.htm" target="_top">Ho Chi Minh City</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/TeX.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tau_Epsilon_Chi">TeX</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chí</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hồ_Chí_Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chicago</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" target="_top">Chicago</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicago_Bears.htm" target="_top">Chicago Bears</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicago_and_North_Western_Railway.htm" target="_top">Chicago and North Western Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Central_Station_%2528Chicago%2529.htm" target="_top">Grand Central Station (Chicago)</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Chicago.htm" target="_top">University of Chicago</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chicken</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Special_chicken Special_Chicken">Cat</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" target="_top">Chicken</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chickens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chickens">Chicken</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chief</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chief_Architect">Architecture</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Super_Chief.htm" target="_top">Super Chief</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chih</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ho_Chih_Minh Ho_Chih-minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>child</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Child.htm" target="_top">Child</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child.htm" target="_top">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>children</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Children's_cancer">Cancer</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Children%2527s_Crusade.htm" target="_top">Children's Crusade</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Children%2527s_rights_movement.htm" target="_top">Children's rights movement</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Convention_of_children_rights">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Underprivileged_children">Poverty</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Religious_Society_of_Friends.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Children_of_the_light">Religious Society of Friends</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Children%2527s_Machine.htm" target="_top">The Children's Machine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chile</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" target="_top">Chile</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_lakes.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: List_of_lakes_of_Chile Lakes_in_Chile">List of lakes</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santiago%252C_Chile.htm" target="_top">Santiago, Chile</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chilean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chilean_Republic">Chile</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Easter_Island.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chilean_Polynesia">Easter Island</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chiltern</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chiltern_Hills.htm" target="_top">Chiltern Hills</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chimp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bonobo.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Pygmy_chimp Dwarf_chimp">Bonobo</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chimp">Chimpanzee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chimpanzee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" target="_top">Chimpanzee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chimps</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bonobo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pygmy_chimps">Bonobo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>china</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bank_of_China_%2528Hong_Kong%2529.htm" target="_top">Bank of China (Hong Kong)</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_China">Beijing</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" target="_top">China</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.htm" target="_top">Flag of the Republic of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canal_of_China.htm" target="_top">Grand Canal of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Wall_of_China.htm" target="_top">Great Wall of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Canton,_China Guangzhou,_China Canton,_Canton,_China Canton_(city),_China Canton_City,_China">Guangzhou</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" target="_top">People's Republic of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qin_Shi_Huang.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: First_Emporer_of_China">Qin Shi Huang</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_China.htm" target="_top">Republic of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_China_Sea.htm" target="_top">South China Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chinaman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Chinaman_of_Koenigsberg Chinaman_of_Königsberg">Immanuel Kant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chincapin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chestnut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chincapin">Chestnut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chinese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chinese_capital">Beijing</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_Rites_controversy.htm" target="_top">Chinese Rites controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" target="_top">Chinese language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ching</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/I_Ching.htm" target="_top">I Ching</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tao_Te_Ching.htm" target="_top">Tao Te Ching</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chinkapin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chestnut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chinkapin">Chestnut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chinquapin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chestnut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chinquapin">Chestnut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chinyingi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chinyingi.htm" target="_top">Chinyingi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chip</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Central_processing_unit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Computer_processing_chip">Central processing unit</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: IC_chip">Integrated circuit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chips</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Computer_chips IC_chips">Integrated circuit</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Intel_Corporation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Intel_chips">Intel Corporation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chives</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chives.htm" target="_top">Chives</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chloride</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium_chloride.htm" target="_top">Aluminium chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calcium_chloride.htm" target="_top">Calcium chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copper%2528I%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top">Copper(I) chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gold%2528III%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top">Gold(III) chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aqueous_Hydrogen_Chloride">Hydrochloric acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iron%2528III%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top">Iron(III) chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Phosphoryl_chloride.htm" target="_top">Phosphoryl chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rhodium%2528III%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top">Rhodium(III) chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tin%2528II%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top">Tin(II) chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/z/Zinc_chloride.htm" target="_top">Zinc chloride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chlorine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" target="_top">Chlorine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chocalate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chocolate.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chocalate">Chocolate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>choclate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chocolate.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Choclate">Chocolate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chocolate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chocolate.htm" target="_top">Chocolate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chola</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chola_dynasty.htm" target="_top">Chola dynasty</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cholera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cholera.htm" target="_top">Cholera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chomsky</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Noam_Chomsky.htm" target="_top">Noam Chomsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chooks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chooks">Chicken</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>choosing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Choosing_a_horse">Horse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chopin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" target="_top">Frédéric Chopin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chordate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" target="_top">Chordate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chou</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Kuang-chou Kuang-Chou">Guangzhou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chozars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Khazars.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chozars">Khazars</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" target="_top">Chris Evert</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Chris_%25282006%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Chris (2006)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christ</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christ's_Pieces">Cambridge</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Jesus_christ Jesus_Christ Jesus_The_Christ">Jesus</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christ's_Faithful">Roman Catholic Church</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christendom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Western_Christendom">Roman Catholic Church</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Christian_Era Christian_era">Anno Domini</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christian_Bale.htm" target="_top">Christian Bale</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christian_monasticism.htm" target="_top">Christian monasticism</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Orthodox_Christian_Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_French_monarchs.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Most_Christian_Majesty">List of French monarchs</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trinity.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christian_God">Trinity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christianity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" target="_top">Christianity</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christianity">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trinity.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Trinity_(Christianity) Doctrine_in_Christianity_Trinity Doctrine_in_christianity_trinity">Trinity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christifideles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christifideles">Roman Catholic Church</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christina_Aguilera.htm" target="_top">Christina Aguilera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christmas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_Christmas_Carol.htm" target="_top">A Christmas Carol</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christmas_Island.htm" target="_top">Christmas Island</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jesu_Christo">Jesus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christopher</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" target="_top">Christopher Columbus</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Wren.htm" target="_top">Christopher Wren</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Curious_Incident_of_the_Dog_in_the_Night-time.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christopher_Boone">The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>christovao</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christovao_Columbo">Christopher Columbus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chromatic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chromatic_aberration.htm" target="_top">Chromatic aberration</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chromatophore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chromatophore.htm" target="_top">Chromatophore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chromium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chromium.htm" target="_top">Chromium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chronic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: California_Chronic">California</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chronic_stroke">Stroke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chronicle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peterborough_Chronicle.htm" target="_top">Peterborough Chronicle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chrons</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crohn%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chrons_disease">Crohn's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>church</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amish.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Amish_Church Amish_church">Amish</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Church_of_Australia.htm" target="_top">Anglican Church of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ann_Arbor%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Harvest_Mission_Community_Church">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" target="_top">Church of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" target="_top">Church of Ireland</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" target="_top">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Opus_Dei.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Opus_Dei_and_Catholic_Church_Leaders">Opus Dei</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top">Roman Catholic Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" target="_top">Scottish Episcopal Church</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>churchill</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" target="_top">Winston Churchill</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>chusik</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corporation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Chusik_hoesa Chusik-hoesa">Corporation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>cibber</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colley_Cibber.htm" target="_top">Colley Cibber</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cicci</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Godfather.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Willie_Cicci">The Godfather</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cicely</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cicely.htm" target="_top">Cicely</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cider</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" target="_top">Cider</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ciders</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_ciders_by_country">Cider</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cieling</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sistine_Chapel_cieling">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cilandro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coriander.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cilandro">Coriander</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cilatro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coriander.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cilatro">Coriander</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cináeda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_II_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Máel_Coluim_mac_Cináeda">Malcolm II of Scotland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cinema</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cinema_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top">Cinema of the United States</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cipher</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caesar_cipher.htm" target="_top">Caesar cipher</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cipriano</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>circle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Circle.htm" target="_top">Arctic Circle</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: On_deck_circle On-deck_circle">Baseball</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>circuit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" target="_top">Integrated circuit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>circulating</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_circulating_currencies.htm" target="_top">List of circulating currencies</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>circus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Piccadilly_Circus.htm" target="_top">Piccadilly Circus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cirriped</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barnacle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cirriped">Barnacle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cisjordania</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cisjordania">West Bank</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cisne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cisne">Swan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cities</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sister_cities_of_Chicago">Chicago</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Cities_in_england Cities_in_Britain Cities_in_Northern_Ireland List_of_cities_in_Northern_Ireland">City status in the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Globalization_and_World_Cities_Study_Group_and_Network">Global city</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_cities_along_the_Great_Lakes">Great Lakes</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Northwest_Territories_capital_cities.htm" target="_top">History of Northwest Territories capital cities</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>citizen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Citizen_Kane.htm" target="_top">Citizen Kane</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Citizenship.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Honourary_citizen">Citizenship</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civil_rights.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Citizen's_rights">Civil rights</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>citizenship</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Citizenship.htm" target="_top">Citizenship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>citrus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Citrus.htm" target="_top">Citrus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cittie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cittie">City</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>city</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aberdeen.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aberdeen_city">Aberdeen</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Almaty.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Gorod_Almaty_City Gorod_Almaty_City,_Kazakhstan">Almaty</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lost_city_(Stargate)">Atlantis</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baltimore%252C_Maryland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: City_of_Baltimore,_Maryland">Baltimore, Maryland</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath%252C_Somerset.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: City_of_Bath Bath_(city)">Bath, Somerset</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boston_City_Council">Boston, Massachusetts</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Garden_City_(Cairo)">Cairo</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" target="_top">City</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">City status in the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denver%252C_Colorado.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: City_and_County_of_Denver,_Colorado">Denver, Colorado</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmonton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: City_of_Edmonton">Edmonton</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gaborone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gaborone_City_Council">Gaborone</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" target="_top">Global city</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Canton_(city),_China Canton_City,_China Canton_(city)">Guangzhou</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Free_City_of_Hamburg">Hamburg</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Greece.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greek_city-states">History of Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh_City.htm" target="_top">Ho Chi Minh City</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Magnolia_City Clutch_City">Houston, Texas</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kansas_City%252C_Missouri.htm" target="_top">Kansas City, Missouri</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Karachi.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: City_District_Government_Karachi City_District_Government_of_Karachi">Karachi</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait_City.htm" target="_top">Kuwait City</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Limerick.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Limerick_(city)">Limerick</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg_%2528city%2529.htm" target="_top">Luxembourg (city)</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_City.htm" target="_top">Mexico City</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" target="_top">New York City</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City_Subway_nomenclature.htm" target="_top">New York City Subway nomenclature</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oxford.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_city_of_dreaming_spires">Oxford</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richmond%252C_Virginia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: City_of_Richmond,_Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salt_Lake_City%252C_Utah.htm" target="_top">Salt Lake City, Utah</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jet_City">Seattle, Washington</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Utrecht_%2528city%2529.htm" target="_top">Utrecht (city)</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vancouver.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: City_of_Vancouver">Vancouver</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vatican_City.htm" target="_top">Vatican City</a>
<a href="../../wp/z/Z%25C3%25BCrich.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Zurich_(city) Zürich_(city)">Zürich</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>civic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civil_society.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Civic_nations">Civil society</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>civil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Abraham_Lincoln_and_the_American_Civil_War">Abraham Lincoln</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algerian_Civil_War.htm" target="_top">Algerian Civil War</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" target="_top">American Civil War</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civil_War_token.htm" target="_top">Civil War token</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civil_rights.htm" target="_top">Civil rights</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civil_society.htm" target="_top">Civil society</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lankan_Civil_War.htm" target="_top">Sri Lankan Civil War</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/War_in_Somalia_%25282006%25E2%2580%2593present%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Ethiopian_involvement_in_the_2006_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_involvement_in_the_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_intervention_in_the_Somali_Civil_War">War in Somalia (2006–present)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>civilisation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_history.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ancient_civilisation">Ancient history</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aztec.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aztec_Civilisation">Aztec</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Civilisation">Civilization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>civilisations</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_history.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ancient_civilisations List_of_ancient_civilisations">Ancient history</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>civilization</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" target="_top">Civilization</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization_%2528computer_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Civilization (computer game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indus_Valley_Civilization.htm" target="_top">Indus Valley Civilization</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" target="_top">Maya civilization</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Minoan_civilization.htm" target="_top">Minoan civilization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><a name="k"></a><a name="l"></a><table><tr><th>clapton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eric_Clapton.htm" target="_top">Eric Clapton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clara</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Jose%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa_Clara,_CA_MSA">San Jose, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clarinet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clarinet.htm" target="_top">Clarinet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clarke</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyril_Clarke.htm" target="_top">Cyril Clarke</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rebecca_Helferich_Clarke.htm" target="_top">Rebecca Helferich Clarke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>class</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iowa_class_battleship.htm" target="_top">Iowa class battleship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>classic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Classic_female_blues.htm" target="_top">Classic female blues</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Doctor_Who_classic_series Doctor_Who_(classic_series)">Doctor Who</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>classical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Classical_painting Classical_Painting">Painting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>classics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Political_philosophy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: List_of_classics_of_political_philosophy Classics_of_political_philosophy">Political philosophy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>classification</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" target="_top">Scientific classification</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>claude</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Claude_L%25C3%25A9vi-Strauss.htm" target="_top">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Claude_Monet.htm" target="_top">Claude Monet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>claudius</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Claudius.htm" target="_top">Claudius</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>claus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santa_Claus.htm" target="_top">Santa Claus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clause</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Equal_Protection_Clause.htm" target="_top">Equal Protection Clause</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santa_Claus.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Santa_Clause Santa_clause">Santa Claus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clawed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_clawed_frog.htm" target="_top">African clawed frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clay</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clay.htm" target="_top">Clay</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Ali.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cassius_Marcellus_Clay_(Muhammad_Ali)">Muhammad Ali</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Clean_fuel">Biofuel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clear</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Soup.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Clear_soup">Soup</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clearfield</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salt_Lake_City%252C_Utah.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salt_Lake_City-Ogden-Clearfield,_UT_CSA">Salt Lake City, Utah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cleaveland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleveland%252C_Ohio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cleaveland">Cleveland, Ohio</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cleopatra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" target="_top">Cleopatra VII</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII_of_Egypt.htm" target="_top">Cleopatra VII of Egypt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clerinet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clarinet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Clerinet">Clarinet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clerk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Clerk_Maxwell.htm" target="_top">James Clerk Maxwell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cleveland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleveland%252C_Ohio.htm" target="_top">Cleveland, Ohio</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" target="_top">Grover Cleveland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clichés</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_advertising_clichés">Advertising</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cliff</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kuiper_belt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kuiper_cliff">Kuiper belt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cliffs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/White_cliffs_of_Dover.htm" target="_top">White cliffs of Dover</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clifton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clifton_Suspension_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Clifton Suspension Bridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>climate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" target="_top">Climate</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" target="_top">Climate change</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pollution_contributed_climate_change">Global warming</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Miocene.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Middle_Miocene_Climate_Transition">Miocene</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clinical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Clinical">Medicine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clinton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Clinton.htm" target="_top">Bill Clinton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clock.htm" target="_top">Clock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clone_Wars_%2528Star_Wars%2529.htm" target="_top">Clone Wars (Star Wars)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>close</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Close_binary">Binary star</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brian_Close.htm" target="_top">Brian Close</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clothes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clothing.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Folding_clothes Winter_clothes">Clothing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clothing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clothing.htm" target="_top">Clothing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cloud</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" target="_top">Cloud</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cloudy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cloudy">Cloud</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clscl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santiago%252C_Chile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: UN/LOCODE:CLSCL">Santiago, Chile</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>club</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Celtic_Football_Club">Celtic F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Forks%252C_North_Dakota.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grand_Forks_Country_Club">Grand Forks, North Dakota</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Liverpool_Football_Club">Liverpool F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sgt._Pepper%2527s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band.htm" target="_top">Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clunking</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Brown.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_clunking_fist">Gordon Brown</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cluster</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Globular_cluster.htm" target="_top">Globular cluster</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Open_cluster.htm" target="_top">Open cluster</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pleiades_%2528star_cluster%2529.htm" target="_top">Pleiades (star cluster)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tone_cluster.htm" target="_top">Tone cluster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clusters</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Open_cluster.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Open_clusters Galactic_Clusters">Open cluster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clutch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Clutch_City">Houston, Texas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>clyde</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pac-Man.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Clyde_(monster)">Pac-Man</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>cma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Α_CMa">Sirius</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cmb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CMB">Cosmic microwave background radiation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cmbr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CMBR">Cosmic microwave background radiation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><table><tr><th>cnmi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Mariana_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CNMI">Northern Mariana Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cnut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canute_the_Great.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cnut_the_Great King_Cnut">Canute the Great</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>co</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BP.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Petroleum_Co._Ltd">BP</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Gates.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gates_&_Co.">Bill Gates</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cooperative.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Co-operative_movement">Cooperative</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Principality.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Co-Principality">Principality</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>co2</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Co2">Carbon dioxide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" target="_top">Coal</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coal_Tit.htm" target="_top">Coal Tit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coalmouse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coal_Tit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coalmouse">Coal Tit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coast</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: West_Indies_and_Gulf_Coast_campaigns">American Revolutionary War</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Coast_Line_Railroad.htm" target="_top">Atlantic Coast Line Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Florida_East_Coast_Railway.htm" target="_top">Florida East Coast Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sequoia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coniferous_coast_redwood">Sequoia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cob</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Corn_cob">Maize</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cobain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kurt_Cobain.htm" target="_top">Kurt Cobain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cobalamin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyanocobalamin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cyano-cobalamin">Cyanocobalamin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cobalt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cobalt.htm" target="_top">Cobalt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cobb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seinfeld.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bob_Cobb">Seinfeld</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cobolt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cobalt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cobolt">Cobalt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cobrain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kurt_Cobain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kurt_Cobrain">Kurt Cobain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cobs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Corn_cobs">Maize</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coccinellidae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coccinellidae.htm" target="_top">Coccinellidae</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cochin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kochi_%2528India%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Diocese_of_Cochin">Kochi (India)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cochineal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cochineal.htm" target="_top">Cochineal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peafowl.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pea_cock">Peafowl</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cockateal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cockatiel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cockateal">Cockatiel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cockatiel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cockatiel.htm" target="_top">Cockatiel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cockatoo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Umbrella_Cockatoo.htm" target="_top">Umbrella Cockatoo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cocoa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cocoa.htm" target="_top">Cocoa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coconut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coconut.htm" target="_top">Coconut</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coconut_crab.htm" target="_top">Coconut crab</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coconut_oil.htm" target="_top">Coconut oil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coconuts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coconut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coconuts">Coconut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cocos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cocos_%2528Keeling%2529_Islands.htm" target="_top">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cod</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cod.htm" target="_top">Cod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>code</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ASCII.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ascii_code">ASCII</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Code_of_Hammurabi.htm" target="_top">Code of Hammurabi</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cryptography.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Code_making">Cryptography</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genetic_code.htm" target="_top">Genetic code</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>codes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cultural_Codes">Culture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>codon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genetic_code.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Codon Stop_codon Stop-codon">Genetic code</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coefficient</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Variable_coefficient Constant_coefficient">Ordinary differential equation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coexistence</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peaceful_coexistence.htm" target="_top">Peaceful coexistence</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coffee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coffee.htm" target="_top">Coffee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coffees</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coffee.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Specialty_coffees Specialty_Coffees">Coffee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coffin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medal_of_Honor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coffin_w/Metal_Handles">Medal of Honor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cognitive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cognitive_disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25E2%2582%25AC2_commemorative_coins.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: German_Bundesländer_commemorative_coin">€2 commemorative coins</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coin.htm" target="_top">Coin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coins</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25E2%2582%25AC2_commemorative_coins.htm" target="_top">€2 commemorative coins</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coins">Coin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Thomas_Coker.htm" target="_top">George Thomas Coker</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cold</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" target="_top">Cold War</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_cold.htm" target="_top">Common cold</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cold_Water">Water</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colditz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colditz_Castle.htm" target="_top">Colditz Castle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coleridge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge.htm" target="_top">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colima</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colima_%2528volcano%2529.htm" target="_top">Colima (volcano)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>collapse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Collapse_of_the_World_Trade_Center.htm" target="_top">Collapse of the World Trade Center</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>collared</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crimson-collared_Tanager.htm" target="_top">Crimson-collared Tanager</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Collared_Dove.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Collared Dove</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>collecting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Merit_Badge_Collecting Merit_badge_collecting Merit_badge_collecting_(BSA)">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>college</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Michigan_State_University.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Michigan_State_College_of_Agriculture">Michigan State University</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scotch_College%252C_Perth.htm" target="_top">Scotch College, Perth</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trinity_College%252C_Cambridge.htm" target="_top">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colleges</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Princeton_University.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colleges_of_Princeton_University">Princeton University</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colley</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colley_Cibber.htm" target="_top">Colley Cibber</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>collidge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Calvin_collidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>collins</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A._E._J._Collins.htm" target="_top">A. E. J. Collins</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>collisions</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: September_11th_collisions">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>collossus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colossus_of_Rhodes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Collossus_of_rhodes">Colossus of Rhodes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cologne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cologne.htm" target="_top">Cologne</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colombia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bogota,_Colombia Bogotá,_Colombia">Bogotá</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" target="_top">Colombia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colombo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cristóvão_Colombo">Christopher Columbus</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colombo.htm" target="_top">Colombo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colombus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columbus%252C_Ohio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colombus,_Ohio">Columbus, Ohio</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colonel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colonel_Warden">Winston Churchill</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colonial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scramble_for_Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colonial_Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colonization</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colonization_of_other_galaxies">Galaxy</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colonization_of_other_universes">Planet</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scramble_for_Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: European_colonization_of_Africa British_colonization_of_Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colonization_of_other_solar_systems">Solar System</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colony</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1806_to_1870.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1870_to_1899.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1870 to 1899</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>color</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" target="_top">Color</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_Graphics_Adapter.htm" target="_top">Color Graphics Adapter</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_blindness.htm" target="_top">Color blindness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colorado</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colorado_River.htm" target="_top">Colorado River</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denver%252C_Colorado.htm" target="_top">Denver, Colorado</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colors</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Watercolor_painting.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Water_colors">Watercolor painting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colossus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colossus_of_Rhodes.htm" target="_top">Colossus of Rhodes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colosus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colossus_of_Rhodes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colosus_of_Rhodes">Colossus of Rhodes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coloumb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coulomb%2527s_law.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coloumb_law">Coulomb's law</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colour">Color</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_Graphics_Adapter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colour_Graphics_Adapter">Color Graphics Adapter</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_blindness.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colour_Blind">Color blindness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coluim</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_III_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Máel_Coluim_mac_Donnchada">Malcolm III of Scotland</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_II_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Máel_Coluim_mac_Cináeda">Malcolm II of Scotland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>columba</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columba.htm" target="_top">Columba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>columbia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Republic_of_Columbia">Colombia</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columbia_River.htm" target="_top">Columbia River</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Columbia.htm" target="_top">Space Shuttle Columbia</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster.htm" target="_top">Space Shuttle Columbia disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Washington,_District_Of_Columbia">Washington, D.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>columbine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columbine_High_School_massacre.htm" target="_top">Columbine High School massacre</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>columbkille</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columba.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Saint_Columbkille">Columba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>columbo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christovao_Columbo">Christopher Columbus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>columbus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" target="_top">Christopher Columbus</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columbus%252C_Ohio.htm" target="_top">Columbus, Ohio</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Knights_of_Columbus.htm" target="_top">Knights of Columbus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>column</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eruption_column.htm" target="_top">Eruption column</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>colur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colur">Color</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>com</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Www.google.com Goole.com">Google</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Www.microsoft.com">Microsoft</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/OpenOffice.org.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: OpenOffice.com Openoffice.com">OpenOffice.org</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wikipedia.com">Wikipedia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comaneci</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nadia_Com%25C4%2583neci.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nadia_Comaneci">Nadia Comăneci</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comăneci</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nadia_Com%25C4%2583neci.htm" target="_top">Nadia Comăneci</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>come</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comedies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Restoration_comedy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Restoration_Comedies">Restoration comedy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comedy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Restoration_comedy.htm" target="_top">Restoration comedy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Cat_in_the_Hat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Cat_in_the_Hat_Comes_Back">The Cat in the Hat</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet.htm" target="_top">Comet</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hale-Bopp.htm" target="_top">Comet Hale-Bopp</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Halley.htm" target="_top">Comet Halley</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hyakutake.htm" target="_top">Comet Hyakutake</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Shoemaker-Levy_9.htm" target="_top">Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_White-Ortiz-Bolelli.htm" target="_top">Comet White-Ortiz-Bolelli</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Comet_of_1882.htm" target="_top">Great Comet of 1882</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_comet.htm" target="_top">Great comet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comets</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Short_period_comets">Comet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Comic_storytelling">Comics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Captain_Marvel_%2528DC_Comics%2529.htm" target="_top">Captain Marvel (DC Comics)</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comics.htm" target="_top">Comics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comission</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Truman_Comission">Harry S. Truman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comma_Johanneum.htm" target="_top">Comma Johanneum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commandos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Marines.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Royal_Marine_Commandos">Royal Marines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commemorative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25E2%2582%25AC2_commemorative_coins.htm" target="_top">€2 commemorative coins</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commercial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Commercial_message Commercial_Message">Advertising</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commet">Comet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commie">Communism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commies">Communism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commission</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Truman_Commission">Harry S. Truman</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Interpol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: International_Police_Commission">Interpol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>committee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Truman_Committee">Harry S. Truman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commodore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Commodore_64.htm" target="_top">Commodore 64</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>common</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Common_Prayer.htm" target="_top">Book of Common Prayer</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Common_domestic_fowl">Chicken</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Basilisk.htm" target="_top">Common Basilisk</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Cuckoo.htm" target="_top">Common Cuckoo</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Eider.htm" target="_top">Common Eider</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Eland.htm" target="_top">Common Eland</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Hazel.htm" target="_top">Common Hazel</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Pheasant.htm" target="_top">Common Pheasant</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Tern.htm" target="_top">Common Tern</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_agouti.htm" target="_top">Common agouti</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_cold.htm" target="_top">Common cold</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_sage.htm" target="_top">Common sage</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Kingfisher.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Common_Kingfishers">European Kingfisher</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hippopotamus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Common_hippopotamus">Hippopotamus</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Peafowl.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Common_Peafowl Common_Peacock">Indian Peafowl</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Common_Criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox Common_criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commons</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">British House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">Canadian House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creative_Commons.htm" target="_top">Creative Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lords_Spiritual_and_Temporal_and_Commons">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Speaker_of_the_British_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">Speaker of the British House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Primacy_of_the_House_of_Commons">Westminster System</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commonwealth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Commonwealth_Games.htm" target="_top">Commonwealth Games</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dominica.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dominica_(Commonwealth_of)">Dominica</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Royal_Australian_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commonwealth_Naval_Forces">History of the Royal Australian Navy</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_date_joined.htm" target="_top">List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations by date joined</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Mariana_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commonwealth_of_the_Northern_Marianas">Northern Mariana Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" target="_top">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Commonwealth_of_The_Bahamas Commonwealth_of_the_Bahamas The_Commonwealth_of_the_Bahamas The_Commonwealth_of_The_Bahamas">The Bahamas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commune</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medieval_commune.htm" target="_top">Medieval commune</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santiago%252C_Chile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Santiago_(commune)">Santiago, Chile</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>communication</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Communication.htm" target="_top">Communication</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Radio_communication">Radio</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telecommunication.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Communication_systems_engineering Electronics_and_Communication Web_communication">Telecommunication</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>communications</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Communication.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Media_and_Communications">Communication</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/Communications">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telecommunication.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Communications_systems_engineering Electronic_communications">Telecommunication</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>communion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" target="_top">Anglican Communion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>communism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" target="_top">Communism</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Soviet_communism">Soviet Union</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wikipedia_is_communism">Wikipedia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>communist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Communist Communist_society">Communism</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_post-Soviet_Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Post-communist_Russia Post-communist_russia">History of post-Soviet Russia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Portuguese_Communist_Party.htm" target="_top">History of the Portuguese Communist Party</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Communist_korea">North Korea</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_Communist_Party.htm" target="_top">Portuguese Communist Party</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>communities</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Religious_Communities">Religion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>community</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ann_Arbor%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Harvest_Mission_Community_Church">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleveland%252C_Ohio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Urban_Community_School">Cleveland, Ohio</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Community.htm" target="_top">Community</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Local_community.htm" target="_top">Local community</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kensington_Community_High_School">Melbourne</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>commy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commy">Communism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comoros</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comoros.htm" target="_top">Comoros</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>compact</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" target="_top">Compact Disc</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>company</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" target="_top">British East India Company</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Company_%2528law%2529.htm" target="_top">Company (law)</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fusion_(oil_company)">Mauritania</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Nintendo_Company,_Limited Nintendo_Playing_Card_Company_Limited Nintendo_Playing_Card_Company,_Limited">Nintendo</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Opera_company">Opera</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_National_Theatre.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: National_Theatre_Company">Royal National Theatre</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Theatre_company">Theatre</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>compared</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_people_compared_to_Bob_Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>completely</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tibet_glacier_completely_melted_down_by_2100">Global warming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>complex</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arp2_3_complex.htm" target="_top">Arp2 3 complex</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giza_pyramid_complex.htm" target="_top">Giza pyramid complex</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trigonometric_function.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Complex_sine_and_cosine">Trigonometric function</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>components</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Computer_components">Computer</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guitar_components">Guitar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>composition</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/International_Court_of_Justice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Composition_of_the_International_Court_of_Justice">International Court of Justice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>compound</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CS_gas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chemical_compound_CS">CS gas</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chemical_compound_salt">Salt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>compressed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Compressed_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>compsognathus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compsognathus.htm" target="_top">Compsognathus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>computation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_computer.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Quantum_indeterminacy_in_computation Quantum_Computation">Quantum computer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>computational</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computational_chemistry.htm" target="_top">Computational chemistry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>computer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BASIC.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Basic_(computer_language)">BASIC</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Central_processing_unit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Computer_processing_chip">Central processing unit</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization_%2528computer_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Civilization (computer game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" target="_top">Computer</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer_and_video_games.htm" target="_top">Computer and video games</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer_programming.htm" target="_top">Computer programming</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" target="_top">Computer science</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Computer_chips">Integrated circuit</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_Entertainment_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nintendo_Family_Computer">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_computer.htm" target="_top">Quantum computer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>computers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acorn_Computers.htm" target="_top">Acorn Computers</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Computers">Computer</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Windows_computers">Microsoft Windows</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>computing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_computing_hardware.htm" target="_top">History of computing hardware</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>comte</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Comte_de_Monte_Cristo">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conakry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Conakry.htm" target="_top">Conakry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>concentration</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mauthausen-Gusen_concentration_camp.htm" target="_top">Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>concept</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Open_source.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Open_source_concept">Open source</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>concerning</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Six-party_talks_concerning_North_Korea%2527s_nuclear_program.htm" target="_top">Six-party talks concerning North Korea's nuclear program</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conclave</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Papal_conclave.htm" target="_top">Papal conclave</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>concorde</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top">Concorde</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>condoleezza</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Condoleezza_Rice.htm" target="_top">Condoleezza Rice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conducotr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Superconductivity.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Super_conducotr">Superconductivity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conductor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Wood_%2528conductor%2529.htm" target="_top">Henry Wood (conductor)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Superconductivity.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Super_conductor">Superconductivity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coneria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_%2528video_game%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coneria">Final Fantasy (video game)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>confederacy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Old_Swiss_Confederacy.htm" target="_top">Old Swiss Confederacy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>confessor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" target="_top">Edward the Confessor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conflagration</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Conflagration">Fire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conflict</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arab-Israeli_conflict.htm" target="_top">Arab-Israeli conflict</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chadian-Sudanese_conflict.htm" target="_top">Chadian-Sudanese conflict</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Conflict.htm" target="_top">Conflict</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darfur_conflict.htm" target="_top">Darfur conflict</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lankan_Civil_War.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ethnic_conflict_in_sri_lanka Ethnic_conflict_in_Sri_Lanka">Sri Lankan Civil War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>confucianism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Confucianism.htm" target="_top">Confucianism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>confucius</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Confucius.htm" target="_top">Confucius</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>congo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Congo_River.htm" target="_top">Congo River</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Culture_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Second_Congo_War.htm" target="_top">Second Congo War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>congress</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Congress.htm" target="_top">Library of Congress</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Congress.htm" target="_top">United States Congress</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>congressional</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medal_of_Honor.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Congressional_medal_of_honour Congressional_Medal_of_Honor">Medal of Honor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coniferous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sequoia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coniferous_coast_redwood">Sequoia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saxophone.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Conn-o-sax Conn-O-Sax">Saxophone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>connery</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sean_Connery.htm" target="_top">Sean Connery</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>connor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_O%2527Connor.htm" target="_top">Richard O'Connor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conqueror</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_I_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: William_The_Conqueror Genealogy_of_William_the_Conqueror William_the_Conqueror.">William I of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conquest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Norman_conquest_of_England.htm" target="_top">Norman conquest of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire.htm" target="_top">Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cons</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pros_and_Cons_of_the_Euro">Euro</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>consequences</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Consequences_of_the_Black_Death">Black Death</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effects_of_global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Consequences_of_global_warming">Effects of global warming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conservatism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Burkean_conservatism">Edmund Burke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>consolation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Consolation_of_Philosophy.htm" target="_top">Consolation of Philosophy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>consolidated</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FM_Consolidated_line.htm" target="_top">FM Consolidated line</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>consonant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/High_German_consonant_shift.htm" target="_top">High German consonant shift</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constable</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Constable.htm" target="_top">John Constable</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Constant_coefficient">Ordinary differential equation</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pi_(mathematical_constant)">Pi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constantine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constantine_I.htm" target="_top">Constantine I</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constantine_II_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top">Constantine II of Scotland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constellation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leo_%2528constellation%2529.htm" target="_top">Leo (constellation)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constitution</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constitution_of_May_3%252C_1791.htm" target="_top">Constitution of May 3, 1791</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution.htm" target="_top">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution.htm" target="_top">Separation of powers under the United States Constitution</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" target="_top">United States Constitution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constitutional</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_constitutional_law.htm" target="_top">Australian constitutional law</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" target="_top">Constitutional monarchy</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Russian_constitutional_crisis_of_1993.htm" target="_top">Russian constitutional crisis of 1993</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constructive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constructivism_%2528art%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Constructive_art">Constructivism (art)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constructivism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constructivism_%2528art%2529.htm" target="_top">Constructivism (art)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>constructivist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constructivism_%2528art%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Constructivist_movement">Constructivism (art)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>consumer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Consumer_protection.htm" target="_top">Consumer protection</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Primary_consumer">Herbivore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>consumption</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Oil_consumption">Petroleum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contact</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Contact_lens.htm" target="_top">Contact lens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contemporary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Contemporary_Dance">Dance</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glastonbury_Festival.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Glastonbury_Festival_of_Contemporary_Performing_Arts">Glastonbury Festival</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurovision_Song_Contest.htm" target="_top">Eurovision Song Contest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>continent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: African_continent">Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" target="_top">Continent</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>continental</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Continent.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Continental_landform">Continent</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Continental_crust.htm" target="_top">Continental crust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>continential</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Continental_crust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Continential_crust">Continental crust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>continued</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pi_Continued_Fraction">Pi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contraceptive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Birth_control.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Contraceptive_agent">Birth control</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contract</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Employment.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Contract_labor">Employment</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Social_contract_%2528Malaysia%2529.htm" target="_top">Social contract (Malaysia)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contracted</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Holocaust/Contracted">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contraversy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creation-evolution_controversy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Creation-evolution_contraversy">Creation-evolution controversy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>contributed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pollution_contributed_climate_change">Global warming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>control</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Birth_control.htm" target="_top">Birth control</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Control_car_%2528rail%2529.htm" target="_top">Control car (rail)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>controversy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_Rites_controversy.htm" target="_top">Chinese Rites controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creation-evolution_controversy.htm" target="_top">Creation-evolution controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNU_Linux_naming_controversy.htm" target="_top">GNU Linux naming controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy.htm" target="_top">Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>convent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ursuline_Convent_Riots.htm" target="_top">Ursuline Convent Riots</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>convention</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Convention_on_the_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species_of_Wild_Flora_and_Fauna.htm" target="_top">Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child.htm" target="_top">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guangzhou_International_Convention_and_Exhibition_Center">Guangzhou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>conventional</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Conventional_medicine">Medicine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cook</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cook_Islands.htm" target="_top">Cook Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Cook.htm" target="_top">James Cook</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/King_Kong_%25282005_film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lumpy_the_cook">King Kong (2005 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cooke</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Cook.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: James_Cooke">James Cook</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cookie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HTTP_cookie.htm" target="_top">HTTP cookie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cookiecutter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cookiecutter_shark.htm" target="_top">Cookiecutter shark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cookies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HTTP_cookie.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: COOKIES.TXT Internet_Cookies">HTTP cookie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coolidge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" target="_top">Calvin Coolidge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cooperation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sino-German_cooperation_%25281911-1941%2529.htm" target="_top">Sino-German cooperation (1911-1941)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cooperative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cooperative.htm" target="_top">Cooperative</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cooperatives</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cooperative.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cooperatives">Cooperative</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coordinate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polar_coordinate_system.htm" target="_top">Polar coordinate system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coordinates</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polar_coordinate_system.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Polar_coordinates_system">Polar coordinate system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coot.htm" target="_top">Coot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cop</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Police.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Motorcycle_cop">Police</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cop3</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kyoto_Protocol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: COP3">Kyoto Protocol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>copenhagen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen.htm" target="_top">Copenhagen</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen_Fire_of_1728.htm" target="_top">Copenhagen Fire of 1728</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>copernican</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nicolaus_Copernicus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Copernican_system">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>copernicus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nicolaus_Copernicus.htm" target="_top">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>copmuter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Copmuter">Computer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>copper</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copper%2528I%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top">Copper(I) chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" target="_top">Copper</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>copperfield</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Copperfield_%2528novel%2529.htm" target="_top">David Copperfield (novel)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corallestris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compsognathus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Compsognathus_corallestris">Compsognathus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coranation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coronation_Street.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coranation_street">Coronation Street</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cord</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telephone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Phone_cord">Telephone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>core</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fedora_Core.htm" target="_top">Fedora Core</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Galactic_core">Galaxy</a>
<a href="../../wp/x/X_Window_core_protocol.htm" target="_top">X Window core protocol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: North_Corea Democratic_People's_Republic_of_Corea">North Korea</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: South_Corea Republic_of_Corea">South Korea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coriander</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coriander.htm" target="_top">Coriander</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coriandrun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coriander.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coriandrun_sativum">Coriander</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corination</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coronation_Street.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Corination_street">Coronation Street</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corinthian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corinthian_War.htm" target="_top">Corinthian War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cormorant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cormorant.htm" target="_top">Cormorant</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Cormorant.htm" target="_top">Great Cormorant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corn_oil.htm" target="_top">Corn oil</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Corn_cob Corn_(Maize) Corn_cobs Corn">Maize</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corncobs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Corncobs">Maize</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cornea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cornea.htm" target="_top">Cornea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cornell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" target="_top">Cornell University</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cornfield</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cornfield">Maize</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coronary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Myocardial_infarction.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Massive_coronary">Myocardial infarction</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coronation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coronation_Street.htm" target="_top">Coronation Street</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corporate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corporate_finance.htm" target="_top">Corporate finance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corporation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: National_Rail_Passenger_Corporation">Amtrak</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belfast.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Belfast_Corporation">Belfast</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corporation.htm" target="_top">Corporation</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Intel_Corporation.htm" target="_top">Intel Corporation</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sony.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sony_corporation">Sony</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corportation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: British_Broadcasting_Corportation">BBC</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>correcting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Soil_salination.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Soil_correcting_salinity">Soil salination</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corrosion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corrosion.htm" target="_top">Corrosion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corrundum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corundum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Corrundum">Corundum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corsini</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niccol%25C3%25B2_Machiavelli.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Marietta_Corsini">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cortés</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hern%25C3%25A1n_Cort%25C3%25A9s.htm" target="_top">Hernán Cortés</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corundum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corundum.htm" target="_top">Corundum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>corvines</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crow.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Corvines">Crow</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cosine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trigonometric_function.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Complex_sine_and_cosine">Trigonometric function</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cosinus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trigonometric_function.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cosinus">Trigonometric function</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cosmic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_inflation.htm" target="_top">Cosmic inflation</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" target="_top">Cosmic microwave background radiation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cosmiel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athanasius_Kircher.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cosmiel">Athanasius Kircher</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cosmopolitan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cosmopolitan_democracy">Democracy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>costa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Costa_Rica.htm" target="_top">Costa Rica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>costume</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Costume_design.htm" target="_top">Costume design</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cotapaxi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cotopaxi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cotapaxi">Cotopaxi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cote</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Cote_d'Ivorie Cote_Ivoire Cote_d'ivorie">Côte d'Ivoire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>côte</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" target="_top">Côte d'Ivoire</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cotopaxi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cotopaxi.htm" target="_top">Cotopaxi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cotswolds</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cotswolds.htm" target="_top">Cotswolds</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cotton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" target="_top">Cotton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cottonseed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cottonseed">Cotton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coulomb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coulomb%2527s_law.htm" target="_top">Coulomb's law</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>council</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boston_City_Council">Boston, Massachusetts</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crown_Council_of_Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/First_Council_of_Nicaea.htm" target="_top">First Council of Nicaea</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gaborone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gaborone_City_Council">Gaborone</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isles_of_Scilly.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Council_of_the_Isles_of_Scilly">Isles of Scilly</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">Privy Council of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swiss_Federal_Council.htm" target="_top">Swiss Federal Council</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_Trade_Organization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: General_Council_(WTO)">World Trade Organization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>count</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leo_Tolstoy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Leo,_Count_Tolstoy Count_Lev_Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>counting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Voting.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Snout_counting">Voting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>countries</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Countries_that_teach_english_as_a_foreign_language">English language</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_African_countries.htm" target="_top">List of African countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Asian_countries.htm" target="_top">List of Asian countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_European_countries.htm" target="_top">List of European countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_North_American_countries.htm" target="_top">List of North American countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Oceanian_countries.htm" target="_top">List of Oceanian countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_South_American_countries.htm" target="_top">List of South American countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries.htm" target="_top">List of countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" target="_top">List of countries by system of government</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>countriesf</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CountriesF">List of sovereign states</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>countriesn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CountriesN">List of sovereign states</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>countrieso</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CountriesO">List of sovereign states</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>countriesq</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CountriesQ">List of sovereign states</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>country</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wallonia_(country)">Belgium</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Country_Cameroon">Cameroon</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_ciders_by_country">Cider</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" target="_top">Country</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federated_States_of_Micronesia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Micronesia_(country)">Federated States of Micronesia</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" target="_top">Georgia (country)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Forks%252C_North_Dakota.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grand_Forks_Country_Club">Grand Forks, North Dakota</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Palestinian_territories.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Palestine_(Country)">Palestinian territories</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Singapore_(Country)">Singapore</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Country_Wife.htm" target="_top">The Country Wife</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Westport_Country_Playhouse.htm" target="_top">Westport Country Playhouse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>county</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denver%252C_Colorado.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: City_and_County_of_Denver,_Colorado">Denver, Colorado</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Metropolitan_Government_of_Nashville_and_Davidson_County">Nashville, Tennessee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coupler</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coupling_%2528railway%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Railway_coupler">Coupling (railway)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coupling</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coupling_%2528railway%2529.htm" target="_top">Coupling (railway)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cournot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nash_equilibrium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cournot-Nash_equilibrium">Nash equilibrium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>course</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Forks%252C_North_Dakota.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: King's_Walk_Golf_Course Kings_Walk_Golf_Course Ray_Richards_Golf_Course">Grand Forks, North Dakota</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>court</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/International_Court_of_Justice.htm" target="_top">International Court of Justice</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Real_tennis.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Court_tennis Court_Tennis">Real tennis</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top">Supreme Court of the United States</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>courts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Squash_%2528sport%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Squash_courts">Squash (sport)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>coventry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coventry.htm" target="_top">Coventry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cow Beef_cow">Cattle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cowboy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Theodore_Roosevelt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cowboy_of_the_Dakotas">Theodore Roosevelt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cows</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cows COWS">Cattle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>cpu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CPU_cache.htm" target="_top">CPU cache</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>crab</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carcinus_maenas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_shore_crab">Carcinus maenas</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coconut_crab.htm" target="_top">Coconut crab</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crab_Nebula.htm" target="_top">Crab Nebula</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crafts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arts_and_crafts.htm" target="_top">Arts and crafts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crag</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Titicaca.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crag_of_Lead">Lake Titicaca</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cranberry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Juice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cranberry_and_rasberry_juice">Juice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Whooping_Crane.htm" target="_top">Whooping Crane</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cranmer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Cranmer.htm" target="_top">Thomas Cranmer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cranston</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_Cranston.htm" target="_top">Catherine Cranston</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crash</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crash_test_dummy.htm" target="_top">Crash test dummy</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/LANSA_Cuzco_Crash.htm" target="_top">LANSA Cuzco Crash</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crater</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aristarchus_%2528crater%2529.htm" target="_top">Aristarchus (crater)</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boltysh_crater.htm" target="_top">Boltysh crater</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Shackleton_%2528crater%2529.htm" target="_top">Shackleton (crater)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>craters</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Craters_of_the_Moon_National_Monument_and_Preserve.htm" target="_top">Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>craton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Craton.htm" target="_top">Craton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crawford</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Miss_Stephanie_Crawford Ms._Stephanie_Crawford">To Kill a Mockingbird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>creation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creation-evolution_controversy.htm" target="_top">Creation-evolution controversy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>creationism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creation-evolution_controversy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Creationism-evolution_controversy">Creation-evolution controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creationism.htm" target="_top">Creationism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>creative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creative_Commons.htm" target="_top">Creative Commons</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crescent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fertile_Crescent.htm" target="_top">Fertile Crescent</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement.htm" target="_top">International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crested</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Crested_Grebe.htm" target="_top">Great Crested Grebe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cretaceous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous-Tertiary_extinction_event.htm" target="_top">Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous.htm" target="_top">Cretaceous</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crick</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Crick.htm" target="_top">Francis Crick</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cricket</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bodyline.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: English_cricket_team_in_Australia_in_1932-33">Bodyline</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" target="_top">Cricket</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_West_Indian_cricket_team.htm" target="_top">History of the West Indian cricket team</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_cricket_team.htm" target="_top">Indian cricket team</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_Test_cricket_triple_centuries.htm" target="_top">List of Test cricket triple centuries</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Ashes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ashes_Cricket_Test">The Ashes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crime</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crime.htm" target="_top">Crime</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crime_and_Punishment.htm" target="_top">Crime and Punishment</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crime_in_Mexico.htm" target="_top">Crime in Mexico</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_war_crimes.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Tokyo_War_Crime_Trial Japanese_war_crime">Japanese war crimes</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Godfather.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barzini_Crime_Family">The Godfather</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crimean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crimean_Karaites.htm" target="_top">Crimean Karaites</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crimean_War.htm" target="_top">Crimean War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crimes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_war_crimes.htm" target="_top">Japanese war crimes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>criminal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crime.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Criminal Dumb_criminal">Crime</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>criminals</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crime.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dumb_criminals">Crime</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_war_crimes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Japanese_war_criminals">Japanese war crimes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crimson</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crimson-collared_Tanager.htm" target="_top">Crimson-collared Tanager</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crisis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1973_oil_crisis.htm" target="_top">1973 oil crisis</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darfur_conflict.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crisis_in_darfur">Darfur conflict</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Famine.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis 2005_Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis">Famine</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy.htm" target="_top" title="from 6 redirects: Danish_cartoon_crisis Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_crisis Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoon_crisis Jyllands_Posten_Muhammad_cartoon_crisis Jyllands_Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_crisis Muhammad_cartoons_crisis">Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Russian_constitutional_crisis_of_1993.htm" target="_top">Russian constitutional crisis of 1993</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crispín</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crispiniano</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cristero</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cristero_War.htm" target="_top">Cristero War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cristiano</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Partido_Demócrata_Cristiano_(El_Salvador)">El Salvador</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cristo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cristopher</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cristopher_Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cristóvão</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Columbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cristóvão_Colombo">Christopher Columbus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>criticism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Criticism_of_the_War_on_Terrorism.htm" target="_top">Criticism of the War on Terrorism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>criticisms</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox Common_Criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox Common_criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox Criticisms_of_Firefox">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>croatia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" target="_top">Croatia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>croazia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Croazia">Croatia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crocodile</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crocodile.htm" target="_top">Crocodile</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crocodille</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crocodile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crocodille">Crocodile</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crohn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crohn%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top">Crohn's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cromwell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" target="_top">Oliver Cromwell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crohn%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crone's_disease">Crohn's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crones</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crohn%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crones_disease">Crohn's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crooks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tupac_Shakur.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Parish_Lesane_Crooks Crooks,_Parish_Lesane">Tupac Shakur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cross</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cross_Fell.htm" target="_top">Cross Fell</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement.htm" target="_top">International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Opus_Dei.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Prelature_of_the_Holy_Cross_and_Opus_Dei">Opus Dei</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Portsmouth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Milton_Cross_School_(Portsmouth)">Portsmouth</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salvador_Dal%25C3%25AD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nuclear_cross">Salvador Dalí</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swastika.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nazi_cross">Swastika</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_Cross.htm" target="_top">Victoria Cross</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crossbill</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crossbill.htm" target="_top">Crossbill</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crossing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Severn_crossing.htm" target="_top">Severn crossing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crow.htm" target="_top">Crow</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crown_Jewels_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crown_Council_of_Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_French_monarchs.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: French_crown">List of French monarchs</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crowne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmonton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crowne_Plaza_Chateau_Lacombe">Edmonton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crude</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Price_of_crude_oil">Petroleum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cruiser</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Victory_Cruiser">Star Wars</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crusade</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albigensian_Crusade.htm" target="_top">Albigensian Crusade</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Children%2527s_Crusade.htm" target="_top">Children's Crusade</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/First_Crusade.htm" target="_top">First Crusade</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/German_Crusade%252C_1096.htm" target="_top">German Crusade, 1096</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Second_Crusade.htm" target="_top">Second Crusade</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crusade_against_Bolshevism">World War II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crusaders</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crusades.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Crusaders">Crusades</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crusades</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crusades.htm" target="_top">Crusades</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crusoe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Robinson_Crusoe.htm" target="_top">Robinson Crusoe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crust</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Continental_crust.htm" target="_top">Continental crust</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crust_%2528geology%2529.htm" target="_top">Crust (geology)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crustacean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crustacean.htm" target="_top">Crustacean</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cruz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Santa_Cruz_Islands.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cryptography</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cryptography.htm" target="_top">Cryptography</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cryptology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cryptography.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: CryptologY Cryptology">Cryptography</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crystal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crystal.htm" target="_top">Crystal</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liquid_crystal.htm" target="_top">Liquid crystal</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quartz.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Quartz_crystal">Quartz</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crystallographic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crystallographic_defects_in_diamond.htm" target="_top">Crystallographic defects in diamond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>crystals</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ice_crystals">Ice</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salt_crystals">Salt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><table><tr><th>cs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CS_gas.htm" target="_top">CS gas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>csa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salt_Lake_City%252C_Utah.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salt_Lake_City-Ogden-Clearfield,_UT_CSA">Salt Lake City, Utah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="t"></a><a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>cu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cu">Copper</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cub</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tiger.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tiger_cub">Tiger</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cuba</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" target="_top">Cuba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cuban</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cuban">Cuba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cubana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salsa_music.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salsa_Cubana">Salsa music</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cube</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Backgammon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Doubling_cube">Backgammon</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rubik%2527s_Cube.htm" target="_top">Rubik's Cube</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cubeb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cubeb.htm" target="_top">Cubeb</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cubism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" target="_top">Cubism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cubomedusa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Box_jellyfish.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cubomedusa">Box jellyfish</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cuckmere</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cuckmere_Haven.htm" target="_top">Cuckmere Haven</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cuckoo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Cuckoo.htm" target="_top">Common Cuckoo</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo%2527s_Nest_%2528novel%2529.htm" target="_top">One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cucl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copper%2528I%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cucl">Copper(I) chloride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cuems</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CUEMS">Cornell University</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>culcutta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kolkata.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culcutta">Kolkata</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cult</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isis.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cult_of_Isis Cult_of_isis">Isis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cultivar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cultivar.htm" target="_top">Cultivar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cultural</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cultural_diversity.htm" target="_top">Cultural diversity</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cultural_identity.htm" target="_top">Cultural identity</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cultural_Codes">Culture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>culture</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_apple">Apple</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apricot.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_apricot">Apricot</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chestnut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_chestnut">Chestnut</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Advanced_culture">Civilization</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" target="_top">Culture</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Culture_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_fruits">Fruit</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Kazakhstan_in_popular_culture Kazakhstan_in_Popular_Culture">Kazakhstan</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mayan_culture">Maya civilization</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Plum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_plum">Plum</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Popular_culture.htm" target="_top">Popular culture</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Popular_culture_studies.htm" target="_top">Popular culture studies</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_potato">Potato</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vegetable.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_vegetables">Vegetable</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cultures</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Indigenous_cultures,_kingdoms_and_ethnic_groups_of_Senegal Indigenous_Cultures,_Kingdoms_and_Ethnic_Groups_of_Senegal">Senegal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cummings</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/E._E._Cummings.htm" target="_top">E. E. Cummings</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cunningham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Ward_Cunningham.htm" target="_top">Ward Cunningham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cup</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Davis_Cup.htm" target="_top">Davis Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" target="_top">FIFA World Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fed_Cup.htm" target="_top">Fed Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hopman_Cup.htm" target="_top">Hopman Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rugby_World_Cup.htm" target="_top">Rugby World Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" target="_top">Tennis Masters Cup</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curaan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Curaan">Qur'an</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Curan">Qur'an</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Marie_Curie.htm" target="_top">Marie Curie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Marie_Curie.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Curies">Marie Curie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fish_curing">Fishing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curious</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Curious_Incident_of_the_Dog_in_the_Night-time.htm" target="_top">The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Curium.htm" target="_top">Curium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>currencies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_circulating_currencies.htm" target="_top">List of circulating currencies</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>currency</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aksumite_currency.htm" target="_top">Aksumite currency</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" target="_top">Currency</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_yen.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Japan_currency Japanese_currency">Japanese yen</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: People's_Currency">Renminbi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>current</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alternating_current.htm" target="_top">Alternating current</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seinfeld.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Seinfeld_Curse">Seinfeld</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kurt_Cobain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Curt_Cobain">Kurt Cobain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curtmantle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_II_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Henry_Curtmantle">Henry II of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>curve</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Supply_and_demand.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Supply_curve">Supply and demand</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diamond_cut.htm" target="_top">Diamond cut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cutting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Welding.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Welding_and_cutting_of_metals">Welding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cuzco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/LANSA_Cuzco_Crash.htm" target="_top">LANSA Cuzco Crash</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><a name="w"></a><a name="x"></a><a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>cyancobalamin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyanocobalamin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cyancobalamin">Cyanocobalamin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyano</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyanocobalamin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cyano-cobalamin">Cyanocobalamin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyanocobalamin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyanocobalamin.htm" target="_top">Cyanocobalamin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyberpunk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" target="_top">Cyberpunk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyberpunker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cyberpunker">Cyberpunk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyclamen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyclamen.htm" target="_top">Cyclamen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cycle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Menstrual_cycle.htm" target="_top">Menstrual cycle</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_cycle.htm" target="_top">Nitrogen cycle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyclone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyclone_Percy.htm" target="_top">Cyclone Percy</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyclone_Rosita.htm" target="_top">Cyclone Rosita</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eye_%2528cyclone%2529.htm" target="_top">Eye (cyclone)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" target="_top">Tropical cyclone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyclones</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Effects_of_tropical_cyclones">Tropical cyclone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyclops</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyclops.htm" target="_top">Cyclops</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cygni</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/16_Cygni.htm" target="_top">16 Cygni</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/16_Cygni_Bb.htm" target="_top">16 Cygni Bb</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cygninae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cygninae">Swan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cylinder</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Phonograph_cylinder.htm" target="_top">Phonograph cylinder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cymbopogon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cymbopogon.htm" target="_top">Cymbopogon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyprus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" target="_top">Cyprus</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.htm" target="_top">Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyril</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyril_Clarke.htm" target="_top">Cyril Clarke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cyrus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyrus_K._Holliday.htm" target="_top">Cyrus K. Holliday</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyrus_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Cyrus the Great</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>cystic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cystic_fibrosis.htm" target="_top">Cystic fibrosis</a>
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<a name="z"></a><table><tr><th>czajkowski</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Piotr_Czajkowski">Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky</a>
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<table><tr><th>czajkowskij</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Piotr_Iljicz_Czajkowskij">Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky</a>
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<table><tr><th>czar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tsar_Bomba.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Czar_Bomb Czar_bomb Czar_bomba">Tsar Bomba</a>
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<table><tr><th>czech</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" target="_top">Czech Republic</a>
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<table><tr><th>czechia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Czechia">Czech Republic</a>
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<table><tr><th>சிங்கப்பூர்</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: சிங்கப்பூர் சிங்கப்பூர்_குடியரசு">Singapore</a>
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Cotapaxi', "from 3 redirects: Cote_d'Ivorie Cote_Ivoire Cote_d'ivorie", 'from redirect: Cottonseed', 'from redirect: Boston_City_Council', 'from redirect: Crown_Council_of_Ethiopia', 'from redirect: Gaborone_City_Council', 'from redirect: Council_of_the_Isles_of_Scilly', 'from redirect: General_Council_(WTO)', 'from 2 redirects: Leo,_Count_Tolstoy Count_Lev_Tolstoy', 'from redirect: Snout_counting', 'from redirect: Countries_that_teach_english_as_a_foreign_language', 'from redirect: CountriesF', 'from redirect: CountriesN', 'from redirect: CountriesO', 'from redirect: CountriesQ', 'from redirect: Wallonia_(country)', 'from redirect: Country_Cameroon', 'from redirect: List_of_ciders_by_country', 'from redirect: Micronesia_(country)', 'from redirect: Grand_Forks_Country_Club', 'from redirect: Palestine_(Country)', 'from redirect: Singapore_(Country)', 'from redirect: City_and_County_of_Denver,_Colorado', 'from redirect: Metropolitan_Government_of_Nashville_and_Davidson_County', 'from 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2005_Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis', 'from 6 redirects: Danish_cartoon_crisis Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_crisis Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoon_crisis Jyllands_Posten_Muhammad_cartoon_crisis Jyllands_Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_crisis Muhammad_cartoons_crisis', 'from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso', 'from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso', 'from redirect: Partido_Demócrata_Cristiano_(El_Salvador)', 'from redirect: Cristopher_Columbus', 'from redirect: Cristóvão_Colombo', 'from 4 redirects: Criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox Common_Criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox Common_criticisms_of_Mozilla_Firefox Criticisms_of_Firefox', 'from redirect: Croazia', 'from redirect: Crocodille', "from redirect: Crone's_disease", 'from redirect: Crones_disease', 'from 2 redirects: Parish_Lesane_Crooks Crooks,_Parish_Lesane', 'from redirect: The_Prelature_of_the_Holy_Cross_and_Opus_Dei', 'from redirect: Milton_Cross_School_(Portsmouth)', 'from redirect: Nuclear_cross', 'from redirect: Nazi_cross', 'from redirect: Crown_Council_of_Ethiopia', 'from redirect: French_crown', 'from redirect: Crowne_Plaza_Chateau_Lacombe', 'from redirect: Price_of_crude_oil', 'from redirect: Victory_Cruiser', 'from redirect: Crusade_against_Bolshevism', 'from redirect: Crusaders', 'from 2 redirects: CryptologY Cryptology', 'from redirect: Quartz_crystal', 'from redirect: Ice_crystals', 'from redirect: Salt_crystals', 'from redirect: Salt_Lake_City-Ogden-Clearfield,_UT_CSA', 'from redirect: Cu', 'from redirect: Tiger_cub', 'from redirect: Cuban', 'from redirect: Salsa_Cubana', 'from redirect: Doubling_cube', 'from redirect: Cubomedusa', 'from redirect: Cucl', 'from redirect: CUEMS', 'from redirect: Culcutta', 'from 2 redirects: Cult_of_Isis Cult_of_isis', 'from redirect: Cultural_Codes', 'from redirect: Culture_of_apple', 'from redirect: Culture_of_apricot', 'from redirect: Culture_of_chestnut', 'from redirect: Advanced_culture', 'from redirect: Culture_of_fruits', 'from 2 redirects: Kazakhstan_in_popular_culture Kazakhstan_in_Popular_Culture', 'from redirect: Mayan_culture', 'from redirect: Culture_of_plum', 'from redirect: Culture_of_potato', 'from redirect: Culture_of_vegetables', 'from 2 redirects: Indigenous_cultures,_kingdoms_and_ethnic_groups_of_Senegal Indigenous_Cultures,_Kingdoms_and_Ethnic_Groups_of_Senegal', 'from redirect: Curaan', 'from redirect: Curan', 'from redirect: The_Curies', 'from redirect: Fish_curing', 'from 2 redirects: Japan_currency Japanese_currency', "from redirect: People's_Currency", 'from redirect: The_Seinfeld_Curse', 'from redirect: Curt_Cobain', 'from redirect: Henry_Curtmantle', 'from redirect: Supply_curve', 'from redirect: Welding_and_cutting_of_metals', 'from redirect: Cyancobalamin', 'from redirect: Cyano-cobalamin', 'from redirect: Cyberpunker', 'from redirect: Effects_of_tropical_cyclones', 'from redirect: Cygninae', 'from redirect: Piotr_Czajkowski', 'from redirect: Piotr_Iljicz_Czajkowskij', 'from 3 redirects: Czar_Bomb Czar_bomb Czar_bomba', 'from redirect: Czechia', 'from 2 redirects: சிங்கப்பூர் சிங்கப்பூர்_குடியரசு'] |
c-top | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
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<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Title Word Index : C</title>
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<h3 style="float:right;"><a href="subject.htm" target="_top">Subject Index</a></h3>
<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : C</h2>
<div class="firstletter">
<a href="a.htm" target="_top"> A </a></a><a href="b.htm" target="_top"> B </a></a><b> C </b><a href="d.htm" target="_top"> D </a></a><a href="e.htm" target="_top"> E </a></a><a href="f.htm" target="_top"> F </a></a><a href="g.htm" target="_top"> G </a></a><a href="h.htm" target="_top"> H </a></a><a href="i.htm" target="_top"> I </a></a><a href="j.htm" target="_top"> J </a></a><a href="k.htm" target="_top"> K </a></a><a href="l.htm" target="_top"> L </a></a><a href="m.htm" target="_top"> M </a></a><a href="n.htm" target="_top"> N </a></a><a href="o.htm" target="_top"> O </a></a><a href="p.htm" target="_top"> P </a></a><a href="q.htm" target="_top"> Q </a></a><a href="r.htm" target="_top"> R </a></a><a href="s.htm" target="_top"> S </a></a><a href="t.htm" target="_top"> T </a></a><a href="u.htm" target="_top"> U </a></a><a href="v.htm" target="_top"> V </a></a><a href="w.htm" target="_top"> W </a></a><a href="x.htm" target="_top"> X </a></a><a href="y.htm" target="_top"> Y </a></a><a href="z.htm" target="_top"> Z </a></a><a href="others.htm" target="_top"> Others </a></a></div>
<div class="secondletter">
<a href="c-list.htm#a" target="list"> a </a><a href="c-list.htm#b" target="list"> b </a><a href="c-list.htm#c" target="list"> c </a><a href="c-list.htm#d" target="list"> d </a><a href="c-list.htm#e" target="list"> e </a><a href="c-list.htm#f" target="list"> f </a><a href="c-list.htm#g" target="list"> g </a><a href="c-list.htm#h" target="list"> h </a><a href="c-list.htm#i" target="list"> i </a><a href="c-list.htm#j" target="list"> j </a><a href="c-list.htm#k" target="list"> k </a><a href="c-list.htm#l" target="list"> l </a><a href="c-list.htm#m" target="list"> m </a><a href="c-list.htm#n" target="list"> n </a><a href="c-list.htm#o" target="list"> o </a><a href="c-list.htm#p" target="list"> p </a><a href="c-list.htm#q" target="list"> q </a><a href="c-list.htm#r" target="list"> r </a><a href="c-list.htm#s" target="list"> s </a><a href="c-list.htm#t" target="list"> t </a><a href="c-list.htm#u" target="list"> u </a><a href="c-list.htm#v" target="list"> v </a><a href="c-list.htm#w" target="list"> w </a><a href="c-list.htm#x" target="list"> x </a><a href="c-list.htm#y" target="list"> y </a><a href="c-list.htm#z" target="list"> z </a></div>
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d-list | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : D</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/schools-wikipedia-alpha-index.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
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<body class="alphaindex">
<table><tr><th>d</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: D.n.a.">DNA</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dwight_D._Eisenhower.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: D._D._Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: D-line">Sodium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>da</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dayuan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Da_Yuan">Dayuan</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joan_of_Arc.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Janne_Da_Arc Janne_da_Arc Janne_da_arc Janne_Da_arc">Joan of Arc</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" target="_top">Leonardo da Vinci</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" target="_top">Vasco da Gama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dad%2527s_Army.htm" target="_top">Dad's Army</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dada</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dada.htm" target="_top">Dada</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dagh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Montenegro.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kara-Dagh">Montenegro</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dagobert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scrooge_McDuck.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dagobert_Duck">Scrooge McDuck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dahan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dahan_Minguo">South Korea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>daimonds</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Daimonds">Diamond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dakar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dakar.htm" target="_top">Dakar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dakota</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dakota%252C_Minnesota_and_Eastern_Railroad.htm" target="_top">Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Forks%252C_North_Dakota.htm" target="_top">Grand Forks, North Dakota</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dakotas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Theodore_Roosevelt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cowboy_of_the_Dakotas">Theodore Roosevelt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/D%25C3%25A1l_Riata.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dal_Riata">Dál Riata</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dál</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/D%25C3%25A1l_Riata.htm" target="_top">Dál Riata</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dalai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tenzin_Gyatso%252C_14th_Dalai_Lama.htm" target="_top">Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dales</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yorkshire_Dales.htm" target="_top">Yorkshire Dales</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>daley</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Daley_Thompson.htm" target="_top">Daley Thompson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dalí</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salvador_Dal%25C3%25AD.htm" target="_top">Salvador Dalí</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dallas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dallas%252C_Texas.htm" target="_top">Dallas, Texas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>daltonian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_blindness.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Daltonian">Color blindness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" target="_top">Dam</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hoover_Dam.htm" target="_top">Hoover Dam</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Three_Gorges_Dam.htm" target="_top">Three Gorges Dam</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>damaliscus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bontebok.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Damaliscus_pygargus_pygargus">Bontebok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>damascus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" target="_top">Damascus</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Damascus_steel.htm" target="_top">Damascus steel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>damn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Firefly_%2528TV_series%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Damn_Heroes">Firefly (TV series)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Serenity_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Damn_Movie">Serenity (film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>damon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Damon_Hill.htm" target="_top">Damon Hill</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dance</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dance.htm" target="_top">Dance</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garage_%2528dance_music%2529.htm" target="_top">Garage (dance music)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ghost_Dance.htm" target="_top">Ghost Dance</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Morris_dance.htm" target="_top">Morris dance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dancing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dance.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Dancing Dancing_halls">Dance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dandelion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dandelion.htm" target="_top">Dandelion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dandy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Dandy.htm" target="_top">The Dandy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>daniel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Daniel_Day-Lewis.htm" target="_top">Daniel Day-Lewis</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Daniel_Ellsberg.htm" target="_top">Daniel Ellsberg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>danielle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Danielle_%25281992%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Danielle (1992)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>danish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Danish_kingdom">Denmark</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jyllands-Posten_Muhammad_cartoons_controversy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Danish_cartoon_controversy Danish_cartoon_crisis">Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scanian_%2528linguistics%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eastern_Danish">Scanian (linguistics)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>danmark</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kongeriget_Danmark">Denmark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>danny</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Danny_Deever.htm" target="_top">Danny Deever</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Danny_%25281997%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Danny (1997)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>danske</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Danske_Statsbaner.htm" target="_top">Danske Statsbaner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dante</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" target="_top">Dante Alighieri</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dantès</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Edmund_Dantès">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>danube</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bratislava.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beauty_on_the_Danube">Bratislava</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" target="_top">Danube</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>daodejing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tao_Te_Ching.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tao_te_Ching_(Daodejing)">Tao Te Ching</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darcy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pride_and_Prejudice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Georgiana_Darcy">Pride and Prejudice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darfur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darfur_conflict.htm" target="_top">Darfur conflict</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dark</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" target="_top">Dark Ages</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darling</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darling_River.htm" target="_top">Darling River</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sanathana_Darma">Hinduism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darmstadtium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darmstadtium.htm" target="_top">Darmstadtium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Darter.htm" target="_top">African Darter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darth_Vader.htm" target="_top">Darth Vader</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Benedict_XVI.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Darth_Benedict">Pope Benedict XVI</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dartmoor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dartmoor.htm" target="_top">Dartmoor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>darwin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" target="_top">Charles Darwin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>das</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Das_Kapital.htm" target="_top">Das Kapital</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>data</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Astrophysics_Data_System.htm" target="_top">Astrophysics Data System</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Data_Encryption_Standard.htm" target="_top">Data Encryption Standard</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matrix_%2528mathematics%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Data_matrix">Matrix (mathematics)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>date</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_statehood.htm" target="_top">List of U.S. states by date of statehood</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_members_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_date_joined.htm" target="_top">List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations by date joined</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dauha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doha.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dauha">Doha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>davao</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abac%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Davao_hemp">Abacá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>davey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Davy_Jones%2527_Locker.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Davey_Jones'_Locker">Davy Jones' Locker</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>david</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Attenborough.htm" target="_top">David Attenborough</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Beckham.htm" target="_top">David Beckham</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Blanchflower.htm" target="_top">David Blanchflower</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Cameron.htm" target="_top">David Cameron</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Copperfield_%2528novel%2529.htm" target="_top">David Copperfield (novel)</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Helvarg.htm" target="_top">David Helvarg</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Heymann.htm" target="_top">David Heymann</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Hilbert.htm" target="_top">David Hilbert</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Hume.htm" target="_top">David Hume</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_III_of_Tao.htm" target="_top">David III of Tao</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Livingstone.htm" target="_top">David Livingstone</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: David_Windsor">Edward VIII of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_David_Thoreau.htm" target="_top">Henry David Thoreau</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_David.htm" target="_top">Hurricane David</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jacques-Louis_David.htm" target="_top">Jacques-Louis David</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niels_Bohr.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Niels_(Henrik_David)_Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>davidovich</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leon_Trotsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lev_Davidovich_Trotzky">Leon Trotsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>davidson</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harley-Davidson.htm" target="_top">Harley-Davidson</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Metropolitan_Government_of_Nashville_and_Davidson_County">Nashville, Tennessee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>davies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Miles_Davis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Miles_Davies">Miles Davis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>davis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bette_Davis.htm" target="_top">Bette Davis</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Davis_Cup.htm" target="_top">Davis Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Miles_Davis.htm" target="_top">Miles Davis</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Steve_Davis.htm" target="_top">Steve Davis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>davy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Davy_Jones%2527_Locker.htm" target="_top">Davy Jones' Locker</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humphry_Davy.htm" target="_top">Humphry Davy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dawlat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dawlat_Isrā'īl">Israel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dawn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Empires__Dawn_of_the_Modern_World.htm" target="_top">Empires Dawn of the Modern World</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>day</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Normandy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: 1944_D-Day 1944_D-Day_Operation_Overlord">Battle of Normandy</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Daniel_Day-Lewis.htm" target="_top">Daniel Day-Lewis</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" target="_top">Day</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Halloween.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Halloween_Day">Halloween</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Labor_Day_Hurricane_of_1935.htm" target="_top">Labor Day Hurricane of 1935</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>daylight</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Southern_Pacific_4449.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Daylight_(locomotive)">Southern Pacific 4449</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>daymoon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Daymoon">Sun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dayuan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dayuan.htm" target="_top">Dayuan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><a name="c"></a><table><tr><th>dc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/AC_DC.htm" target="_top">AC DC</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Captain_Marvel_%2528DC_Comics%2529.htm" target="_top">Captain Marvel (DC Comics)</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Douglas_DC-4.htm" target="_top">Douglas DC-4</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: AC/DC_(electrical)">Electrical engineering</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Wasington_DC Wasington,_DC">Washington, D.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="d"></a><a name="e"></a><table><tr><th>de</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ateneo_de_Manila_University.htm" target="_top">Ateneo de Manila University</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aymer_de_Valence%252C_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke.htm" target="_top">Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Santa_Fe_de_Bogotá Santa_Fe_de_Bogota Santa_Fé_de_Bogotá Santafé_de_Bogotá Santa_Fé_de_Bacatá">Bogotá</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Etienne_Brasseur_de_Bourbourg.htm" target="_top">Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Che_Guevara.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ernesto_'Che'_Guevara_de_la_Serna Ernesto_\"Che\"_Guevara_de_la_Serna">Che Guevara</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Vel%25C3%25A1zquez.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Diego_de_Silva_y_Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_(FIFA)">FIFA</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_World_Cup">FIFA World Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fort_de_Chartres.htm" target="_top">Fort de Chartres</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland_Garros Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland_Garros Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland-Garros Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland-Garros">French Open (tennis)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Google.de">Google</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jean_Charles_de_Menezes.htm" target="_top">Jean Charles de Menezes</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Maynard_Keynes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: De_keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Las_Palmas_de_Gran_Canaria.htm" target="_top">Las Palmas de Gran Canaria</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Leonardo_de_Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lope_de_Barrientos.htm" target="_top">Lope de Barrientos</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Miguel_de_Cervantes.htm" target="_top">Miguel de Cervantes</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rio_de_Espiritu_Santo">Mississippi River</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/P%25C3%25B3voa_de_Varzim.htm" target="_top">Póvoa de Varzim</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" target="_top" title="from 6 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Paris,_Ile-De-France">Paris</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pythagorean_theorem.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: De_Gua_theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quito.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Francisco_de_Quito">Quito</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Riesling_de_Rhin">Riesling</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" target="_top">Rio de Janeiro</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santiago%252C_Chile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Santiago_de_Chile">Santiago, Chile</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Comte_de_Monte_Cristo">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" target="_top">Tour de France</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vasco_de_Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dead</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dead_Sea.htm" target="_top">Dead Sea</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dead_Sea_scrolls.htm" target="_top">Dead Sea scrolls</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lynton_and_Barnstaple_Railway.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Perchance_it_is_not_dead_but_sleepeth">Lynton and Barnstaple Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dead_President">United States dollar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deadly</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galerina.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Deadly_galerina">Galerina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dealer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Chicago.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chicago_Shady_Dealer">University of Chicago</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niagara_Falls.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Edward_Dean_Adams_Station">Niagara Falls</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/RMS_Titanic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eliza_Gladys_Milvina_Dean">RMS Titanic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>death</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" target="_top">Black Death</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Death_Valley_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Death Valley National Park</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Caesars_death">Julius Caesar</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rosa_Parks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Death_of_Rosa_Parks">Rosa Parks</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Weed.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Death_weed">Weed</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>decade</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Decade_Volcanoes.htm" target="_top">Decade Volcanoes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>decartes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Rene_Decartes René_Decartes">René Descartes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>decivilization</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Decivilization">Civilization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deck</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: On_deck_circle On-deck_circle">Baseball</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>decker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Double-decker_bus.htm" target="_top">Double-decker bus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>declaration</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence.htm" target="_top">United States Declaration of Independence</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>decline</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pollinator_decline.htm" target="_top">Pollinator decline</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deconstructivism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deconstructivism.htm" target="_top">Deconstructivism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>decumana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Castra.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Porta_Decumana">Castra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Dee.htm" target="_top">John Dee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deep</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Deep_Field.htm" target="_top">Hubble Deep Field</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek__Deep_Space_Nine.htm" target="_top">Star Trek Deep Space Nine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deever</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Danny_Deever.htm" target="_top">Danny Deever</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>defaka</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Defaka.htm" target="_top">Defaka</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>defecit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Attention_Defecit_Disorder">Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>defects</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crystallographic_defects_in_diamond.htm" target="_top">Crystallographic defects in diamond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>defence</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tank.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Armoured_defence/ground_strike_vehicle">Tank</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>defense</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Defense_of_Sihang_Warehouse.htm" target="_top">Defense of Sihang Warehouse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deficit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder.htm" target="_top">Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>definition</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Definition_of_planet.htm" target="_top">Definition of planet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>degeneracy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genetic_code.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Degeneracy_of_the_genetic_code">Genetic code</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>degli</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli.htm" target="_top">Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>degradation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rainforest_destruction_and_degradation">Rainforest</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Soils_retrogression_and_degradation.htm" target="_top">Soils retrogression and degradation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>degree</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electrical_degree">Electrical engineering</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dei</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flagellum_Dei">Attila the Hun</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Opus_Dei.htm" target="_top">Opus Dei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deigo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Garcia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Deigo_garcia Deigo_Garcia">Diego Garcia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deinonychus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deinonychus.htm" target="_top">Deinonychus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deity.htm" target="_top">Deity</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ganesha.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ganesha_(deity)">Ganesha</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Link_%2528The_Legend_of_Zelda%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fierce_Deity Fierce_Deity_Link">Link (The Legend of Zelda)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>del</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asunci%25C3%25B3n.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Asunción_del_Paraguay">Asunción</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: La_Reina_del_Plata">Buenos Aires</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pedro_del_Valle.htm" target="_top">Pedro del Valle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>delhi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Delhi.htm" target="_top">Delhi</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/New_Delhi.htm" target="_top">New Delhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>delicious</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Delicious">Apple</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>delinquency</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Juvenile_delinquency.htm" target="_top">Juvenile delinquency</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niccol%25C3%25B2_dell%2527Abbate.htm" target="_top">Niccolò dell'Abbate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>delphinios</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apollo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Apollo_Delphinios">Apollo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>delta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Delta_%25282005%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Delta (2005)</a>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yellow_River.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Yellow_River_delta">Yellow River</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deluge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deluge_%2528mythology%2529.htm" target="_top">Deluge (mythology)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dem</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Reggaeton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dem_bow">Reggaeton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>demand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demand_Note.htm" target="_top">Demand Note</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Supply_and_demand.htm" target="_top">Supply and demand</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dembow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Reggaeton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dembow">Reggaeton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>demesthenes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demosthenes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Demesthenes">Demosthenes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>democracy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" target="_top">Democracy</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_democracy.htm" target="_top">History of democracy</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_democracy.htm" target="_top">Liberal democracy</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Parliamentary_Democracy">Parliamentary system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>democrat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_democracy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Liberal_democrat">Liberal democracy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>demócrata</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Partido_Demócrata_Cristiano_(El_Salvador)">El Salvador</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>democratic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Culture_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Action_Party.htm" target="_top">Democratic Action Party</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Progressive_Democratic_Party_(Guadeloupe)">Guadeloupe</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Democratic_People's_Republic_of_Corea">North Korea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>democratically</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Democratically-elected_government Democratically-elected List_of_democratically_elected_governments_opposed_by_the_U.S. Democratically_elected Democratically_elected_government">Election</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>democrats</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_Democrats.htm" target="_top">Liberal Democrats</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>demographics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Demographics_of_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Algeria.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Algeria</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Benin.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Benin</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Botswana.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Botswana</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Burkina_Faso.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Burkina Faso</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Burundi.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Burundi</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_C%25C3%25B4te_d%2527Ivoire.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Cameroon.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Cameroon</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Cape_Verde.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Cape Verde</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Chad.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Chad</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Djibouti.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Djibouti</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Egypt.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Egypt</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Equatorial_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Equatorial Guinea</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Eritrea.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Eritrea</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Ethiopia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Ethiopia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Gabon.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Gabon</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Ghana.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Ghana</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Guinea-Bissau.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Guinea-Bissau</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Guinea</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Kenya.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Kenya</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Lesotho.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Lesotho</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Liberia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Liberia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Libya.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Libya</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Madagascar.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Madagascar</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Malawi.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Malawi</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Mali.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Mali</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Mauritania.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Mauritania</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Mauritius.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Mauritius</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Morocco.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Morocco</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Mozambique.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Mozambique</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Namibia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Namibia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Niger.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Niger</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Nigeria.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Nigeria</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Pakistan.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Pakistan</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Paraguay.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Paraguay</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Peru.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Peru</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Rwanda.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Rwanda</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_S%25C3%25A3o_Tom%25C3%25A9_and_Pr%25C3%25ADncipe.htm" target="_top">Demographics of São Tomé and Príncipe</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Senegal.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Senegal</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Seychelles.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Seychelles</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Sierra_Leone.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Sierra Leone</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Somalia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Somalia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_South_Africa.htm" target="_top">Demographics of South Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Sri_Lanka.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Sri Lanka</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Sudan.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Sudan</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Swaziland.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Swaziland</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Syria.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Syria</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Tanzania.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Tanzania</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Thailand.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Thailand</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Togo.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Togo</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Tunisia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Tunisia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Uganda.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Uganda</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Central_African_Republic.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Central African Republic</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Gambia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Gambia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Demographics_of_Munich">Munich</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vatican_City.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Demographics_of_the_Vatican_City Demographics_of_Vatican_City">Vatican City</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>demosthenes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demosthenes.htm" target="_top">Demosthenes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>den</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canute_the_Great.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Knut_den_mektige">Canute the Great</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Reggaeton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Den_bow">Reggaeton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>denis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denis_Law.htm" target="_top">Denis Law</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>denmark</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" target="_top">Denmark</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sk%25C3%25A5neland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eastern_Denmark">Skåneland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>denmarke</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Denmarke">Denmark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dennis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dennis_Ritchie.htm" target="_top">Dennis Ritchie</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Dennis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>denomination</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Banknote.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Paper_denomination">Banknote</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dense</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dense_matter">Matter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>densetsu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_Adventure.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Seiken_Densetsu:_Final_Fantasy_Gaiden">Final Fantasy Adventure</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>denver</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Denver%252C_Colorado.htm" target="_top">Denver, Colorado</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deny</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Operation_deny_flight">NATO</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deoxiribonewcleic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Deoxiribonewcleic">DNA</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>depletion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ozone_depletion.htm" target="_top">Ozone depletion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deposition</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acid_rain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Acid_Deposition">Acid rain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Glacial_deposition Fluvio-glacial_deposition">Glacier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>depression</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Tropical_depression Tropical_Depression">Tropical cyclone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>der</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adriaen_van_der_Donck.htm" target="_top">Adriaen van der Donck</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Magic_Flute.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Der_Königin_der_Nacht Der_Königin_der_Nacht Der_Koenigin_der_Nacht Der_Koenigin_der_Nacht Die_Königin_der_Nacht">The Magic Flute</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>derailment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Weyauwega_derailment.htm" target="_top">Weyauwega derailment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>derby</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Derby.htm" target="_top">Derby</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>derivative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acceleration.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Second_temporal_derivative_of_displacement">Acceleration</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>des</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Territoire_français_des_Afars_et_des_Issas Territoire_français_des_Afars_et_des_Issas">Djibouti</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Des_cartes">René Descartes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>descartes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" target="_top">René Descartes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>descartese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Descartese">René Descartes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>descent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andriyivskyy_Descent.htm" target="_top">Andriyivskyy Descent</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Descent_with_modification">Evolution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>description</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Description_of_Democratic_Republic_of_Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nepenthes_rajah.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Nepenthes_rajah/Botanical_description_of_Nepenthes_rajah Botanical_Description_of_Nepenthes_rajah Nepenthes_rajah/Botanical_Description_of_Nepenthes_rajah">Nepenthes rajah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>desert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" target="_top">Desert</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Desert_locust.htm" target="_top">Desert locust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>design</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Costume_design.htm" target="_top">Costume design</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Engineering_Design">Engineering</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Australia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Australia_Design_of_the_flag">Flag of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Merit_badge_design_history_(BSA)">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>designer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lighting_designer.htm" target="_top">Lighting designer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>desmond</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Desmond_Tutu.htm" target="_top">Desmond Tutu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>despotate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Despotism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Despotate">Despotism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>despotism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Despotism.htm" target="_top">Despotism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>destiny</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Manifest_Destiny.htm" target="_top">Manifest Destiny</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>destruction</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction.htm" target="_top">Iraq and weapons of mass destruction</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rainforest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rainforest_destruction_and_degradation">Rainforest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>detection</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Radar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Radio_Detection_and_Ranging">Radar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>detriot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Detroit%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Detriot">Detroit, Michigan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>detroit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Detroit%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top">Detroit, Michigan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dettonville</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blaise_Pascal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Amos_Dettonville">Blaise Pascal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deuteranomaly</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_blindness.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Deuteranomaly">Color blindness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deutsche</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Deutsche_Sprache">German language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>deutschland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Deutschland">Germany</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>development</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kohlberg%2527s_stages_of_moral_development.htm" target="_top">Kohlberg's stages of moral development</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tooth_development.htm" target="_top">Tooth development</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>developments</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brabham.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Motor_Racing_Developments_Ltd. Motor_Racing_Developments">Brabham</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>device</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Optical_Disk_Device">DVD</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Semiconductor_device.htm" target="_top">Semiconductor device</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>devices</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electronic_devices">Electronics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>devil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carrot.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Devil's_Plague">Carrot</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tasmanian_Devil.htm" target="_top">Tasmanian Devil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>devils</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tasmanian_Devil.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tasmanian_Devils">Tasmanian Devil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>devol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Devol.htm" target="_top">Treaty of Devol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>devonian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Devonian.htm" target="_top">Devonian</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dewey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dewey_Square.htm" target="_top">Dewey Square</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="f"></a><table><tr><th>df</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_City.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mexico,_DF">Mexico City</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="g"></a><a name="h"></a><table><tr><th>dhabi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abu_Dhabi.htm" target="_top">Abu Dhabi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dhamma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hindu_dhamma">Hinduism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dharma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vedic_Dharma">Hinduism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dhekelia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia.htm" target="_top">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Union_Flag.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flag_of_Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia">Union Flag</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>di</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Basilica_di_Santa_Maria_degli_Angeli">Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: La_Torre_di_Pisa">Leaning Tower of Pisa</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Michelangelo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Michelangelo_di_Lodovico_Buonarroti_Simoni">Michelangelo</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Napoleone_di_Buonaparte">Napoleon I of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Palio_di_Siena.htm" target="_top">Palio di Siena</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Vasco_di_Gama Vasco_di_gama">Vasco da Gama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diabetes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diabetes_mellitus.htm" target="_top">Diabetes mellitus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diabetese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diabetes_mellitus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Diabetese">Diabetes mellitus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diabetus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diabetes_mellitus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Diabetus">Diabetes mellitus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diagnosed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Asperger_syndrome.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Self-diagnosed_Asperger_syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diagram</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Venn_diagram.htm" target="_top">Venn diagram</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diagramme</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Venn_diagram.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Venn_diagramme">Venn diagram</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dialectic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Plato.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Platonic_dialectic">Plato</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dialects</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flemish_dialects.htm" target="_top">Flemish dialects</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diamond</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Argyle_diamond_mine.htm" target="_top">Argyle diamond mine</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crystallographic_defects_in_diamond.htm" target="_top">Crystallographic defects in diamond</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" target="_top">Diamond</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diamond_cut.htm" target="_top">Diamond cut</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diamond_simulant.htm" target="_top">Diamond simulant</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kylie_Minogue.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: White_Diamond_(song) White_Diamond_(Kylie_Minogue_song)">Kylie Minogue</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Material_properties_of_diamond.htm" target="_top">Material properties of diamond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diamonds</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Diamonds">Diamond</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diane_Keaton.htm" target="_top">Diane Keaton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dice</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dice.htm" target="_top">Dice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dick</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Feynman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dick_Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Famous_Five_%2528characters%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dick_Kirrin">The Famous Five (characters)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dickens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" target="_top">Charles Dickens</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Copperfield_%2528novel%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: David_copperfield_dickens">David Copperfield (novel)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dickson</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Dickson_White.htm" target="_top">Andrew Dickson White</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dicle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tigris.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dicle_River">Tigris</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dictatorship</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_dictatorship.htm" target="_top">Military dictatorship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>did</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Where_Did_Our_Love_Go.htm" target="_top">Where Did Our Love Go</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dido</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dido_and_Aeneas.htm" target="_top">Dido and Aeneas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>didyma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monarda_didyma.htm" target="_top">Monarda didyma</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>die</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Magic_Flute.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Die_Zauberfloete Die_Königin_der_Nacht">The Magic Flute</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>died</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lyme_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_people_who_have_died_of_Lyme_disease">Lyme disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diegan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Diegan.htm" target="_top">San Diegan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diego</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Garcia.htm" target="_top">Diego Garcia</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Maradona.htm" target="_top">Diego Maradona</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Vel%25C3%25A1zquez.htm" target="_top">Diego Velázquez</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Diego_Electric_Railway.htm" target="_top">San Diego Electric Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Diego_and_Arizona_Railway.htm" target="_top">San Diego and Arizona Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Union_Station_%2528San_Diego%2529.htm" target="_top">Union Station (San Diego)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>difference</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Time_difference">Time zone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>differential</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Differential_equation.htm" target="_top">Differential equation</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Differential_geometry_and_topology.htm" target="_top">Differential geometry and topology</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" target="_top">Ordinary differential equation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>differentiation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calculus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lagrange_notation_for_differentiation">Calculus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diffuse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diffuse_interstellar_band.htm" target="_top">Diffuse interstellar band</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>digitaldog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: DigitalDog">Dog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dignity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human_dignity.htm" target="_top">Human dignity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dihydrogen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen_peroxide.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dihydrogen_dioxide">Hydrogen peroxide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dihyrogen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dihyrogen_monoxide">Water</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diistrict</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_District.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lake_diistrict">Lake District</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dik</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dik-dik.htm" target="_top">Dik-dik</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diligent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Betty_Diligent">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dill</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dill.htm" target="_top">Dill</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dill_Harris">To Kill a Mockingbird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dilophosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dilophosaurus.htm" target="_top">Dilophosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dimensional</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Three_dimensional_art">Sculpture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dimetrodon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dimetrodon.htm" target="_top">Dimetrodon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dimitriades</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Muscovite_War_%25281605%25E2%2580%25931618%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dimitriades">Polish-Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dimitriads</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Muscovite_War_%25281605%25E2%2580%25931618%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dimitriads">Polish-Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>din</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saladin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salah_al-Din">Saladin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wine_and_Dine">Food</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dinero</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Money.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dinero">Money</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dingo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dingo.htm" target="_top">Dingo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dinosaur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" target="_top">Dinosaur</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Minmi_%2528dinosaur%2529.htm" target="_top">Minmi (dinosaur)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dinosaurs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dinosaur.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dinosaurs">Dinosaur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diocese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kochi_%2528India%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Diocese_of_Cochin">Kochi (India)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Tom%25C3%25A9_and_Pr%25C3%25ADncipe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Saint_Thomas,_Diocese_of">São Tomé and Príncipe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celine_Dion.htm" target="_top">Celine Dion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dioxide</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" target="_top">Carbon dioxide</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen_peroxide.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dihydrogen_dioxide">Hydrogen peroxide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diplodocus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diplodocus.htm" target="_top">Diplodocus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dirac</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Paul_Dirac.htm" target="_top">Paul Dirac</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>direct</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CPU_cache.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Direct_mapped">CPU cache</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Super_Mario_Bros..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Super_Mario_Bros._(direct_series)">Super Mario Bros.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>directive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Directive_Principles_in_India.htm" target="_top">Directive Principles in India</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dirigible</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Airship.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dirigible">Airship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disambiguation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Football_(disambiguation)">American football</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Forth_(disambiguation)">Forth</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Apartheid_(disambiguation)">History of South Africa in the apartheid era</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Solar_System_(disambiguation)">Solar System</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sparrowhawk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sparrowhawk_(disambiguation)">Sparrowhawk</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kal_El_(disambiguation)">Superman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disaster</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath_School_disaster.htm" target="_top">Bath School disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chernobyl_disaster.htm" target="_top">Chernobyl disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Graniteville_train_disaster.htm" target="_top">Graniteville train disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Natural_disaster.htm" target="_top">Natural disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster.htm" target="_top">Space Shuttle Challenger disaster</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster.htm" target="_top">Space Shuttle Columbia disaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disasters</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Natural_disaster.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Natural_Disasters">Natural disaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" target="_top">Compact Disc</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scattered_disc.htm" target="_top">Scattered disc</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Italo_disco.htm" target="_top">Italo disco</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>discography</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles_discography.htm" target="_top">The Beatles discography</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>discovery</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Timeline_of_discovery_of_solar_system_planets_and_their_natural_satellites.htm" target="_top">Timeline of discovery of solar system planets and their natural satellites</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>discs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Compact_discs">Compact Disc</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disease</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top">Alzheimer's disease</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cancer_(disease)">Cancer</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crohn%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top">Crohn's disease</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Huntington%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top">Huntington's disease</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kuru_%2528disease%2529.htm" target="_top">Kuru (disease)</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lyme_disease.htm" target="_top">Lyme disease</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sickle-cell_disease.htm" target="_top">Sickle-cell disease</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tay-Sachs_disease.htm" target="_top">Tay-Sachs disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diseases</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alzheimer%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alzheimer’s_diseases">Alzheimer's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Optical_Disk_Device">DVD</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floppy_disk.htm" target="_top">Floppy disk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disney</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Seoul_Disney_Resort">Seoul</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walt_Disney.htm" target="_top">Walt Disney</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disneyland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Disneyland_Railroad.htm" target="_top">Disneyland Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Seoul_Disneyland Seoul_Disneyland_Resort">Seoul</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disorder</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder.htm" target="_top">Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder.htm" target="_top">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Social_anxiety.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Specific_social_anxiety_disorder">Social anxiety</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tay-Sachs_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tay-Sachs_Disorder">Tay-Sachs disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disorders</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Autism_spectrum_disorders_with_visual_impairments">Autism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disparity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Income_disparity.htm" target="_top">Income disparity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>displacement</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Acceleration.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Second_temporal_derivative_of_displacement">Acceleration</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disraeli</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>disseminata</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Multiple_sclerosis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sclerosis_disseminata">Multiple sclerosis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>distilled</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Distilled_beverage.htm" target="_top">Distilled beverage</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>distribution</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Worldwide_distribution">Film</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>district</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bamako.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bamako_District,_Mali">Bamako</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Karachi.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: City_District_Government_Karachi City_District_Government_of_Karachi">Karachi</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_District.htm" target="_top">Lake District</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_City.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mexican_Federal_District">Mexico City</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peak_District.htm" target="_top">Peak District</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Praia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Praia_District,_Cape_Verde">Praia</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Washington,_District_Of_Columbia">Washington, D.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>distrito</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bogotá,_Distrito_Capital">Bogotá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>diversity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cultural_diversity.htm" target="_top">Cultural diversity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dividing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swedish_allotment_system.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dividing_system">Swedish allotment system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>divine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Divine_Nature_and_Attributes">God</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>divisions</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Central_African_Republic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Administrative_divisions_of_the_Central_African_Republic">Central African Republic</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Administrative_divisions_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dixie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dixie_Mission.htm" target="_top">Dixie Mission</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><table><tr><th>dj</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sasha_%2528DJ%2529.htm" target="_top">Sasha (DJ)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>djabuti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Djabuti">Djibouti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>djedet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Osiris.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baneb-djedet">Osiris</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>djibouti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Djibouti.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Djibouti</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" target="_top">Djibouti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="k"></a><a name="l"></a><table><tr><th>dl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: DVD-DL">DVD</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dll</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Architecture_of_Windows_NT.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kernel32.dll">Architecture of Windows NT</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>dm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dakota%252C_Minnesota_and_Eastern_Railroad.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: DM&E_Railroad">Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dmitri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dmitri_Mendeleev.htm" target="_top">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dmitriads</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Muscovite_War_%25281605%25E2%2580%25931618%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dmitriads">Polish-Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><table><tr><th>dna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" target="_top">DNA</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/DNA_repair.htm" target="_top">DNA repair</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>do</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_football/to_do">American football</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dodo.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Do-Do_Bird Do-Do_Bird">Dodo</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/England_expects_that_every_man_will_do_his_duty.htm" target="_top">England expects that every man will do his duty</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Google/to_do">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/IPod.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: IPod_Universal_Dock">IPod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>docks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Southampton.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Southampton_Docks">Southampton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doctor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Livingstone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Doctor_Livingstone">David Livingstone</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" target="_top">Doctor Who</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doctorwho</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: DoctorWho">Doctor Who</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doctrine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trinity.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Doctrine_in_Christianity_Trinity Doctrine_in_christianity_trinity">Trinity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>documentation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" target="_top">Wikipedia Text of the GNU Free Documentation License</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dod</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lottie_Dod.htm" target="_top">Lottie Dod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dodo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dodo.htm" target="_top">Dodo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doexyribonucleic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Doexyribonucleic_acid">DNA</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Wild_Dog.htm" target="_top">African Wild Dog</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" target="_top">Dog</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mixed-breed_dog.htm" target="_top">Mixed-breed dog</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Curious_Incident_of_the_Dog_in_the_Night-time.htm" target="_top">The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dogs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Wild_Dog.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: African_Wild_Dogs Painted_dogs">African Wild Dog</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dogs">Dog</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mixed-breed_dog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mixed-breed_dogs">Mixed-breed dog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doha.htm" target="_top">Doha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dollar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" target="_top">United States dollar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dollars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: United_States_Dollars">United States dollar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dolphin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bottlenose_Dolphin.htm" target="_top">Bottlenose Dolphin</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" target="_top">Dolphin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dolphins</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dolphins">Dolphin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dom_Vasco_da_Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dome</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Onion_dome.htm" target="_top">Onion dome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>domènech</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salvador_Dal%25C3%25AD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salvador_Felip_Jacint_Dalí_Domènech">Salvador Dalí</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>domesday</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domesday_Book.htm" target="_top">Domesday Book</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>domestic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Domestic_housecats">Cat</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Domestic_fowl Common_domestic_fowl">Chicken</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_AC_power_plugs_and_sockets.htm" target="_top">Domestic AC power plugs and sockets</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" target="_top">Domestic goat</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Domestic_horse">Horse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>domesticated</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Domesticated_cattle">Cattle</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domesticated_turkey.htm" target="_top">Domesticated turkey</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dominca</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dominica.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dominca">Dominica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>domini</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" target="_top">Anno Domini</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dominica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dominica.htm" target="_top">Dominica</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Dominica.htm" target="_top">Music of Dominica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dominican</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dominican_Republic.htm" target="_top">Dominican Republic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>don</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Linux.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Don't_fear_the_penguins">Linux</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Miguel_de_Cervantes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Don_Miguel_Cervantes_y_Saavedra">Miguel de Cervantes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>donald</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Donald_Bradman.htm" target="_top">Donald Bradman</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Donald_Duck.htm" target="_top">Donald Duck</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Donald_Knuth.htm" target="_top">Donald Knuth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>donations</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Donations_of_Alexandria">Cleopatra VII</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>donck</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adriaen_van_der_Donck.htm" target="_top">Adriaen van der Donck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>donkey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arcturan_mega-donkey">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>donnchada</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_III_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Máel_Coluim_mac_Donnchada">Malcolm III of Scotland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scooby-Doo.htm" target="_top">Scooby-Doo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doom.htm" target="_top">Doom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doom1993</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Doom1993">Doom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doomsday</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domesday_Book.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Doomsday_Book">Domesday Book</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dophin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dophin">Dolphin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dophins</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dophins">Dolphin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dorian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Picture_of_Dorian_Gray.htm" target="_top">The Picture of Dorian Gray</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dorset</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" target="_top">Dorset</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geology_of_Dorset.htm" target="_top">Geology of Dorset</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dostoevski</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fedor_dostoevski">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dostoevsky</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" target="_top">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dostoyevsky</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fedor_Dostoyevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Autostereogram.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Single_Image_Random_Dot_Stereogram">Autostereogram</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Little_red_dot">Singapore</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: T_Dot">Toronto</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>double</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Double-decker_bus.htm" target="_top">Double-decker bus</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Double_bass.htm" target="_top">Double bass</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eyelid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Double_eyelid">Eyelid</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Macbeth.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Double_double_toil_and_trouble Double_double_toil_and_trouble">Macbeth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doubling</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Backgammon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Doubling_cube">Backgammon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>doughboy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spirit_of_the_American_Doughboy.htm" target="_top">Spirit of the American Doughboy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>douglas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Douglas_Adams.htm" target="_top">Douglas Adams</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Douglas_DC-4.htm" target="_top">Douglas DC-4</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/F-4_Phantom_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: McDonnell-Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II">F-4 Phantom II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>douglass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Douglass.htm" target="_top">Frederick Douglass</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dove</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dove.htm" target="_top">Dove</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Collared_Dove.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Collared Dove</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dover</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dover.htm" target="_top">Dover</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/White_cliffs_of_Dover.htm" target="_top">White cliffs of Dover</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>down</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Down_syndrome.htm" target="_top">Down syndrome</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tibet_glacier_completely_melted_down_by_2100">Global warming</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Louisville%252C_Kentucky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sold_down_the_river">History of Louisville, Kentucky</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_System_Is_Down">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>downs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dunstable_Downs.htm" target="_top">Dunstable Downs</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>downtown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Downtown_Cairo">Cairo</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columbus%252C_Ohio.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Downtown_Columbus,_Ohio">Columbus, Ohio</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Detroit%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Downtown_Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Montreal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Downtown_Montreal">Montreal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>dpr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Korea_DPR Korea_dpr">North Korea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>dr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dr._Fatside">Benjamin Franklin</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Sagan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dr._Carl_Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dr._Seuss.htm" target="_top">Dr. Seuss</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Dee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dr._John_Dee">John Dee</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther_King%252C_Jr..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rev._Dr._Martin_Luther_King_Jr">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad_Iqbal.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Dr._Muhammad_Iqbal Dr._Iqbal">Muhammad Iqbal</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wernher_von_Braun.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dr._Wernher_von_Braun">Wernher von Braun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drake</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Drake.htm" target="_top">Francis Drake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drakkars</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Longship.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Drakkars">Longship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drama</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BBC_television_drama.htm" target="_top">BBC television drama</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drama.htm" target="_top">Drama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dramatic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dramatic_Literature">Drama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>draughts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Draughts.htm" target="_top">Draughts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drawing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drawing.htm" target="_top">Drawing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dreamcoat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_and_the_Amazing_Technicolor_Dreamcoat.htm" target="_top">Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dreaming</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oxford.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_city_of_dreaming_spires">Oxford</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dreams</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Jung.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Memories,_Dreams,_Reflections">Carl Jung</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dresden</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dresden.htm" target="_top">Dresden</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drink</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Food_and_drink">Food</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drinking</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drinking_water.htm" target="_top">Drinking water</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CD_drive">Compact Disc</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floppy_disk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Floppy_Drive">Floppy disk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drives</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floppy_disk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Floppy_Disk_drives">Floppy disk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>driving</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Driving_on_the_left_or_right.htm" target="_top">Driving on the left or right</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dront</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dodo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dront">Dodo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drosera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drosera_anglica.htm" target="_top">Drosera anglica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drosophila</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drosophila_melanogaster.htm" target="_top">Drosophila melanogaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drought</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Rainforest.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: 2005_Amazon_Drought 2005_Amazon_drought">Amazon Rainforest</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drought.htm" target="_top">Drought</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drug</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Police.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Drug_busting">Police</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Drum_and_bass.htm" target="_top">Drum and bass</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drury</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Theatre_Royal%252C_Drury_Lane.htm" target="_top">Theatre Royal, Drury Lane</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>drwho</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Drwho DrWho">Doctor Who</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dryland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Soil_salination.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dryland_salinity">Soil salination</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><table><tr><th>ds</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_DS.htm" target="_top">Nintendo DS</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dsc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sony.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: DSC-P200">Sony</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="t"></a><a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>du</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armand_Jean_du_Plessis%252C_Cardinal_Richelieu.htm" target="_top">Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Du_Fu.htm" target="_top">Du Fu</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: République_du_Congo Republique_du_Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vin_du_pays">Wine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dualism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dualism_%2528philosophy_of_mind%2529.htm" target="_top">Dualism (philosophy of mind)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duality</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wave%25E2%2580%2593particle_duality.htm" target="_top">Wave–particle duality</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dubai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dubai.htm" target="_top">Dubai</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dubbiya</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dubbiya">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dubbya</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dubbya">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dublin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" target="_top">Dublin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dubnium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dubnium.htm" target="_top">Dubnium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dubya</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Dubya_Bush G_Dubya_B George_Dubya_B Dubya_B">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dubyuh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dubyuh">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duchenne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Duchenne_muscular_dystrophy.htm" target="_top">Duchenne muscular dystrophy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duck</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Donald_Duck.htm" target="_top">Donald Duck</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Platypus.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Duck_billed_platypus Duck-Mole Duck_Mole Duck_mole">Platypus</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scrooge_McDuck.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dagobert_Duck">Scrooge McDuck</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tufted_Duck.htm" target="_top">Tufted Duck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hamilton-Burr_duel.htm" target="_top">Hamilton-Burr duel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duff</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lucy%252C_Lady_Duff-Gordon.htm" target="_top">Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dufferin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood%252C_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava.htm" target="_top">Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dufresne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Shawshank_Redemption.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Andy_Dufresne">The Shawshank Redemption</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duits</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Duits">German language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>đuka</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nikola_Tesla.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Đuka_Mandić">Nikola Tesla</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duke</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Wellesley%252C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington.htm" target="_top">Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Charles_II,_Duke_of_Burgundy">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dulcis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eleocharis_dulcis.htm" target="_top">Eleocharis dulcis</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lead%2528II%2529_nitrate.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Plumb_dulcis">Lead(II) nitrate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dumb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crime.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Dumb_criminals Dumb_criminal">Crime</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dummy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crash_test_dummy.htm" target="_top">Crash test dummy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dumont</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alberto_Santos-Dumont.htm" target="_top">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dumpy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Green_Tree_Frog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dumpy_tree_frog">Australian Green Tree Frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dundee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dundee.htm" target="_top">Dundee</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dundee_United_F.C..htm" target="_top">Dundee United F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dune</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dune.htm" target="_top">Dune</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dunnock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dunnock.htm" target="_top">Dunnock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dunstable</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dunstable_Downs.htm" target="_top">Dunstable Downs</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duran</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Duran_Duran.htm" target="_top">Duran Duran</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>durante</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Durante_Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dürer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" target="_top">Albrecht Dürer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>durham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Durham.htm" target="_top">Durham</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Durham_Cathedral.htm" target="_top">Durham Cathedral</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>durian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Durian.htm" target="_top">Durian</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>during</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Western_europe_during_the_cold_war">Cold War</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Africa_during_the_apartheid_era">History of South Africa in the apartheid era</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>durrell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Durrell.htm" target="_top">Gerald Durrell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>düsseldorf</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/D%25C3%25BCsseldorf.htm" target="_top">Düsseldorf</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dutch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" target="_top">Dutch language</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Dutch_Shell.htm" target="_top">Royal Dutch Shell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dutchland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dutchland">Germany</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>duty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/England_expects_that_every_man_will_do_his_duty.htm" target="_top">England expects that every man will do his duty</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><table><tr><th>dvd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" target="_top">DVD</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dvds</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: DVDs History_of_DVDs">DVD</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dvořák</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anton%25C3%25ADn_Dvo%25C5%2599%25C3%25A1k.htm" target="_top">Antonín Dvořák</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dvorjak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anton%25C3%25ADn_Dvo%25C5%2599%25C3%25A1k.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Antonin_Dvorjak">Antonín Dvořák</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="w"></a><table><tr><th>dwarf</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_dwarf_frog.htm" target="_top">African dwarf frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bonobo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dwarf_chimp">Bonobo</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Ceres_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" target="_top">Ceres (dwarf planet)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eris_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" target="_top">Eris (dwarf planet)</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Red_dwarf.htm" target="_top">Red dwarf</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dweller</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Forest_dweller">Forest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dwight</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dwight_D._Eisenhower.htm" target="_top">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="x"></a><a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>dyck</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anthony_van_Dyck.htm" target="_top">Anthony van Dyck</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dying</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ars_moriendi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Art_of_dying">Ars moriendi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dylan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" target="_top">Bob Dylan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dymitriad</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Muscovite_War_%25281605%25E2%2580%25931618%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dymitriad">Polish-Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dymitriads</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Muscovite_War_%25281605%25E2%2580%25931618%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dymitriads">Polish-Muscovite War (1605–1618)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dyna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harley-Davidson.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dyna_wide_glide">Harley-Davidson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dynamosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tyrannosaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dynamosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dynastic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dynastic_state">Monarchy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dynasty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akkadian_Empire.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Akkad_dynasty_period">Akkadian Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chola_dynasty.htm" target="_top">Chola dynasty</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" target="_top">Ming Dynasty</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qin_Dynasty.htm" target="_top">Qin Dynasty</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qing_Dynasty.htm" target="_top">Qing Dynasty</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sassanid_Empire.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Sassinid_Dynasty Sasanian_dynasty">Sassanid Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dysprosium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dysprosium.htm" target="_top">Dysprosium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dystrophy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Duchenne_muscular_dystrophy.htm" target="_top">Duchenne muscular dystrophy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="z"></a><table><tr><th>dze</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ioseb_Besarionis_Dze_Jughashvili">Joseph Stalin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>dzhugashvili</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vissarionovich_Dzhugashvili">Joseph Stalin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>давидович</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leon_Trotsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Лев_Давидович_Троцкий">Leon Trotsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>даяар</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Даяар_Монгол">Mongolia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>джугашвил</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ио́сиф_Виссарио́нович_Джугашвил">Joseph Stalin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>دولة</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: دولة_إسرائيل">Israel</a>
</td></tr></table>
</body>
</html>
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Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso', 'from redirect: Paris,_Ile-De-France', 'from redirect: De_Gua_theorem', 'from redirect: San_Francisco_de_Quito', 'from redirect: Riesling_de_Rhin', 'from redirect: Santiago_de_Chile', 'from redirect: Comte_de_Monte_Cristo', 'from redirect: Vasco_de_Gama', 'from redirect: Perchance_it_is_not_dead_but_sleepeth', 'from redirect: Dead_President', 'from redirect: Deadly_galerina', 'from redirect: Chicago_Shady_Dealer', 'from redirect: Edward_Dean_Adams_Station', 'from redirect: Eliza_Gladys_Milvina_Dean', 'from redirect: Caesars_death', 'from redirect: Death_of_Rosa_Parks', 'from redirect: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last', 'from redirect: Death_weed', 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Die_Zauberfloete Die_Königin_der_Nacht', 'from redirect: List_of_people_who_have_died_of_Lyme_disease', 'from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso', 'from redirect: Time_difference', 'from redirect: Lagrange_notation_for_differentiation', 'from redirect: DigitalDog', 'from redirect: Dihydrogen_dioxide', 'from redirect: Dihyrogen_monoxide', 'from redirect: Lake_diistrict', 'from redirect: Betty_Diligent', 'from redirect: Dill_Harris', 'from redirect: Three_dimensional_art', 'from redirect: Dimitriades', 'from redirect: Dimitriads', 'from redirect: Salah_al-Din', 'from redirect: Wine_and_Dine', 'from redirect: Dinero', 'from redirect: Dinosaurs', 'from redirect: Diocese_of_Cochin', 'from redirect: Saint_Thomas,_Diocese_of', 'from 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Doctrine_in_Christianity_Trinity Doctrine_in_christianity_trinity', 'from redirect: Doexyribonucleic_acid', 'from 2 redirects: African_Wild_Dogs Painted_dogs', 'from redirect: Dogs', 'from redirect: Mixed-breed_dogs', 'from redirect: United_States_Dollars', 'from redirect: Dolphins', 'from redirect: Dom_Vasco_da_Gama', 'from redirect: Salvador_Felip_Jacint_Dalí_Domènech', 'from redirect: Domestic_housecats', 'from 2 redirects: Domestic_fowl Common_domestic_fowl', 'from redirect: Domestic_horse', 'from redirect: Domesticated_cattle', 'from redirect: Dominca', "from redirect: Don't_fear_the_penguins", 'from redirect: Don_Miguel_Cervantes_y_Saavedra', 'from redirect: Donations_of_Alexandria', 'from redirect: Arcturan_mega-donkey', 'from redirect: Máel_Coluim_mac_Donnchada', 'from redirect: Doom1993', 'from redirect: Doomsday_Book', 'from redirect: Dophin', 'from redirect: Dophins', 'from redirect: Fedor_dostoevski', 'from redirect: Fedor_Dostoyevsky', 'from redirect: Single_Image_Random_Dot_Stereogram', 'from redirect: Little_red_dot', 'from redirect: T_Dot', 'from redirect: Double_eyelid', 'from 2 redirects: Double_double_toil_and_trouble Double_double_toil_and_trouble', 'from redirect: Doubling_cube', 'from redirect: McDonnell-Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II', 'from redirect: Tibet_glacier_completely_melted_down_by_2100', 'from redirect: Sold_down_the_river', 'from redirect: The_System_Is_Down', 'from redirect: Downtown_Cairo', 'from redirect: Downtown_Columbus,_Ohio', 'from redirect: Downtown_Detroit', 'from redirect: Downtown_Montreal', 'from 2 redirects: Korea_DPR Korea_dpr', 'from redirect: Dr._Fatside', 'from redirect: Dr._Carl_Sagan', 'from redirect: Dr._John_Dee', 'from redirect: Rev._Dr._Martin_Luther_King_Jr', 'from 2 redirects: Dr._Muhammad_Iqbal Dr._Iqbal', 'from redirect: Dr._Wernher_von_Braun', 'from redirect: Drakkars', 'from redirect: Dramatic_Literature', 'from redirect: The_city_of_dreaming_spires', 'from redirect: Memories,_Dreams,_Reflections', 'from redirect: Food_and_drink', 'from redirect: CD_drive', 'from redirect: Floppy_Drive', 'from redirect: Floppy_Disk_drives', 'from redirect: Dront', 'from 2 redirects: 2005_Amazon_Drought 2005_Amazon_drought', 'from redirect: Drug_busting', 'from 2 redirects: Drwho DrWho', 'from redirect: Dryland_salinity', 'from redirect: DSC-P200', 'from 2 redirects: République_du_Congo Republique_du_Congo', 'from redirect: Vin_du_pays', 'from redirect: Dubbiya', 'from redirect: Dubbya', 'from 4 redirects: Dubya_Bush G_Dubya_B George_Dubya_B Dubya_B', 'from redirect: Dubyuh', 'from 4 redirects: Duck_billed_platypus Duck-Mole Duck_Mole Duck_mole', 'from redirect: Dagobert_Duck', 'from redirect: Andy_Dufresne', 'from redirect: Duits', 'from redirect: Đuka_Mandić', 'from redirect: Charles_II,_Duke_of_Burgundy', 'from redirect: Plumb_dulcis', 'from 2 redirects: Dumb_criminals Dumb_criminal', 'from redirect: Dumpy_tree_frog', 'from redirect: Durante_Alighieri', 'from redirect: Western_europe_during_the_cold_war', 'from redirect: South_Africa_during_the_apartheid_era', 'from redirect: Dutchland', 'from 2 redirects: DVDs History_of_DVDs', 'from redirect: Antonin_Dvorjak', 'from redirect: Dwarf_chimp', 'from redirect: Forest_dweller', 'from redirect: Art_of_dying', 'from redirect: Dymitriad', 'from redirect: Dymitriads', 'from redirect: Dyna_wide_glide', 'from redirect: Dynamosaurus', 'from redirect: Dynastic_state', 'from redirect: Akkad_dynasty_period', 'from 2 redirects: Sassinid_Dynasty Sasanian_dynasty', 'from redirect: Ioseb_Besarionis_Dze_Jughashvili', 'from redirect: Vissarionovich_Dzhugashvili', 'from redirect: Лев_Давидович_Троцкий', 'from redirect: Даяар_Монгол', 'from redirect: Ио́сиф_Виссарио́нович_Джугашвил', 'from redirect: دولة_إسرائيل'] |
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<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : D</h2>
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e-list | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
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<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : E</title>
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<table><tr><th>e</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/E.T._the_Extra-Terrestrial_%2528Atari_2600%2529.htm" target="_top">E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (Atari 2600)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/E._E._Cummings.htm" target="_top">E. E. Cummings</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/E._P._Wigner.htm" target="_top">E. P. Wigner</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Logistics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: E-logistics">Logistics</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Tom%25C3%25A9_and_Pr%25C3%25ADncipe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: E_of_Saint_Thomas">São Tomé and Príncipe</a>
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<table><tr><th>e18</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HMS_E18.htm" target="_top">HMS E18</a>
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<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>eagle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bald_Eagle.htm" target="_top">Bald Eagle</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" target="_top">Eagle</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eagle_Scout_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top">Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Eagle_Owl.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Eagle Owl</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Eagle.htm" target="_top">Golden Eagle</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/White-tailed_Eagle.htm" target="_top">White-tailed Eagle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eared</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bat-eared_Fox.htm" target="_top">Bat-eared Fox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aymer_de_Valence%252C_2nd_Earl_of_Pembroke.htm" target="_top">Aymer de Valence, 2nd Earl of Pembroke</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earl_of_Shaftesbury.htm" target="_top">Earl of Shaftesbury</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jimmy_Earl_Carter">Jimmy Carter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earldom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Orkney.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Swedish_earldom_of_Orkney">Orkney</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earless</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earless_seal.htm" target="_top">Earless seal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>early</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Early_years_of_john_f._kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earnest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest.htm" target="_top">The Importance of Being Earnest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top">Earth's atmosphere</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" target="_top">Earth</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flat_Earth.htm" target="_top">Flat Earth</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Earth.htm" target="_top">History of Earth</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ice_age_Earth">Ice age</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_rivers_by_length.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Longest_river_on_Earth Longest_river_on_earth">List of rivers by length</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Life_on_Earth Life_on_earth">Organism</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Escaping_the_Earth">Planet</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Snowball_Earth.htm" target="_top">Snowball Earth</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wave.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wave_(the_earth_sciences)">Wave</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earthquake</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.htm" target="_top">1755 Lisbon earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" target="_top">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2005_Kashmir_earthquake.htm" target="_top">2005 Kashmir earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2005_Lake_Tanganyika_earthquake.htm" target="_top">2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2005_Sumatra_earthquake.htm" target="_top">2005 Sumatra earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" target="_top">Earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/July_2006_Java_earthquake.htm" target="_top">July 2006 Java earthquake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earthquakes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_kinds_of_earthquakes">Earthquake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>earwax</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earwax.htm" target="_top">Earwax</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>east</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" target="_top">British East India Company</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: North_East_Atlantic_Archipelago North_east_atlantic_archipelago">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: East_Roman_Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/East-West_Schism.htm" target="_top">East-West Schism</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/East_Africa.htm" target="_top">East Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/East_Flemish.htm" target="_top">East Flemish</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/East_Timor.htm" target="_top">East Timor</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Florida_East_Coast_Railway.htm" target="_top">Florida East Coast Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gibraltar_east">Gibraltar</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Rift_Valley.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: East_African_rift_zone">Great Rift Valley</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: East_Mediterranean">Mediterranean Sea</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" target="_top">Middle East</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Recent_Far_East_Naval_Task_Groups">Royal Navy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eastenders</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/EastEnders.htm" target="_top">EastEnders</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>easter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Easter_Island.htm" target="_top">Easter Island</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eastern</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Ringneck.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eastern_Ringneck">Australian Ringneck</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Eastern_Solomons.htm" target="_top">Battle of the Eastern Solomons</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Eastern_Roman_Empire Eastern_Roman_(Byzantine)_Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dakota%252C_Minnesota_and_Eastern_Railroad.htm" target="_top">Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" target="_top">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Roman_Empire.htm" target="_top">Eastern Roman Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scanian_%2528linguistics%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eastern_Danish">Scanian (linguistics)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sk%25C3%25A5neland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eastern_Denmark">Skåneland</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Eastern_Republic_of_Uruguay Eastern_Republic_of_the_Uruguay">Uruguay</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><table><tr><th>ebb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tide.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ebb">Tide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ebony</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ebony.htm" target="_top">Ebony</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="c"></a><table><tr><th>echelon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/ECHELON.htm" target="_top">ECHELON</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>echidna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Short-beaked_Echidna.htm" target="_top">Short-beaked Echidna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eclipse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lunar_eclipse.htm" target="_top">Lunar eclipse</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Solar_eclipse.htm" target="_top">Solar eclipse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eclipsing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Binary_star.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eclipsing_binary_star">Binary star</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ecology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" target="_top">Ecology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>economic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economic_inequality.htm" target="_top">Economic inequality</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Economic_activity Economic_environment">Economics</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_India.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Indian_Economic_Growth India_as_an_Economic_Super_powerhouse">Economy of India</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_Economic_Union">European Union</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>economics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Behavioral_finance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Behavioral_Economics">Behavioral finance</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" target="_top">Economics</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Land_%2528economics%2529.htm" target="_top">Land (economics)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>economy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_Africa.htm" target="_top">Economy of Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_India.htm" target="_top">Economy of India</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_Pakistan.htm" target="_top">Economy of Pakistan</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top">Economy of Scotland</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_the_Iroquois.htm" target="_top">Economy of the Iroquois</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland.htm" target="_top">Economy of the Republic of Ireland</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Political_economy.htm" target="_top">Political economy</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/Economy">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ecuador</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" target="_top">Ecuador</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quito.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Quito,_Ecuador">Quito</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="d"></a><table><tr><th>ed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nirvana_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ted_Ed_Fred">Nirvana (band)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edberg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stefan_Edberg.htm" target="_top">Stefan Edberg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edema</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edema.htm" target="_top">Edema</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edgar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edgar_Allan_Poe.htm" target="_top">Edgar Allan Poe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edible</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edible_salt.htm" target="_top">Edible salt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edinburgh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" target="_top">Edinburgh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edington</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Edington.htm" target="_top">William Edington</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edison</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Edison.htm" target="_top">Thomas Edison</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edition</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Monopoly_Here_&_Now_Electronic_Edition">Monopoly (game)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edmond</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmond_Halley.htm" target="_top">Edmond Halley</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edmonton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmonton.htm" target="_top">Edmonton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edmund</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" target="_top">Edmund Burke</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Hillary.htm" target="_top">Edmund Hillary</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Portsmouth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: St_Edmund's_RC_School_(Portsmouth)">Portsmouth</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Count_of_Monte_Cristo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Edmund_Dantès">The Count of Monte Cristo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edouard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Edouard_%25281996%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Edouard (1996)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>édouard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2589douard_Manet.htm" target="_top">Édouard Manet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>education</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Arnold:_The_Education_of_a_Bodybuilder Arnold:_the_Education_of_a_Body-Builder">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" target="_top">Education</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education_in_the_United_States.htm" target="_top">Education in the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_education.htm" target="_top">History of education</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Literacy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Literacy_education">Literacy</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Education_in_Munich">Munich</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>educational</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Educational_System">Education</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education_in_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_Educational_System">Education in the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Educational_psychology.htm" target="_top">Educational psychology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>educationalist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Educationalist">Education</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>educationist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Educationist">Education</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edward</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Gibbon.htm" target="_top">Edward Gibbon</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward III of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_IV_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward IV of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Jenner.htm" target="_top">Edward Jenner</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Teller.htm" target="_top">Edward Teller</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">Edward VIII of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">Edward VII of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VI_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward VI of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_V_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward V of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" target="_top">Edward the Confessor</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Edward.htm" target="_top">Lake Edward</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niagara_Falls.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Edward_Dean_Adams_Station">Niagara Falls</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>edwin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edwin_of_Northumbria.htm" target="_top">Edwin of Northumbria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="e"></a><a name="f"></a><table><tr><th>effect</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Casimir_effect.htm" target="_top">Casimir effect</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evolution_of_the_Atmosphere_and_its_effect_on_Animal_Life">Earth's atmosphere</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effect_of_Hurricane_Katrina_on_New_Orleans.htm" target="_top">Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greenhouse_effect.htm" target="_top">Greenhouse effect</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>effects</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Site_effects_(earthquake)">Earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effects_of_global_warming.htm" target="_top">Effects of global warming</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions.htm" target="_top">Effects of nuclear explosions</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Effects_of_mass_media">Mass media</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Effects_of_tropical_cyclones">Tropical cyclone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="g"></a><table><tr><th>egg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Egg_%2528food%2529.htm" target="_top">Egg (food)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>egypt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" target="_top">Ancient Egypt</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cleopatra_VII_of_Egypt">Cleopatra VII</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII_of_Egypt.htm" target="_top">Cleopatra VII of Egypt</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Egypt.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Egypt</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" target="_top">Egypt</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ramesses_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ramses_II_of_Egypt">Ramesses II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>egyptian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Egyptian_pyramids.htm" target="_top">Egyptian pyramids</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="h"></a><a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>eider</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Eider.htm" target="_top">Common Eider</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eifel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eifel_Aqueduct.htm" target="_top">Eifel Aqueduct</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eight</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eight_planets">Planet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eighty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eilmer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eilmer_of_Malmesbury.htm" target="_top">Eilmer of Malmesbury</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>einstein</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" target="_top">Albert Einstein</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>einsteinium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Einsteinium.htm" target="_top">Einsteinium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Eyre.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jane_Eire">Jane Eyre</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eire_Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>éire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2589ire.htm" target="_top">Éire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eisenhower</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dwight_D._Eisenhower.htm" target="_top">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><a name="k"></a><table><tr><th>ekk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Punctuated_equilibrium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Punk_ekk">Punctuated equilibrium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="l"></a><table><tr><th>el</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from 6 redirects: El-Manial El-Marg El-Quba El-Tagamu_El_Khames El-Tagamu_El_Khames Shubra_El_Khiema">Cairo</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Aai%25C3%25BAn.htm" target="_top">El Aaiún</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Hatillo_Municipality%252C_Miranda.htm" target="_top">El Hatillo Municipality, Miranda</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Lissitzky.htm" target="_top">El Lissitzky</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Ni%25C3%25B1o-Southern_Oscillation.htm" target="_top">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" target="_top">El Salvador</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Medīnat_Yisrā'el Medinat_Yisra'el">Israel</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_X.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Al-Hajj_Malik_El-Shabazz">Malcolm X</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Names_of_God_in_Judaism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: El-elohe-Israel">Names of God in Judaism</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kal_El_(disambiguation)">Superman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elagabalus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elagabalus.htm" target="_top">Elagabalus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elagobalus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elagabalus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elagobalus">Elagabalus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elagabalus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elah-Gabalus">Elagabalus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Eland.htm" target="_top">Common Eland</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Eland.htm" target="_top">Giant Eland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elcano</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Juan_Sebasti%25C3%25A1n_Elcano.htm" target="_top">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elder</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_the_elder">George H. W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eldfell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eldfell.htm" target="_top">Eldfell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elect</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elect">Election</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electability</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electability">Election</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elected</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Democratically-elected_government Democratically-elected List_of_democratically_elected_governments_opposed_by_the_U.S. Democratically_elected Democratically_elected_government">Election</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_AC_power_plugs_and_sockets.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Electical_Plug Electical_Outlet">Domestic AC power plugs and sockets</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>election</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top">Election</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elections</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Indian_Ocean_Territory.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elections_in_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_AC_power_plugs_and_sockets.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electric_receptacle">Domestic AC power plugs and sockets</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electric_charge.htm" target="_top">Electric charge</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electric_field.htm" target="_top">Electric field</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_resistance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electric_resistnace">Electrical resistance</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electric_fencing_(fencing)">Fencing</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_turbine-electric_locomotive.htm" target="_top">Gas turbine-electric locomotive</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Diego_Electric_Railway.htm" target="_top">San Diego Electric Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seawater.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electric_fields_ocean">Seawater</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electrical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" target="_top">Electrical engineering</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_resistance.htm" target="_top">Electrical resistance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electricity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" target="_top">Electricity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electromagnetic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electromagnetic_radiation.htm" target="_top">Electromagnetic radiation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electron</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" target="_top">Electron</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electron_beam_welding.htm" target="_top">Electron beam welding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electronic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Electrical_&_Electronic_Engineering Electronic_and_electrical_engineering">Electrical engineering</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electronic_amplifier.htm" target="_top">Electronic amplifier</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electronic_devices">Electronics</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Monopoly_Here_&_Now_Electronic_Edition">Monopoly (game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Semiconductor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electronic_Materials">Semiconductor</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telecommunication.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electronic_communications">Telecommunication</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Typewriter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electronic_typewriter">Typewriter</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Watch.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electronic_Watch">Watch</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electronics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_resistance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Resistance_(electronics)">Electrical resistance</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" target="_top">Electronics</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telecommunication.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electronics_and_Communication">Telecommunication</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>electrostatic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coulomb%2527s_law.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Electrostatic_Force Electrostatic_interaction Electrostatic_Interaction">Coulomb's law</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>element</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: C_(element)">Carbon</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" target="_top">Chemical element</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528element%2529.htm" target="_top">Mercury (element)</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: O_(element)">Oxygen</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tungsten.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: W_(element)">Tungsten</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elementary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elementary_algebra.htm" target="_top">Elementary algebra</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elementary_arithmetic.htm" target="_top">Elementary arithmetic</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elementary_group_theory.htm" target="_top">Elementary group theory</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elements</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" target="_top">List of elements by name</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Peroidic_table_of_elements">Periodic table</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eleocharis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eleocharis_dulcis.htm" target="_top">Eleocharis dulcis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elephant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basking_shark.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elephant_shark">Basking shark</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elephant.htm" target="_top">Elephant</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elephant_bird.htm" target="_top">Elephant bird</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elephant_shrew.htm" target="_top">Elephant shrew</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stag_beetle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elephant_Stag_Beetle">Stag beetle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elephants</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elephant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elephants">Elephant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elevation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Post-glacial_rebound.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Land_elevation">Post-glacial rebound</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elfenbein</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ivory.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elfenbein">Ivory</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elfin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elfin-woods_Warbler.htm" target="_top">Elfin-woods Warbler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elias</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elias_Ashmole.htm" target="_top">Elias Ashmole</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eliminative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eliminative_materialism.htm" target="_top">Eliminative materialism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eliot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Eliot.htm" target="_top">George Eliot</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/T._S._Eliot.htm" target="_top">T. S. Eliot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eliza</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/RMS_Titanic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eliza_Gladys_Milvina_Dean">RMS Titanic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elizabeth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_Fry.htm" target="_top">Elizabeth Fry</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Elizabeth I of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elizabethan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabethan_Poor_Law_%25281601%2529.htm" target="_top">Elizabethan Poor Law (1601)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elliot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/T._S._Eliot.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: T._S._Elliot">T. S. Eliot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ellsberg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Daniel_Ellsberg.htm" target="_top">Daniel Ellsberg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elogistics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Logistics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elogistics">Logistics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elohe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Names_of_God_in_Judaism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: El-elohe-Israel">Names of God in Judaism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elsalbador</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elsalbador">El Salvador</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elsberg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Daniel_Ellsberg.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Daniel_Elsberg">Daniel Ellsberg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elvis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elvis_Presley.htm" target="_top">Elvis Presley</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>elziabethan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabethan_Poor_Law_%25281601%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elziabethan_Poor_Law">Elizabethan Poor Law (1601)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>emacs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emacs.htm" target="_top">Emacs</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emacswiki</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emacs.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: EmacsWiki">Emacs</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>email</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gmail.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Google_email Gmail_email">Gmail</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Strongbad_email.exe Strong_Bad_Email">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emanuel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emanuel_Swedenborg.htm" target="_top">Emanuel Swedenborg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>embaba</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Embaba">Cairo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/EMD_BL2.htm" target="_top">EMD BL2</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/EMD_F7.htm" target="_top">EMD F7</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/EMD_GP30.htm" target="_top">EMD GP30</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emergency</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cornell_University_Emergency_Medical_Service">Cornell University</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emirate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emirate.htm" target="_top">Emirate</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emirates</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_Arab_Emirates.htm" target="_top">United Arab Emirates</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emma_Roberts.htm" target="_top">Emma Roberts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emotion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" target="_top">Emotion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emperor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emperor_Penguin.htm" target="_top">Emperor Penguin</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_French_monarchs.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Emperor_of_the_French_Empire">List of French monarchs</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>empire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akkadian_Empire.htm" target="_top">Akkadian Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" target="_top">British Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" target="_top">Byzantine Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carlos_V_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Roman_Empire.htm" target="_top">Eastern Roman Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Empire">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" target="_top">Holy Roman Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Inca_Empire.htm" target="_top">Inca Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Ku_Klux_Klan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_invisible_empire_of_the_south">Ku Klux Klan</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_French_monarchs.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Emperor_of_the_French_Empire">List of French monarchs</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_Empire.htm" target="_top">Mongol Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" target="_top">Ottoman Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" target="_top">Persian Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" target="_top">Roman Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sassanid_Empire.htm" target="_top">Sassanid Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire.htm" target="_top">Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Western_Roman_Empire.htm" target="_top">Western Roman Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>empire+</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Byzantine_Empire+">Byzantine Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>empires</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Empires__Dawn_of_the_Modern_World.htm" target="_top">Empires Dawn of the Modern World</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>empiricism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Empiricism.htm" target="_top">Empiricism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>employment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Employment.htm" target="_top">Employment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emporer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qin_Shi_Huang.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: First_Emporer_of_China">Qin Shi Huang</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ems</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Cornell_EMS Cornell_ems">Cornell University</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emu.htm" target="_top">Emu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>emulators</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Commodore_64.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commodore_64_Emulators">Commodore 64</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><table><tr><th>en</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gmail.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: En/googlemail">Gmail</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enamel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tooth_enamel.htm" target="_top">Tooth enamel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enceladus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Enceladus_%2528moon%2529.htm" target="_top">Enceladus (moon)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>encoding</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Algorithm.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Encoding_Algorithm">Algorithm</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>encryption</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Data_Encryption_Standard.htm" target="_top">Data Encryption Standard</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>encyclopaedia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Encyclopaedia_Brittanica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>encyclopædia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>encyclopedia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top" title="from 7 redirects: Encyclopedia_Brittannica Encyclopedia_of_Britannica Encyclopedia_brittania Encyclopedia_Brittania Encyclopedia_Brittannia Encyclopedia_brittannia Encyclopedia_brittannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: From_Wikipedia,_the_free_encyclopedia Wikipedia,_The_Free_Encyclopedia">Wikipedia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>end</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Howards_End.htm" target="_top">Howards End</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Road_End">Liverpool F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_War_to_End_All_Wars">World War I</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_War_After_the_War_to_End_All_Wars">World War II</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wrench.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Box-end_wrench">Wrench</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>endangered</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Convention_on_the_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species_of_Wild_Flora_and_Fauna.htm" target="_top">Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ende</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floris_and_Blancheflour.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Floris_ende_Blancefloer">Floris and Blancheflour</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>endeavour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour.htm" target="_top">Space Shuttle Endeavour</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>endokaryotic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Endokaryotic_hypothesis">Eukaryote</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>endoscopic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Endoscopic_foreign_body_retrieval.htm" target="_top">Endoscopic foreign body retrieval</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>energy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bio-energy">Biofuel</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" target="_top">Energy</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Swiss_Federal_Office_of_Energy">Switzerland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enforcement</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Law_enforcement_in_Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eng</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Am._eng.">American English</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>engine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jet_engine.htm" target="_top">Jet engine</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Steam_engine.htm" target="_top">Steam engine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>engineering</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Computer_Sceince_Engineering Computer_Science_Engineering">Computer science</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" target="_top">Electrical engineering</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" target="_top">Engineering</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telecommunication.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Communications_systems_engineering Communication_systems_engineering Telecommunication_Engineering">Telecommunication</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Video.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Video_engineering">Video</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>engines</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jet_engine.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Lubrication_system_of_jet_engines Lubrication_System_of_Jet_Engines">Jet engine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>england</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath%252C_Somerset.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Bath,_England Bath_england Bath_England Bath_(England)">Bath, Somerset</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_monarchy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Monarch_of_England Queen_of_england">British monarchy</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Charles II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Charles I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" target="_top">Church of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cities_in_england">City status in the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Durham.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Durham,_England">Durham</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward III of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_IV_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward IV of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VI_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward VI of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_V_of_England.htm" target="_top">Edward V of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Elizabeth I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" target="_top">England</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/England_expects_that_every_man_will_do_his_duty.htm" target="_top">England expects that every man will do his duty</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gallery_of_the_Kings_and_Queens_of_England.htm" target="_top">Gallery of the Kings and Queens of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_III_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry III of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_IV_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry IV of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry VIII of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry VII of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry VI of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_V_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry V of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.htm" target="_top">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">James II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">James I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_of_England.htm" target="_top">John of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Capital_of_England">London</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mary_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Mary II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Mary I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/National_parks_of_England_and_Wales.htm" target="_top">National parks of England and Wales</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/New_England_Patriots.htm" target="_top">New England Patriots</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Norman_conquest_of_England.htm" target="_top">Norman conquest of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" target="_top">Richard III of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Richard II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Richard I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_of_England.htm" target="_top">Stephen of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" target="_top">William III of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">William II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">William I of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>english</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alphabet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_letters_in_the_english_language">Alphabet</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" target="_top">American English</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" target="_top">Australian English</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bodyline.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: English_cricket_team_in_Australia_in_1932-33">Bodyline</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_English.htm" target="_top">British English</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_English.htm" target="_top">Canadian English</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" target="_top">English Channel</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_Reformation.htm" target="_top">English Reformation</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" target="_top">English language</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_monarchs_family_tree.htm" target="_top">English monarchs family tree</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_peasants%2527_revolt_of_1381.htm" target="_top">English peasants' revolt of 1381</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_poetry.htm" target="_top">English poetry</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: English_Revolution_of_1688">Glorious Revolution</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_II_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Henry_II,_King_of_the_English">Henry II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: English_House_of_Lords">House of Lords</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/International_English.htm" target="_top">International English</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Modernist_poetry_in_English.htm" target="_top">Modernist poetry in English</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Old_English_language.htm" target="_top">Old English language</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Royal_English_Navy">Royal Navy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enigma</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Enigma_machine.htm" target="_top">Enigma machine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enisei</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yenisei_River.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Enisei_River">Yenisei River</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enkidu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Epic_of_Gilgamesh.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gilgamesh,_Enkidu_and_the_Underworld">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enlightenment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" target="_top">Age of Enlightenment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>entertainment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_Entertainment_System.htm" target="_top">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sony.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sony_Entertainment">Sony</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>entire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CATS_has_taken_over_your_entire_base">All your base are belong to us</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>entities</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extraterrestrial_life.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Extraterrestrial_biological_entities">Extraterrestrial life</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>entropy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Entropy.htm" target="_top">Entropy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>environment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Economic_environment">Economics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>environmental</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Environmental_science.htm" target="_top">Environmental science</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Invasive_species.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Environmental_weeds">Invasive species</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Environmental_Statistics">Statistics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enyclopedia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Enyclopedia_Brittanica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>enzyme</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Enzyme_kinetics.htm" target="_top">Enzyme kinetics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>eocene</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eocene.htm" target="_top">Eocene</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>epameinondas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Epaminondas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Epameinondas">Epaminondas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>epaminondas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Epaminondas.htm" target="_top">Epaminondas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>epazote</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Epazote.htm" target="_top">Epazote</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>epeeist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Epeeist">Fencing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>épéeist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Épéeist">Fencing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ephesia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Temple_of_Artemis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Artemis_Ephesia">Temple of Artemis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ephesus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Temple_of_Artemis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Temple_of_Ephesus">Temple of Artemis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>epic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Epic_of_Gilgamesh.htm" target="_top">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>episcopal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Episcopal_polity.htm" target="_top">Episcopal polity</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Episcopal_Church.htm" target="_top">Scottish Episcopal Church</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>episode</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/StarCraft.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Starcraft_Episode">StarCraft</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars_Episode_IV__A_New_Hope.htm" target="_top">Star Wars Episode IV A New Hope</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>episodes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sesame_Street.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_Sesame_Street_episodes">Sesame Street</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>epsilon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Epsilon_%25282005%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Epsilon (2005)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/TeX.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tau_Epsilon_Chi">TeX</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><table><tr><th>equal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Equal_Protection_Clause.htm" target="_top">Equal Protection Clause</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>equation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Differential_equation.htm" target="_top">Differential equation</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maxwell%2527s_equations.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Maxwell's_Equation">Maxwell's equations</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" target="_top">Ordinary differential equation</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Schr%25C3%25B6dinger_equation.htm" target="_top">Schrödinger equation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>equations</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maxwell%2527s_equations.htm" target="_top">Maxwell's equations</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>equatorial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Equatorial_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Equatorial Guinea</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Equatorial_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Equatorial Guinea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>equiano</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Olaudah_Equiano.htm" target="_top">Olaudah Equiano</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>equilibrium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nash_equilibrium.htm" target="_top">Nash equilibrium</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Punctuated_equilibrium.htm" target="_top">Punctuated equilibrium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>equipment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kurt_Cobain.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_musical_equipment_used_by_Kurt_Cobain">Kurt Cobain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>equitorial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Equatorial_Guinea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Equitorial_Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>er</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Shou'er">Seoul</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>era</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_enlightenment_era">Age of Enlightenment</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Christian_Era Christian_era">Anno Domini</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era.htm" target="_top">History of South Africa in the apartheid era</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Medieval_era">Middle Ages</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Permian.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Permian_era">Permian</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Era_of_good_stealings">Ulysses S. Grant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>erbium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Erbium.htm" target="_top">Erbium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eric_Clapton.htm" target="_top">Eric Clapton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ericson</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leif_Ericson.htm" target="_top">Leif Ericson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ericsson</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/WTA_Tour_Championships.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sony_Ericsson_Championships">WTA Tour Championships</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>erie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Erie_Canal.htm" target="_top">Erie Canal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>erik</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikimedia_Foundation.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Erik_Moller Erik_Moeller Erik_Möller">Wikimedia Foundation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eriksson</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leif_Ericson.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Leif_Eriksson Lief_eriksson Leiv_Eriksson">Leif Ericson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eris_%2528dwarf_planet%2529.htm" target="_top">Eris (dwarf planet)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eritrea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Eritrea.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Eritrea</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" target="_top">Eritrea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eritria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eritria">Eritrea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ermakova</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boris_Becker.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Angela_Ermakova">Boris Becker</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ermeni</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ermeni">Armenia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ernest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Ernest_Percival.htm" target="_top">Arthur Ernest Percival</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ernest_Hemingway.htm" target="_top">Ernest Hemingway</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ernest_Rutherford.htm" target="_top">Ernest Rutherford</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ernesto</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Che_Guevara.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Ernesto_Guevera Ernesto_'Che'_Guevara_de_la_Serna Ernesto_\"Che\"_Guevara_de_la_Serna">Che Guevara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>error</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Margin_of_error.htm" target="_top">Margin of error</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eruption</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens.htm" target="_top">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eruption_column.htm" target="_top">Eruption column</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Volcanic_eruption Last_eruption">Volcano</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>erwin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Erwin_Rommel.htm" target="_top">Erwin Rommel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><table><tr><th>esa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Space_Agency.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: ESA">European Space Agency</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>escaping</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Escaping_the_Earth">Planet</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Escaping_the_universe">Solar System</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eskimo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eskimo.htm" target="_top">Eskimo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>esox</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Esox.htm" target="_top">Esox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>espanhol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Espanhol">Spanish language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>espaniol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Espaniol">Spanish language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>esparanto</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Esperanto.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Esparanto">Esperanto</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>esperanto</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Esperanto.htm" target="_top">Esperanto</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>espiritu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mississippi_River.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rio_de_Espiritu_Santo">Mississippi River</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>essential</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Essential_oil.htm" target="_top">Essential oil</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_essential_oils.htm" target="_top">List of essential oils</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>esteban</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leon_Trotsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Esteban_Volkov">Leon Trotsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>estija</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Estija">Estonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>estonia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" target="_top">Estonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>estonie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Estonie">Estonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>estonija</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Estonija">Estonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="t"></a><table><tr><th>et</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Territoire_français_des_Afars_et_des_Issas">Djibouti</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire,_French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>etah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roald_Amundsen.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Etah_(Samoyed) Etah_Samoyed">Roald Amundsen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eternal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Eternal_Republic_of_Ottomans">Ottoman Empire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethanol</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" target="_top">Ethanol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg.htm" target="_top">Julius and Ethel Rosenberg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ethical_theory">Ethics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" target="_top">Ethics</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kantian_ethics">Immanuel Kant</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Open_source.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Open_source_ethics Open_Source_Ethics">Open source</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethiopai</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ethiopai">Ethiopia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethiopia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Ethiopia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Ethiopia</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top">Ethiopia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethiopian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopian_Wolf.htm" target="_top">Ethiopian Wolf</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/War_in_Somalia_%25282006%25E2%2580%2593present%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 6 redirects: Ethiopian_war_in_Somalia Ethiopian_involvement_in_the_2006_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_involvement_in_the_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_intervention_in_the_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_intervention_Somalia Ethiopian_intervention_in_Somalia">War in Somalia (2006–present)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethiopioa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ethiopioa">Ethiopia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ethnic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Sri_Lanka.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Sri_Lanka">Demographics of Sri Lanka</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Syria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Syria">Demographics of Syria</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Uganda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ugandan_Ethnic_Groups">Demographics of Uganda</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethnic_group.htm" target="_top">Ethnic group</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Indigenous_cultures,_kingdoms_and_ethnic_groups_of_Senegal Indigenous_Cultures,_Kingdoms_and_Ethnic_Groups_of_Senegal">Senegal</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lankan_Civil_War.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Ethnic_conflict_in_sri_lanka Ethnic_strife_in_Sri_Lanka Ethnic_problem_in_Sri_Lanka Ethnic_conflict_in_Sri_Lanka">Sri Lankan Civil War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>etienne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Etienne_Brasseur_de_Bourbourg.htm" target="_top">Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>etiopia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Etiopia">Ethiopia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>eu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Eu_parliament Eu_parl">European Parliament</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: EU Eu Eu_27">European Union</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eubacteria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eubacteria">Bacteria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euclid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclid.htm" target="_top">Euclid</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclidean_geometry.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Euclid's_axioms Euclid_axioms Euclid_fifth_postulate Euclid_postulates">Euclidean geometry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euclidean</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclidean_geometry.htm" target="_top">Euclidean geometry</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Prime_number.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Euclidean_prime_number_theorem">Prime number</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euclides</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Euclides">Euclid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eukaryote</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" target="_top">Eukaryote</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euler</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leonhard_Euler.htm" target="_top">Leonhard Euler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: EUM">Mexico</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euphrates</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euphrates.htm" target="_top">Euphrates</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tigris-Euphrates">Mesopotamia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eurasia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: We've_Always_Been_At_War_With_Eurasia">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eurasian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Bullfinch.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Bullfinch</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Collared_Dove.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Collared Dove</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Eagle_Owl.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Eagle Owl</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Jay.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Jay</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurasian_Oystercatcher.htm" target="_top">Eurasian Oystercatcher</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Euro-Filipino">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" target="_top">Euro</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euronationalism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Euronationalism">Fascism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>europe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Scourge_of_Europe">Attila the Hun</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Western_europe_during_the_cold_war">Cold War</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" target="_top">Europe</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nintendo_Europe">Nintendo</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Plesiosaur.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Living_plesiosaurs_in_Europe Alleged_living_plesiosaurs_in_Europe">Plesiosaur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>european</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Blackbird.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_blackbird">Blackbird</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carcinus_maenas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_shore_crab">Carcinus maenas</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: European_Dark_Age Western_European_Dark_Ages">Dark Ages</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: European-Filipinos European_Filipinos European-Filipino Philippine_European">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European">Europe</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Goldfinch.htm" target="_top">European Goldfinch</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Greenfinch.htm" target="_top">European Greenfinch</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Kingfisher.htm" target="_top">European Kingfisher</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" target="_top">European Parliament</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Space_Agency.htm" target="_top">European Space Agency</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" target="_top">European Union</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_Fencing">Fencing</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gray_Wolf.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_wolf">Gray Wolf</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heraldry.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_heraldic_traditions">Heraldry</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_European_Union_member_states_by_accession.htm" target="_top">List of European Union member states by accession</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_European_countries.htm" target="_top">List of European countries</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monarchies_in_the_European_Union.htm" target="_top">Monarchies in the European Union</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_Renassiance">Renaissance</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scramble_for_Africa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: European_colonization_of_Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>europeana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Uniunea_europeana">European Union</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>europeană</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Uniunea_Europeană">European Union</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>europeans</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Europeans_in_the_Philippines Philippine_Europeans">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Europeans">Europe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>europium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Europium.htm" target="_top">Europium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eurovision</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eurovision_Song_Contest.htm" target="_top">Eurovision Song Contest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>euston</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euston_Manifesto.htm" target="_top">Euston Manifesto</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eustreptospondylus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eustreptospondylus.htm" target="_top">Eustreptospondylus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><table><tr><th>eva</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eva_Per%25C3%25B3n.htm" target="_top">Eva Perón</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Evan_Rachel_Wood.htm" target="_top">Evan Rachel Wood</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evanton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Evanton.htm" target="_top">Evanton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eve</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mitochondrial_Eve.htm" target="_top">Mitochondrial Eve</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>even</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Perfect_number.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Even_perfect_number">Perfect number</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evening</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oenothera.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evening_primrose_oil">Oenothera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>event</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous-Tertiary_extinction_event.htm" target="_top">Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>events</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_world.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Timeline_of_Key_Events_In_World_History">History of the world</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Terrorist_events_of_September_11,_2001">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>everest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Everest.htm" target="_top">Mount Everest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" target="_top">Chris Evert</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>every</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Take_off_every_zig">All your base are belong to us</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/England_expects_that_every_man_will_do_his_duty.htm" target="_top">England expects that every man will do his duty</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evita</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eva_Per%25C3%25B3n.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evita">Eva Perón</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evolution</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Creation-evolution_controversy.htm" target="_top">Creation-evolution controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evolution_of_the_Atmosphere_and_its_effect_on_Animal_Life">Earth's atmosphere</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" target="_top">Evolution</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sociocultural_evolution.htm" target="_top">Sociocultural evolution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evolutionarily</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy.htm" target="_top">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evolutionary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evolutionary_stable_strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evoo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Olive_oil.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: EVOO">Olive oil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>evro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Evro">Euro</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="w"></a><table><tr><th>ewart</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" target="_top">William Ewart Gladstone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ewiniar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Typhoon_Ewiniar_%25282006%2529.htm" target="_top">Typhoon Ewiniar (2006)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ewww</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Internet_Explorer.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ewww">Internet Explorer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="x"></a><table><tr><th>excellent</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Romeo_and_Juliet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_most_excellent_and_lamentable_tragedie,_of_Romeo_and_Iuliet">Romeo and Juliet</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>exchange</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Telephone_exchange.htm" target="_top">Telephone exchange</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>exe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Strongbad_email.exe">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>execution</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Execution_of_Charles_I">Charles I of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>exhibition</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guangzhou_International_Convention_and_Exhibition_Center">Guangzhou</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Great_Exhibition.htm" target="_top">The Great Exhibition</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>existentialism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Existentialism.htm" target="_top">Existentialism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>exotics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Invasive_species.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Invasive_exotics">Invasive species</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expansion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Metric_expansion_of_space.htm" target="_top">Metric expansion of space</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expects</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/England_expects_that_every_man_will_do_his_duty.htm" target="_top">England expects that every man will do his duty</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expedition</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/S._A._Andr%25C3%25A9e%2527s_Arctic_balloon_expedition_of_1897.htm" target="_top">S. A. Andrée's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expeditionary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit.htm" target="_top">15th Marine Expeditionary Unit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>experience</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mysticism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Spiritual_experience">Mysticism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>experiment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ATLAS_experiment.htm" target="_top">ATLAS experiment</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Milgram_experiment.htm" target="_top">Milgram experiment</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Quatermass_Experiment.htm" target="_top">The Quatermass Experiment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>explicit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Explicit_ordinary_differential_equation">Ordinary differential equation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>exploration</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Exploration_of_Mars.htm" target="_top">Exploration of Mars</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mars_Exploration_Rover.htm" target="_top">Mars Exploration Rover</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_exploration.htm" target="_top">Space exploration</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>explorer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Explorer_I.htm" target="_top">Explorer I</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Internet_Explorer.htm" target="_top">Internet Explorer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>explosion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cambrian_explosion.htm" target="_top">Cambrian explosion</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Columbia_explosion">Space Shuttle Columbia disaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>explosions</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions.htm" target="_top">Effects of nuclear explosions</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expressionism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" target="_top">Expressionism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expressions</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Boolean_logic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Boolean_Expressions">Boolean logic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expressive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Expressive_language">Language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>expulsion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_independence_movement.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Indian_Non-Native_Expulsion_Movement">Indian independence movement</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>extinct</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extinct_birds.htm" target="_top">Extinct birds</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>extinction</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous-Tertiary_extinction_event.htm" target="_top">Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" target="_top">Extinction</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>extra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/E.T._the_Extra-Terrestrial_%2528Atari_2600%2529.htm" target="_top">E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (Atari 2600)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Extra_solar_planets">Extrasolar planet</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extraterrestrial_life.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Extra_terestrials">Extraterrestrial life</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Olive_oil.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Extra_Virgin_Olive_Oil">Olive oil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>extraction</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Mineral_Extraction Mineral_extraction">Mining</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>extracts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tobacco_Extracts">Tobacco</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>extrasolar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" target="_top">Extrasolar planet</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extraterrestrial_life.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Extrasolar_life">Extraterrestrial life</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>extraterrestrial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Extraterrestrial_life.htm" target="_top">Extraterrestrial life</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>eye</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat%2527s_Eye_Nebula.htm" target="_top">Cat's Eye Nebula</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyclops.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: One_eye">Cyclops</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eye.htm" target="_top">Eye</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eye_%2528cyclone%2529.htm" target="_top">Eye (cyclone)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawk-Eye.htm" target="_top">Hawk-Eye</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eyelid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eyelid.htm" target="_top">Eyelid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eygpt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eygpt">Egypt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>eyre</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Eyre.htm" target="_top">Jane Eyre</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="z"></a><table><tr><th>ez</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_%2528video_game%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Final_Fantasy_EZ">Final Fantasy (video game)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ezra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ezra_Pound.htm" target="_top">Ezra Pound</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ελλάς</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ελλάς">Greece</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>εὐκλείδης</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Εὐκλείδης">Euclid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ευρώ</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ευρώ">Euro</a>
</td></tr></table>
</body>
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Ethiopian_involvement_in_the_2006_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_involvement_in_the_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_intervention_in_the_Somali_Civil_War Ethiopian_intervention_Somalia Ethiopian_intervention_in_Somalia', 'from redirect: Ethiopioa', 'from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Sri_Lanka', 'from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Syria', 'from redirect: Ugandan_Ethnic_Groups', 'from 2 redirects: Indigenous_cultures,_kingdoms_and_ethnic_groups_of_Senegal Indigenous_Cultures,_Kingdoms_and_Ethnic_Groups_of_Senegal', 'from 4 redirects: Ethnic_conflict_in_sri_lanka Ethnic_strife_in_Sri_Lanka Ethnic_problem_in_Sri_Lanka Ethnic_conflict_in_Sri_Lanka', 'from redirect: Etiopia', 'from 2 redirects: Eu_parliament Eu_parl', 'from 3 redirects: EU Eu Eu_27', 'from redirect: Eubacteria', "from 4 redirects: Euclid's_axioms Euclid_axioms Euclid_fifth_postulate Euclid_postulates", 'from redirect: Euclidean_prime_number_theorem', 'from redirect: Euclides', 'from redirect: EUM', 'from redirect: Tigris-Euphrates', "from 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Even_perfect_number', 'from redirect: Evening_primrose_oil', 'from redirect: Timeline_of_Key_Events_In_World_History', 'from redirect: Terrorist_events_of_September_11,_2001', 'from redirect: Take_off_every_zig', 'from redirect: Evita', 'from redirect: Evolution_of_the_Atmosphere_and_its_effect_on_Animal_Life', 'from redirect: Evolutionary_stable_strategy', 'from redirect: EVOO', 'from redirect: Evro', 'from redirect: Ewww', 'from redirect: The_most_excellent_and_lamentable_tragedie,_of_Romeo_and_Iuliet', 'from redirect: Strongbad_email.exe', 'from redirect: Execution_of_Charles_I', 'from redirect: Guangzhou_International_Convention_and_Exhibition_Center', 'from redirect: Invasive_exotics', 'from redirect: Spiritual_experience', 'from redirect: Explicit_ordinary_differential_equation', 'from redirect: Columbia_explosion', 'from redirect: Boolean_Expressions', 'from redirect: Expressive_language', 'from redirect: Indian_Non-Native_Expulsion_Movement', 'from redirect: 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e-top | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
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<h3 style="float:right;"><a href="subject.htm" target="_top">Subject Index</a></h3>
<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : E</h2>
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f-list | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
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<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : F</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
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<table><tr><th>f</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/F-35_Lightning_II.htm" target="_top">F-35 Lightning II</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/F-4_Phantom_II.htm" target="_top">F-4 Phantom II</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: F_B_I">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Haydn.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: F._J._Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Macedonia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: F.Y.R._Macedonia F.Y.R_Macedonia">Republic of Macedonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>f1</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Formula_One.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: F1_Podcasts">Formula One</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>f7</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/EMD_F7.htm" target="_top">EMD F7</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>fa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ALCO_FA.htm" target="_top">ALCO FA</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faba</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vicia_faba.htm" target="_top">Vicia faba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>facial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forensic_facial_reconstruction.htm" target="_top">Forensic facial reconstruction</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>facilitator</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wrench.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Servomechanical_torsion_facilitator">Wrench</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>factor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Yuck_factor">Emotion</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Warren_G._Harding.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Harding_Factor">Warren G. Harding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>facts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Wight.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Isle_of_White_Facts">Isle of Wight</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>failure</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iraq_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hopeless_failure">Iraq War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>failures</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Levee_failures_in_Greater_New_Orleans%252C_2005.htm" target="_top">Levee failures in Greater New Orleans, 2005</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fair</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fair_dice">Dice</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FairTax.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fair_Tax_Act_of_2007">FairTax</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fair_Isle.htm" target="_top">Fair Isle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fairtax</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FairTax.htm" target="_top">FairTax</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fairy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Fairy-Queen.htm" target="_top">The Fairy-Queen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faith</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bah%25C3%25A1%2527%25C3%25AD_Faith.htm" target="_top">Bahá'í Faith</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mosaic_faith">Judaism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faithful</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christ's_Faithful">Roman Catholic Church</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fakatuʻi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tonga.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Puleʻanga_Fakatuʻi_ʻo_Tonga">Tonga</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fake</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Phishing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fake_websites">Phishing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>falcon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Falcon.htm" target="_top">Falcon</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peregrine_Falcon.htm" target="_top">Peregrine Falcon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>falcons</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peregrine_Falcon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Peregrine_falcons">Peregrine Falcon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>falkirk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Falkirk_Wheel.htm" target="_top">Falkirk Wheel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>falkland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" target="_top">Falkland Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stanley%252C_Falkland_Islands.htm" target="_top">Stanley, Falkland Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>falklands</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Georgia,_Falklands">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>falls</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niagara_Falls.htm" target="_top">Niagara Falls</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>famicom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_Entertainment_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Famicom">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>famicon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_Entertainment_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Famicon">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>familaris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Canis_Familaris">Dog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>familiaris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Canis_familiaris">Dog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>family</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dubai.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Family_tree_of_the_Al_Maktoum_rulers">Dubai</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_monarchs_family_tree.htm" target="_top">English monarchs family tree</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Family.htm" target="_top">Family</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_Entertainment_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nintendo_Family_Computer">Nintendo Entertainment System</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/SR-71_Blackbird.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blackbird_family_timeline">SR-71 Blackbird</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Godfather.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Barzini_Crime_Family">The Godfather</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>famine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Famine.htm" target="_top">Famine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>famish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hunger.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Famish">Hunger</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>famous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Famous_Five_%2528characters%2529.htm" target="_top">The Famous Five (characters)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fanny</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fanny_Blankers-Koen.htm" target="_top">Fanny Blankers-Koen</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Famous_Five_%2528characters%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aunt_Fanny_(Famous_Five)">The Famous Five (characters)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fantasy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_%2528video_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Final Fantasy (video game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_Adventure.htm" target="_top">Final Fantasy Adventure</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>far</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Recent_Far_East_Naval_Task_Groups">Royal Navy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faraday</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Faraday.htm" target="_top">Michael Faraday</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>farben</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/IG_Farben_Building.htm" target="_top">IG Farben Building</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>farce</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Air_Force.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Royal_Air_Farce">Royal Air Force</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>farm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Shrimp_farm.htm" target="_top">Shrimp farm</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>farming</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Farming_(agriculture)">Agriculture</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faroe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Faroe_Islands.htm" target="_top">Faroe Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faroese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Faroe_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Faroese_islands">Faroe Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>farrell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cavanagh_Farrell">Jesus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fart</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fart_Hing">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fascism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" target="_top">Fascism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fashin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fashion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fashin">Fashion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fashion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fashion.htm" target="_top">Fashion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faso</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" target="_top">Burkina Faso</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Burkina_Faso.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Burkina Faso</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ouagadougou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ougadougou,_Burkina_Faso">Ouagadougou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fasso</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Burkina_Fasso">Burkina Faso</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fast</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bodyline.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fast_leg_theory Fast_Leg_Theory">Bodyline</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fastest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fastest_thing_alive">Sonic the Hedgehog (character)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fat_Harry">Henry VIII of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Reduced-fat_milk Reduced_fat_milk Low-fat_milk Low_fat_milk">Milk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fatehpur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Delhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fatehpur_beri">Delhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fatside</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dr._Fatside">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fatty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fatty_acid.htm" target="_top">Fatty acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Omega-3_fatty_acid.htm" target="_top">Omega-3 fatty acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Feisty_Faun">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fauna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Convention_on_the_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species_of_Wild_Flora_and_Fauna.htm" target="_top">Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fauna_of_Australia.htm" target="_top">Fauna of Australia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>faux</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diamond_simulant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Faux_diamond">Diamond simulant</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Foie_gras.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Faux_graus">Foie gras</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fava</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vicia_faba.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fava_Beans Fava_beens">Vicia faba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fawn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Fesity_fawn Fiesty_Fawn Feisty_Fawn">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><table><tr><th>fb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ALCO_FA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: ALCO_FB">ALCO FA</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fbi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: FBI FBI_Agent FBI_agents">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="c"></a><table><tr><th>fc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chelsea_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chelse_FC\\">Chelsea F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dundee_United_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dundee_united_fc">Dundee United F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Liverpool_FC Liverpool_fc">Liverpool F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="d"></a><table><tr><th>fdr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: FDR">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="e"></a><table><tr><th>fe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Santa_Fe_de_Bogotá Santa_Fe_de_Bogota">Bogotá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fé</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Santa_Fé_de_Bogotá Santa_Fé_de_Bacatá">Bogotá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feadog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tin_whistle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Feadog">Tin whistle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fear</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Linux.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Don't_fear_the_penguins">Linux</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feast</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Feast_of_the_Chair_of_St._Peter">Pope</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feather</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Feather.htm" target="_top">Feather</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feathered</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quetzalcoatl.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Feathered_Serpent">Quetzalcoatl</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feature</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Landform.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Terrain_feature">Landform</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>features</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gmail.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Features_of_Gmail Gmail/Features">Gmail</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fed_Cup.htm" target="_top">Fed Cup</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feddy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Theodore_Roosevelt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Feddy_Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>federal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Federal_Republic_of_Brazil">Brazil</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" target="_top">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_City.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mexican_Federal_District">Mexico City</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swiss_Federal_Council.htm" target="_top">Swiss Federal Council</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Swiss_Federal_Office_of_Energy">Switzerland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>federated</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Federated_States_of_Micronesia.htm" target="_top">Federated States of Micronesia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>federation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Federation_of_International_Football_Association">FIFA</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hero_of_the_Russian_Federation.htm" target="_top">Hero of the Russian Federation</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_History_Of_The_Russian_Federation">History of Russia</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Russian_Federation">Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fédération</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_(FIFA)">FIFA</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_World_Cup">FIFA World Cup</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>federline</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Britney_Spears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sean_Preston_Federline">Britney Spears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fedor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fedor_Dostoyevsky Fedor_dostoevski">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fedora</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fedora_Core.htm" target="_top">Fedora Core</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aggregator.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Feed_reader">Aggregator</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gut_feel">Emotion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feeling</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gut_feeling">Emotion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feisty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Feisty Feisty_Fawn Feisty_Faun">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feldspar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Feldspar.htm" target="_top">Feldspar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>felice</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Felice_Beato.htm" target="_top">Felice Beato</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>felip</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salvador_Dal%25C3%25AD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salvador_Felip_Jacint_Dalí_Domènech">Salvador Dalí</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>felis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Felis_silverstris_catus Felis_cattus">Cat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>felix</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Felix_Mendelssohn.htm" target="_top">Felix Mendelssohn</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Felix_the_Cat.htm" target="_top">Felix the Cat</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Felix_%25281995%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Felix (1995)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cross_Fell.htm" target="_top">Cross Fell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>felsina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bologna.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Felsina">Bologna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>felspathic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Feldspar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Felspathic">Feldspar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>felt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/W._Mark_Felt.htm" target="_top">W. Mark Felt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>female</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Classic_female_blues.htm" target="_top">Classic female blues</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Menstrual_cycle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Female_cycle">Menstrual cycle</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordination_of_women.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Female_priest Female_priests">Ordination of women</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fencing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top">Fencing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fener</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Darth_Vader.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lord_Fener">Darth Vader</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fennel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fennel.htm" target="_top">Fennel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Fens.htm" target="_top">The Fens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ferdinand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Ferdinand_Magellan.htm" target="_top">Ferdinand Magellan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ferdinandea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Ferdinandea.htm" target="_top">Ferdinandea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fermenting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Top-fermenting Bottom_and_top_fermenting_yeast Top_and_bottom_fermenting_yeast">Yeast</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fermi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fermi_paradox.htm" target="_top">Fermi paradox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fermium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fermium.htm" target="_top">Fermium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fern</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fern.htm" target="_top">Fern</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ferric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iron%2528III%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ferric_Chloride">Iron(III) chloride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fertile</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fertile_Crescent.htm" target="_top">Fertile Crescent</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fertilizer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fertilizer.htm" target="_top">Fertilizer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fesity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fesity_fawn">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>festival</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glastonbury_Festival.htm" target="_top">Glastonbury Festival</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fetal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder.htm" target="_top">Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fever</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yellow_fever.htm" target="_top">Yellow fever</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>few</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quantity.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Few">Quantity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>feynman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Feynman.htm" target="_top">Richard Feynman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="f"></a><table><tr><th>ff1</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_%2528video_game%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ff1 FF1">Final Fantasy (video game)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ffestiniog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Ffestiniog_Railway.htm" target="_top">Ffestiniog Railway</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="g"></a><a name="h"></a><a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>fiber</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Optical_fiber.htm" target="_top">Optical fiber</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fiberglass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fiberglass.htm" target="_top">Fiberglass</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fibre</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Optical_fiber.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Optical_Fibre Single-mode_optical_fibre">Optical fiber</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fibrose</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cystic_fibrosis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cystic_fibrose">Cystic fibrosis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fibrosis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cystic_fibrosis.htm" target="_top">Cystic fibrosis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fiction</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fiction.htm" target="_top">Fiction</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fictional</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fiction.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fictional">Fiction</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fidel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fidel_Castro.htm" target="_top">Fidel Castro</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fidji</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fiji.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fidji">Fiji</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>field</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: American_football_field">American football</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Athletics_%2528track_and_field%2529.htm" target="_top">Athletics (track and field)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Electric_field.htm" target="_top">Electric field</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gravitational_Field">Gravitation</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Deep_Field.htm" target="_top">Hubble Deep Field</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maxwell%2527s_equations.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Maxwell_field_equations">Maxwell's equations</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fieldfare</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fieldfare.htm" target="_top">Fieldfare</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fields</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seawater.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electric_fields_ocean">Seawater</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fierce</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Link_%2528The_Legend_of_Zelda%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fierce_Deity Fierce_Deity_Link">Link (The Legend of Zelda)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fiesty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fiesty_Fawn">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fifa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" target="_top">FIFA</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" target="_top">FIFA World Cup</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fifth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fifth_century_AD">5th century</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclidean_geometry.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Euclid_fifth_postulate">Euclidean geometry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fifty</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fifty_United_States">U.S. state</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>figaro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Marriage_of_Figaro.htm" target="_top">The Marriage of Figaro</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fighter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_independence_movement.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Indian_freedom_fighter">Indian independence movement</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fighters</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_independence_movement.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Indian_freedom_fighters">Indian independence movement</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fighting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sword_fighting">Fencing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fignon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Laurent_Fignon.htm" target="_top">Laurent Fignon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>figurative</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abstract_art.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Non-figurative">Abstract art</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fiji</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fiji.htm" target="_top">Fiji</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>file</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/RSS_%2528file_format%2529.htm" target="_top">RSS (file format)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_X-Files.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: X_File The_X_File">The X-Files</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>files</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_X-Files.htm" target="_top">The X-Files</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>filipino</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 15 redirects: European-Filipino Italian-Filipino Euro-Filipino Austrian_Filipino Austrian-Filipino German_Filipino German-Filipino Italo-Filipino Afro-Filipino Afro_Filipino Polish-Filipino Filipino_Pole Filipino_Poles African-Filipino African_Filipino">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>filipinos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 13 redirects: European-Filipinos European_Filipinos Italian-Filipinos Austrian-Filipinos Austrian_Filipinos German-Filipinos German_Filipinos Italo-Filipinos African_Filipinos Afro_Filipinos Afro-Filipinos African-Filipinos Polish-Filipinos">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fillmore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Millard_Fillmore.htm" target="_top">Millard Fillmore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>film</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Ben-Hur_%25281959_film%2529.htm" target="_top">Ben-Hur (1959 film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Casablanca_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Casablanca (film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" target="_top">Film</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gone_with_the_Wind_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Gone with the Wind (film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grease_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Grease (film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Bond.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Unofficial_James_Bond_film">James Bond</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jaws_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Jaws (film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/King_Kong_%25281933_film%2529.htm" target="_top">King Kong (1933 film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/King_Kong_%25282005_film%2529.htm" target="_top">King Kong (2005 film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ran_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Ran (film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Serenity_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Serenity (film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Silent_film.htm" target="_top">Silent film</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sunset_Boulevard_%25281950_film%2529.htm" target="_top">Sunset Boulevard (1950 film)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Lion_King.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Lion_King_(film)">The Lion King</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_film_trilogy.htm" target="_top">The Lord of the Rings film trilogy</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Old_Man_and_the_Sea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Old_Man_and_the_Sea_(film)">The Old Man and the Sea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>filmography</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Filmography">Film</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>films</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Star_Trek_films">Star Trek</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_film_trilogy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(films)">The Lord of the Rings film trilogy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>filter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fermi_paradox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_filter">Fermi paradox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>final</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_%2528video_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Final Fantasy (video game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_Adventure.htm" target="_top">Final Fantasy Adventure</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>finance</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Behavioral_finance.htm" target="_top">Behavioral finance</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corporate_finance.htm" target="_top">Corporate finance</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Finance.htm" target="_top">Finance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>financial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Financial_statements.htm" target="_top">Financial statements</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Seoul_International_Financial_Centre Seoul_International_Financial_Center">Seoul</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>financials</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Finance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Financials">Finance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>finch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Scout_Finch Jean_Louise_\"Scout\"_Finch Jeremy_Finch Jem_Finch">To Kill a Mockingbird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>findláich</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Macbeth_of_Scotland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mac_Bethad_mac_Findláich">Macbeth of Scotland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fine_art.htm" target="_top">Fine art</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fine_wine">Wine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>finfinne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Addis_Ababa.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Finfinne">Addis Ababa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>finland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" target="_top">Finland</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Finland_honey Finland_Honey">Honey</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>finnia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Finnia">Finland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>finocchio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fennel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Finocchio">Fennel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fiodor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fiodor_Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/2/2005_Hertfordshire_Oil_Storage_Terminal_fire.htm" target="_top">2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen_Fire_of_1728.htm" target="_top">Copenhagen Fire of 1728</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" target="_top">Fire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>firearm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Firearm.htm" target="_top">Firearm</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>firecrest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Firecrest.htm" target="_top">Firecrest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>firefly</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Firefly_%2528TV_series%2529.htm" target="_top">Firefly (TV series)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>firefox</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>firefox2</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Firefox2">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>first</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elizabeth_the_first">Elizabeth I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/First_Council_of_Nicaea.htm" target="_top">First Council of Nicaea</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/First_Crusade.htm" target="_top">First Crusade</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/First_Macedonian_War.htm" target="_top">First Macedonian War</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/First_Transcontinental_Railroad.htm" target="_top">First Transcontinental Railroad</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_first_U.S_President">George Washington</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: James_the_first">James I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: First_Art">Music</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: First_Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal">Naval Battle of Guadalcanal</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: First_man_on_moon First_man_on_the_Moon">Neil Armstrong</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: First-order_ordinary_differential_equation First_order_differential_equation">Ordinary differential equation</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: First_Polish_Republic">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qin_Shi_Huang.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: First_Emporer_of_China">Qin Shi Huang</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fish_tank">Aquarium</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bass_%2528fish%2529.htm" target="_top">Bass (fish)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" target="_top">Fish</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Fish_trap Fish_curing Fish_traps">Fishing</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tuna.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tunny_fish">Tuna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fisher</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_G._Fisher.htm" target="_top">Carl G. Fisher</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fisherfolk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fisherfolk">Fishing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fishies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fishies">Fish</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fishing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" target="_top">Fishing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fishtrap</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fishtrap">Fishing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fishy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fishy">Fish</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fission</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_fission.htm" target="_top">Nuclear fission</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_power.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fission_power">Nuclear power</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Brown.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_clunking_fist">Gordon Brown</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>five</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Famous_Five_%2528characters%2529.htm" target="_top">The Famous Five (characters)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fixation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_fixation.htm" target="_top">Nitrogen fixation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fixing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_fixation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Nitrogen-fixing_bacteria Nitrogen-fixing_trees">Nitrogen fixation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fırat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euphrates.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fırat_River">Euphrates</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><table><tr><th>fjh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Haydn.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: FJH">Joseph Haydn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="k"></a><a name="l"></a><table><tr><th>fl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: US-FL">Florida</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flag</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Australia.htm" target="_top">Flag of Australia</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Belarus.htm" target="_top">Flag of Belarus</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.htm" target="_top">Flag of Hong Kong</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_India.htm" target="_top">Flag of India</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Mexico.htm" target="_top">Flag of Mexico</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_South_Africa.htm" target="_top">Flag of South Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.htm" target="_top">Flag of the Republic of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Raising_the_Flag_on_Iwo_Jima.htm" target="_top">Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Union_Flag.htm" target="_top">Union Flag</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flagellum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flagellum_Dei">Attila the Hun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flagler</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Morrison_Flagler.htm" target="_top">Henry Morrison Flagler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flags</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_Irish_flags">Ireland</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_national_flags">List of sovereign states</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flamingo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flamingo.htm" target="_top">Flamingo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flaminia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lancia_Flaminia.htm" target="_top">Lancia Flaminia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flamsteed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Flamsteed.htm" target="_top">John Flamsteed</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flanders</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" target="_top">Flanders</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Simpsons.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Flanders_(tv_show)">The Simpsons</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flat_Earth.htm" target="_top">Flat Earth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fleet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft_carrier.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fleet_aircraft_carrier">Aircraft carrier</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Invasion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Assault_fleet">Invasion</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: British_Fleet British_fleet">Royal Navy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flemish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/East_Flemish.htm" target="_top">East Flemish</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flemish_%2528linguistics%2529.htm" target="_top">Flemish (linguistics)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flemish_dialects.htm" target="_top">Flemish dialects</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flemish_people.htm" target="_top">Flemish people</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/West_Flemish.htm" target="_top">West Flemish</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flew</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/One_Flew_Over_the_Cuckoo%2527s_Nest_%2528novel%2529.htm" target="_top">One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flight</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bird_flight_patterns">Bird migration</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Operation_deny_flight">NATO</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pan_Am_Flight_103.htm" target="_top">Pan Am Flight 103</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Swissair_Flight_111.htm" target="_top">Swissair Flight 111</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flood</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deluge_%2528mythology%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 12 redirects: Noachian_flood Global_flood Flood_myth World_Flood Genesis_flood Great_Flood_of_Noah Universal_Flood_Myth Flood_story Flood_myths Flood_stories Flood_(mythology) Noachian_Flood">Deluge (mythology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" target="_top">Flood</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea_flood_of_1953.htm" target="_top">North Sea flood of 1953</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>floods</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deluge_%2528mythology%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Floods_(mythology)">Deluge (mythology)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>floopy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floppy_disk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Floopy_disk">Floppy disk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>floppy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floppy_disk.htm" target="_top">Floppy disk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flora</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Convention_on_the_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species_of_Wild_Flora_and_Fauna.htm" target="_top">Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>florence</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Florence_Nightingale.htm" target="_top">Florence Nightingale</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Palazzo_Pitti.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Palazzo_Pitti_Florence">Palazzo Pitti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>floresiensis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homo_floresiensis.htm" target="_top">Homo floresiensis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>florida</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" target="_top">Florida</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Florida_East_Coast_Railway.htm" target="_top">Florida East Coast Railway</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Miami%252C_Florida.htm" target="_top">History of Miami, Florida</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Miami%252C_Florida.htm" target="_top">Miami, Florida</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>floris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floris_and_Blancheflour.htm" target="_top">Floris and Blancheflour</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Soybean.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Soya_flour">Soybean</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flower</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" target="_top">Flower</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garden.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flower_bed">Garden</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>floyd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Floyd_Mayweather_Jr..htm" target="_top">Floyd Mayweather Jr.</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Floyd.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Floyd</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/H5N1.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bird_flu_virus">H5N1</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fluids</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wave.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wave_motion_in_fluids">Wave</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fluoride</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Caesium_fluoride.htm" target="_top">Caesium fluoride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fluorine</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fluorine.htm" target="_top">Fluorine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flute</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flute.htm" target="_top">Flute</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Magic_Flute.htm" target="_top">The Magic Flute</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tin_whistle.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ressikan_flute">Tin whistle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flûte</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flute.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flûte">Flute</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fluvio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fluvio-glacial_deposition">Glacier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flycatcher</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spotted_Flycatcher.htm" target="_top">Spotted Flycatcher</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>flying</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rock_Pigeon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flying_Rat">Rock Pigeon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>fm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/FM_Consolidated_line.htm" target="_top">FM Consolidated line</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>focks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Focks">Fox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fodor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fodor_dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jerry_Fodor.htm" target="_top">Jerry Fodor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foederal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Foederal_Republic_of_Germany">Germany</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Foie_gras.htm" target="_top">Foie gras</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foilist</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fencing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Foilist">Fencing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>folding</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Clothing.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Folding_clothes">Clothing</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>folic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" target="_top">Folic acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>folium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cerebellum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Folium_of_cerebellum">Cerebellum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>folk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" target="_top">Folk music</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>folklore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_mythology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Celtic_folklore">Celtic mythology</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Folklore.htm" target="_top">Folklore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>follic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Follic_acid">Folic acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fonda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Fonda.htm" target="_top">Henry Fonda</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Fonda.htm" target="_top">Jane Fonda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>food</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Egg_%2528food%2529.htm" target="_top">Egg (food)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Famine.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis 2005_Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis">Famine</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" target="_top">Food</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gray_Wolf.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_primary_food_of_the_gray_wolf">Gray Wolf</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foodshake</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Milkshake.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Foodshake">Milkshake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foofle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Foofle">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/One_Foot_in_the_Grave.htm" target="_top">One Foot in the Grave</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>football</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" target="_top">American football</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_rules_football.htm" target="_top">Australian rules football</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_football.htm" target="_top">Canadian football</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Celtic_Football_Club">Celtic F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_Park.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Paradise_(football)">Celtic Park</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chelsea_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Carefree_(football)">Chelsea F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_(FIFA) Federation_of_International_Football_Association">FIFA</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/FIFA_World_Cup.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_World_Cup">FIFA World Cup</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Football.htm" target="_top">Football</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" target="_top">Football (soccer)</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Liverpool_Football_Club">Liverpool F.C.</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rugby_football.htm" target="_top">Rugby football</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom_national_football_team.htm" target="_top">United Kingdom national football team</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>footed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black-footed_Cat.htm" target="_top">Black-footed Cat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>footie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Footie">Football (soccer)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>for</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: That's_one_small_step_for_a_man,_one_giant_leap_for_mankind That's_one_small_step_for_a_man,_one_giant_leap_for_mankind">Apollo 11</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Normandy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Battle_for_France">Battle of Normandy</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Stalingrad.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Battle_for_Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beatles_for_Sale.htm" target="_top">Beatles for Sale</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calculus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lagrange_notation_for_differentiation">Calculus</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: References_for_the_article_Mahatma_Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Neil_Armstrong.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: That's_one_small_step_for_a_man">Neil Armstrong</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scramble_for_Africa.htm" target="_top">Scramble for Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_for_Peace_and_Justice.htm" target="_top">United for Peace and Justice</a>
<a href="../../wp/z/Zionism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Proposals_for_a_Jewish_state">Zionism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>force</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brute_force_attack.htm" target="_top">Brute force attack</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coulomb%2527s_law.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Electrostatic_Force">Coulomb's law</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Force.htm" target="_top">Force</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Air_Force.htm" target="_top">Royal Air Force</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: May_the_Force_be_with_you">Star Wars</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forces</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Royal_Australian_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Commonwealth_Naval_Forces">History of the Royal Australian Navy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ford</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Ford.htm" target="_top">Gerald Ford</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Ford.htm" target="_top">Henry Ford</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forecasters</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Weather_forecasting.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Weather_forecasters">Weather forecasting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forecasting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Weather_forecasting.htm" target="_top">Weather forecasting</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forefox</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Forefox">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foreign</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Endoscopic_foreign_body_retrieval.htm" target="_top">Endoscopic foreign body retrieval</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Countries_that_teach_english_as_a_foreign_language">English language</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Foreign_Involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War">Vietnam War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forensic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forensic_facial_reconstruction.htm" target="_top">Forensic facial reconstruction</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Amazon_Rainforest.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Amazon_Rain-forest Amazon_rain-forest">Amazon Rainforest</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" target="_top">Forest</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forrest_Gump.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Forest_gump">Forrest Gump</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/New_Forest.htm" target="_top">New Forest</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Shoshone_National_Forest.htm" target="_top">Shoshone National Forest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forestry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sustainable_forestry.htm" target="_top">Sustainable forestry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forgesso</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2593engus_I_of_the_Picts.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Angus_mac_Forgesso">Óengus I of the Picts</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Forks%252C_North_Dakota.htm" target="_top">Grand Forks, North Dakota</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>form</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Poetic_form">Poetry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>formal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Formal_logic">Logic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>format</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/RSS_%2528file_format%2529.htm" target="_top">RSS (file format)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>formation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cloud_formation">Cloud</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>formic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Formic_acid.htm" target="_top">Formic acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>formula</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Big_Bang.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Big_Bang_Formula">Big Bang</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Formula_One.htm" target="_top">Formula One</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>formulae</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mathematical_formulae">Mathematics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>formulas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trigonometric_function.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Prosthaphaeresis_formulas">Trigonometric function</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forrest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forrest_Gump.htm" target="_top">Forrest Gump</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forst</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_Forster.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: G._Forst.">Georg Forster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forster</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_Forster.htm" target="_top">Georg Forster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forsteri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emperor_Penguin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aptenodytes_forsteri">Emperor Penguin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fort</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fort_de_Chartres.htm" target="_top">Fort de Chartres</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forth.htm" target="_top">Forth</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forth_Bridge_%2528railway%2529.htm" target="_top">Forth Bridge (railway)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forth_Road_Bridge.htm" target="_top">Forth Road Bridge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>forward</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Forward_(basketball)">Basketball</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fossil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Allosaurus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Al_(fossil)">Allosaurus</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" target="_top">Fossil</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" target="_top">Fossil fuel</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_record.htm" target="_top">Fossil record</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foul</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crime.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Foul_play">Crime</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>found</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lost_%2528TV_series%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_lost_and_found_box">Lost (TV series)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>foundation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikimedia_Foundation.htm" target="_top">Wikimedia Foundation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>founder</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Wales.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Wikipedia_founder">Jimmy Wales</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>four</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Super_Mario_64.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mario_sixty_four">Super Mario 64</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fourteenth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution.htm" target="_top">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fourth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: June_Fourth_Movement The_June_Fourth_Movement">Tiananmen Square protests of 1989</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fowl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Domestic_fowl Common_domestic_fowl">Chicken</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fox</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bat-eared_Fox.htm" target="_top">Bat-eared Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fox.htm" target="_top">Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Fox.htm" target="_top">George Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Island_Fox.htm" target="_top">Island Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Fox__Assault.htm" target="_top">Star Fox Assault</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>fpb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ALCO_FA.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: ALCO_FPB">ALCO FA</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>fractal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fractal.htm" target="_top">Fractal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fraction</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pi_Continued_Fraction">Pi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frakkland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frakkland">Franks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frakland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frakland">Franks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frame</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Animation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Frame_by_frame Frame_by_frame">Animation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fran</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Fran">San Francisco, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>français</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Djibouti.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Territoire_français_des_Afars_et_des_Issas">Djibouti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>francaise</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Guiana.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guyane_francaise">French Guiana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>française</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Langue_française">French language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>françaises</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire,_French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>france</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_France.htm" target="_top">Battle of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Normandy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Battle_for_France">Battle of Normandy</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" target="_top">France</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/France_in_the_American_Revolutionary_War.htm" target="_top">France in the American Revolutionary War</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland_Garros Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland-Garros">French Open (tennis)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Government_of_France.htm" target="_top">Government of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_French_monarchs.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Throne_of_France">List of French monarchs</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" target="_top">Louis XIV of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Marseille.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Marseilles,_France">Marseille</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_history_of_France.htm" target="_top">Military history of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" target="_top">Napoleon I of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Paris,_Ile-De-France">Paris</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" target="_top">Tour de France</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frances</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frances_Oldham_Kelsey.htm" target="_top">Frances Oldham Kelsey</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>francesco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_San_Francesco_d%2527Assisi.htm" target="_top">Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>franchise</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Star_Trek_Franchise">Star Trek</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>francis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basilica_of_San_Francesco_d%2527Assisi.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: St._Francis_Basilica Basilica_of_St._Francis_of_Assisi">Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Bacon.htm" target="_top">Francis Bacon</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Crick.htm" target="_top">Francis Crick</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Drake.htm" target="_top">Francis Drake</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Petre.htm" target="_top">Francis Petre</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francis_of_Assisi.htm" target="_top">Francis of Assisi</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Francis_Burton.htm" target="_top">Richard Francis Burton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>franciscan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Franciscan">San Francisco, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>francisco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francisco_Goya.htm" target="_top">Francisco Goya</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Quito.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Francisco_de_Quito">Quito</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" target="_top">San Francisco, California</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco_garter_snake.htm" target="_top">San Francisco garter snake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>franciszek</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fryderyk-Franciszek_Chopin Franciszek_Chopin">Frédéric Chopin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>francium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francium.htm" target="_top">Francium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>francois</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Auguste_Rodin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Francois-Auguste-Rene_Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>françois</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: François_Chopin">Frédéric Chopin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frank</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anne_Frank.htm" target="_top">Anne Frank</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frank_Lloyd_Wright.htm" target="_top">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frankenstein</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frankenstein.htm" target="_top">Frankenstein</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frankfurt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frankfurt.htm" target="_top">Frankfurt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frankie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frankie_D">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frankish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frankish_tribes">Franks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>franklin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Franklin</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_B._Gowen.htm" target="_top">Franklin B. Gowen</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" target="_top">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_Pierce.htm" target="_top">Franklin Pierce</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gustavus_Franklin_Swift.htm" target="_top">Gustavus Franklin Swift</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Franklin_%25282005%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Franklin (2005)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>franks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" target="_top">Franks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fransico</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: San_Fransico San_Fransico,_California">San Francisco, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fransisco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: San_Fransisco">San Francisco, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>franz</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franz_Kafka.htm" target="_top">Franz Kafka</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franz_Schubert.htm" target="_top">Franz Schubert</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Haydn.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Franz_Joseph_Haydn Franz_Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fred</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bohemian_Rhapsody.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fred's_thing">Bohemian Rhapsody</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nirvana_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ted_Ed_Fred">Nirvana (band)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frédéric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" target="_top">Frédéric Chopin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frederica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Sophie_Frederica_of_Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia_Augusta_Frederica_of_Anhalt-Zerbst">Catherine II of Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frederick</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Douglass.htm" target="_top">Frederick Douglass</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood%252C_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava.htm" target="_top">Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II_of_Prussia.htm" target="_top">Frederick II of Prussia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fredericka</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sophia_Augusta_Fredericka_of_Anhalt-Zerbst">Catherine II of Russia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fredreich</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Friedrich_Nietzsche.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fredreich_Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fredrick</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II_of_Prussia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fredrick_the_Great">Frederick II of Prussia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fredrickk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Douglass.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fredrickk_douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>free</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anarcho-capitalism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Free_market_anarchism">Anarcho-capitalism</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Free_City_of_Hamburg">Hamburg</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: From_Wikipedia,_the_free_encyclopedia Wikipedia,_The_Free_Encyclopedia">Wikipedia</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" target="_top">Wikipedia Text of the GNU Free Documentation License</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>freedom</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indian_independence_movement.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Indian_freedom_struggle Indian_freedom_fighters Indian_freedom_movement Indian_freedom_fighter">Indian independence movement</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iraq_War.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_III Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_3">Iraq War</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stem_cell.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Freedom_kernel">Stem cell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>freedoms</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Charter_of_Rights_and_Freedoms.htm" target="_top">Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>freeh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Louis_Freeh.htm" target="_top">Louis Freeh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>freetown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Freetown.htm" target="_top">Freetown</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frefox</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frefox">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fremarketeer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Capitalism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fremarketeer">Capitalism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>french</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Guiana.htm" target="_top">French Guiana</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" target="_top">French Open (tennis)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Polynesia.htm" target="_top">French Polynesia</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Revolution.htm" target="_top">French Revolution</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands.htm" target="_top">French Southern and Antarctic Lands</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" target="_top">French language</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Impressionism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: French_Impressionists">Impressionism</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_French_monarchs.htm" target="_top">List of French monarchs</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_history_of_France.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_the_French_military">Military history of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vanilla.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: French_Vanilla">Vanilla</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frequency</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Radio_frequency.htm" target="_top">Radio frequency</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fresh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" target="_top">Fresh water</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>freud</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sigmund_Freud.htm" target="_top">Sigmund Freud</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>friedrich</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" target="_top">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Friedrich_Nietzsche.htm" target="_top">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>friend</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Friend_to_the_Poor">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>friends</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Religious_Society_of_Friends.htm" target="_top">Religious Society of Friends</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frigid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: North_frigid_zone">Arctic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frith</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leicester.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Braunstone_Frith">Leicester</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_clawed_frog.htm" target="_top">African clawed frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_dwarf_frog.htm" target="_top">African dwarf frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Green_Tree_Frog.htm" target="_top">Australian Green Tree Frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frog.htm" target="_top">Frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tree_frog.htm" target="_top">Tree frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/White%2527s_Tree_Frog.htm" target="_top">White's Tree Frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frogs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Frogs.htm" target="_top">The Frogs</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tree_frog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tree_Frogs">Tree frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frojd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sigmund_Freud.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Zigi_Frojd">Sigmund Freud</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>from</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1806_to_1870.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1870_to_1899.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1870 to 1899</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: From_Wikipedia,_the_free_encyclopedia">Wikipedia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>front</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garden_Gnome_Liberation_Front.htm" target="_top">Garden Gnome Liberation Front</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Western_Front_%2528World_War_I%2529.htm" target="_top">Western Front (World War I)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frood</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Frood">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>frued</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sigmund_Freud.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sigmund_Frued">Sigmund Freud</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fruit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" target="_top">Fruit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fruits</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Culture_of_fruits">Fruit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fruity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fruity">Fruit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_Fry.htm" target="_top">Elizabeth Fry</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/J._S._Fry_%2526_Sons.htm" target="_top">J. S. Fry & Sons</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fryderyk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fryderyk-Franciszek_Chopin">Frédéric Chopin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><a name="t"></a><a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>fu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Du_Fu.htm" target="_top">Du Fu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fuel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Clean_fuel">Biofuel</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" target="_top">Fossil fuel</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Petroleum-based_fuel">Petroleum</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wood_fuel.htm" target="_top">Wood fuel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fugendake</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Unzen.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fugendake">Mount Unzen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fugu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fugu.htm" target="_top">Fugu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>full</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CPU_cache.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Full_associative">CPU cache</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Full_moon.htm" target="_top">Full moon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fuller</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buckminster_Fuller.htm" target="_top">Buckminster Fuller</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fully</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CPU_cache.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fully_associative">CPU cache</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>funchal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Funchal.htm" target="_top">Funchal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>function</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trigonometric_function.htm" target="_top">Trigonometric function</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>functional</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Functional_programming.htm" target="_top">Functional programming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fundamental</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fundamental_Rights_in_India.htm" target="_top">Fundamental Rights in India</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic.htm" target="_top">Fundamental theorem of arithmetic</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ordinary_differential_equation.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Fundamental_system Fundamental_matrix_(linear_differential_equation)">Ordinary differential equation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>funeral</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galerina.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Funeral_bell">Galerina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fungus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" target="_top">Fungus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fur_language.htm" target="_top">Fur language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fusarium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fusarium.htm" target="_top">Fusarium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fusion</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fusion_(oil_company)">Mauritania</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Thermo-Fusion">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fußball</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fußball">Football (soccer)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>futuna</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wallis_and_Futuna.htm" target="_top">Wallis and Futuna</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><a name="w"></a><a name="x"></a><table><tr><th>fx</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mozilla_Firefox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mozilla_FX">Mozilla Firefox</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>fyodor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fyodor_Dostoevsky.htm" target="_top">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>fyro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Macedonia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Macedonia_FYRO">Republic of Macedonia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>фёдорович</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Igor_Stravinsky.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Игорь_Фёдорович_Стравинский">Igor Stravinsky</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>фонд</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikimedia_Foundation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Фонд_Викимедиа">Wikimedia Foundation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="z"></a>
</body>
</html>
| ['from redirect: F_B_I', 'from redirect: F._J._Haydn', 'from 2 redirects: F.Y.R._Macedonia F.Y.R_Macedonia', 'from redirect: F1_Podcasts', 'from redirect: Servomechanical_torsion_facilitator', 'from redirect: Yuck_factor', 'from redirect: Harding_Factor', 'from redirect: Isle_of_White_Facts', 'from redirect: Hopeless_failure', 'from redirect: Fair_dice', 'from redirect: Fair_Tax_Act_of_2007', 'from redirect: Mosaic_faith', "from redirect: Christ's_Faithful", 'from redirect: Puleʻanga_Fakatuʻi_ʻo_Tonga', 'from redirect: Fake_websites', 'from redirect: Peregrine_falcons', 'from redirect: South_Georgia,_Falklands', 'from redirect: Famicom', 'from redirect: Famicon', 'from redirect: Canis_Familaris', 'from redirect: Canis_familiaris', 'from redirect: Family_tree_of_the_Al_Maktoum_rulers', 'from redirect: Nintendo_Family_Computer', 'from redirect: Blackbird_family_timeline', 'from redirect: Barzini_Crime_Family', 'from redirect: Famish', 'from redirect: Aunt_Fanny_(Famous_Five)', 'from 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Fedor_dostoevski', 'from redirect: Feed_reader', 'from redirect: Gut_feel', 'from redirect: Gut_feeling', 'from 3 redirects: Feisty Feisty_Fawn Feisty_Faun', 'from redirect: Salvador_Felip_Jacint_Dalí_Domènech', 'from 2 redirects: Felis_silverstris_catus Felis_cattus', 'from redirect: Felsina', 'from redirect: Felspathic', 'from redirect: Female_cycle', 'from 2 redirects: Female_priest Female_priests', 'from redirect: Lord_Fener', 'from 3 redirects: Top-fermenting Bottom_and_top_fermenting_yeast Top_and_bottom_fermenting_yeast', 'from redirect: Ferric_Chloride', 'from redirect: Fesity_fawn', 'from redirect: Few', 'from 2 redirects: Ff1 FF1', 'from 2 redirects: Optical_Fibre Single-mode_optical_fibre', 'from redirect: Cystic_fibrose', 'from redirect: Fictional', 'from redirect: Fidji', 'from redirect: American_football_field', 'from redirect: Gravitational_Field', 'from redirect: Maxwell_field_equations', 'from redirect: Electric_fields_ocean', 'from 2 redirects: Fierce_Deity Fierce_Deity_Link', 'from redirect: Fiesty_Fawn', 'from redirect: Fifth_century_AD', 'from redirect: Euclid_fifth_postulate', 'from redirect: Fifty_United_States', 'from redirect: Indian_freedom_fighter', 'from redirect: Indian_freedom_fighters', 'from redirect: Sword_fighting', 'from redirect: Non-figurative', 'from 2 redirects: X_File The_X_File', 'from 15 redirects: European-Filipino Italian-Filipino Euro-Filipino Austrian_Filipino Austrian-Filipino German_Filipino German-Filipino Italo-Filipino Afro-Filipino Afro_Filipino Polish-Filipino Filipino_Pole Filipino_Poles African-Filipino African_Filipino', 'from 13 redirects: European-Filipinos European_Filipinos Italian-Filipinos Austrian-Filipinos Austrian_Filipinos German-Filipinos German_Filipinos Italo-Filipinos African_Filipinos Afro_Filipinos Afro-Filipinos African-Filipinos Polish-Filipinos', 'from redirect: Unofficial_James_Bond_film', 'from redirect: The_Lion_King_(film)', 'from redirect: The_Old_Man_and_the_Sea_(film)', 'from redirect: Filmography', 'from redirect: Star_Trek_films', 'from redirect: The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(films)', 'from redirect: Great_filter', 'from 2 redirects: Seoul_International_Financial_Centre Seoul_International_Financial_Center', 'from redirect: Financials', 'from 4 redirects: Scout_Finch Jean_Louise_\\', 'from redirect: Mac_Bethad_mac_Findláich', 'from redirect: Fine_wine', 'from redirect: Finfinne', 'from 2 redirects: Finland_honey Finland_Honey', 'from redirect: Finnia', 'from redirect: Finocchio', 'from redirect: Fiodor_Dostoevsky', 'from redirect: Firefox2', 'from redirect: Elizabeth_the_first', 'from redirect: The_first_U.S_President', 'from redirect: James_the_first', 'from redirect: First_Art', 'from redirect: First_Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal', 'from 2 redirects: First_man_on_moon First_man_on_the_Moon', 'from 2 redirects: First-order_ordinary_differential_equation First_order_differential_equation', 'from redirect: First_Polish_Republic', 'from redirect: First_Emporer_of_China', 'from redirect: Fish_tank', 'from 3 redirects: Fish_trap Fish_curing Fish_traps', 'from redirect: Tunny_fish', 'from redirect: Fisherfolk', 'from redirect: Fishies', 'from redirect: Fishtrap', 'from redirect: Fishy', 'from redirect: Fission_power', 'from redirect: Big_clunking_fist', 'from 2 redirects: Nitrogen-fixing_bacteria Nitrogen-fixing_trees', 'from redirect: Fırat_River', 'from redirect: FJH', 'from redirect: US-FL', 'from redirect: Flagellum_Dei', 'from redirect: List_of_Irish_flags', 'from redirect: List_of_national_flags', 'from redirect: The_Flanders_(tv_show)', 'from redirect: Fleet_aircraft_carrier', 'from redirect: Assault_fleet', 'from 2 redirects: British_Fleet British_fleet', 'from redirect: Bird_flight_patterns', 'from redirect: Operation_deny_flight', 'from 12 redirects: Noachian_flood Global_flood Flood_myth World_Flood Genesis_flood Great_Flood_of_Noah Universal_Flood_Myth Flood_story Flood_myths Flood_stories Flood_(mythology) Noachian_Flood', 'from redirect: Floods_(mythology)', 'from redirect: Floopy_disk', 'from redirect: Palazzo_Pitti_Florence', 'from redirect: Soya_flour', 'from redirect: Flower_bed', 'from redirect: Bird_flu_virus', 'from redirect: Wave_motion_in_fluids', 'from redirect: Ressikan_flute', 'from redirect: Flûte', 'from redirect: Fluvio-glacial_deposition', 'from redirect: Flying_Rat', 'from redirect: Focks', 'from redirect: Fodor_dostoevsky', 'from redirect: Foederal_Republic_of_Germany', 'from redirect: Foilist', 'from redirect: Folding_clothes', 'from redirect: Folium_of_cerebellum', 'from redirect: Celtic_folklore', 'from redirect: Follic_acid', 'from 2 redirects: Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis 2005_Sub-Saharan_African_Food_Crisis', 'from redirect: The_primary_food_of_the_gray_wolf', 'from redirect: Foodshake', 'from redirect: Foofle', 'from redirect: The_Celtic_Football_Club', 'from redirect: Paradise_(football)', 'from redirect: Carefree_(football)', 'from 2 redirects: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_(FIFA) Federation_of_International_Football_Association', 'from redirect: Fédération_Internationale_de_Football_Association_World_Cup', 'from redirect: Liverpool_Football_Club', 'from redirect: Footie', "from 2 redirects: That's_one_small_step_for_a_man,_one_giant_leap_for_mankind That's_one_small_step_for_a_man,_one_giant_leap_for_mankind", 'from redirect: Battle_for_France', 'from redirect: Battle_for_Stalingrad', 'from redirect: Lagrange_notation_for_differentiation', 'from redirect: References_for_the_article_Mahatma_Gandhi', "from redirect: That's_one_small_step_for_a_man", 'from redirect: Proposals_for_a_Jewish_state', 'from redirect: Electrostatic_Force', 'from redirect: May_the_Force_be_with_you', 'from redirect: Commonwealth_Naval_Forces', 'from redirect: Weather_forecasters', 'from redirect: Forefox', 'from redirect: Countries_that_teach_english_as_a_foreign_language', 'from redirect: Foreign_Involvement_in_the_Vietnam_War', 'from 2 redirects: Amazon_Rain-forest Amazon_rain-forest', 'from redirect: Forest_gump', 'from redirect: Angus_mac_Forgesso', 'from redirect: Poetic_form', 'from redirect: Formal_logic', 'from redirect: Cloud_formation', 'from redirect: The_Big_Bang_Formula', 'from redirect: Mathematical_formulae', 'from redirect: Prosthaphaeresis_formulas', 'from redirect: G._Forst.', 'from redirect: Aptenodytes_forsteri', 'from redirect: Forward_(basketball)', 'from redirect: Big_Al_(fossil)', 'from redirect: Foul_play', 'from redirect: The_lost_and_found_box', 'from redirect: Wikipedia_founder', 'from redirect: Mario_sixty_four', 'from 2 redirects: June_Fourth_Movement The_June_Fourth_Movement', 'from 2 redirects: Domestic_fowl Common_domestic_fowl', 'from redirect: ALCO_FPB', 'from redirect: Pi_Continued_Fraction', 'from redirect: Frakkland', 'from redirect: Frakland', 'from 2 redirects: Frame_by_frame Frame_by_frame', 'from redirect: San_Fran', 'from redirect: Territoire_français_des_Afars_et_des_Issas', 'from redirect: Guyane_francaise', 'from redirect: Langue_française', 'from 2 redirects: Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire Terres_Australes_et_Antarctiques_Françaises_Territoire,_French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands', 'from redirect: Battle_for_France', 'from 2 redirects: Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland_Garros Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland-Garros', 'from redirect: Throne_of_France', 'from redirect: Marseilles,_France', 'from redirect: Paris,_Ile-De-France', 'from redirect: The_Star_Trek_Franchise', 'from 2 redirects: St._Francis_Basilica Basilica_of_St._Francis_of_Assisi', 'from redirect: San_Franciscan', 'from 2 redirects: Pablo_Diego_José_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_María_de_los_Remedios_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_y_Picasso Pablo_Diego_José_Santiago_Francisco_de_Paula_Juan_Nepomuceno_Crispín_Crispiniano_de_los_Remedios_Cipriano_de_la_Santísima_Trinidad_Ruiz_Blasco_y_Picasso', 'from redirect: San_Francisco_de_Quito', 'from 2 redirects: Fryderyk-Franciszek_Chopin Franciszek_Chopin', 'from redirect: Francois-Auguste-Rene_Rodin', 'from redirect: François_Chopin', 'from redirect: Frankie_D', 'from redirect: Frankish_tribes', 'from 2 redirects: San_Fransico San_Fransico,_California', 'from redirect: San_Fransisco', 'from 2 redirects: Franz_Joseph_Haydn Franz_Haydn', "from redirect: Fred's_thing", 'from redirect: Ted_Ed_Fred', 'from 2 redirects: Sophie_Frederica_of_Anhalt-Zerbst Sophia_Augusta_Frederica_of_Anhalt-Zerbst', 'from redirect: Sophia_Augusta_Fredericka_of_Anhalt-Zerbst', 'from redirect: Fredreich_Nietzsche', 'from redirect: Fredrick_the_Great', 'from redirect: Fredrickk_douglass', 'from redirect: Free_market_anarchism', 'from redirect: Free_City_of_Hamburg', 'from 2 redirects: From_Wikipedia,_the_free_encyclopedia Wikipedia,_The_Free_Encyclopedia', 'from 4 redirects: Indian_freedom_struggle Indian_freedom_fighters Indian_freedom_movement Indian_freedom_fighter', 'from 2 redirects: Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_III Operation_Iraqi_Freedom_3', 'from redirect: Freedom_kernel', 'from redirect: Frefox', 'from redirect: Fremarketeer', 'from redirect: French_Impressionists', 'from redirect: History_of_the_French_military', 'from redirect: French_Vanilla', 'from redirect: Friend_to_the_Poor', 'from redirect: North_frigid_zone', 'from redirect: Braunstone_Frith', 'from redirect: Tree_Frogs', 'from redirect: Zigi_Frojd', 'from redirect: From_Wikipedia,_the_free_encyclopedia', 'from redirect: Frood', 'from redirect: Sigmund_Frued', 'from redirect: Culture_of_fruits', 'from redirect: Fruity', 'from redirect: Fryderyk-Franciszek_Chopin', 'from redirect: Clean_fuel', 'from redirect: Petroleum-based_fuel', 'from redirect: Fugendake', 'from redirect: Full_associative', 'from redirect: Fully_associative', 'from 2 redirects: Fundamental_system Fundamental_matrix_(linear_differential_equation)', 'from redirect: Funeral_bell', 'from redirect: Fusion_(oil_company)', 'from redirect: Thermo-Fusion', 'from redirect: Fußball', 'from redirect: Mozilla_FX', 'from redirect: Macedonia_FYRO', 'from redirect: Игорь_Фёдорович_Стравинский', 'from redirect: Фонд_Викимедиа'] |
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<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : F</h2>
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<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : G</title>
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<body class="alphaindex">
<table><tr><th>g</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Concorde.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: G-BOAC">Concorde</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_Forster.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: G._Forst.">Georg Forster</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: G.W.B. G_Dubya_B">George W. Bush</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Names_of_God_in_Judaism.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: G-d G–d">Names of God in Judaism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>ga</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kimitachi_no_kichi_wa,_subete_CATS_ga_itadaita">All your base are belong to us</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gabalus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elagabalus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Elah-Gabalus">Elagabalus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gabon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Gabon.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Gabon</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gabon.htm" target="_top">Gabon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gaborone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gaborone.htm" target="_top">Gaborone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gabrain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2581ed%25C3%25A1n_mac_Gabr%25C3%25A1in.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aedan_mac_Gabrain">Áedán mac Gabráin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gabraín</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2581ed%25C3%25A1n_mac_Gabr%25C3%25A1in.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Áedán_mac_Gabraín">Áedán mac Gabráin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gabráin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2581ed%25C3%25A1n_mac_Gabr%25C3%25A1in.htm" target="_top">Áedán mac Gabráin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gadolinium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gadolinium.htm" target="_top">Gadolinium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gaelic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Gaelic_language.htm" target="_top">Scottish Gaelic language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gagarin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yuri_Gagarin.htm" target="_top">Yuri Gagarin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Phineas_Gage.htm" target="_top">Phineas Gage</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gahndi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gahndi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gaiden</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_Adventure.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Seiken_Densetsu:_Final_Fantasy_Gaiden">Final Fantasy Adventure</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gainsborough</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Gainsborough.htm" target="_top">Thomas Gainsborough</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gajtan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gajtan_cavern">Albania</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galactic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Galactic_core Galactic_nuclei">Galaxy</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Open_cluster.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Galactic_Clusters Galactic_Cluster">Open cluster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galah</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galah.htm" target="_top">Galah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galápagos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gal%25C3%25A1pagos_Islands.htm" target="_top">Galápagos Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galaxies</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Colonization_of_other_galaxies">Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galaxy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andromeda_Galaxy.htm" target="_top">Andromeda Galaxy</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" target="_top">Galaxy</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galeras</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galeras.htm" target="_top">Galeras</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galerina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galerina.htm" target="_top">Galerina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galilee</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sea_of_Galilee.htm" target="_top">Sea of Galilee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galilei</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galileo_Galilei.htm" target="_top">Galileo Galilei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galileo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galileo_Galilei.htm" target="_top">Galileo Galilei</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gallaghers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oasis_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Gallaghers">Oasis (band)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gallery</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gallery_of_the_Kings_and_Queens_of_England.htm" target="_top">Gallery of the Kings and Queens of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/National_Gallery%252C_London.htm" target="_top">National Gallery, London</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gallimimus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gallimimus.htm" target="_top">Gallimimus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gallium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gallium.htm" target="_top">Gallium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galopogoes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gal%25C3%25A1pagos_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Galopogoes">Galápagos Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>galveston</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900.htm" target="_top">Galveston Hurricane of 1900</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gama</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" target="_top">Vasco da Gama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gambia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Gambia.htm" target="_top">Demographics of the Gambia</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Gambia.htm" target="_top">The Gambia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gambian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Banjul.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Banjul_(Gambian_subdivision)">Banjul</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>game</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Board_game.htm" target="_top">Board game</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Card_game.htm" target="_top">Card game</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civilization_%2528computer_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Civilization (computer game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Final_Fantasy_%2528video_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Final Fantasy (video game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Game.htm" target="_top">Game</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Game_theory.htm" target="_top">Game theory</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Go_%2528board_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Go (board game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" target="_top">Monopoly (game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nash_equilibrium.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nash_theorem_(in_game_theory)">Nash equilibrium</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_DS.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Nintendo_DS_Game_Card">Nintendo DS</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pok%25C3%25A9mon_Trading_Card_Game.htm" target="_top">Pokémon Trading Card Game</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rugby_football.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Game_rugby">Rugby football</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Still_Game.htm" target="_top">Still Game</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ultimatum_game.htm" target="_top">Ultimatum game</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Peace_war_game">War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gamebooks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lone_Wolf_%2528gamebooks%2529.htm" target="_top">Lone Wolf (gamebooks)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gameboy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nintendo_DS.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Nintendo_gameboy_ds Gameboy_ds">Nintendo DS</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>games</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Commonwealth_Games.htm" target="_top">Commonwealth Games</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Computer_and_video_games.htm" target="_top">Computer and video games</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Game.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Games">Game</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Game_theory.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Games_theory">Game theory</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" target="_top">Olympic Games</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gandhi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indira_Gandhi.htm" target="_top">Indira Gandhi</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gandhiji</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gandhiji">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gandy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helen_Gandy.htm" target="_top">Helen Gandy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ganesh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ganesha.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ganesh">Ganesha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ganesha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ganesha.htm" target="_top">Ganesha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ganges</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ganges_River.htm" target="_top">Ganges River</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ganges_shark.htm" target="_top">Ganges shark</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gangs</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: El_Salvador:_Gangs">El Salvador</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gangtok</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gangtok.htm" target="_top">Gangtok</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gaot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gaot">Domestic goat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garage_%2528dance_music%2529.htm" target="_top">Garage (dance music)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garci</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hello_Garci_scandal.htm" target="_top">Hello Garci scandal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garcia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Diego_Garcia.htm" target="_top">Diego Garcia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garden</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Garden_City_(Cairo)">Cairo</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garden.htm" target="_top">Garden</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garden_Gnome_Liberation_Front.htm" target="_top">Garden Gnome Liberation Front</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Garden_irrigation">Irrigation</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lettuce.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Garden_lettuce">Lettuce</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gardening</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gardening.htm" target="_top">Gardening</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gardens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garden.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gardens">Garden</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garfield</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_Garfield.htm" target="_top">James Garfield</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garment</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Necktie.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tie_(garment)">Necktie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garros</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland_Garros Roland_Garros Roland-Garros Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland-Garros">French Open (tennis)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>garter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Garter.htm" target="_top">Order of the Garter</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco_garter_snake.htm" target="_top">San Francisco garter snake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CS_gas.htm" target="_top">CS gas</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" target="_top">Gas</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" target="_top">Gas giant</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_metal_arc_welding.htm" target="_top">Gas metal arc welding</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding.htm" target="_top">Gas tungsten arc welding</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_turbine-electric_locomotive.htm" target="_top">Gas turbine-electric locomotive</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" target="_top">Natural gas</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gas_prices">Petroleum</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Poison_gas_in_World_War_I.htm" target="_top">Poison gas in World War I</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/StarCraft.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vespene_Gas">StarCraft</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gascoyne</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%252C_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury.htm" target="_top">Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gases</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Air_(mixture_of_gases)">Earth's atmosphere</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gasification</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Coal_gasification Underground_coal_gasification">Coal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gasses</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Atmospheric_gasses">Earth's atmosphere</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gate</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Gates.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Bill_gate Gate_bill">Bill Gates</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Gate_Highlands_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Golden Gate Highlands National Park</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gates</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Gates.htm" target="_top">Bill Gates</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gathering</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Magic__The_Gathering.htm" target="_top">Magic The Gathering</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gators</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chicago_Bears.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chicago_Gators">Chicago Bears</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gaur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gaur.htm" target="_top">Gaur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gauss</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss.htm" target="_top">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gauss%2527s_law.htm" target="_top">Gauss's law</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gautama</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gautama_Buddha.htm" target="_top">Gautama Buddha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gay</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Marvin_Gaye.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Marvin_Pentz_Gay">Marvin Gaye</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gaye</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Marvin_Gaye.htm" target="_top">Marvin Gaye</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gayus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gayus_Julius_Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gaza</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gaza_Strip.htm" target="_top">Gaza Strip</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gazelle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gazelle.htm" target="_top">Gazelle</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><table><tr><th>gbbtm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath%252C_Somerset.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: UN/LOCODE:GBBTM">Bath, Somerset</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="c"></a><a name="d"></a><table><tr><th>gdrt</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GDRT.htm" target="_top">GDRT</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="e"></a><table><tr><th>ge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geneva_GE">Geneva</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canada_Goose.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Canadian_Geese">Canada Goose</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geisel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dr._Seuss.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Audrey_Geisel">Dr. Seuss</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gelb</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_France.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Operation_Gelb">Battle of France</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gelders</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/z/Zuid-Gelders.htm" target="_top">Zuid-Gelders</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gender</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baby_Gender_Mentor.htm" target="_top">Baby Gender Mentor</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gender.htm" target="_top">Gender</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gene</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Simpsons.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Simpson_gene">The Simpsons</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wrestling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gene_Ligon">Wrestling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genealogy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genealogy.htm" target="_top">Genealogy</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_I_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Genealogy_of_William_the_Conqueror">William I of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>general</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/General_Pershing_Zephyr.htm" target="_top">General Pershing Zephyr</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rhode_Island.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rhode_Island_General_Treasurer">Rhode Island</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_Trade_Organization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: General_Council_(WTO)">World Trade Organization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>generations</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alternation_of_generations.htm" target="_top">Alternation of generations</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genesis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deluge_%2528mythology%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Genesis_flood">Deluge (mythology)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genetic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genetic_code.htm" target="_top">Genetic code</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genetical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Genetical">Genetics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genetics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" target="_top">Genetics</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geneva</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" target="_top">Geneva</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genghis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" target="_top">Genghis Khan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gengis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gengis">Genghis Khan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genoa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" target="_top">Genoa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genocide</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Population_history_of_American_indigenous_peoples.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Native_American_genocide">Population history of American indigenous peoples</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rwandan_Genocide.htm" target="_top">Rwandan Genocide</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: German_Genocide">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>genres</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alternative_rock.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_alternative_rock_genres">Alternative rock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gentil</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gentil-Aromatique">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gentile</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Gentile-Aromatique Gentile_Aromatique">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gentoo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gentoo_penguin.htm" target="_top">Gentoo penguin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geo_washington">George Washington</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geographer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Geographical_Society.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chartered_Geographer">Royal Geographical Society</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geographical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Plate_tectonics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geographical_plate">Plate tectonics</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Geographical_Society.htm" target="_top">Royal Geographical Society</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geography</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abkhazia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geography_of_Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" target="_top">Geography</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geography_of_Africa.htm" target="_top">Geography of Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geography_of_India.htm" target="_top">Geography of India</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geography_of_Ireland.htm" target="_top">Geography of Ireland</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geography_of_Texas.htm" target="_top">Geography of Texas</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Meander.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Meander_(geography)">Meander</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/Geography">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Crust_%2528geology%2529.htm" target="_top">Crust (geology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geography_of_Ireland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geology_of_Ireland">Geography of Ireland</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" target="_top">Geology</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geology_of_Dorset.htm" target="_top">Geology of Dorset</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geology_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">Geology of the Grand Canyon area</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geometric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geometry.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geometric">Geometry</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geometric_center_of_Slovenia">Slovenia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geometry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Differential_geometry_and_topology.htm" target="_top">Differential geometry and topology</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Euclidean_geometry.htm" target="_top">Euclidean geometry</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geometry.htm" target="_top">Geometry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>georg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_Cantor.htm" target="_top">Georg Cantor</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_Forster.htm" target="_top">Georg Forster</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georg_von_Boeselager.htm" target="_top">Georg von Boeselager</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>george</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Byron%252C_6th_Baron_Byron.htm" target="_top">George Byron, 6th Baron Byron</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Eliot.htm" target="_top">George Eliot</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Fox.htm" target="_top">George Fox</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" target="_top">George H. W. Bush</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Herbert.htm" target="_top">George Herbert</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">George III of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_II_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">George II of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">George IV of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_I_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">George I of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Thomas_Coker.htm" target="_top">George Thomas Coker</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">George VI of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">George V of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top">George W. Bush</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" target="_top">George Washington</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Bristol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_George">University of Bristol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>georges</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Georges.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Georges</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>georgetown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georgetown%252C_Guyana.htm" target="_top">Georgetown, Guyana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>georgewbush</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GeorgeWBush">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>georgia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlanta%252C_Georgia.htm" target="_top">Atlanta, Georgia</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" target="_top">Georgia (country)</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kipchaks_in_Georgia.htm" target="_top">Kipchaks in Georgia</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" target="_top">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>georgian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bath%252C_Somerset.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Georgian_Bath">Bath, Somerset</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>georgiana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pride_and_Prejudice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Georgiana_Darcy">Pride and Prejudice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gerald</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Durrell.htm" target="_top">Gerald Durrell</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Ford.htm" target="_top">Gerald Ford</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geramny</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Geramny">Germany</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>german</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/%25/%25E2%2582%25AC2_commemorative_coins.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: German_Bundesländer_commemorative_coin">€2 commemorative coins</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: German-Filipinos German_Filipinos German_Filipino German-Filipino Philippine_German">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/German_Crusade%252C_1096.htm" target="_top">German Crusade, 1096</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" target="_top">German language</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/German_reunification.htm" target="_top">German reunification</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/High_German_consonant_shift.htm" target="_top">High German consonant shift</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Greater_German_Reich Great_German_Reich German_Nazi">Nazi Germany</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sino-German_cooperation_%25281911-1941%2529.htm" target="_top">Sino-German cooperation (1911-1941)</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: German_Genocide">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>germanium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Germanium.htm" target="_top">Germanium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>germans</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_the_Philippines.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Philippine_Germans">Demographics of the Philippines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>germany</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" target="_top">Germany</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" target="_top">Nazi Germany</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>germeny</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Germeny">Germany</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>geʃ</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_Communist_Party.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pɐɾ'tidu_kumu'niʃtɐ_puɾtu'geʃ">Portuguese Communist Party</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gettysburg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Gettysburg.htm" target="_top">Battle of Gettysburg</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gettysburg_Address.htm" target="_top">Gettysburg Address</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gewurztraube</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gewurztraube">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="f"></a><a name="g"></a><table><tr><th>gg1</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/PRR_GG1.htm" target="_top">PRR GG1</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ggea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GGEA">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="h"></a><table><tr><th>ghana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Ghana.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Ghana</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" target="_top">Ghana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ghandi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from 5 redirects: Mahatma_Ghandi M._K._Ghandi Mahatama_Ghandi Mohandas_Ghandi Mohandus_Ghandi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ghanesh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ganesha.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ghanesh">Ganesha</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ghengis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Genghis_Khan.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Ghengis_Khan Ghengis_Kahn">Genghis Khan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ghits</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GHits">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ghost</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/A_Christmas_Carol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: A_Christmas_Carol_in_Prose,_Being_a_Ghost_Story_of_Christmas">A Christmas Carol</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barn_Owl.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ghost_owl">Barn Owl</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Ghost_Dance.htm" target="_top">Ghost Dance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>giant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: That's_one_small_step_for_a_man,_one_giant_leap_for_mankind">Apollo 11</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" target="_top">Gas giant</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant%2527s_Causeway.htm" target="_top">Giant's Causeway</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Eland.htm" target="_top">Giant Eland</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Hogweed.htm" target="_top">Giant Hogweed</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Panda.htm" target="_top">Giant Panda</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Red_giant.htm" target="_top">Red giant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gibbon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Gibbon.htm" target="_top">Edward Gibbon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gibraltar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" target="_top">Gibraltar</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rock_of_Gibraltar.htm" target="_top">Rock of Gibraltar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gift</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gift_of_the_Nile">Egypt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>giganotosaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giganotosaurus.htm" target="_top">Giganotosaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gilberd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Gilbert.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: William_Gilberd">William Gilbert</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gilbert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Gilbert.htm" target="_top">William Gilbert</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gilbratar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gilbratar">Gibraltar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gilgamesh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Epic_of_Gilgamesh.htm" target="_top">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gilles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gilles_Villeneuve.htm" target="_top">Gilles Villeneuve</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gillis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sunset_Boulevard_%25281950_film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Joe_Gillis Joseph_C._Gillis">Sunset Boulevard (1950 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gilwell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Baden-Powell%252C_1st_Baron_Baden-Powell.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Robert_Baden-Powell_of_Gilwell">Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nineteen_Eighty-Four.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Victory_gin Victory_Gin">Nineteen Eighty-Four</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>giraffe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giraffe.htm" target="_top">Giraffe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GIS_in_Hydrology">Hydrology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>giuseppe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giuseppe_Verdi.htm" target="_top">Giuseppe Verdi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>giza</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Egyptian_pyramids.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Giza_Pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giza_pyramid_complex.htm" target="_top">Giza pyramid complex</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza.htm" target="_top">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><a name="k"></a><a name="l"></a><table><tr><th>gl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gl_wa">Global warming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glacial</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Glacial_deposition Fluvio-glacial_deposition Glacial_refugia">Glacier</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ice_sheet.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Glacial_sheet">Ice sheet</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Post-glacial_rebound.htm" target="_top">Post-glacial rebound</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glacier</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" target="_top">Glacier</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glacier_National_Park_%2528US%2529.htm" target="_top">Glacier National Park (US)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tibet_glacier_completely_melted_down_by_2100">Global warming</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubbard_Glacier.htm" target="_top">Hubbard Glacier</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malaspina_Glacier.htm" target="_top">Malaspina Glacier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glaciers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850.htm" target="_top">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glaciology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glaciology.htm" target="_top">Glaciology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gladstone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" target="_top">William Ewart Gladstone</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Gladstone.htm" target="_top">William Gladstone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gladys</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/RMS_Titanic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Eliza_Gladys_Milvina_Dean">RMS Titanic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glasgow</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" target="_top">Glasgow</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fiberglass.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: S-glass">Fiberglass</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" target="_top">Glass</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stained_glass.htm" target="_top">Stained glass</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glasses</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glasses.htm" target="_top">Glasses</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glastonbury</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glastonbury_Festival.htm" target="_top">Glastonbury Festival</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glaxo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GlaxoSmithKline.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Glaxo_Smithkline Glaxo_Group">GlaxoSmithKline</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glaxosmithklein</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GlaxoSmithKline.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GlaxoSmithKlein">GlaxoSmithKline</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glaxosmithkline</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GlaxoSmithKline.htm" target="_top">GlaxoSmithKline</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glide</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harley-Davidson.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dyna_wide_glide">Harley-Davidson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glider</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gliding.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Glider_pilot">Gliding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gliding</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gliding.htm" target="_top">Gliding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gliese</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gliese_876.htm" target="_top">Gliese 876</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gliese_876_b.htm" target="_top">Gliese 876 b</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gliese_876_c.htm" target="_top">Gliese 876 c</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gliese_876_d.htm" target="_top">Gliese 876 d</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>global</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Civil_society.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Global_civil_society">Civil society</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Global_climate Global_temperature">Climate</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deluge_%2528mythology%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Global_flood">Deluge (mythology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effects_of_global_warming.htm" target="_top">Effects of global warming</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global.htm" target="_top">Global</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" target="_top">Global city</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_spread_of_H5N1.htm" target="_top">Global spread of H5N1</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" target="_top">Global warming</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>globalization</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Globalization_and_World_Cities_Study_Group_and_Network">Global city</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Globalization.htm" target="_top">Globalization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>globals</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Globals">Global</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>globe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Globe_Theatre.htm" target="_top">Globe Theatre</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harlem_Globetrotters.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Harlem_Globe_Trotters Globe_Trotters">Harlem Globetrotters</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>globetrotters</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harlem_Globetrotters.htm" target="_top">Harlem Globetrotters</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>globular</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Globular_cluster.htm" target="_top">Globular cluster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gloria</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Gloria.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Gloria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glorious</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" target="_top">Glorious Revolution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glorius</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Glorius_revolution">Glorious Revolution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>glynn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glynn_Lunney.htm" target="_top">Glynn Lunney</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>gmail</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gmail.htm" target="_top">Gmail</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><table><tr><th>gnadhi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gnadhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gnapster</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Napster.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gnapster">Napster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gnome</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" target="_top">GNOME</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Garden_Gnome_Liberation_Front.htm" target="_top">Garden Gnome Liberation Front</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gnu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emacs.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: GNU_Emacs GNU/Emacs">Emacs</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNU.htm" target="_top">GNU</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNU_Linux_naming_controversy.htm" target="_top">GNU Linux naming controversy</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNU_Project.htm" target="_top">GNU Project</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Linux.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: GNU/Linux Gnu/Linux Gnu/linux GNU/Linux_PC">Linux</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ubuntu_(GNU/Linux_distribution)">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wikipedia_Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License.htm" target="_top">Wikipedia Text of the GNU Free Documentation License</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gnu+linux</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNU.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GNU+Linux">GNU</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>go</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Go_%2528board_game%2529.htm" target="_top">Go (board game)</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Manifest_Destiny.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Go_West,_young_man">Manifest Destiny</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Where_Did_Our_Love_Go.htm" target="_top">Where Did Our Love Go</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Goa.htm" target="_top">Goa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" target="_top">Domestic goat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>god</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Rejection_of_God">Atheism</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Buddha.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Buddha_-_God_or_Man">Buddha</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" target="_top">God</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greek_god_goddess">Greek mythology</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Jesus,_son_of_God">Jesus</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Names_of_God_in_Judaism.htm" target="_top">Names of God in Judaism</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rama.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: God_Ram">Rama</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Roman_God">Roman mythology</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trimurti.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Three_God_heads">Trimurti</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trinity.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Christian_God">Trinity</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goddess</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greek_god_goddess">Greek mythology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>godfather</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Godfather.htm" target="_top">The Godfather</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goethe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Johann_Wolfgang_Goethe.htm" target="_top">Johann Wolfgang Goethe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gogh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" target="_top">Vincent van Gogh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gold</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gold%2528III%2529_chloride.htm" target="_top">Gold(III) chloride</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" target="_top">Gold</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gold_standard.htm" target="_top">Gold standard</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Black_gold_(liquid)">Petroleum</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rainbow.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Pot_of_gold A_pot_of_gold">Rainbow</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goldcrest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Goldcrest.htm" target="_top">Goldcrest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>golden</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cinema_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Golden_Age_of_Hollywood">Cinema of the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Eagle.htm" target="_top">Golden Eagle</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Gate_Highlands_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Golden Gate Highlands National Park</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goldfaden</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Goldfaden.htm" target="_top">Abraham Goldfaden</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goldfinch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Goldfinch.htm" target="_top">European Goldfinch</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goldfish</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Goldfish.htm" target="_top">Goldfish</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goleta</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Goleta%252C_California.htm" target="_top">Goleta, California</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>golf</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Forks%252C_North_Dakota.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: King's_Walk_Golf_Course Kings_Walk_Golf_Course Ray_Richards_Golf_Course">Grand Forks, North Dakota</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gone</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gone_with_the_Wind_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Gone with the Wind (film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goneam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GoneAM-ME">GNOME</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goneme</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNOME.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GoneME">GNOME</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gongheguo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Chaoxian_Minzhuzhuyi_Renmin_Gongheguo">North Korea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gonzalez</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Gonzalez.htm" target="_top">Andrew Gonzalez</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>good</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Era_of_good_stealings">Ulysses S. Grant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>googl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Googl">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>google</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gmail.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Google_email">Gmail</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>googlemail</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gmail.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: En/googlemail">Gmail</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>googlr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Googlr">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goole</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Goole.com">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gooner</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arsenal_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gooner">Arsenal F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gooooooogle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gooooooogle">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goose</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canada_Goose.htm" target="_top">Canada Goose</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Goose.htm" target="_top">Goose</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawaiian_Goose.htm" target="_top">Hawaiian Goose</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Snow_Goose.htm" target="_top">Snow Goose</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gorbachev</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mikhail_Gorbachev.htm" target="_top">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gorbachyov</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mikhail_Gorbachev.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mihail_Gorbachyov">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gordon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Brown.htm" target="_top">Gordon Brown</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Griffith.htm" target="_top">Gordon Griffith</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lucy%252C_Lady_Duff-Gordon.htm" target="_top">Lucy, Lady Duff-Gordon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gorge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Avon_Gorge.htm" target="_top">Avon Gorge</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gorge_W._Bush">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gorges</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Three_Gorges_Dam.htm" target="_top">Three Gorges Dam</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gorilla</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" target="_top">Gorilla</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mountain_Gorilla.htm" target="_top">Mountain Gorilla</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gorod</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Almaty.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Gorod_Almaty Gorod_Almaty_City Gorod_Almaty_City,_Kazakhstan">Almaty</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gorrila</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gorilla.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gorrila">Gorilla</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gospel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aradia%252C_or_the_Gospel_of_the_Witches.htm" target="_top">Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carolingian_Gospel_Book_%2528British_Library%252C_MS_Add._11848%2529.htm" target="_top">Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gospels</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lindisfarne_Gospels.htm" target="_top">Lindisfarne Gospels</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Schuttern_Gospels.htm" target="_top">Schuttern Gospels</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gossypium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gossypium.htm" target="_top">Gossypium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Vincent_Van_Goth">Vincent van Gogh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gothanburg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gothenburg.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gothanburg">Gothenburg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gothenburg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gothenburg.htm" target="_top">Gothenburg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gottfried</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gottfried_Leibniz.htm" target="_top">Gottfried Leibniz</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gough</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Van_Gough Vincent_Van_Gough">Vincent van Gogh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gould</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Jay_Gould.htm" target="_top">Stephen Jay Gould</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>government</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Democratically-elected_government Democratically_elected_government">Election</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Flag_of_Nanjing_Nationalist_Government">Flag of the Republic of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" target="_top">Government</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Government_of_France.htm" target="_top">Government of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Karachi.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: City_District_Government_Karachi City_District_Government_of_Karachi">Karachi</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Kerala.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Government_of_Kerala">Kerala</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" target="_top">List of countries by system of government</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">Local government in the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Metropolitan_Government_of_Nashville_and_Davidson_County">Nashville, Tennessee</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_China.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: National_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China">Republic of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/Government">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tokyo_Metropolitan_Government">Tokyo</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Weimar_Republic.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Weimar_government">Weimar Republic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>governments</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_democratically_elected_governments_opposed_by_the_U.S.">Election</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gowanus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gowanus_Canal.htm" target="_top">Gowanus Canal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gowen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_B._Gowen.htm" target="_top">Franklin B. Gowen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>goya</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Francisco_Goya.htm" target="_top">Francisco Goya</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>gp30</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/EMD_GP30.htm" target="_top">EMD GP30</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>grace</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greater_Grace_International_School">Budapest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gracenotes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gracenotes_MusicID">Compact Disc</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gradaščević</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Husein_Grada%25C5%25A1%25C4%258Devi%25C4%2587.htm" target="_top">Husein Gradaščević</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grafenberger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grafenberger">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>graham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Graham_Bell.htm" target="_top">Alexander Graham Bell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grain</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Grain Grain_(agriculture)">Cereal</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: IRRI-6_White_Long_Grain_Rice">Rice</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gram</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Graham_Bell.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alexander_gram_bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grammar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Japanese_grammar.htm" target="_top">Japanese grammar</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Grammar_School_Worcester.htm" target="_top">Royal Grammar School Worcester</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gran</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Las_Palmas_de_Gran_Canaria.htm" target="_top">Las Palmas de Gran Canaria</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Geology_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">Geology of the Grand Canyon area</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canal_of_China.htm" target="_top">Grand Canal of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canyon.htm" target="_top">Grand Canyon</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Central_Station_%2528Chicago%2529.htm" target="_top">Grand Central Station (Chicago)</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Central_Terminal.htm" target="_top">Grand Central Terminal</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Forks%252C_North_Dakota.htm" target="_top">Grand Forks, North Dakota</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Slam_%2528tennis%2529.htm" target="_top">Grand Slam (tennis)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">History of the Grand Canyon area</a>
<a href="../../wp/k/Knights_of_Columbus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Past_Grand_Knight">Knights of Columbus</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monaco_Grand_Prix.htm" target="_top">Monaco Grand Prix</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Baby_grand">Piano</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grande</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/La_Grande_Arm%25C3%25A9e.htm" target="_top">La Grande Armée</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: La_grande_guerra">World War I</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grange</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grange_Hill.htm" target="_top">Grange Hill</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>granite</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" target="_top">Granite</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>graniteville</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Graniteville_train_disaster.htm" target="_top">Graniteville train disaster</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grant</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" target="_top">Ulysses S. Grant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grape</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grape_seed_oil.htm" target="_top">Grape seed oil</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Wine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grape_wine">Wine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>graphic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comics.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Graphic_narrative">Comics</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Graphic_novel.htm" target="_top">Graphic novel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>graphics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Color_Graphics_Adapter.htm" target="_top">Color Graphics Adapter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>graphing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Polar_coordinate_system.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Polar_graphing">Polar coordinate system</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gras</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Foie_gras.htm" target="_top">Foie gras</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>graschevina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Graschevina">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grasevina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grasevina">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grass</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Battle_of_the_Greasy_Grass">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grasses</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lawn.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lawn_and_turf_grasses">Lawn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>graus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Foie_gras.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Faux_graus">Foie gras</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grave</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/One_Foot_in_the_Grave.htm" target="_top">One Foot in the Grave</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gravitation</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" target="_top">Gravitation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gravitational</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Gravitational_attraction Gravitational_Field Gravitational_pull">Gravitation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gravity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Gravity Acceleration_of_gravity Theory_of_gravity">Gravitation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gray</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gray_Wolf.htm" target="_top">Gray Wolf</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gray_reef_shark.htm" target="_top">Gray reef shark</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Propaganda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gray_propaganda">Propaganda</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Picture_of_Dorian_Gray.htm" target="_top">The Picture of Dorian Gray</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grease</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grease_%2528film%2529.htm" target="_top">Grease (film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greasy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Battle_of_the_Greasy_Grass">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>great</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1755_Lisbon_earthquake.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_Lisbon_Earthquake">1755 Lisbon earthquake</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abbas_I_of_Persia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Shah_Abbas_I_the_Great">Abbas I of Persia</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Great_Lakes.htm" target="_top">African Great Lakes</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Alexander the Great</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Alfred the Great</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Anne_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">Anne of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Wellesley%252C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Duke_of_Wellington_Great_Duke">Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Archipelago_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canute_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Canute the Great</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Constantine_I.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Constantine_the_great">Constantine I</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyrus_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Cyrus the Great</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Deluge_%2528mythology%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_Flood_of_Noah">Deluge (mythology)</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/East-West_Schism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_Schism_of_1054">East-West Schism</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Queen_Elizabeth_II_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland">Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/English_peasants%2527_revolt_of_1381.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_Rising">English peasants' revolt of 1381</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Fermi_paradox.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_filter">Fermi paradox</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II_of_Prussia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fredrick_the_Great">Frederick II of Prussia</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_III_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George III of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_II_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">George II of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_IV_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George IV of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_I_of_Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">George I of Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_VI_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George VI of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: George_V_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">George V of the United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Auk.htm" target="_top">Great Auk</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Barrier_Reef.htm" target="_top">Great Barrier Reef</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Black-backed_Gull.htm" target="_top">Great Black-backed Gull</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" target="_top">Great Britain</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Bustard.htm" target="_top">Great Bustard</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Comet_of_1882.htm" target="_top">Great Comet of 1882</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Cormorant.htm" target="_top">Great Cormorant</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Crested_Grebe.htm" target="_top">Great Crested Grebe</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes.htm" target="_top">Great Lakes</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Lakes_Storm_of_1913.htm" target="_top">Great Lakes Storm of 1913</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Moravia.htm" target="_top">Great Moravia</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza.htm" target="_top">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Red_Spot.htm" target="_top">Great Red Spot</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Rift_Valley.htm" target="_top">Great Rift Valley</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Salt_Lake.htm" target="_top">Great Salt Lake</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Spotted_Woodpecker.htm" target="_top">Great Spotted Woodpecker</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Tit.htm" target="_top">Great Tit</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Wall_of_China.htm" target="_top">Great Wall of China</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Yarmouth.htm" target="_top">Great Yarmouth</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_comet.htm" target="_top">Great comet</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_hammerhead.htm" target="_top">Great hammerhead</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_white_shark.htm" target="_top">Great white shark</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: The_Great_Leonardo The_Great_Lenardo">Leonardo da Vinci</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_monarchs_in_the_British_Isles.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_Kings_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland">List of monarchs in the British Isles</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Llywelyn_the_Great.htm" target="_top">Llywelyn the Great</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mary_II_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mary_II_of_Great_Britain">Mary II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_German_Reich">Nazi Germany</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Ramesses_II.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Rameses_the_Great Ramesses_the_Great Ramses_the_Great">Ramesses II</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Recorder.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_bass_recorder">Recorder</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Revolution.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_revolution">Revolution</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Right_whale.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_whale">Right whale</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Anarchy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_Anarchy">The Anarchy</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Great_Exhibition.htm" target="_top">The Great Exhibition</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_&_Northern_Ireland">United Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Bristol.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Great_George">University of Bristol</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: William_III_of_Great_Britain">William III of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Great_Murder">World War I</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_second_great_war">World War II</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greater</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greater_Grace_International_School">Budapest</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greater_Cairo">Cairo</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greater_Cane_Rat.htm" target="_top">Greater Cane Rat</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Levee_failures_in_Greater_New_Orleans%252C_2005.htm" target="_top">Levee failures in Greater New Orleans, 2005</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greater_German_Reich">Nazi Germany</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Salford.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Salford_(Greater_Manchester)">Salford</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santiago%252C_Chile.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greater_Santiago,_Chile">Santiago, Chile</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grebe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Crested_Grebe.htm" target="_top">Great Crested Grebe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greco</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greco-Buddhism.htm" target="_top">Greco-Buddhism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greece</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" target="_top">Ancient Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" target="_top">Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hellenistic_Greece.htm" target="_top">Hellenistic Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Greece.htm" target="_top">History of Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Greece.htm" target="_top">Roman Greece</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greek</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bronze_Age.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greek_Bronze_Age">Bronze Age</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greek_War_of_Independence.htm" target="_top">Greek War of Independence</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" target="_top">Greek mythology</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Greece.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greek_city-states">History of Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indo-Greek_Kingdom.htm" target="_top">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greek_Games">Olympic Games</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stoicism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greek_skeptics">Stoicism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greekmythology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GreekMythology">Greek mythology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>green</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Green_Tree_Frog.htm" target="_top">Australian Green Tree Frog</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/E._E._Cummings.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: All_in_green_went_my_love_riding">E. E. Cummings</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Green_Woodpecker.htm" target="_top">Green Woodpecker</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Green_pea">Pea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greenfinch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/European_Greenfinch.htm" target="_top">European Greenfinch</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greenhouse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greenhouse_effect.htm" target="_top">Greenhouse effect</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greenland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" target="_top">Greenland</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Greenland.htm" target="_top">History of Greenland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>greg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greg_LeMond.htm" target="_top">Greg LeMond</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gregor_Mendel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Greg_Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gregor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gregor_Mendel.htm" target="_top">Gregor Mendel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gregorian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gregorian_chant.htm" target="_top">Gregorian chant</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gregory</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Augusta%252C_Lady_Gregory.htm" target="_top">Augusta, Lady Gregory</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gremlins</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gremlins.htm" target="_top">Gremlins</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grenada</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grenada.htm" target="_top">Grenada</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Invasion_of_Grenada.htm" target="_top">Invasion of Grenada</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grenade</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/CS_gas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CS_grenade">CS gas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grenadines</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines.htm" target="_top">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gretel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/H%25C3%25A4nsel_und_Gretel.htm" target="_top">Hänsel und Gretel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grevy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grevy%2527s_Zebra.htm" target="_top">Grevy's Zebra</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Grey_Hornbill.htm" target="_top">African Grey Hornbill</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Grey_Parrot.htm" target="_top">African Grey Parrot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grf</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Ford.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GRF">Gerald Ford</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>griffen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Burley_Griffin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Lake_Burley_Griffen">Lake Burley Griffin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>griffin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Burley_Griffin.htm" target="_top">Lake Burley Griffin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>griffith</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gordon_Griffith.htm" target="_top">Gordon Griffith</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grimes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Grimes.htm" target="_top">Peter Grimes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grimm</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Brothers_Grimm.htm" target="_top">Brothers Grimm</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ground</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alice%2527s_Adventures_in_Wonderland.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alice's_Adventures_under_Ground">Alice's Adventures in Wonderland</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Tom_tiddler's_ground">Charles Dickens</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tank.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Armoured_defence/ground_strike_vehicle">Tank</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>groundhog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grumpy_Groundhog">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>group</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/ABO_blood_group_system.htm" target="_top">ABO blood group system</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Elementary_group_theory.htm" target="_top">Elementary group theory</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ethnic_group.htm" target="_top">Ethnic group</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/GlaxoSmithKline.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Glaxo_Group">GlaxoSmithKline</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_city.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Globalization_and_World_Cities_Study_Group_and_Network">Global city</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Group_%2528mathematics%2529.htm" target="_top">Group (mathematics)</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rio_Tinto_Group.htm" target="_top">Rio Tinto Group</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_Bank_Group.htm" target="_top">World Bank Group</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>groups</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Sri_Lanka.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Sri_Lanka">Demographics of Sri Lanka</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Syria.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Syria">Demographics of Syria</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Uganda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ugandan_Ethnic_Groups">Demographics of Uganda</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_animal_welfare_groups.htm" target="_top">List of animal welfare groups</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Recent_Far_East_Naval_Task_Groups">Royal Navy</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Indigenous_cultures,_kingdoms_and_ethnic_groups_of_Senegal Indigenous_Cultures,_Kingdoms_and_Ethnic_Groups_of_Senegal">Senegal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grover</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" target="_top">Grover Cleveland</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>growth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Economy_of_India.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Indian_Economic_Growth">Economy of India</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grumpy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Ubuntu_%2528Linux_distribution%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Grumpy_Groundhog">Ubuntu (Linux distribution)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>grunwald</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Grunwald.htm" target="_top">Battle of Grunwald</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><a name="t"></a><a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>gu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guqin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gu-ch'in">Guqin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gua</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pythagorean_theorem.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: De_Gua_theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guadalcanal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal.htm" target="_top">Naval Battle of Guadalcanal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guadeloupe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" target="_top">Guadeloupe</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Martinique_and_Guadeloupe.htm" target="_top">Music of Martinique and Guadeloupe</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guam</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guam.htm" target="_top">Guam</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guang</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guang_zhou">Guangzhou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guangjhou</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guangjhou">Guangzhou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guangzhou</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top">Guangzhou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guanzhou</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guanzhou">Guangzhou</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guatemala</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" target="_top">Guatemala</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guernsey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guernsey.htm" target="_top">Guernsey</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guerra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: La_grande_guerra">World War I</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guevar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Che_Guevara.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Che_Guevar">Che Guevara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guevara</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Che_Guevara.htm" target="_top">Che Guevara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guevera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Che_Guevara.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ernesto_Guevera">Che Guevara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guglielmo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guglielmo_Marconi.htm" target="_top">Guglielmo Marconi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gui</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Microraptor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Microraptor_gui">Microraptor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guiana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Guiana.htm" target="_top">French Guiana</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georgetown%252C_Guyana.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Georgetown,_British_Guiana">Georgetown, Guyana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guide</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scooby-Doo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Scooby-Doo_series_guide">Scooby-Doo</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guild</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guild.htm" target="_top">Guild</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guinea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Equatorial_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Equatorial Guinea</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Guinea-Bissau.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Guinea-Bissau</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Demographics of Guinea</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Equatorial_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Equatorial Guinea</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guinea-Bissau.htm" target="_top">Guinea-Bissau</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guinea.htm" target="_top">Guinea</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Papua_New_Guinea.htm" target="_top">Papua New Guinea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guineafowl</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helmeted_Guineafowl.htm" target="_top">Helmeted Guineafowl</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guinnes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guinness.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guinnes">Guinness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guinness</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guinness.htm" target="_top">Guinness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guitar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" target="_top">Guitar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gulf</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: West_Indies_and_Gulf_Coast_campaigns">American Revolutionary War</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Leyte_Gulf.htm" target="_top">Battle of Leyte Gulf</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gulf_of_Mexico.htm" target="_top">Gulf of Mexico</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iraq_War.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Second_gulf_war 2003_Gulf_War Gulf_War_2">Iraq War</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" target="_top">Persian Gulf</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gull</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Black-backed_Gull.htm" target="_top">Great Black-backed Gull</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gull.htm" target="_top">Gull</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herring_Gull.htm" target="_top">Herring Gull</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gump</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Forrest_Gump.htm" target="_top">Forrest Gump</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Imperial_Japanese_Navy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kai_gun">Imperial Japanese Navy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gunpowder</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gunpowder.htm" target="_top">Gunpowder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guqin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guqin.htm" target="_top">Guqin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gǔqín</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guqin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gǔqín">Guqin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gusen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mauthausen-Gusen_concentration_camp.htm" target="_top">Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gustav</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gustav_Holst.htm" target="_top">Gustav Holst</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gustavus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gustavus_Franklin_Swift.htm" target="_top">Gustavus Franklin Swift</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Gut_feeling Gut_reaction Gut_feel">Emotion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gutenberg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Johannes_Gutenberg.htm" target="_top">Johannes Gutenberg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guvarra</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Che_Guevara.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Che_guvarra">Che Guevara</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guyana</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Georgetown%252C_Guyana.htm" target="_top">Georgetown, Guyana</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Guyana.htm" target="_top">Guyana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guyane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/French_Guiana.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Guyane_francaise">French Guiana</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>guys</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Google.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Google_Guys">Google</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><a name="w"></a><table><tr><th>gw</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Gw_bush">George W. Bush</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gwoc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_Wall_of_China.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GWOC">Great Wall of China</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="x"></a><a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>gyatso</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tenzin_Gyatso%252C_14th_Dalai_Lama.htm" target="_top">Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gyeongju</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gyeongju.htm" target="_top">Gyeongju</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gylberde</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Gilbert.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: William_Gylberde">William Gilbert</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gyllenhaal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jake_Gyllenhaal.htm" target="_top">Jake Gyllenhaal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>gypsum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gypsum.htm" target="_top">Gypsum</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ગાંધી</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mahatma_Gandhi.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: મોહનદાસ_કરમચંદ_ગાંધી">Mahatma Gandhi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="z"></a>
</body>
</html>
| ['from redirect: G-BOAC', 'from redirect: G._Forst.', 'from 2 redirects: G.W.B. G_Dubya_B', 'from 2 redirects: G-d G–d', 'from redirect: Kimitachi_no_kichi_wa,_subete_CATS_ga_itadaita', 'from redirect: Elah-Gabalus', 'from redirect: Aedan_mac_Gabrain', 'from redirect: Áedán_mac_Gabraín', 'from redirect: Gahndi', 'from redirect: Seiken_Densetsu:_Final_Fantasy_Gaiden', 'from redirect: Gajtan_cavern', 'from 2 redirects: Galactic_core Galactic_nuclei', 'from 2 redirects: Galactic_Clusters Galactic_Cluster', 'from redirect: Colonization_of_other_galaxies', 'from redirect: The_Gallaghers', 'from redirect: Galopogoes', 'from redirect: Banjul_(Gambian_subdivision)', 'from redirect: Nash_theorem_(in_game_theory)', 'from redirect: Nintendo_DS_Game_Card', 'from redirect: Game_rugby', 'from redirect: Peace_war_game', 'from 2 redirects: Nintendo_gameboy_ds Gameboy_ds', 'from redirect: Games', 'from redirect: Games_theory', 'from redirect: Gandhiji', 'from redirect: Ganesh', 'from redirect: El_Salvador:_Gangs', 'from redirect: Gaot', 'from redirect: Garden_City_(Cairo)', 'from redirect: Garden_irrigation', 'from redirect: Garden_lettuce', 'from redirect: Gardens', 'from redirect: Tie_(garment)', 'from 4 redirects: Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland_Garros Roland_Garros Roland-Garros Internationaux_de_France_de_Roland-Garros', 'from redirect: Gas_prices', 'from redirect: Vespene_Gas', 'from redirect: Air_(mixture_of_gases)', 'from 2 redirects: Coal_gasification Underground_coal_gasification', 'from redirect: Atmospheric_gasses', 'from 2 redirects: Bill_gate Gate_bill', 'from redirect: Chicago_Gators', 'from redirect: Marvin_Pentz_Gay', 'from redirect: Gayus_Julius_Caesar', 'from redirect: UN/LOCODE:GBBTM', 'from redirect: Geneva_GE', 'from redirect: Canadian_Geese', 'from redirect: Audrey_Geisel', 'from redirect: Operation_Gelb', 'from redirect: Simpson_gene', 'from redirect: Gene_Ligon', 'from redirect: Genealogy_of_William_the_Conqueror', 'from redirect: Rhode_Island_General_Treasurer', 'from redirect: General_Council_(WTO)', 'from redirect: Genesis_flood', 'from redirect: Genetical', 'from redirect: Gengis', 'from redirect: Native_American_genocide', 'from redirect: German_Genocide', 'from redirect: List_of_alternative_rock_genres', 'from redirect: Gentil-Aromatique', 'from 2 redirects: Gentile-Aromatique Gentile_Aromatique', 'from redirect: Geo_washington', 'from redirect: Chartered_Geographer', 'from redirect: Geographical_plate', 'from redirect: Geography_of_Abkhazia', 'from redirect: Meander_(geography)', 'from redirect: South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/Geography', 'from redirect: Geology_of_Ireland', 'from redirect: Geometric', 'from redirect: Geometric_center_of_Slovenia', 'from redirect: Great_George', 'from redirect: GeorgeWBush', 'from redirect: Georgian_Bath', 'from redirect: Georgiana_Darcy', 'from redirect: Geramny', 'from redirect: German_Bundesländer_commemorative_coin', 'from 5 redirects: German-Filipinos German_Filipinos German_Filipino German-Filipino Philippine_German', 'from 3 redirects: Greater_German_Reich Great_German_Reich German_Nazi', 'from redirect: German_Genocide', 'from redirect: Philippine_Germans', 'from redirect: Germeny', "from redirect: Pɐɾ'tidu_kumu'niʃtɐ_puɾtu'geʃ", 'from redirect: Gewurztraube', 'from redirect: GGEA', 'from 5 redirects: Mahatma_Ghandi M._K._Ghandi Mahatama_Ghandi Mohandas_Ghandi Mohandus_Ghandi', 'from redirect: Ghanesh', 'from 2 redirects: Ghengis_Khan Ghengis_Kahn', 'from redirect: GHits', 'from redirect: A_Christmas_Carol_in_Prose,_Being_a_Ghost_Story_of_Christmas', 'from redirect: Ghost_owl', "from redirect: That's_one_small_step_for_a_man,_one_giant_leap_for_mankind", 'from redirect: Gift_of_the_Nile', 'from redirect: William_Gilberd', 'from redirect: Gilbratar', 'from 2 redirects: Joe_Gillis Joseph_C._Gillis', 'from redirect: Robert_Baden-Powell_of_Gilwell', 'from 2 redirects: Victory_gin Victory_Gin', 'from redirect: GIS_in_Hydrology', 'from redirect: Giza_Pyramids', 'from redirect: Gl_wa', 'from 3 redirects: Glacial_deposition Fluvio-glacial_deposition Glacial_refugia', 'from redirect: Glacial_sheet', 'from redirect: Tibet_glacier_completely_melted_down_by_2100', 'from redirect: Eliza_Gladys_Milvina_Dean', 'from redirect: S-glass', 'from 2 redirects: Glaxo_Smithkline Glaxo_Group', 'from redirect: GlaxoSmithKlein', 'from redirect: Dyna_wide_glide', 'from redirect: Glider_pilot', 'from redirect: Global_civil_society', 'from 2 redirects: Global_climate Global_temperature', 'from redirect: Global_flood', 'from redirect: Globalization_and_World_Cities_Study_Group_and_Network', 'from redirect: Globals', 'from 2 redirects: Harlem_Globe_Trotters Globe_Trotters', 'from redirect: Glorius_revolution', 'from redirect: Gnadhi', 'from redirect: Gnapster', 'from 2 redirects: GNU_Emacs GNU/Emacs', 'from 4 redirects: GNU/Linux Gnu/Linux Gnu/linux GNU/Linux_PC', 'from redirect: Ubuntu_(GNU/Linux_distribution)', 'from redirect: GNU+Linux', 'from redirect: Go_West,_young_man', 'from redirect: Rejection_of_God', 'from redirect: Buddha_-_God_or_Man', 'from redirect: Greek_god_goddess', 'from redirect: Jesus,_son_of_God', 'from redirect: God_Ram', 'from redirect: Roman_God', 'from redirect: Three_God_heads', 'from redirect: Christian_God', 'from redirect: Greek_god_goddess', 'from redirect: Black_gold_(liquid)', 'from 2 redirects: Pot_of_gold A_pot_of_gold', 'from redirect: Golden_Age_of_Hollywood', "from 3 redirects: King's_Walk_Golf_Course Kings_Walk_Golf_Course Ray_Richards_Golf_Course", 'from redirect: GoneAM-ME', 'from redirect: GoneME', 'from redirect: Chaoxian_Minzhuzhuyi_Renmin_Gongheguo', 'from redirect: Era_of_good_stealings', 'from redirect: Googl', 'from redirect: Google_email', 'from redirect: En/googlemail', 'from redirect: Googlr', 'from redirect: Goole.com', 'from redirect: Gooner', 'from redirect: Gooooooogle', 'from redirect: Mihail_Gorbachyov', 'from redirect: Gorge_W._Bush', 'from 3 redirects: Gorod_Almaty Gorod_Almaty_City Gorod_Almaty_City,_Kazakhstan', 'from redirect: Gorrila', 'from redirect: Vincent_Van_Goth', 'from redirect: Gothanburg', 'from 2 redirects: Van_Gough Vincent_Van_Gough', 'from 2 redirects: Democratically-elected_government Democratically_elected_government', 'from redirect: Flag_of_Nanjing_Nationalist_Government', 'from 2 redirects: City_District_Government_Karachi City_District_Government_of_Karachi', 'from redirect: Government_of_Kerala', 'from redirect: Metropolitan_Government_of_Nashville_and_Davidson_County', 'from redirect: National_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China', 'from redirect: South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/Government', 'from redirect: Tokyo_Metropolitan_Government', 'from redirect: Weimar_government', 'from redirect: List_of_democratically_elected_governments_opposed_by_the_U.S.', 'from redirect: Greater_Grace_International_School', 'from redirect: Gracenotes_MusicID', 'from redirect: Grafenberger', 'from 2 redirects: Grain Grain_(agriculture)', 'from redirect: IRRI-6_White_Long_Grain_Rice', 'from redirect: Alexander_gram_bell', 'from redirect: Past_Grand_Knight', 'from redirect: Baby_grand', 'from redirect: La_grande_guerra', 'from redirect: Grape_wine', 'from redirect: Graphic_narrative', 'from redirect: Polar_graphing', 'from redirect: Graschevina', 'from redirect: Grasevina', 'from redirect: Battle_of_the_Greasy_Grass', 'from redirect: Lawn_and_turf_grasses', 'from redirect: Faux_graus', 'from 3 redirects: Gravitational_attraction Gravitational_Field Gravitational_pull', 'from 3 redirects: Gravity Acceleration_of_gravity Theory_of_gravity', 'from redirect: Gray_propaganda', 'from redirect: Battle_of_the_Greasy_Grass', 'from redirect: Great_Lisbon_Earthquake', 'from redirect: Shah_Abbas_I_the_Great', 'from redirect: Duke_of_Wellington_Great_Duke', 'from redirect: Archipelago_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: Constantine_the_great', 'from redirect: Great_Flood_of_Noah', 'from redirect: Great_Schism_of_1054', 'from redirect: Queen_Elizabeth_II_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland', 'from redirect: Great_Rising', 'from redirect: Great_filter', 'from redirect: Fredrick_the_Great', 'from redirect: George_III_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: George_IV_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: George_VI_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: George_V_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from 2 redirects: The_Great_Leonardo The_Great_Lenardo', 'from redirect: List_of_Kings_of_the_United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland', 'from redirect: Mary_II_of_Great_Britain', 'from redirect: Great_German_Reich', 'from 3 redirects: Rameses_the_Great Ramesses_the_Great Ramses_the_Great', 'from redirect: Great_bass_recorder', 'from redirect: Great_revolution', 'from redirect: Great_whale', 'from redirect: Great_Anarchy', 'from 2 redirects: Great_Britain_and_Northern_Ireland United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_&_Northern_Ireland', 'from redirect: Great_George', 'from redirect: William_III_of_Great_Britain', 'from redirect: The_Great_Murder', 'from redirect: The_second_great_war', 'from redirect: Greater_Grace_International_School', 'from redirect: Greater_Cairo', 'from redirect: Greater_German_Reich', 'from redirect: Salford_(Greater_Manchester)', 'from redirect: Greater_Santiago,_Chile', 'from redirect: Greek_Bronze_Age', 'from redirect: Greek_city-states', 'from redirect: Greek_Games', 'from redirect: Greek_skeptics', 'from redirect: GreekMythology', 'from redirect: All_in_green_went_my_love_riding', 'from redirect: Green_pea', 'from redirect: Greg_Mendel', 'from redirect: CS_grenade', 'from redirect: GRF', 'from redirect: Lake_Burley_Griffen', "from redirect: Alice's_Adventures_under_Ground", "from redirect: Tom_tiddler's_ground", 'from redirect: Armoured_defence/ground_strike_vehicle', 'from redirect: Grumpy_Groundhog', 'from redirect: Glaxo_Group', 'from redirect: Globalization_and_World_Cities_Study_Group_and_Network', 'from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Sri_Lanka', 'from redirect: Ethnic_groups_in_Syria', 'from redirect: Ugandan_Ethnic_Groups', 'from redirect: Recent_Far_East_Naval_Task_Groups', 'from 2 redirects: Indigenous_cultures,_kingdoms_and_ethnic_groups_of_Senegal Indigenous_Cultures,_Kingdoms_and_Ethnic_Groups_of_Senegal', 'from redirect: Indian_Economic_Growth', 'from redirect: Grumpy_Groundhog', "from redirect: Gu-ch'in", 'from redirect: De_Gua_theorem', 'from redirect: Guang_zhou', 'from redirect: Guangjhou', 'from redirect: Guanzhou', 'from redirect: La_grande_guerra', 'from redirect: Che_Guevar', 'from redirect: Ernesto_Guevera', 'from redirect: Microraptor_gui', 'from redirect: Georgetown,_British_Guiana', 'from redirect: Scooby-Doo_series_guide', 'from redirect: Guinnes', 'from redirect: West_Indies_and_Gulf_Coast_campaigns', 'from 3 redirects: Second_gulf_war 2003_Gulf_War Gulf_War_2', 'from redirect: Kai_gun', 'from redirect: Gǔqín', 'from 3 redirects: Gut_feeling Gut_reaction Gut_feel', 'from redirect: Che_guvarra', 'from redirect: Guyane_francaise', 'from redirect: The_Google_Guys', 'from redirect: Gw_bush', 'from redirect: GWOC', 'from redirect: William_Gylberde', 'from redirect: મોહનદાસ_કરમચંદ_ગાંધી'] |
g-top | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
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<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Title Word Index : G</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
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<h3 style="float:right;"><a href="subject.htm" target="_top">Subject Index</a></h3>
<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : G</h2>
<div class="firstletter">
<a href="a.htm" target="_top"> A </a></a><a href="b.htm" target="_top"> B </a></a><a href="c.htm" target="_top"> C </a></a><a href="d.htm" target="_top"> D </a></a><a href="e.htm" target="_top"> E </a></a><a href="f.htm" target="_top"> F </a></a><b> G </b><a href="h.htm" target="_top"> H </a></a><a href="i.htm" target="_top"> I </a></a><a href="j.htm" target="_top"> J </a></a><a href="k.htm" target="_top"> K </a></a><a href="l.htm" target="_top"> L </a></a><a href="m.htm" target="_top"> M </a></a><a href="n.htm" target="_top"> N </a></a><a href="o.htm" target="_top"> O </a></a><a href="p.htm" target="_top"> P </a></a><a href="q.htm" target="_top"> Q </a></a><a href="r.htm" target="_top"> R </a></a><a href="s.htm" target="_top"> S </a></a><a href="t.htm" target="_top"> T </a></a><a href="u.htm" target="_top"> U </a></a><a href="v.htm" target="_top"> V </a></a><a href="w.htm" target="_top"> W </a></a><a href="x.htm" target="_top"> X </a></a><a href="y.htm" target="_top"> Y </a></a><a href="z.htm" target="_top"> Z </a></a><a href="others.htm" target="_top"> Others </a></a></div>
<div class="secondletter">
<a href="g-list.htm#a" target="list"> a </a><a href="g-list.htm#b" target="list"> b </a><a href="g-list.htm#c" target="list"> c </a><a href="g-list.htm#d" target="list"> d </a><a href="g-list.htm#e" target="list"> e </a><a href="g-list.htm#f" target="list"> f </a><a href="g-list.htm#g" target="list"> g </a><a href="g-list.htm#h" target="list"> h </a><a href="g-list.htm#i" target="list"> i </a><a href="g-list.htm#j" target="list"> j </a><a href="g-list.htm#k" target="list"> k </a><a href="g-list.htm#l" target="list"> l </a><a href="g-list.htm#m" target="list"> m </a><a href="g-list.htm#n" target="list"> n </a><a href="g-list.htm#o" target="list"> o </a><a href="g-list.htm#p" target="list"> p </a><a href="g-list.htm#q" target="list"> q </a><a href="g-list.htm#r" target="list"> r </a><a href="g-list.htm#s" target="list"> s </a><a href="g-list.htm#t" target="list"> t </a><a href="g-list.htm#u" target="list"> u </a><a href="g-list.htm#v" target="list"> v </a><a href="g-list.htm#w" target="list"> w </a><a href="g-list.htm#x" target="list"> x </a><a href="g-list.htm#y" target="list"> y </a><a href="g-list.htm#z" target="list"> z </a></div>
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h-list | <!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
<html>
<head>
<title>2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection : Alphabetical Index : H</title>
<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type">
<style type="text/css">/*<![CDATA[*/ @import "../../css/schools-wikipedia-alpha-index.css"; /*]]>*/</style>
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<body class="alphaindex">
<table><tr><th>h</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/H.D..htm" target="_top">H.D.</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/H_II_region.htm" target="_top">H II region</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: H._S._Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: H*R">Homestar Runner</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homo_floresiensis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: H._Floresiensis">Homo floresiensis</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: H-bomb">Nuclear weapon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>h5n1</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Global_spread_of_H5N1.htm" target="_top">Global spread of H5N1</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/H5N1.htm" target="_top">H5N1</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="a"></a><table><tr><th>ha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Yeshua_Ha_Mashiach">Jesus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>habitability</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Planetary_habitability.htm" target="_top">Planetary habitability</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>habitat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cockatiel.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cockatiel's_habitat">Cockatiel</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Panda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Giant_panda_habitat">Giant Panda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>habsburg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Habsburg_Spain.htm" target="_top">Habsburg Spain</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hacha</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maya_mythology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hacha-kyum">Maya mythology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hachakyum</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Maya_mythology.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hachakyum">Maya mythology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hadrian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hadrian%2527s_Wall.htm" target="_top">Hadrian's Wall</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haemophilia</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Haemophilia.htm" target="_top">Haemophilia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hafnium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hafnium.htm" target="_top">Hafnium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hague</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hague.htm" target="_top">The Hague</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hail</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hale-Bopp.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: HAIL_AND_BOPP_COMET">Comet Hale-Bopp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hairy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_Potter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hairy_potter">Harry Potter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haiti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" target="_top">Haiti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haji</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Haji_Mohammad_Suharto.htm" target="_top">Haji Mohammad Suharto</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hajj</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Malcolm_X.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Al-Hajj_Malik_El-Shabazz">Malcolm X</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hale</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hale-Bopp.htm" target="_top">Comet Hale-Bopp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halemaumau</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/k/K%25C4%25ABlauea.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Halemaumau">Kīlauea</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Van_Halen.htm" target="_top">Van Halen</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halfbeak</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Halfbeak.htm" target="_top">Halfbeak</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halibalaena</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Right_whale.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Halibalaena">Right whale</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halikarnasseus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Herodotos_Halikarnasseus">Herodotus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hall</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Holkham_Hall.htm" target="_top">Holkham Hall</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Bristol.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: University_Hall_(Bristol) Badock_Hall">University of Bristol</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halle</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hale-Bopp.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Halle_Bopp">Comet Hale-Bopp</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halley</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Halley.htm" target="_top">Comet Halley</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmond_Halley.htm" target="_top">Edmond Halley</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halloween</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Halloween.htm" target="_top">Halloween</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halls</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Dance.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Dancing_halls">Dance</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>halocaust</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Halocaust">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haloween</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Halloween.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Haloween">Halloween</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hamburg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" target="_top">Hamburg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>ḥamburg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ḥamburg">Hamburg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hamilton</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Hamilton.htm" target="_top">Alexander Hamilton</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood%252C_1st_Marquess_of_Dufferin_and_Ava.htm" target="_top">Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hamilton-Burr_duel.htm" target="_top">Hamilton-Burr duel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hammerhead</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Great_hammerhead.htm" target="_top">Great hammerhead</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hammurabi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Code_of_Hammurabi.htm" target="_top">Code of Hammurabi</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hammurabi.htm" target="_top">Hammurabi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hampshire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hampshire.htm" target="_top">Hampshire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hampstead</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hampstead_Heath.htm" target="_top">Hampstead Heath</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hancock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Winfield_Scott_Hancock.htm" target="_top">Winfield Scott Hancock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hand</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Driving_on_the_left_or_right.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Right_hand_traffic Left_hand_traffic">Driving on the left or right</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/I_Want_to_Hold_Your_Hand.htm" target="_top">I Want to Hold Your Hand</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>handles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medal_of_Honor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Coffin_w/Metal_Handles">Medal of Honor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hangarfartyg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft_carrier.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hangarfartyg">Aircraft carrier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hannibal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hannibal_Barca.htm" target="_top">Hannibal Barca</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hanoi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hanoi.htm" target="_top">Hanoi</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Fonda.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hanoi_Jane">Jane Fonda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hanover</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Alexandrina_Victoria_von_Wettin,_née_Hanover">Victoria of the United Kingdom</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hanoverian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Glorious_Revolution.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hanoverian_succession">Glorious Revolution</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hänsel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/H%25C3%25A4nsel_und_Gretel.htm" target="_top">Hänsel und Gretel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>happiness</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/Utilitarianism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Happiness_theory">Utilitarianism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haq</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isaac.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Is'haq">Isaac</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harald</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harald_Maddadsson.htm" target="_top">Harald Maddadsson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haraldskær</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Haraldsk%25C3%25A6r_Woman.htm" target="_top">Haraldskær Woman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haram</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Haram_(Cairo)">Cairo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harappan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Indus_Valley_Civilization.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mature_Harappan">Indus Valley Civilization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harare</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harare.htm" target="_top">Harare</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harbor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.htm" target="_top">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pearl_harbor_2">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harbour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bombing_of_Pearl_Harbour">Attack on Pearl Harbor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hardball</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hardball_squash.htm" target="_top">Hardball squash</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harding</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Warren_G._Harding.htm" target="_top">Warren G. Harding</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hardness</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm" target="_top">Mohs scale of mineral hardness</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hardware</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_computing_hardware.htm" target="_top">History of computing hardware</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Idit_Harel_Caperton.htm" target="_top">Idit Harel Caperton</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harlem</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harlem_Globetrotters.htm" target="_top">Harlem Globetrotters</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harley</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harley-Davidson.htm" target="_top">Harley-Davidson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haro</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herbig-Haro_object.htm" target="_top">Herbig-Haro object</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harold</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Macmillan.htm" target="_top">Harold Macmillan</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Wilson.htm" target="_top">Harold Wilson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harper</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Harper.htm" target="_top">Stephen Harper</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harrier</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harrier_Hawk.htm" target="_top">Harrier Hawk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harris</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/To_Kill_a_Mockingbird.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Dill_Harris Charles_Baker_Harris">To Kill a Mockingbird</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harrisii</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tasmanian_Devil.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sarcophilus_harrisii">Tasmanian Devil</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harrison</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Harrison.htm" target="_top">Benjamin Harrison</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Henry_Harrison.htm" target="_top">William Henry Harrison</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_Potter.htm" target="_top">Harry Potter</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" target="_top">Harry S. Truman</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fat_Harry">Henry VIII of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harvest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ann_Arbor%252C_Michigan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Harvest_Mission_Community_Church">Ann Arbor, Michigan</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harvest.htm" target="_top">Harvest</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>harvey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Harvey_%25282005%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Harvey (2005)</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Harvey.htm" target="_top">William Harvey</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>has</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/All_your_base_are_belong_to_us.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: CATS_has_taken_over_your_entire_base">All your base are belong to us</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hasekura</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hasekura_Tsunenaga.htm" target="_top">Hasekura Tsunenaga</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hassium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hassium.htm" target="_top">Hassium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hastings</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Hastings.htm" target="_top">Battle of Hastings</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Cat_in_the_Hat.htm" target="_top">The Cat in the Hat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hatillo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/El_Hatillo_Municipality%252C_Miranda.htm" target="_top">El Hatillo Municipality, Miranda</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hatshepsut</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hatshepsut.htm" target="_top">Hatshepsut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haungdi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qin_Shi_Huang.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Qin_Shi_Haungdi Qui_Shi_Haungdi">Qin Shi Huang</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>have</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lyme_disease.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_people_who_have_died_of_Lyme_disease">Lyme disease</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Property.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Have">Property</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haven</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cuckmere_Haven.htm" target="_top">Cuckmere Haven</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawaii</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Hawaii.htm" target="_top">Music of Hawaii</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawaiian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawaiian_Goose.htm" target="_top">Hawaiian Goose</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawfinch</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawfinch.htm" target="_top">Hawfinch</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawk</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Harrier_Hawk.htm" target="_top">Harrier Hawk</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawk-Eye.htm" target="_top">Hawk-Eye</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" target="_top">Hawk</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sparrowhawk.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Sparrow_Hawk Sparrow_hawk">Sparrowhawk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawkeye</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawk-Eye.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: HawkEye">Hawk-Eye</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawkin</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Steven_hawkin">Stephen Hawking</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawking</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawking_radiation.htm" target="_top">Hawking radiation</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" target="_top">Stephen Hawking</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawkings</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Steven_Hawkings">Stephen Hawking</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hawks</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hawks">Hawk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hayasdan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hayasdan">Armenia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>haydn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Haydn.htm" target="_top">Joseph Haydn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hayes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rutherford_B._Hayes.htm" target="_top">Rutherford B. Hayes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hazel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Common_Hazel.htm" target="_top">Common Hazel</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hazrat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hazrat_Mohammad">Muhammad</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="b"></a><a name="c"></a><a name="d"></a><table><tr><th>hd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HD_209458_b.htm" target="_top">HD 209458 b</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HD_217107.htm" target="_top">HD 217107</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HD_217107_b.htm" target="_top">HD 217107 b</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HD_217107_c.htm" target="_top">HD 217107 c</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HD_28185.htm" target="_top">HD 28185</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HD_28185_b.htm" target="_top">HD 28185 b</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="e"></a><table><tr><th>he</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Pilgrim%2527s_Progress.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: He_who_would_valiant_be He_Who_Would_Valiant_Be">The Pilgrim's Progress</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last And_come_he_slow_or_come_he_fast_it_is_but_death_who_comes_at_last">Walter Scott</a>
<a href="../../wp/z/Zheng_He.htm" target="_top">Zheng He</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heads</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Trimurti.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Three_God_heads">Trimurti</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>health</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Health.htm" target="_top">Health</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" target="_top">World Health Organization</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands.htm" target="_top">Heard Island and McDonald Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heartattack</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Myocardial_infarction.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Heartattack">Myocardial infarction</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hearts</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sgt._Pepper%2527s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band.htm" target="_top">Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heat.htm" target="_top">Heat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heath</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Carl_G._Fisher.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Blossom_Heath">Carl G. Fisher</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hampstead_Heath.htm" target="_top">Hampstead Heath</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heavy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/Weapon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Heavy_weapons">Weapon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hebr</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hebr.">Hebrew language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hebraica</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hebraica">Hebrew language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hebrew</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_calendar.htm" target="_top">Hebrew calendar</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" target="_top">Hebrew language</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hebrides</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrides.htm" target="_top">Hebrides</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/Inner_Hebrides.htm" target="_top">Inner Hebrides</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Outer_Hebrides.htm" target="_top">Outer Hebrides</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hedgehog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top">Sonic the Hedgehog (character)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heeled</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spring_Heeled_Jack.htm" target="_top">Spring Heeled Jack</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hegdehog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hypersonic_hegdehog">Sonic the Hedgehog (character)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heilbronn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heilbronn.htm" target="_top">Heilbronn</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heinrich</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Heinrich_VIII">Henry VIII of England</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helen.htm" target="_top">Helen</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helen_Gandy.htm" target="_top">Helen Gandy</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mount_St._Helens.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Mount_st_helen">Mount St. Helens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helena</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Helena.htm" target="_top">Saint Helena</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens.htm" target="_top">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mount_St._Helens.htm" target="_top">Mount St. Helens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helferich</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Rebecca_Helferich_Clarke.htm" target="_top">Rebecca Helferich Clarke</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helicobacter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helicobacter_pylori.htm" target="_top">Helicobacter pylori</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heliocentrism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heliocentrism.htm" target="_top">Heliocentrism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" target="_top">Helium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hell</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_H._Rogers.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hell_Hound_Rogers">Henry H. Rogers</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/M25_motorway.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Road_To_Hell">M25 motorway</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hellas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hellas">Greece</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hellenic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Hellenic_Republic">Greece</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hellenistic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hellenistic_Greece.htm" target="_top">Hellenistic Greece</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hello</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hello_Garci_scandal.htm" target="_top">Hello Garci scandal</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helmet</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Beekeeping.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Beekeeping_helmet">Beekeeping</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sutton_Hoo.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sutton_Hoo_Helmet">Sutton Hoo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helmeted</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helmeted_Guineafowl.htm" target="_top">Helmeted Guineafowl</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helsinki</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helsinki.htm" target="_top">Helsinki</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helstinky</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Helsinki.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Helstinky">Helsinki</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>helvarg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Helvarg.htm" target="_top">David Helvarg</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hemingway</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Ernest_Hemingway.htm" target="_top">Ernest Hemingway</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hemophilla</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Haemophilia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hemophilla">Haemophilia</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hemp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Abac%25C3%25A1.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Davao_hemp Cebu_hemp">Abacá</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>henge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Stonehenge.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Stone_henge">Stonehenge</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>henipavirus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henipavirus.htm" target="_top">Henipavirus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>henman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tim_Henman.htm" target="_top">Tim Henman</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>henninger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Henninger_Reagan.htm" target="_top">John Henninger Reagan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>henri</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edgar_Allan_Poe.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Henri_Le_Rennet">Edgar Allan Poe</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henri_Matisse.htm" target="_top">Henri Matisse</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Henri_%25282003%2529.htm" target="_top">Tropical Storm Henri (2003)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>henrik</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henrik_Ibsen.htm" target="_top">Henrik Ibsen</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/Niels_Bohr.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Niels_(Henrik_David)_Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>henry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Gates.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: William_henry_gates_3 William_Henry_Gates_IV">Bill Gates</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henri_Matisse.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Henry_Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_David_Thoreau.htm" target="_top">Henry David Thoreau</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Fonda.htm" target="_top">Henry Fonda</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Ford.htm" target="_top">Henry Ford</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_H._Rogers.htm" target="_top">Henry H. Rogers</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_III_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry III of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_II_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry II of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_IV_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry IV of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_I_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry I of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_James.htm" target="_top">Henry James</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Moore.htm" target="_top">Henry Moore</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Morrison_Flagler.htm" target="_top">Henry Morrison Flagler</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Morton_Stanley.htm" target="_top">Henry Morton Stanley</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Purcell.htm" target="_top">Henry Purcell</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Rollins.htm" target="_top">Henry Rollins</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry VIII of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry VII of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry VI of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_V_of_England.htm" target="_top">Henry V of England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Wood_%2528conductor%2529.htm" target="_top">Henry Wood (conductor)</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Henry_Harrison.htm" target="_top">William Henry Harrison</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hepatocellular</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hepatocellular_carcinoma.htm" target="_top">Hepatocellular carcinoma</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hepatorenal</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hepatorenal_syndrome.htm" target="_top">Hepatorenal syndrome</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heracles</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heracles.htm" target="_top">Heracles</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heraclius</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heraclius.htm" target="_top">Heraclius</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heraldic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heraldry.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Heraldic_art European_heraldic_traditions">Heraldry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heraldry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heraldry.htm" target="_top">Heraldry</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herbert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/George_Herbert.htm" target="_top">George Herbert</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herbert_Hoover.htm" target="_top">Herbert Hoover</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herbig</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herbig-Haro_object.htm" target="_top">Herbig-Haro object</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herbivore</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" target="_top">Herbivore</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heard_Island_and_McDonald_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Herd_Island">Heard Island and McDonald Islands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>here</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Monopoly_%2528game%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Monopoly_Here_&_Now Monopoly_Here_&_Now_Electronic_Edition">Monopoly (game)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heresy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albigensian_Crusade.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Albigensenist_heresy">Albigensian Crusade</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heritage</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Natural_heritage">Biodiversity</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" target="_top">World Heritage Site</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hermann</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hermann_Maier.htm" target="_top">Hermann Maier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hernán</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hern%25C3%25A1n_Cort%25C3%25A9s.htm" target="_top">Hernán Cortés</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hero</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hero_of_Ukraine.htm" target="_top">Hero of Ukraine</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hero_of_the_Russian_Federation.htm" target="_top">Hero of the Russian Federation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herodotos</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Herodotos_Halikarnasseus">Herodotus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herodotus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" target="_top">Herodotus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heroes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Firefly_%2528TV_series%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Big_Damn_Heroes">Firefly (TV series)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heron</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heron.htm" target="_top">Heron</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herrerasaurus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herrerasaurus.htm" target="_top">Herrerasaurus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herring</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_herring.htm" target="_top">Atlantic herring</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herring_Gull.htm" target="_top">Herring Gull</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hertfordshire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/2/2005_Hertfordshire_Oil_Storage_Terminal_fire.htm" target="_top">2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herti</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/BAE_Systems.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Herti">BAE Systems</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herzegovina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" target="_top">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>herzegowina</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bosnia-Herzegowina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Isis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hes">Isis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heterogeneous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Heterogeneous_Matter">Matter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heterotrophy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Myco-heterotrophy.htm" target="_top">Myco-heterotrophy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hexudoku</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sudoku.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hexudoku">Sudoku</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hey_Jude.htm" target="_top">Hey Jude</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>heymann</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Heymann.htm" target="_top">David Heymann</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="f"></a><a name="g"></a><table><tr><th>hg2g</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hg2g">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="h"></a><table><tr><th>hhg2g</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Hhg2g HHG2G">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="i"></a><table><tr><th>hibernian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columba.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Scoto-Hibernian_Monasteries">Columba</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hickman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hickman%2527s_potentilla.htm" target="_top">Hickman's potentilla</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hickory</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/James_K._Polk.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Young_Hickory">James K. Polk</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hiddekel</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tigris.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hiddekel">Tigris</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>high</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: High_school_basketball">Basketball</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Columbine_High_School_massacre.htm" target="_top">Columbine High School massacre</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/High_German_consonant_shift.htm" target="_top">High German consonant shift</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Kensington_Community_High_School">Melbourne</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages.htm" target="_top">Scotland in the High Middle Ages</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>highest</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Ben_Nevis.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Highest_point_in_the_United_Kingdom Highest_point_in_Scotland">Ben Nevis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>highlands</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Golden_Gate_Highlands_National_Park.htm" target="_top">Golden Gate Highlands National Park</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Highlands.htm" target="_top">Scottish Highlands</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>highways</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Numbered_Highways.htm" target="_top">United States Numbered Highways</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hii</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/H_II_region.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: HII_Region">H II region</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hilbert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Hilbert.htm" target="_top">David Hilbert</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hilda</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hilda_of_Whitby.htm" target="_top">Hilda of Whitby</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hill</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/Damon_Hill.htm" target="_top">Damon Hill</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Grange_Hill.htm" target="_top">Grange Hill</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Summer_Hill%252C_New_South_Wales.htm" target="_top">Summer Hill, New South Wales</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hillary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Hillary.htm" target="_top">Edmund Hillary</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hills</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Chiltern_Hills.htm" target="_top">Chiltern Hills</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mendip_Hills.htm" target="_top">Mendip Hills</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hilter</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Adolf_Hilter">Adolf Hitler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himalaya</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Himalaya_mountains Himalaya">Himalayas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himalayan</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Himalayan_Mts.">Himalayas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himalayas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" target="_top">Himalayas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himanshu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Himanshu">Moon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himantopus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black-winged_Stilt.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Himantopus_melanurus">Black-winged Stilt</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himavat</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Himavat_Mountains">Himalayas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himilayas</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Himilayas">Himalayas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>himno</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Himno_Nacional_Mexicano.htm" target="_top">Himno Nacional Mexicano</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hinault</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bernard_Hinault.htm" target="_top">Bernard Hinault</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hindi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hindi.htm" target="_top">Hindi</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hindu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hindu_dhamma">Hinduism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hinduism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/East_Timor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hinduism_in_East_Timor">East Timor</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" target="_top">Hinduism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Franklin.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Fart_Hing">Benjamin Franklin</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hip</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hip_hop_music.htm" target="_top">Hip hop music</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hipogea</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Peanut.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Arachis_hipogea">Peanut</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hippo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Augustine_of_Hippo.htm" target="_top">Augustine of Hippo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hippocrates</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hippocrates.htm" target="_top">Hippocrates</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hippocratic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hippocrates.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hippocratic_school_of_medicine">Hippocrates</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hippokrates</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hippocrates.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hippokrates_of_Kos">Hippocrates</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hippopotamus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hippopotamus.htm" target="_top">Hippopotamus</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pygmy_Hippopotamus.htm" target="_top">Pygmy Hippopotamus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hire</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Employment.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hire">Employment</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hiroh</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hiroh_Kikai.htm" target="_top">Hiroh Kikai</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hirohito</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hirohito.htm" target="_top">Hirohito</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hirsi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ayaan_Hirsi_Ali.htm" target="_top">Ayaan Hirsi Ali</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>his</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/England_expects_that_every_man_will_do_his_duty.htm" target="_top">England expects that every man will do his duty</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Jordan.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: His_Airness">Michael Jordan</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>historian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_science.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Historian_of_science">History of science</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>historical</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Historical_change Historical_science">History</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>historie</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Historie">History</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>history</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia">Akrotiri and Dhekelia</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Ancient_history_Rome">Ancient Rome</a>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_history.htm" target="_top">Ancient history</a>
<a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_DVDs">DVD</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christianity">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Freetown.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Freetown,_Sierra_Leone">Freetown</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" target="_top">History</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Alaska.htm" target="_top">History of Alaska</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England.htm" target="_top">History of Anglo-Saxon England</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Arizona.htm" target="_top">History of Arizona</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Buddhism.htm" target="_top">History of Buddhism</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Burnside.htm" target="_top">History of Burnside</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1806_to_1870.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1806 to 1870</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Cape_Colony_from_1870_to_1899.htm" target="_top">History of Cape Colony from 1870 to 1899</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Central_Asia.htm" target="_top">History of Central Asia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Earth.htm" target="_top">History of Earth</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Greece.htm" target="_top">History of Greece</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Greenland.htm" target="_top">History of Greenland</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Limerick.htm" target="_top">History of Limerick</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Louisville%252C_Kentucky.htm" target="_top">History of Louisville, Kentucky</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Miami%252C_Florida.htm" target="_top">History of Miami, Florida</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_New_Jersey.htm" target="_top">History of New Jersey</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Northwest_Territories_capital_cities.htm" target="_top">History of Northwest Territories capital cities</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Poland_%25281945%25E2%2580%25931989%2529.htm" target="_top">History of Poland (1945–1989)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Portugal_%25281777%25E2%2580%25931834%2529.htm" target="_top">History of Portugal (1777–1834)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Puerto_Rico.htm" target="_top">History of Puerto Rico</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Russia.htm" target="_top">History of Russia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Singapore.htm" target="_top">History of Singapore</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Solidarity.htm" target="_top">History of Solidarity</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa.htm" target="_top">History of South Africa</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Africa_in_the_apartheid_era.htm" target="_top">History of South Africa in the apartheid era</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_South_Carolina.htm" target="_top">History of South Carolina</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Wikipedia.htm" target="_top">History of Wikipedia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_computing_hardware.htm" target="_top">History of computing hardware</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_democracy.htm" target="_top">History of democracy</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_education.htm" target="_top">History of education</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_merit_badges_%2528Boy_Scouts_of_America%2529.htm" target="_top">History of merit badges (Boy Scouts of America)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_nuclear_weapons.htm" target="_top">History of nuclear weapons</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_painting.htm" target="_top">History of painting</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_post-Soviet_Russia.htm" target="_top">History of post-Soviet Russia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_saffron.htm" target="_top">History of saffron</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_science.htm" target="_top">History of science</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_slavery.htm" target="_top">History of slavery</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Australian_Capital_Territory.htm" target="_top">History of the Australian Capital Territory</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Grand_Canyon_area.htm" target="_top">History of the Grand Canyon area</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Internet.htm" target="_top">History of the Internet</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Netherlands.htm" target="_top">History of the Netherlands</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Panama_Canal.htm" target="_top">History of the Panama Canal</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Portuguese_Communist_Party.htm" target="_top">History of the Portuguese Communist Party</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_Royal_Australian_Navy.htm" target="_top">History of the Royal Australian Navy</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_West_Indian_cricket_team.htm" target="_top">History of the West Indian cricket team</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_world.htm" target="_top">History of the world</a>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jan_Mayen.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Jan_Mayen">Jan Mayen</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Linux.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Linux">Linux</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Meteorological_history_of_Hurricane_Katrina.htm" target="_top">Meteorological history of Hurricane Katrina</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_history_of_Canada.htm" target="_top">Military history of Canada</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_history_of_France.htm" target="_top">Military history of France</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_history_of_Puerto_Rico.htm" target="_top">Military history of Puerto Rico</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Military_history_of_the_Soviet_Union.htm" target="_top">Military history of the Soviet Union</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Modern_history.htm" target="_top">Modern history</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Oregon">Oregon</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: History_of_Petroleum History_of_petroleum">Petroleum</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Population_history_of_American_indigenous_peoples.htm" target="_top">Population history of American indigenous peoples</a>
<a href="../../wp/q/Queen_%2528band%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Queen">Queen (band)</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sahara.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_the_Sahara">Sahara</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Shinto.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_Shintoism">Shinto</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands/History">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: History_of_The_Beatles History_of_the_Beatles">The Beatles</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_the_Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus">Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_volleyball">Volleyball</a>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yellowstone_National_Park.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Yellowstone_History">Yellowstone National Park</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles_discography.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: List_of_Beatles_hit_singles">The Beatles discography</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hitchcock</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_Hitchcock.htm" target="_top">Alfred Hitchcock</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hitchhiker</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hitchhikers</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Hitchhikers_guide_to_the_Galaxy The_hitchhikers_guide_to_the_galaxy">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hitlar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hitlar">Adolf Hitler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hitler</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" target="_top">Adolf Hitler</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hitlerism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hitlerism">Nazism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hiv</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" target="_top">HIV</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HIV_AIDS_in_Africa.htm" target="_top">HIV AIDS in Africa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="j"></a><a name="k"></a><table><tr><th>hksar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: HKSAR_flag">Flag of Hong Kong</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hksarg</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Pronunciation_of_HKSARG">Hong Kong</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="l"></a><a name="m"></a><table><tr><th>hms</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HMS_E18.htm" target="_top">HMS E18</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="n"></a><a name="o"></a><table><tr><th>ho</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh.htm" target="_top">Ho Chi Minh</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh_City.htm" target="_top">Ho Chi Minh City</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Santa_Claus.htm" target="_top" title="from 3 redirects: Ho_ho_ho Ho_ho_ho Ho_ho_ho">Santa Claus</a>
<a href="../../wp/z/Zheng_He.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Cheng_Ho">Zheng He</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hồ</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hồ_Chí_Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hoax</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pterosaur.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Living_pterosaur_hoax">Pterosaur</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hobbes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_and_Hobbes.htm" target="_top">Calvin and Hobbes</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Hobbes.htm" target="_top">Thomas Hobbes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hobbit</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homo_floresiensis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hobbit_(hominid)">Homo floresiensis</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Hobbit.htm" target="_top">The Hobbit</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hocheimer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Riesling.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hocheimer">Riesling</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hockey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" target="_top">Ice hockey</a>
<a href="../../wp/n/National_Hockey_League.htm" target="_top">National Hockey League</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hoesa</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Corporation.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Jusik_hoesa Chusik_hoesa Jusik-hoesa Chusik-hoesa">Corporation</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hog</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hog_Kog">Hong Kong</a>
<a href="../../wp/p/Pig.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hog_(swine)">Pig</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hogarth</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Hogarth.htm" target="_top">William Hogarth</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hogweed</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Giant_Hogweed.htm" target="_top">Giant Hogweed</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hold</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/I_Want_to_Hold_Your_Hand.htm" target="_top">I Want to Hold Your Hand</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Looney_Tunes.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hold_Anything">Looney Tunes</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holding</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Bear_holding_a_shark">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hole</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" target="_top">Black hole</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holecaust</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Holecaust">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holiday</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Billie_Holiday.htm" target="_top">Billie Holiday</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holkham</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Holkham_Hall.htm" target="_top">Holkham Hall</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hollandic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hollandic.htm" target="_top">Hollandic</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holliday</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cyrus_K._Holliday.htm" target="_top">Cyrus K. Holliday</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hollywood</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cinema_of_the_United_States.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Golden_Age_of_Hollywood">Cinema of the United States</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sunset_Boulevard_%25281950_film%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Sunset_Boulevard:_A_Hollywood_Story">Sunset Boulevard (1950 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holmium</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Holmium.htm" target="_top">Holmium</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holocaust</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holokaust</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Holokaust">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holoucast</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Holoucast">The Holocaust</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holst</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/Gustav_Holst.htm" target="_top">Gustav Holst</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>holy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" target="_top">Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" target="_top">Holy Roman Empire</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Muhammad.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Holy_Prophet_MUHAMMAD_(Salalahu_alaihi_wasalam)">Muhammad</a>
<a href="../../wp/o/Opus_Dei.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Prelature_of_the_Holy_Cross_and_Opus_Dei">Opus Dei</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Holy_Mother_Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Inquisition.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Holy_Office">Spanish Inquisition</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Holy_League_(1511)">War of the League of Cambrai</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>home</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Home_Planet">Earth</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Home_Star_Runner">Homestar Runner</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sears_Catalog_Home.htm" target="_top">Sears Catalog Home</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Windows_Vista.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Windows_Vista_Home_Premium Home_Premium">Windows Vista</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homer</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homer.htm" target="_top">Homer</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homestar</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homestarmy</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homestar_Runner.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Homestarmy">Homestar Runner</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homing</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Radar.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Radar_Homing_and_Warning">Radar</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hominid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homo_floresiensis.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hobbit_(hominid)">Homo floresiensis</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Homo_floresiensis.htm" target="_top">Homo floresiensis</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Homo_sapiens Terran_(Homo_Sapien)">Human</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homogeneous</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Homogeneous_matter Homogeneous_Matter">Matter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homosapian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Homosapian">Human</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>homosphere</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Homosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hondoras</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hondoras">Honduras</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>honduras</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" target="_top">Honduras</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>honey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" target="_top">Honey</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honey_bee.htm" target="_top">Honey bee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hong</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Bank_of_China_%2528Hong_Kong%2529.htm" target="_top">Bank of China (Hong Kong)</a>
<a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.htm" target="_top">Flag of Hong Kong</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" target="_top">Hong Kong</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hongcouver</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/v/Vancouver.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hongcouver">Vancouver</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>honi</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Garter.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Honi_soit_qui_mal_y_pense">Order of the Garter</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>honor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medal_of_Honor.htm" target="_top">Medal of Honor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>honour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Medal_of_Honor.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Congressional_medal_of_honour">Medal of Honor</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>honourable</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Edmund_Burke.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Right_Honourable_Edmund_Burke">Edmund Burke</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_Honourable_Sir_Winston_Spencer_Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>honourary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Citizenship.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Honourary_citizen">Citizenship</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hony</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Honey_bee.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hony_bees">Honey bee</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hoo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sutton_Hoo.htm" target="_top">Sutton Hoo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hoops</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_F.C..htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: The_hoops">Celtic F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hoot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Super_Mario_64.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hoot_the_Owl">Super Mario 64</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hoover</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Herbert_Hoover.htm" target="_top">Herbert Hoover</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hoover_Dam.htm" target="_top">Hoover Dam</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hop</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hip_hop_music.htm" target="_top">Hip hop music</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hope</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars_Episode_IV__A_New_Hope.htm" target="_top">Star Wars Episode IV A New Hope</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hopeless</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iraq_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hopeless_failure">Iraq War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hopman</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hopman_Cup.htm" target="_top">Hopman Cup</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>horatio</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horatio_Nelson%252C_1st_Viscount_Nelson.htm" target="_top">Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>horn</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Horn.htm" target="_top">Cape Horn</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horn_of_Africa.htm" target="_top">Horn of Africa</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hornbill</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_Grey_Hornbill.htm" target="_top">African Grey Hornbill</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>horridus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Triceratops.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Triceratops_horridus">Triceratops</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>horse</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" target="_top">Horse</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/Uffington_White_Horse.htm" target="_top">Uffington White Horse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>horses</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Horses Yearling_horses">Horse</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hostile</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Invasion.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hostile_invasion">Invasion</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hot_air_balloon.htm" target="_top">Hot air balloon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hotness</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Heat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hotness">Heat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hotspot</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/Iceland_hotspot.htm" target="_top">Iceland hotspot</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hotspur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tottenham_Hotspur_F.C..htm" target="_top">Tottenham Hotspur F.C.</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hound</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Afghan_Hound.htm" target="_top">Afghan Hound</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Basset_Hound.htm" target="_top">Basset Hound</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Henry_H._Rogers.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hell_Hound_Rogers">Henry H. Rogers</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>house</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Baden-Powell_House.htm" target="_top">Baden-Powell House</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/Belton_House.htm" target="_top">Belton House</a>
<a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">British House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">Canadian House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/House.htm" target="_top">House</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/House_Martin.htm" target="_top">House Martin</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/House_Sparrow.htm" target="_top">House Sparrow</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" target="_top">House of Lords</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Twain_House.htm" target="_top">Mark Twain House</a>
<a href="../../wp/r/Religious_Society_of_Friends.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Meeting_house">Religious Society of Friends</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sandringham_House.htm" target="_top">Sandringham House</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Speaker_of_the_British_House_of_Commons.htm" target="_top">Speaker of the British House of Commons</a>
<a href="../../wp/s/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" target="_top">Speaker of the United States House of Representatives</a>
<a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" target="_top">United States House of Representatives</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_System.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Primacy_of_the_House_of_Commons">Westminster System</a>
<a href="../../wp/x/Xanadu_House.htm" target="_top">Xanadu House</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>housecats</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Domestic_housecats">Cat</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>household</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Household_income_in_the_United_States.htm" target="_top">Household income in the United States</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>houston</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" target="_top">Houston, Texas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hovercraft</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hovercraft.htm" target="_top">Hovercraft</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>howard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/John_Howard.htm" target="_top">John Howard</a>
<a href="../../wp/w/William_Howard_Taft.htm" target="_top">William Howard Taft</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>howards</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Howards_End.htm" target="_top">Howards End</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>howland</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Howland_Island.htm" target="_top">Howland Island</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="p"></a><table><tr><th>hp</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/i/IPod.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: HP_iPod">IPod</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="q"></a><a name="r"></a><table><tr><th>hrafnkels</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hrafnkels_saga.htm" target="_top">Hrafnkels saga</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="s"></a><table><tr><th>hsbc</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HSBC.htm" target="_top">HSBC</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="t"></a><table><tr><th>htown</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Htown">Houston, Texas</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>http</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HTTP_cookie.htm" target="_top">HTTP cookie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>httponly</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/HTTP_cookie.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: HttpOnly">HTTP cookie</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="u"></a><table><tr><th>huang</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/q/Qin_Shi_Huang.htm" target="_top">Qin Shi Huang</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>huanhe</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/y/Yellow_River.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Huanhe">Yellow River</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hubbard</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubbard_Glacier.htm" target="_top">Hubbard Glacier</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hubble</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" target="_top">Hubble's law</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Deep_Field.htm" target="_top">Hubble Deep Field</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" target="_top">Hubble Space Telescope</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hudson</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hudson_Bay.htm" target="_top">Hudson Bay</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>huge</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table_%2528large_version%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Huge_periodic_table Periodic_table_(huge)">Periodic table (large version)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>huggett</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: James_Huggett">Jesus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hugo</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hugo_Wolf.htm" target="_top">Hugo Wolf</a>
<a href="../../wp/v/Victor_Hugo.htm" target="_top">Victor Hugo</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humala</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/o/Ollanta_Humala.htm" target="_top">Ollanta Humala</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>human</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 8 redirects: Albino_human Human_albinism Human_with_albinism Albinistic_human Human_albino Human_albinos Human_hypomelanism Human_hypomelanosis">Albinism</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eyelid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Human_eyelid">Eyelid</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Human_immunodeficiency_virus">HIV</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_world.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: History_of_the_human_race">History of the world</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" target="_top">Human</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human_abdomen.htm" target="_top">Human abdomen</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human_dignity.htm" target="_top">Human dignity</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" target="_top">Human rights</a>
<a href="../../wp/i/International_human_rights_instruments.htm" target="_top">International human rights instruments</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humanism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humanism.htm" target="_top">Humanism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humanities</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humanities.htm" target="_top">Humanities</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humanity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Humanity">Human</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humans</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 4 redirects: Albino_humans Humans_with_albinism Albinistic_humans Albinism_in_humans">Albinism</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Humans">Human</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humbert</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humbert_Roque_Versace.htm" target="_top">Humbert Roque Versace</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hume</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/d/David_Hume.htm" target="_top">David Hume</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humor</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humour.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Humor">Humour</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humour</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Australian_humour">Australian English</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humour.htm" target="_top">Humour</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humpback</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humpback_Whale.htm" target="_top">Humpback Whale</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humphrey</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humphry_Davy.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Humphrey_Davy">Humphry Davy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humphry</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humphry_Davy.htm" target="_top">Humphry Davy</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>humus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Humus.htm" target="_top">Humus</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hun</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" target="_top">Attila the Hun</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hundred</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" target="_top">Hundred Years' War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hungarian</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Hungary.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hungarian_Music">Music of Hungary</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hungary</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" target="_top">Hungary</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Music_of_Hungary.htm" target="_top">Music of Hungary</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hunger</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hunger.htm" target="_top">Hunger</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hunterius</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/r/Right_whale.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hunterius">Right whale</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hunting</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cheetah.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hunting_Leopard">Cheetah</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>huntington</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Huntington%2527s_disease.htm" target="_top">Huntington's disease</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hur</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Ben-Hur_%25281959_film%2529.htm" target="_top">Ben-Hur (1959 film)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hurd</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/g/GNU.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: GNU/Hurd">GNU</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hurrican</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_Storm_Allison.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hurrican_Allison">Tropical Storm Allison</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hurricane</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/1/1928_Okeechobee_Hurricane.htm" target="_top">1928 Okeechobee Hurricane</a>
<a href="../../wp/1/1997_Pacific_hurricane_season.htm" target="_top">1997 Pacific hurricane season</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2003_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" target="_top">2003 Atlantic hurricane season</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2004_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" target="_top">2004 Atlantic hurricane season</a>
<a href="../../wp/2/2005_Atlantic_hurricane_season.htm" target="_top">2005 Atlantic hurricane season</a>
<a href="../../wp/e/Effect_of_Hurricane_Katrina_on_New_Orleans.htm" target="_top">Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans</a>
<a href="../../wp/g/Galveston_Hurricane_of_1900.htm" target="_top">Galveston Hurricane of 1900</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Alex_%25282004%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Alex (2004)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Andrew.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Andrew</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Camille.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Camille</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Charley.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Charley</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Danny_%25281997%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Danny (1997)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_David.htm" target="_top">Hurricane David</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Dennis.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Dennis</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Edouard_%25281996%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Edouard (1996)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Epsilon_%25282005%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Epsilon (2005)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Felix_%25281995%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Felix (1995)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Floyd.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Floyd</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Georges.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Georges</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Gloria.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Gloria</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Ivan.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Ivan</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_John_%25281994%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane John (1994)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_John_%25282006%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane John (2006)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Katrina</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Lenny.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Lenny</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Marty_%25282003%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Marty (2003)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Mitch.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Mitch</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Philippe_%25282005%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Philippe (2005)</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Vince_%25282005%2529.htm" target="_top">Hurricane Vince (2005)</a>
<a href="../../wp/l/Labor_Day_Hurricane_of_1935.htm" target="_top">Labor Day Hurricane of 1935</a>
<a href="../../wp/m/Meteorological_history_of_Hurricane_Katrina.htm" target="_top">Meteorological history of Hurricane Katrina</a>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hurricane">Tropical cyclone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hurricanes</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hurricanes">Tropical cyclone</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>husein</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Husein_Grada%25C5%25A1%25C4%258Devi%25C4%2587.htm" target="_top">Husein Gradaščević</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hussein</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/b/Barack_Obama.htm" target="_top" title="from 8 redirects: Barack_Hussein_Obama Barack_Hussein_Obama,_Jr. Barack_Hussein_Obama,_Jr Barack_Hussein_Obama_Jr Barack_Hussein_Obama_Jr. Barack_Hussein_Obama,_Junior Barack_Hussein_Obama_Junior Barak_hussein_obama">Barack Obama</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hutu</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hutu.htm" target="_top">Hutu</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>huygens</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Cassini-Huygens.htm" target="_top">Cassini-Huygens</a>
</td></tr></table>
<a name="v"></a><a name="w"></a><a name="x"></a><a name="y"></a><table><tr><th>hyakutake</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/c/Comet_Hyakutake.htm" target="_top">Comet Hyakutake</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hyde</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hyde_Park%252C_London.htm" target="_top">Hyde Park, London</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hyderogen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen_peroxide.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hyderogen_peroxide">Hydrogen peroxide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hydride</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/l/Lithium_aluminium_hydride.htm" target="_top">Lithium aluminium hydride</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hydrochloric</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" target="_top">Hydrochloric acid</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hydrochloride</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/m/Morphine.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Morphine_Hydrochloride">Morphine</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hydrogen</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hydrogen_nitride">Ammonia</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrochloric_acid.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Aqueous_Hydrogen_Chloride">Hydrochloric acid</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" target="_top">Hydrogen</a>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen_peroxide.htm" target="_top">Hydrogen peroxide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hydrology</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hydrology.htm" target="_top">Hydrology</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hydroxide</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sodium_hydroxide.htm" target="_top">Sodium hydroxide</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hyena</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hyena.htm" target="_top">Hyena</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hymenochirus</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/African_dwarf_frog.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hymenochirus">African dwarf frog</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hymenoptera</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hymenoptera.htm" target="_top">Hymenoptera</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hyperactive</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Predominantly_Hyperactive-Impulsive_Type">Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hyperactivity</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder.htm" target="_top">Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypersonic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/s/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_%2528character%2529.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Hypersonic_hedgehog Hypersonic_hegdehog">Sonic the Hedgehog (character)</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypomelanic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hypomelanic">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypomelanics</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hypomelanics">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypomelanism</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Hypomelanism Human_hypomelanism">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypomelanistic</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hypomelanistic">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypomelanoid</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hypomelanoid">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypomelanoids</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Hypomelanoids">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypomelanosis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/a/Albinism.htm" target="_top" title="from 2 redirects: Hypomelanosis Human_hypomelanosis">Albinism</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypothesis</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: Endokaryotic_hypothesis">Eukaryote</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hypsilophodon</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hypsilophodon.htm" target="_top">Hypsilophodon</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>hyw</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: HYW">Hundred Years' War</a>
</td></tr></table>
<table><tr><th>הרשלג</th><td>
<a href="../../wp/n/Natalie_Portman.htm" target="_top" title="from redirect: נטלי_הרשלג">Natalie Portman</a>
</td></tr></table>
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Human_hypomelanosis', 'from redirect: Endokaryotic_hypothesis', 'from redirect: HYW', 'from redirect: נטלי_הרשלג'] |
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<h2><a href="../../index.htm" target="_top">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a> : <a href="alpha.htm" target="_top">Title Word Index</a> : H</h2>
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