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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Virus</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.General_Biology.htm">General Biology</a></h3>
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<th style="background: violet;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><map id="ImageMap_2" name="ImageMap_2">
<!--del_lnk-->
</map></span><div style="position: relative;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><img alt="How to read a taxobox" height="16" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Information-silk.png" src="../../images/353/35309.png" usemap="#ImageMap_2" width="16" /></span></div><b>Viruses</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/142/14289.jpg.htm" title="Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)"><img alt="Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)" height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Herpes_simpex_virus.jpg" src="../../images/142/14289.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1)</small></div>
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<th style="background: violet;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Virus classification</b></th>
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<td>Group:</td>
<td>I - VII</td>
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<center>Groups</center>
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<p>I: <!--del_lnk--> dsDNA viruses<br /> II: <!--del_lnk--> ssDNA viruses<br /> III: <!--del_lnk--> dsRNA viruses<br /> IV: <!--del_lnk--> (+)ssRNA viruses<br /> V: <!--del_lnk--> (-)ssRNA viruses<br /> VI: <!--del_lnk--> ssRNA-RT viruses<br /> VII: <!--del_lnk--> dsDNA-RT viruses</td>
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<p>A <b>virus</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> microscopic <!--del_lnk--> particle (ranging in size from 20 - 300 <!--del_lnk--> n<!--del_lnk--> m) that can <!--del_lnk--> infect the <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> of a <!--del_lnk--> biological <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organism</a>. Viruses can replicate themselves only by infecting a host cell. They therefore cannot reproduce on their own. At the most basic level, viruses consist of <!--del_lnk--> genetic material contained within a protective <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> coat called a <!--del_lnk--> capsid. They infect a wide variety of organisms: both <a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (<!--del_lnk--> animals, <!--del_lnk--> yeasts, <!--del_lnk--> fungi, and <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plants">plants</a>) and <!--del_lnk--> prokaryotes (<a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <!--del_lnk--> archaea). A virus that infects bacteria is known as a <i><!--del_lnk--> bacteriophage</i>, often shortened to <i>phage</i>. The word virus comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Latin, <i>virus,</i> "poison" (syn. <i>venenum</i>). The study of viruses is known as <!--del_lnk--> virology and people who study viruses are known as virologists. Viruses cause several serious human diseases, such as <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, <!--del_lnk--> influenza and <a href="../../wp/r/Rabies.htm" title="Rabies">rabies</a>. Therapy is difficult for these diseases as antibiotics have no effect on viruses and few <!--del_lnk--> antiviral drugs are known. The best way to prevent viral diseases is with a <!--del_lnk--> vaccine, which produces <!--del_lnk--> immunity.<p>It has been argued extensively whether viruses are living organisms. Most virologists consider them non-living, as they do not meet all the criteria of the generally accepted definition of <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a>. They are similar to <!--del_lnk--> obligate intracellular parasites as they lack the means for self-reproduction outside a host cell, but unlike parasites, viruses are generally not considered to be true living organisms. A definitive answer is still elusive. Some organisms considered to be living exhibit characteristics of both living and non-living particles, as viruses do. For those who consider viruses living, viruses are an exception to the <!--del_lnk--> cell theory proposed by <!--del_lnk--> Theodor Schwann, as viruses are not made up of cells.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/79/7976.jpg.htm" title="Computer-generated image of virions"><img alt="Computer-generated image of virions" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Viren22.jpg" src="../../images/79/7976.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/79/7976.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Computer-generated image of virions</div>
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<p>Viral diseases such as <a href="../../wp/r/Rabies.htm" title="Rabies">rabies</a> have affected humans for many centuries. There is hieroglyphical evidence of <!--del_lnk--> Polio in the ancient Egyptian empire. However, the cause of these diseases was discovered relatively recently. In 1717, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Montagu, the wife of an English ambassador to the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, observed local women <!--del_lnk--> inoculating their children against <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a>. In the late 18th century, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Jenner.htm" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> observed and studied Miss Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had previously caught <!--del_lnk--> Cowpox and was subsequently found to be immune to Smallpox, a similar, but devastating virus. Jenner developed the first <!--del_lnk--> vaccine, based on these findings, and smallpox is currently all but wiped out.<p>In the late 19th century <!--del_lnk--> Charles Chamberland developed a porcelain filter. This filter was used to study the first documented virus, <!--del_lnk--> tobacco mosaic virus. Shortly afterwards, <!--del_lnk--> Dimitri Ivanovski published experiments showing that crushed leaf extracts of infected tobacco plants were still infectious even after filtering the bacteria from the solution. At about the same time, several others documented filterable disease-causing agents, with several independent experiments showing that viruses were different from bacteria, yet they could also cause disease in living organisms. These experiments showed that viruses are orders of magnitudes smaller than bacteria. The term <i>virus</i> was coined by the Dutch microbiologist <!--del_lnk--> Martinus Beijerinck.<p>In the early 20th century, <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Twort discovered that bacteria could be attacked by viruses. <!--del_lnk--> Felix d'Herelle, working independently, showed that a preparation of viruses caused areas of cellular death on thin <!--del_lnk--> cell cultures spread on <!--del_lnk--> agar. Counting the dead areas allowed him to estimate the original number of viruses in the suspension. The invention of <!--del_lnk--> Electron microscopy provided the first look at viruses. In 1935 <!--del_lnk--> Wendell Stanley crystallised the tobacco mosaic virus and found it to be mostly <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a>. A short time later the virus was separated into protein and <!--del_lnk--> nucleic acid parts.<p><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<p>The origins of modern viruses are not entirely clear. It may be that no single mechanism can account for all viruses. They do not <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossilize</a> well, so <!--del_lnk--> molecular techniques have been the most useful means of hypothesising how they arose. Research in <!--del_lnk--> microfossil identification and molecular biology may yet discern fossil evidence dating to the <!--del_lnk--> Archean or <!--del_lnk--> Proterozoic eons. Two main hypotheses currently exist.<ul>
<li>Small viruses with only a few genes may be runaway stretches of nucleic acid originating from the genome of a living organism. Their genetic material could have been derived from transferable genetic elements such as <!--del_lnk--> plasmids or <!--del_lnk--> transposons, which are prone to moving around, exiting, and entering genomes.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Viruses with larger genomes, such as <!--del_lnk--> poxviruses, may have once been small cells which parasitised larger host cells. Over time, genes not required by their parasitic lifestyle would have been lost in a streamlining process known as <i>retrograde-evolution</i> or <i>reverse-evolution</i>. The bacteria <!--del_lnk--> Rickettsia and <!--del_lnk--> Chlamydia are living cells that, like viruses, can only reproduce inside host cells. They lend credence to the streamlining hypothesis, as their parasitic lifestyle is likely to have caused the loss of genes that enabled them to survive outside a host cell.</ul>
<p>Other infectious particles which are even simpler in structure than viruses include <!--del_lnk--> viroids, <!--del_lnk--> satellites, and <a href="../../wp/p/Prion.htm" title="Prion">prions</a>.<p><a id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> taxonomy, the classification of viruses is rather difficult due to the lack of a fossil record and the dispute over whether they are living or non-living. They do not fit easily into any of the <!--del_lnk--> domains of <!--del_lnk--> biological classification and therefore classification begins at the <!--del_lnk--> family rank. However, the domain name of <!--del_lnk--> Acytota has been suggested. This would place viruses on a par with the other domains of <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Eubacteria">Eubacteria</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Archaea, and <!--del_lnk--> Eukarya. Not all families are currently classified into orders, nor all genera classified into families.<p>As an example of viral classification, the <!--del_lnk--> chicken pox virus belongs to family <i><!--del_lnk--> Herpesviridae</i>, subfamily <i><!--del_lnk--> Alphaherpesvirinae</i> and genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Varicellovirus</i>. It remains unranked in terms of order. The general structure is as follows.<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Order (<i>-virales</i>) <dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Family (<i>-viridae</i>) <dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Subfamily (<i>-virinae</i>) <dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Genus (<i>-virus</i>) <dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Species (<i>-virus</i>)</dl>
</dl>
</dl>
</dl>
</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) developed the current classification system and put in place guidelines that put a greater weighting on certain virus properties in order to maintain family uniformity. In determining order, taxonomists should consider the type of nucleic acid present, whether the nucleic acid is single- or double-stranded, and the presence or absence of an envelope. After these three main properties, other characteristics can be considered: the type of host, the capsid shape, immunological properties and the type of disease it causes.<p>In addition to this classification system, the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize-winning biologist <!--del_lnk--> David Baltimore devised the <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore classification system. This places a virus into one of seven <i>Groups</i>, which distinguish viruses based on their mode of replication and genome type. The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification.<p><a id="Structure" name="Structure"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Structure</span></h2>
<p>A complete virus particle, known as a <b>virion</b>, is little more than a <!--del_lnk--> gene transporter, consisting in its simplest form of <!--del_lnk--> nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> called a <!--del_lnk--> capsid. A capsid is composed of proteins encoded by the viral <!--del_lnk--> genome and its shape serves as the basis for <!--del_lnk--> morphological distinction. Virally coded protein subunits - sometimes called <b>protomers</b> - will self-assemble to form the capsid, generally requiring the presence of the virus genome - however, many complex viruses code for proteins which assist in the construction of their capsid. Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as <!--del_lnk--> nucleoproteins, and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a <b>nucleocapsid</b>.<p>In general, there are four main morphological virus types:<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Image</b></td>
<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Helical viruses</b></td>
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<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14290.png.htm" title="Diagram of a helical capsid"><img alt="Diagram of a helical capsid" class="thumbimage" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tobacco_mosaic_virus_structure.png" src="../../images/142/14290.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14290.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram of a helical capsid</div>
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<td>Helical capsids are composed of a single type of subunit stacked around a central axis to form a helical structure which may have a central cavity, or hollow tube. This arrangement results in rod-shaped or filamentous virions: these can be anything from short and highly rigid, to long and very flexible. The genetic material - generally single-stranded RNA, but also ssDNA in the case of certain phages - is bound into the protein helix, by charge interactions between the negatively-charged nucleic acid and positive charges on the protein. Overall, the length of a helical capsid is related to the length of the nucleic acid contained within it, while the diameter is dependent on the size and arrangement of protomers. The well-studied <!--del_lnk--> Tobacco mosaic virus is an example of a helical virus.</td>
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<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Image</b></td>
<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Icosahedral viruses</b></td>
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<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14291.jpg.htm" title="Electron micrograph of icosahedral virions"><img alt="Electron micrograph of icosahedral virions" class="thumbimage" height="142" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coronaviruses_004_lores.jpg" src="../../images/142/14291.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14291.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Electron micrograph of icosahedral virions</div>
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<td>Icosahedral capsid symmetry results in a spherical appearance of viruses at low magnification but actually consists of capsomers arranged in a regular geometrical pattern, similar to a <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">soccer ball</a>, hence they are not truly "spherical". Capsomers are ring shaped structures constructed from five to six copies of protomers. These associate via <!--del_lnk--> non-covalent bonding to enclose the viral nucleic acid, though generally less intimately than helical capsids, and may involve one or more protomers. <p>Icosahedral architecture was employed by <a href="../../wp/b/Buckminster_Fuller.htm" title="Buckminster Fuller">R. Buckminster-Fuller</a> in his <!--del_lnk--> geodesic dome, and is the most efficient way of creating an enclosed robust structure from multiple copies of a single protein. The number of proteins required to form a spherical virus capsid is denoted by the T-number, where 60×<i>t</i> proteins are necessary. In the case of the <!--del_lnk--> hepatitis B virus the T-number is 4, therefore 240 proteins assemble to form the capsid.</td>
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<tr>
<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Image</b></td>
<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Enveloped viruses</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/82/8223.png.htm" title="Diagram of enveloped HIV"><img alt="Diagram of enveloped HIV" class="thumbimage" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HIV_Viron.png" src="../../images/82/8223.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/82/8223.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram of enveloped <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a></div>
</div>
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<td>In addition to a protein capsid many viruses are able to envelope themselves in a modified form of one of the <!--del_lnk--> cell membranes - the outer membrane surrounding an infected host cell, or from internal membranes such as nuclear membrane or endoplasmic reticulum - thus gaining an outer lipid bilayer known as a <!--del_lnk--> viral envelope. This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by the viral genome and host genome; however the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present are entirely host-coded. The Influenza virus and HIV use this strategy. <p>The viral envelope can give a virion a few distinct advantages over other capsid-only virions, such as protection from enzymes and certain chemicals. The proteins in it can include <!--del_lnk--> glycoproteins functioning as <!--del_lnk--> receptor molecules, allowing host cells to recognise and bind these virions, resulting in the possible uptake of the virion into the cell. Most enveloped viruses are dependent upon the envelope for infectivity.</td>
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<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Image</b></td>
<td bgcolor="#DDDDDD"><b>Complex viruses</b></td>
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<div class="center">
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/82/8226.png.htm" title="Diagram of a bacteriophage"><img alt="Diagram of a bacteriophage" class="thumbimage" height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tevenphage.png" src="../../images/82/8226.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/82/8226.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Diagram of a bacteriophage</div>
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<td>These viruses possess a capsid which is neither purely helical, nor purely icosahedral, and which may possess extra structures such as protein tails or a complex outer wall. Some <!--del_lnk--> bacteriophages have a complex structure consisting of an icosahedral head bound to a helical tail, the latter of which may have a hexagonal base plate with many protruding protein tail fibres. <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Poxviruses are large, complex viruses which have an unusual <!--del_lnk--> morphology. The viral genome is associated with proteins within a central disk structure known as a <!--del_lnk--> nucleoid. The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function. The virus has an outer envelope with a thick layer of protein studded over its surface. The whole particle is slightly <!--del_lnk--> pleiomorphic, ranging from ovoid to brick shape.</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1001.png.htm" title="The range of sizes shown by viruses, relative to those of other organisms and biomolecules."><img alt="The range of sizes shown by viruses, relative to those of other organisms and biomolecules." class="thumbimage" height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Relative_scale.svg" src="../../images/10/1001.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1001.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The range of sizes shown by viruses, relative to those of other organisms and <!--del_lnk--> biomolecules.</div>
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<p><a id="Size" name="Size"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Size</span></h3>
<p>To put viral size into perspective, a medium sized virion next to a flea is roughly equivalent to a human next to a mountain twice the size of <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Everest.htm" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a>. Some <!--del_lnk--> filoviruses have a total length of up to 1400 nm, however their capsid diameters are only about 80 nm. The majority of viruses which have been studied have a <!--del_lnk--> capsid diameter between 10 and 300 <!--del_lnk--> nanometres. While most viruses are unable to be seen with a <!--del_lnk--> light microscope, some are as large or larger than the smallest bacteria and can be seen under high optical magnification. More commonly, both scanning and transmission <!--del_lnk--> electron microscopes are used to visualise virus particles.<p>A notable exception to the normal viral size range is the recently discovered <!--del_lnk--> mimivirus, with a diameter of 750 nm which is larger than a <i><!--del_lnk--> Mycoplasma</i> bacterium. They also hold the record for the largest viral genome size, possessing about 1000 genes (some bacteria only possess 400) on a genome approximately 1.2 <!--del_lnk--> megabases in length. Their large genome also contains many genes which are <!--del_lnk--> conserved in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes. The discovery of the virus has led many scientists to reconsider the controversial boundary between living organisms and viruses, which are currently considered as mere mobile genetic elements.<p><a id="Genetic_material" name="Genetic_material"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Genetic material</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14294.jpg.htm" title="An electron micrograph of multiple polyomavirus virions"><img alt="An electron micrograph of multiple polyomavirus virions" class="thumbimage" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Polyomavirus_SV40_TEM_B82-0338_lores.jpg" src="../../images/142/14294.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14294.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An electron micrograph of multiple <!--del_lnk--> polyomavirus virions</div>
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<p>Both <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <!--del_lnk--> RNA are found in viral species, but generally a species will not contain both. One exception is the human <!--del_lnk--> cytomegalovirus, which contains both a DNA core and several <!--del_lnk--> mRNA segments. The nucleic acid can be either single- or double-stranded, depending on the species. Therefore viruses as a group contain all four possible types of nucleic acids: double-stranded DNA, single-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA and single-stranded RNA. Animal virus species have been observed to possess all combinations, whereas plant viruses tend to have single-stranded RNA. Bacteriophages tend to have double-stranded DNA. Also, the nucleic acids can be either linear or a closed loop.<p>Genome size in terms of the weight of <!--del_lnk--> nucleotides varies quite substantially between species. The smallest genomes code for only four proteins and weigh about 10<sup>6</sup> <!--del_lnk--> daltons, while the largest weigh about 10<sup>8</sup> daltons and code for over one hundred proteins. Some virus species possess abnormal nucleotides, such as hydroxymethylcytosine instead of <!--del_lnk--> cytosine, as a normal part of their genome.<p>For viruses with RNA as their nucleic acid, the strands are said to be either <!--del_lnk--> positive-sense (also called plus-strand) or <!--del_lnk--> negative-sense (also called minus-strand) depending on whether it is complementary to viral mRNA. Positive-sense viral RNA is identical to viral mRNA and thus can be immediately <!--del_lnk--> translated by the host cell. Negative-sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an <!--del_lnk--> RNA polymerase before translation.<p>All double-stranded RNA genomes and some single-stranded RNA genomes are said to be segmented, or divided into separate parts. Each segment may code for one protein, and they are usually found together in one capsid. Not all segments are required to be in the same virion for the overall virus to be infectious, as can be seen in the <!--del_lnk--> brome mosaic virus.<p><a id="Replication" name="Replication"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Replication</span></h2>
<p>Viral populations do not grow through <!--del_lnk--> cell division, because they are acellular; instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves. They may have a <!--del_lnk--> lytic or a <!--del_lnk--> lysogenic cycle, with some viruses capable of carrying out both. A virus can still cause degenerative effects within a cell without causing its death; collectively these are termed <b>cytopathic effects</b>. Released virions can be passed between hosts through either direct contact, often via <!--del_lnk--> body fluids, or through a <!--del_lnk--> vector. In aqueous environments, viruses float free in the water.<p>In the lytic cycle, characteristic of virulent phages such as the <!--del_lnk--> T4 phage, host cells will be induced by the virus to begin manufacturing the proteins necessary for virus reproduction. As well as proteins, the virus must also direct the replication of new genomes, the technique used for this varies greatly between virus species but depends heavily on the genome type. The final viral product is assembled spontaneously, though it may be aided by <!--del_lnk--> molecular chaperones. After the genome has been replicated and the new capsid assembled, the virus causes the cell to be broken open (lysed) to release the virus particles. Some viruses do not lyse the cell but instead exit the cell via the <!--del_lnk--> cell membrane in a process known as <!--del_lnk--> exocytosis, taking a small portion of the membrane with them as a viral envelope. As soon as the cell is destroyed the viruses have to find a new host.<p>In contrast, the lysogenic cycle does not result in immediate lysing of the host cell, instead the viral genome integrates into the host DNA and replicates along with it. The virus remains dormant but after the host cell has replicated several times, or if environmental conditions permit it, the virus will become active and enter the lytic phase. The lysogenic cycle allows the host cell to continue to survive and reproduce, and the virus is passed on to all of the cell’s offspring.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14295.jpg.htm" title="A falsely coloured electron micrograph of multiple bacteriophages"><img alt="A falsely coloured electron micrograph of multiple bacteriophages" class="thumbimage" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bacteriophage.jpg" src="../../images/142/14295.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14295.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A falsely coloured electron micrograph of multiple <!--del_lnk--> bacteriophages</div>
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<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Bacteriophages</b> infect specific bacteria by binding to <!--del_lnk--> surface receptor molecules and then enter the cell. Within a short amount of time, sometimes just minutes, bacterial <!--del_lnk--> polymerase starts translating viral mRNA into protein. These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell, helper proteins which help assembly of new virions, or proteins involved in cell <!--del_lnk--> lysis. Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane, and in the case of the <!--del_lnk--> T4 phage, in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages will be released.<p>Animal <b><!--del_lnk--> DNA viruses</b>, such as <!--del_lnk--> herpesviruses, enter the host via <!--del_lnk--> endocytosis, the process by which cells take in material from the external environment. Frequently after a chance collision with an appropriate surface receptor on a cell, the virus penetrates the cell, the viral genome is released from the capsid and host polymerases begin transcribing viral mRNA. New virions are assembled and released either by cell lysis or by budding off the cell membrane.<p>Animal <b><!--del_lnk--> RNA viruses</b> can be placed into about four different groups depending on their mode of replication. The <!--del_lnk--> polarity of the RNA largely determines the replicative mechanism, as well as whether the genetic material is single-stranded or double-stranded. Some <!--del_lnk--> RNA viruses are actually DNA based but use an RNA-intermediate to replicate. RNA viruses are heavily dependent upon virally encoded <!--del_lnk--> RNA replicase to create copies of their genomes.<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Reverse transcribing viruses</b> are viruses that replicate using reverse transcription, which is the formation of DNA from an RNA template. Those viruses containing RNA genomes use a DNA intermediate to replicate, whereas those containing DNA genomes use an RNA intermediate during genome replication. Both types of reverse transcribing viruses use the <!--del_lnk--> reverse transcriptase enzyme to carry out the nucleic acid conversion.<p><a id="Lifeform_debate" name="Lifeform_debate"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Lifeform debate</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14296.jpg.htm" title="Multiple rotavirus virions"><img alt="Multiple rotavirus virions" class="thumbimage" height="154" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rotavirus_TEM_B82-0337_lores.jpg" src="../../images/142/14296.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14296.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Multiple <!--del_lnk--> rotavirus virions</div>
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<p>Argument continues over whether viruses are truly alive. According to the <!--del_lnk--> United States Code, they are considered <!--del_lnk--> microorganisms in the sense of biological weaponry and malicious use. Scientists, however, are divided. They have no trouble classifying a horse as living, but things become complicated as they look at simple viruses, <!--del_lnk--> viroids and <!--del_lnk--> prions. Viruses resemble other organisms in that they possess nucleic acid, and can respond - in infected cells - to their environment in a limited fashion. They can also reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through simple self-assembly.<p>The concept of a virus as an organism challenges the way we define life: viruses do not respire, they do not display irritability, they do not move or grow; however, they do reproduce, and may adapt to new hosts by changing their genomes. By older, more zoologically and botanically biased criteria, then, viruses are not living. However, this sort of argument results from a top down sort of definition, which has been modified over years to take account of smaller and smaller things (with fewer and fewer legs, or leaves), until it has met the ultimate molechisms or organules - that is to say, viruses - and has proved inadequate. If one defines life from the bottom up - that is, from the simplest forms capable of displaying the most essential attributes of a living thing - one very quickly realises that the only real criterion for life is simply the ability of an organism to replicate, and that only systems that contain nucleic acids - in the natural world, at least - are capable of this phenomenon. This sort of reasoning has led to a new definition of organisms: "An organism is the unit element of a continuous lineage with an individual evolutionary history." The key words here are UNIT ELEMENT, and INDIVIDUAL: the thing that you see, now, as an organism, is merely the current slice in a continuous lineage; the individual evolutionary history denotes the independence of the organism over time. Thus, mitochondria and chloroplasts and nuclei and chromosomes are not organisms, in that together they constitute a continuous lineage, but separately have no possibility of survival, despite their independence before they entered initially symbiotic, and then dependent associations. They are also absent from the fossil record, making classical <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetic relationships difficult to determine: however, many workers have successfully inferred evolutionary histories of many millennia form comparing nucleotide sequences of related viruses.<p>An argument can be made that all accepted forms of life use <!--del_lnk--> cell division to reproduce, whereas all viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. The comparison is drawn between viral self-assembly and the autonomous growth of non-living <!--del_lnk--> crystals. Virus self-assembly within host cells also has implications for the study of the <!--del_lnk--> origin of life, as it lends credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules.<p>If viruses are considered alive, then the criteria specifying life will have been permanently changed, leading scientists to question what the basic prerequisite of life is. If they are considered living then the prospect of creating <!--del_lnk--> artificial life is enhanced, or at least the standards required to call something artificially alive are reduced. If viruses were said to be alive, the question could follow of whether other even smaller infectious particles, such as <!--del_lnk--> viroids and <a href="../../wp/p/Prion.htm" title="Prion">prions</a>, would next be considered forms of life.<p><a id="Viruses_and_disease" name="Viruses_and_disease"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Viruses and disease</span></h2>
<p>Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the <a href="../../wp/c/Common_cold.htm" title="Common cold">common cold</a>, <!--del_lnk--> the flu, <!--del_lnk--> chickenpox and <!--del_lnk--> cold sores. Many serious diseases such as <!--del_lnk--> Ebola, <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, <!--del_lnk--> avian flu and <!--del_lnk--> SARS are also caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of <!--del_lnk--> virulence. Other diseases are under investigation as to whether they too have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between <!--del_lnk--> Human Herpesvirus Six (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as <a href="../../wp/m/Multiple_sclerosis.htm" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a> and <!--del_lnk--> chronic fatigue syndrome. Recently it was also shown that cervical cancer is partially caused by <!--del_lnk--> papillomavirus, representing evidence in humans of a link existing between cancer and an infective agent. There is current controversy over whether the <!--del_lnk--> borna virus, previously thought of as causing <!--del_lnk--> neurological disease in horses, could be responsible for <!--del_lnk--> psychiatric illness in humans.<p>Viruses have many different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism, which largely depends on the species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell <!--del_lnk--> lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In <!--del_lnk--> multicellular organisms, if enough cells die the whole organism will start to suffer the effects. Although many viruses result in the disruption of healthy <!--del_lnk--> homeostasis, resulting in disease, they may also exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of the <!--del_lnk--> herpes simplex virus, which cause <!--del_lnk--> coldsores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body.<p><a id="Epidemics" name="Epidemics"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Epidemics</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14297.jpg.htm" title="The Ebola virus"><img alt="The Ebola virus" class="thumbimage" height="92" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ebola_Virus_TEM_PHIL_1832_lores.jpg" src="../../images/142/14297.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14297.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Ebola virus</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14298.jpg.htm" title="The Marburg virus"><img alt="The Marburg virus" class="thumbimage" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Marburg_virions_TEM_275_lores.jpg" src="../../images/142/14298.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14298.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Marburg virus</div>
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<p>A number of highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the <!--del_lnk--> Filoviridae. Filoviruses are filament-like viruses that cause <!--del_lnk--> viral hemorrhagic fever, and include the <!--del_lnk--> Ebola and <!--del_lnk--> Marburg viruses. The Marburg virus attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>. Beginning in October 2004 and continuing into 2005, the outbreak was the world's worst epidemic of any kind of viral hemorrhagic fever.<p><!--del_lnk--> Native American populations were devastated by contagious diseases, particularly <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, brought to the Americas by European colonists. It is unclear how many Native Americans were killed by foreign diseases after the arrival of Columbus in the Americas, but the numbers have been estimated to be close to 70% of the indigenous population. The damage done by this disease may have significantly aided European attempts to displace or conquer the native population. Viruses also cause some of the most dangerous diseases ever known to man, such as smallpox and AIDS.<p><a id="Detection.2C_purification_and_diagnosis" name="Detection.2C_purification_and_diagnosis"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Detection, purification and diagnosis</span></h3>
<p>In the laboratory, several techniques for growing and detecting viruses exist. Purification of viral particles can be achieved using <!--del_lnk--> differential centrifugation, <!--del_lnk--> isopycnic centrifugation, precipitation with <!--del_lnk--> ammonium sulfate or <!--del_lnk--> ethylene glycol, and removal of cell components from a homogenised cell mixture using <!--del_lnk--> organic solvents or enzymes to leave the virus particles in solution.<p>Assays to detect and quantify viruses include:<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14299.jpg.htm" title="A viral plaque assay"><img alt="A viral plaque assay" class="thumbimage" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Plaque_assay_macro.jpg" src="../../images/142/14299.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/142/14299.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A viral plaque assay</div>
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<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Hemagglutination assays, which quantitatively measure how many virus particles are in a solution of <!--del_lnk--> red blood cells by the amount of <!--del_lnk--> agglutination the viruses cause between them. This occurs as many viruses are able to bind to the surface of one or more red blood cells.<li>Direct counts using an <!--del_lnk--> electron microscope. A dilute mixture of virus particles and beads of known size are sprayed onto a special sheet and examined under high magnification. The virions are counted and the number extrapolated to estimate the number of virions in the undiluted mixture.<li><!--del_lnk--> Plaque assays involve growing a thin layer of host cells onto a culture dish and adding a dilute mixture of virions onto it. The virions will infect and kill the cells they land on, producing holes in the cell layer known as plaques. The number of plaques can be counted and the number of virions estimated from it.</ul>
<p>Detection and subsequent isolation of new viruses from patients is a specialised laboratory subject. Normally it requires the use of large facilities, expensive equipment, and trained specialists such as technicians, <!--del_lnk--> molecular biologists, and <!--del_lnk--> virologists. Often, this effort is undertaken by state and national governments and shared internationally through organizations like the <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>.<p><a id="Prevention_and_treatment" name="Prevention_and_treatment"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Prevention and treatment</span></h3>
<p>Because viruses use the machinery of a host cell to reproduce and also reside within them, they are difficult to eliminate without killing the host cell. The most effective <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medical</a> approaches to viral diseases so far are <!--del_lnk--> vaccinations to provide resistance to infection, and drugs which treat the symptoms of viral infections. Patients often ask for, and <!--del_lnk--> physicians often prescribe, <!--del_lnk--> antibiotics. These are useless against viruses, and their misuse against viral infections is one of the causes of <!--del_lnk--> antibiotic resistance in <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>. However, in life-threatening situations the prudent course of action is to begin a course of antibiotic treatment while waiting for test results to determine whether the patient's symptoms are caused by a virus or a bacterial infection.<p><a id="Potential_uses_in_therapy" name="Potential_uses_in_therapy"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Potential uses in therapy</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in gene therapy.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14300.png.htm" title="The polio virus"><img alt="The polio virus" class="thumbimage" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Polio_EM_PHIL_1875_lores.PNG" src="../../images/143/14300.png" width="170" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14300.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> polio virus</div>
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<p><a id="Life_sciences" name="Life_sciences"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Life sciences</span></h3>
<p>Viruses are important to the study of <!--del_lnk--> molecular and <!--del_lnk--> cellular biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells. The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about many aspects of cell biology. For example, viruses have simplified the study of <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and helped human understanding of the basic mechanisms of <!--del_lnk--> molecular genetics, such as <!--del_lnk--> DNA replication, <!--del_lnk--> transcription, <!--del_lnk--> RNA processing, <!--del_lnk--> translation, <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> transport, and <!--del_lnk--> immunology.<p><a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">Geneticists</a> regularly use viruses as <!--del_lnk--> vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. In similar fashion, <!--del_lnk--> virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in <!--del_lnk--> gene therapy.<p><a id="Materials_science_and_nanotechnology" name="Materials_science_and_nanotechnology"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Materials science and nanotechnology</span></h3>
<p>Current trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses. From the viewpoint of a materials scientist, viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles. Their surface carries specific tools designed to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses, and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface, is precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications. A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution. The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials, opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine.<p>In April 2006 scientists at the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) created <!--del_lnk--> nanoscale metallic wires using a <!--del_lnk--> genetically-modified virus. The MIT team was able to use the virus to create a working <!--del_lnk--> battery with an <!--del_lnk--> energy density up to three times more than current materials. The potential exists for this technology to be used in <a href="../../wp/l/Liquid_crystal.htm" title="Liquid crystal">liquid crystals</a>, <!--del_lnk--> solar cells, <!--del_lnk--> fuel cells, and other electronics in the future.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14301.jpg.htm" title="The reconstructed 1918 influenza virus"><img alt="The reconstructed 1918 influenza virus" class="thumbimage" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reconstructed_Spanish_Flu_Virus.jpg" src="../../images/143/14301.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14301.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The reconstructed <!--del_lnk--> 1918 influenza virus</div>
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<p><a id="Weapons" name="Weapons"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Weapons</span></h3>
<p>The ability of viruses to cause devastating <!--del_lnk--> epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponized for <!--del_lnk--> biological warfare. Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous 1918 influenza virus in a laboratory. The <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication. It currently exists in several secure laboratories in the world, and fears that it may be used as a weapon are not totally unfounded. The modern global human population has almost no established resistance to smallpox; if it were to be released, a massive loss of life could be sustained before the virus is brought under control.<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The word is from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>virus</i> referring to <!--del_lnk--> poison and other noxious things, first used in English in 1392. <i>Virulent</i>, from Latin <i>virulentus</i> "poisonous" dates to 1400. A meaning of "agent that causes infectious disease" is first recorded in 1728, before the discovery of viruses by the <!--del_lnk--> Russian-<!--del_lnk--> Ukrainian <!--del_lnk--> biologist <!--del_lnk--> Dmitry Ivanovsky in 1892. The adjective <i>viral</i> dates to 1948. Today, <i>virus</i> is used to describe the biological viruses discussed above and also as a metaphor for other parasitically-reproducing things, such as <!--del_lnk--> memes or <!--del_lnk--> computer viruses (since 1972). The <!--del_lnk--> neologism <b>virion</b> or viron is used to refer to a single infective viral particle.<p>The Latin word is from a <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Indo-European root *<span class="Unicode" lang="ine" style="white-space: nowrap" title="Proto-Indo-European language" xml:lang="ine">weis-</span> "to melt away, to flow," used of foul or malodorous fluids. It is a cognate of <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <i><span class="unicode" lang="sa-Latn" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" xml:lang="sa-Latn">viṣh</span></i> "poison", <!--del_lnk--> Avestan <i>viš-</i> "poison", Greek <i>ios</i> "poison", <!--del_lnk--> Old Church Slavonic <i>višnja</i> "cherry", <!--del_lnk--> Old Irish <i>fi</i> "poison", <!--del_lnk--> Welsh <i>gwy</i> "fluid"; Latin <i>viscum</i> (see <!--del_lnk--> viscous) "sticky substance" is also from the same root.<p>The English plural form of <i>virus</i> is <i>viruses</i>. No reputable dictionary gives any other form, including such "reconstructed" Latin plural forms as <i>viri</i> (which actually means <i>men</i>), and no plural form appears in the Latin corpus (See <!--del_lnk--> plural of virus). The word does not have a traditional Latin plural because its original sense, <i>poison</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> mass noun like the English word <i>furniture</i>, and, as pointed out above, English use of <i>virus</i> to denote the agent of a disease predates the discovery that these agents are microscopic parasites and thus in principle countable.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Visual arts</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Art.Art.htm">Art</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/66/6687.jpg.htm" title="The Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the Western world."><img alt="The Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the Western world." class="thumbimage" height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mona_Lisa.jpg" src="../../images/66/6687.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/66/6687.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i><a href="../../wp/m/Mona_Lisa.htm" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a></i> is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the <!--del_lnk--> Western world.</div>
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<p>The <b>visual arts</b> are <!--del_lnk--> art forms that focus on the creation of works which are primarily <!--del_lnk--> visual in nature, such as <a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">painting</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" title="Photography">photography</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Printmaking.htm" title="Printmaking">printmaking</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> filmmaking. Those that involve three-dimensional objects, such as <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, are called <!--del_lnk--> plastic arts. Many artistic disciplines (<!--del_lnk--> performing arts, <!--del_lnk--> language arts, and <!--del_lnk--> culinary arts) involve aspects of the visual arts as well as other types, so these definitions are not strict.<p>The current usage of the term "visual arts" includes <!--del_lnk--> fine arts as well as <!--del_lnk--> crafts, but this was not always the case. Before the <!--del_lnk--> Arts and Crafts movement in <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> and elsewhere at the turn of the 20th century, "visual artist" referred to a person working in the <!--del_lnk--> fine arts (such as <a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">painting</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, or <a href="../../wp/p/Printmaking.htm" title="Printmaking">printmaking</a>) and not the <!--del_lnk--> handicraft, <!--del_lnk--> craft, or <!--del_lnk--> applied art disciplines. The distinction was emphasized by artists of the <!--del_lnk--> Arts and Crafts movement who valued vernacular art forms as much as high forms. The movement contrasted with <!--del_lnk--> modernists who sought to withhold the high arts from the masses by keeping them esoteric. <!--del_lnk--> Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the <!--del_lnk--> crafts in such a way that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of art.<p>In colloquial speech, fine art is sometimes referred to as <i>capital "A" art,</i> or <i>art with a capital "A."</i><p>
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<p><a id="Drawing" name="Drawing"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Drawing</span></h2>
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<p><a href="../../wp/d/Drawing.htm" title="Drawing">Drawing</a> is a means of making an <!--del_lnk--> image, using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are <!--del_lnk--> graphite <!--del_lnk--> pencils, <!--del_lnk--> pen and ink, <!--del_lnk--> inked <a href="../../wp/b/Brush.htm" title="Brush">brushes</a>, wax <!--del_lnk--> colour pencils, <!--del_lnk--> crayons, <!--del_lnk--> charcoals, <!--del_lnk--> pastels, and <!--del_lnk--> markers. Digital tools which simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, <!--del_lnk--> hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, <!--del_lnk--> stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a <i>draftsman</i> or <i>draughtsman".</i><p><a id="Painting" name="Painting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Painting</span></h2>
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<p><a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">Painting</a> taken literally is the practice of applying <a href="../../wp/p/Pigment.htm" title="Pigment">pigment</a> suspended in a carrier (or <!--del_lnk--> medium) and a binding agent (a <!--del_lnk--> glue) to a <!--del_lnk--> surface (support) such as <!--del_lnk--> paper, <!--del_lnk--> canvas or a wall. However, when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with <a href="../../wp/d/Drawing.htm" title="Drawing">drawing</a>, <!--del_lnk--> composition and other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner. Painting is also used to express spiritual motifs and ideas; sites of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery to <!--del_lnk--> The Sistine Chapel to the human body itself.<p><a id="Printmaking" name="Printmaking"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Printmaking</span></h2>
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<p><a href="../../wp/p/Printmaking.htm" title="Printmaking">Printmaking</a> is creating for artistic purposes an image on a matrix which is then transferred to a two-dimensional (flat) surface by means of ink (or another form of pigmentation). Except in the case of a <!--del_lnk--> monotype, the same matrix can be used to produce many examples of the print. Historically, the major techniques (also called mediums) involved are <!--del_lnk--> woodcut, <!--del_lnk--> line engraving, <!--del_lnk--> etching, <!--del_lnk--> lithography, and screenprinting (serigraphy, silkscreening) but there are many others, including modern digital techniques. Normally the surface upon which the print is printed is <!--del_lnk--> paper, but there are exceptions, from cloth and <!--del_lnk--> vellum to modern materials. Prints in the Western tradition produced before about 1830 are known as <!--del_lnk--> old master prints. There are other major printmaking traditions, especially that of Japan (<i><!--del_lnk--> ukiyo-e</i>).<p><a id="Photography" name="Photography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Photography</span></h2>
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<p><a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" title="Photography">Photography</a> is the process of making pictures by means of the action of light. <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">Light</a> patterns reflected or emitted from objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip through a timed <!--del_lnk--> exposure. The process is done through <!--del_lnk--> mechanical, <!--del_lnk--> chemical or <!--del_lnk--> digital devices known as <!--del_lnk--> cameras.<p>The word comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek words φως <i>phos</i> ("light"), and γραφις <i>graphis</i> ("stylus", "paintbrush") or γραφη <i>graphê</i>, together meaning "drawing with light" or "representation by means of lines" or "drawing." Traditionally, the product of photography has been called a <!--del_lnk--> photograph. The term <i>photo</i> is an abbreviation; many people also call them <i>pictures.</i> In digital photography, the term <i>image</i> has begun to replace <i>photograph.</i> (The term <i>image</i> is traditional in geometric <!--del_lnk--> optics.)<p><a id="Computer_art" name="Computer_art"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Computer art</span></h2>
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<p>Visual artists are no longer limited to <!--del_lnk--> traditional art media. Computers may enhance visual art from ease of <!--del_lnk--> rendering or <!--del_lnk--> capturing, to editing, to exploring multiple <!--del_lnk--> compositions, to <!--del_lnk--> printing (including <!--del_lnk--> 3D printing.)<p>Computer usage has blurred the distinctions between <!--del_lnk--> illustrators, <!--del_lnk--> photographers, <!--del_lnk--> photo editors, <!--del_lnk--> 3-D modelers, and handicraft artists. Sophisticated rendering and editing software has led to multi-skilled image developers. <!--del_lnk--> Photographers may become <!--del_lnk--> digital artists. Illustrators may become <!--del_lnk--> animators. Handicraft may be <!--del_lnk--> computer-aided or use <!--del_lnk--> computer generated imagery as a template. Computer <!--del_lnk--> clip art usage has also made the clear distinction between visual arts and <!--del_lnk--> page layout less obvious due to the easy access and editing of clip art in the process of <!--del_lnk--> paginating a document, especially to the unskilled observer.<p><a id="Plastic_arts" name="Plastic_arts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plastic arts</span></h2>
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<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">Architecture</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ceramics<li><!--del_lnk--> Land art<li><!--del_lnk--> Metalworking<li><!--del_lnk--> Paper art<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Textile art<li><a href="../../wp/w/Woodworking.htm" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a><li><a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">Glass</a></ul>
<p><a id="Art-related_terms_in_visual_arts" name="Art-related_terms_in_visual_arts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Art-related terms in visual arts</span></h2>
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<td align="left" valign="top" width="50%">
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Collage<li><a href="../../wp/c/Comics.htm" title="Comics">Comics</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Composition<li><!--del_lnk--> Computer art<li><!--del_lnk--> Conceptual art<li><!--del_lnk--> Contemporary art<li><!--del_lnk--> Crafts<li><!--del_lnk--> Decollage<li><!--del_lnk--> Decorative art<li><!--del_lnk--> Design<li><a href="../../wp/d/Drawing.htm" title="Drawing">Drawing</a><li><a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">Film</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Found art<li><!--del_lnk--> Graffiti<li><!--del_lnk--> Graphic design<li><!--del_lnk--> Illustration</ul>
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<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Image development<li><!--del_lnk--> Installation art<li><!--del_lnk--> Landscape art<li><!--del_lnk--> Mail art<li><!--del_lnk--> Mixed media<li><a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">Painting</a><li><a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" title="Photography">Photography</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Portraiture<li><!--del_lnk--> Old master print<li><a href="../../wp/p/Printmaking.htm" title="Printmaking">Printmaking</a><li><a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Sketch (drawing)<li><!--del_lnk--> sketchbook<li><!--del_lnk--> Sound art<li><!--del_lnk--> Textile art<li><!--del_lnk--> Video art</ul>
</td>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_arts"</div>
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Vitamin | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vitamin</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.General_Chemistry.htm">General Chemistry</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14302.png.htm" title="Retinol (Vitamin A)"><img alt="Retinol (Vitamin A)" height="78" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Retinol_structure.png" src="../../images/143/14302.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14302.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Retinol (Vitamin A)</div>
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<p><b>Vitamins</b> are <!--del_lnk--> nutrients required in very small amounts for essential <!--del_lnk--> metabolic reactions in the body . The term <b>vitamin</b> does not include other <!--del_lnk--> essential nutrients such as <!--del_lnk--> dietary minerals, <!--del_lnk--> essential fatty acids, or <!--del_lnk--> essential amino acids. Nor does the term refer to the large number of other nutrients that promote health, but are not strictly essential.<p>Vitamins act both as <!--del_lnk--> catalysts and substrates in <!--del_lnk--> chemical reactions. When acting as a catalyst, vitamins are bound to <!--del_lnk--> enzymes and are called <!--del_lnk--> cofactors, for example <!--del_lnk--> vitamin K forms part of the <!--del_lnk--> proteases involved in <!--del_lnk--> blood clotting. Vitamins also act as <!--del_lnk--> coenzymes to carry chemical groups between enzymes, for example <a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" title="Folic acid">folic acid</a> carries various forms of carbon groups (methyl, formyl or methylene) in the cell.<p>Until the 1900s, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake. Many food sources contain different ratios of vitamins. Therefore, if the only source of vitamins is food, a seasonal, yearly or even daily change in diet also alters the ratio of ingested vitamins. Many vitamins can be stored by the body over a range of dosages and short term deficiencies (e.g. during a particular food growing season), do not always result in disease.<p>Vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive pills for several decades allowing for consistent supplementation to dietary intake.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14303.jpg.htm" title="Fruits and vegetables are often a good source of vitamins."><img alt="Fruits and vegetables are often a good source of vitamins." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:La_Boqueria.JPG" src="../../images/143/14303.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14303.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fruits and vegetables are often a good source of vitamins.</div>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The value of eating certain foods to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptians</a> knew that feeding a patient <!--del_lnk--> liver would help cure <!--del_lnk--> night blindness, now known to be caused by a <!--del_lnk--> vitamin A deficiency. In <!--del_lnk--> 1747, the <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <!--del_lnk--> surgeon <!--del_lnk--> James Lind discovered that <a href="../../wp/c/Citrus.htm" title="Citrus">citrus</a> foods helped prevent <a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a>, a particularly deadly disease in which <!--del_lnk--> collagen is not properly formed, and is characterized by poor wound healing, bleeding of the <!--del_lnk--> gums, and severe pain. In <!--del_lnk--> 1753, Lind published his <i>Treatise on the Scurvy</i>, which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname <!--del_lnk--> Limey for sailors of that organization. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>'s <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> expeditions in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good <!--del_lnk--> hygiene, regular exercise, and by maintaining the <!--del_lnk--> morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food. As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, when <!--del_lnk--> Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic the prevailing medical theory was that scurvy was caused by "tainted" <!--del_lnk--> canned food.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1881, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy while at the University of Tartu (in present day Estonia). He fed <!--del_lnk--> mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a> known at that time, namely the <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">proteins</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fats, <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrates, and <a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" title="Salt">salts</a>. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life". However, his conclusions were rejected by other researchers when they were unable to reproduce his results. One difference was that he had used table sugar (<!--del_lnk--> sucrose), while other researchers had used milk sugar (<!--del_lnk--> lactose) which still contained small amounts of <!--del_lnk--> vitamin B.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1897, <!--del_lnk--> Christiaan Eijkman discovered that eating unpolished <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> instead of the polished variety helped to prevent the disease <a href="../../wp/b/Beriberi.htm" title="Beriberi">beriberi</a>. The following year, <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors"—in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, etc.—that were necessary for the functions of the human body. Hopkins was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> 1929 <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, with Christiaan Eijkman, for their discovery of several vitamins.<p><!--del_lnk--> Kazimierz Funk was the first to isolate the water-soluble complex of micronutrients, whose bioactivity Fletcher had identified, and Funk proposed the complex be named "Vitamine". The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' "accessory factors", and by the time it was shown that not all vitamins were <!--del_lnk--> amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In <!--del_lnk--> 1920, <!--del_lnk--> Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e" be dropped, to deemphasize the "amine" reference, after the discovery that <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a> had no amine component.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14304.png.htm" title="Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)"><img alt="Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Riboflavin.png" src="../../images/143/14304.png" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14304.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Riboflavin (Vitamin B<sub>2</sub>)</div>
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<p>Throughout the early <!--del_lnk--> 1900s, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Initially, lipid from <!--del_lnk--> fish oil was used to cure <!--del_lnk--> rickets in <!--del_lnk--> rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". The irony here is that the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A", the bioactivity of which is now called <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_D.htm" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>, What we now call "vitamin A" was identified in fish oil because it was inactivated by <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1931, <!--del_lnk--> Albert Szent-Györgyi and his research fellow Joseph Svirbely, determined that "hexuronic acid" was actually <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a> and noted its anti-<a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scorbutic</a> activity, and 1937 Szent-Györgyi was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize for his discovery. In <!--del_lnk--> 1943 <!--del_lnk--> Edward Adelbert Doisy and <!--del_lnk--> Henrik Dam were awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize for their discovery of <!--del_lnk--> vitamin K and its chemical structure.<p><a id="Human_vitamins" name="Human_vitamins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Human vitamins</span></h2>
<p>Vitamins are classified as either <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> soluble, meaning that they dissolve easily in water, or <!--del_lnk--> fat soluble, and are absorbed through the <!--del_lnk--> intestinal tract with the help of <a href="../../wp/l/Lipid.htm" title="Lipid">lipids</a>. Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions and therefore, most have multiple functions.<p>In humans there are thirteen vitamins, divided into two groups; four fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K), and nine water-soluble vitamins (eight B vitamins and vitamin C).<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Vitamin name</th>
<th>Chemical name</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Solubility</th>
<th>Deficiency disease</th>
<th>Recommended Dietary Allowances<br /> (male, age 19–70)<br />
</th>
<th>Upper Intake Level<br /> (UL/day)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin A</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Retinoids (include: <a href="../../wp/r/Retinol.htm" title="Retinol">retinol</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> retinal, <!--del_lnk--> retinoic acid,<br /><!--del_lnk--> 3-dehydroretinol and its derivatives)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Fat</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Night-blindness,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Keratomalacia</td>
<td><b>900 µg</b></td>
<td>3,000 µg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>1</sub></a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Thiamine.htm" title="Thiamine">Thiamine</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">Water</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Beriberi.htm" title="Beriberi">Beriberi</a></td>
<td><b>1.2 mg</b></td>
<td>(N/D)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>2</sub></a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Riboflavin</td>
<td>Water</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ariboflavinosis</td>
<td><b>1.3 mg</b></td>
<td>N/D</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>3</sub></a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Niacin</td>
<td>Water</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Pellagra.htm" title="Pellagra">Pellagra</a></td>
<td><b>16.0 mg</b></td>
<td>35.0 mg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>5</sub></a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pantothenic acid</td>
<td>Water</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Paresthesia</td>
<td>5.0 mg </td>
<td>N/D</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>6</sub></a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pyridoxine</td>
<td>Water</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" title="Anemia">Anaemia</a></td>
<td><b>1.3-1.7 mg</b></td>
<td>100 mg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>7</sub></a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Biotin</td>
<td>Water</td>
<td>n/a</td>
<td>30.0 µg</td>
<td>N/D</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>9</sub></a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" title="Folic acid">Folic acid</a></td>
<td>Water</td>
<td>Deficiency during <!--del_lnk--> pregnancy is associated with <!--del_lnk--> birth defects.</td>
<td><b>400 µg</b></td>
<td>1,000 µg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>12</sub></a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Cyanocobalamin.htm" title="Cyanocobalamin">Cyanocobalamin</a></td>
<td>Water</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Megaloblastic anaemia</td>
<td><b>2.4 µg</b></td>
<td>N/D</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Vitamin C">Vitamin C</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ascorbic acid</td>
<td>Water</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">Scurvy</a></td>
<td><b>90.0 mg</b></td>
<td>2,000 mg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="whitespace:nowrap;"><a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_D.htm" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D<sub>2</sub>–D<sub>4</sub></a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lumisterol, <!--del_lnk--> Ergocalciferol,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cholecalciferol, <!--del_lnk--> Dihydrotachysterol,<br /><!--del_lnk--> 7-Dehydrocholesterol</td>
<td>Fat</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rickets</td>
<td>5.0 µg-10 µg </td>
<td>50 µg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin E</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tocopherol, <!--del_lnk--> Tocotrienol</td>
<td>Fat</td>
<td>deficiency is very rare, mild <!--del_lnk--> hemolytic anemiain newborn infants </td>
<td><b>15.0 mg</b></td>
<td>1,000 mg</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin K</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Naphthoquinone <small>(not to be confused with <!--del_lnk--> ketamine)</small></td>
<td>Fat</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bleeding diathesis</td>
<td>120 µg</td>
<td>N/D</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Vitamins_in_nutrition_and_disease" name="Vitamins_in_nutrition_and_disease"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vitamins in nutrition and disease</span></h2>
<p>Vitamins are essential for normal growth and development. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a <!--del_lnk--> fetus begins to develop, at the moment of conception, from the nutrients it absorbs. The developing fetus requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce, among other things, <!--del_lnk--> skin, <!--del_lnk--> bone, and <!--del_lnk--> muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies have the potential to cause permanent damage.<p>For the most part, vitamins are obtained through food sources. However, a few vitamins are obtained by other means: for example, microorganisms in the intestine - commonly known as "<!--del_lnk--> gut flora" - produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the <!--del_lnk--> skin with the help of natural <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> in <a href="../../wp/s/Sunlight.htm" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>. Some vitamins can be obtained from precursors that are obtained in the diet. Examples include <!--del_lnk--> vitamin A, which can be produced from <!--del_lnk--> beta carotene and niacin, from the <!--del_lnk--> amino acid <!--del_lnk--> tryptophan.<p>Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential components of the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up the human body, and enable the body to efficiently use the calories provided by the food that we eat, and to help process proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.<p><a id="Vitamin_deficiencies" name="Vitamin_deficiencies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vitamin deficiencies</span></h3>
<p>Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when you do not get enough of the vitamin in the food you eat. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a “lifestyle factor”, such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or the body's use of the vitamin. Individuals who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a primary vitamin deficiency. Whereas, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly <!--del_lnk--> diseases.<p>Because most vitamins are not stored in the body, a person must consume them regularly to avoid deficiency. Body stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B<sub>12</sub> are stored in significant amounts in the body, mainly in the liver, and an adult may be deficient in vitamin A and B<sub>12</sub> for long periods of time before developing a deficiency condition. Vitamin B<sub>3</sub>, is not stored in the body in significant amounts, and stores may only last a couple of weeks.<p>Well-known vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (<a href="../../wp/b/Beriberi.htm" title="Beriberi">beriberi</a>), niacin (<a href="../../wp/p/Pellagra.htm" title="Pellagra">pellagra</a>), vitamin C (<a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a>) and vitamin D (<!--del_lnk--> rickets). In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare due to; an adequate supply of food and the addition of vitamins and minerals, often called fortification, to common foods. <p><a id="Vitamin_side_effects_and_overdose" name="Vitamin_side_effects_and_overdose"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vitamin side effects and overdose</span></h3>
<p>In large doses some vitamins have documented side effects. Vitamin side effects tend to increase in severity with increasing dosage. The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing from vitamin supplementation does occur. At high enough dosages some vitamins cause side effects, such as <!--del_lnk--> nausea, <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea, and <!--del_lnk--> vomiting. Unlike some of the side effects caused by drugs, vitamin side effects rarely cause any permanent harm. When vitamin side effects emerge, recovery is often accomplished by reducing the dosage. Furthermore, the concentrations of vitamins an individual can tolerate vary widely, and appear to be related to age and state of health.<p>It is for these reasons that physicians and scientists carefully review the clinical data on supplement use in order to determine upper dosage thresholds for each vitamin that can be tolerated as a daily dose by the entire population without side effects. This dosage is known as the tolerable upper intake level (UL).<p><a id="Supplements" name="Supplements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Supplements</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Dietary supplements are often used to ensure that adequate amounts of nutrients are obtained on a daily basis, if the nutrients cannot be obtained through a varied diet. Scientific evidence supporting the benefits of some dietary supplements is well established for certain health conditions, but others need further study.<p>Supplements are, as required by <!--del_lnk--> law, not intended to treat, diagnose, <!--del_lnk--> mitigate, prevent, or cure disease. In some cases, dietary supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. Vitamin supplements may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food. Before taking a supplement, it is important to check with a knowledgeable health care provider, especially when combining or substituting supplements with other foods or medicine.<p><a id="Governmental_regulation_of_vitamin_supplements" name="Governmental_regulation_of_vitamin_supplements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Governmental regulation of vitamin supplements</span></h3>
<p>Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of "foods," not drugs. This necessitates that the manufacturer, and not the government, be responsible for ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Unlike drug products, that must implicitly be proven safe and effective for their intended use before marketing, there are often no provisions to "approve" dietary supplements for safety or effectiveness before they reach the consumer. Also unlike drug products, manufacturers and distributors of dietary supplements are not generally required to report any claims of injuries or illnesses that may be related to the use of their products however, side effects have been reported for several types of vitamin supplements.<p><a id="Names_in_current_and_previous_nomenclatures" name="Names_in_current_and_previous_nomenclatures"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Names in current and previous nomenclatures</span></h2>
<p>The reason the set of vitamins seems to skip directly from E to the rarely-mentioned K is that the vitamins corresponding to "letters" F-J were either reclassified over time, were discarded as false leads, or were renamed because of their relationship to "vitamin B", which became a "complex" of vitamins. The following table lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Previous vitamin<br /> name </th>
<th>Chemical name</th>
<th>Current vitamin<br /> name</th>
<th>Reason for name change</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>4</sub></a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Adenine</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>8</sub></a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Adenylic acid</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin F</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Essential fatty acids</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>Needed in large quantaties,<br /> does not fit definition of vitamin.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin G</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Riboflavin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>2</sub></a></td>
<td>Reclassified as B-complex</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin H/ <!--del_lnk--> Vitamin I</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Biotin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>7</sub></a></td>
<td>Reclassified as B-complex</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin J</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Catechol, <!--del_lnk--> Flavin</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin L<sub>1</sub></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orthoaminobenzoic acid,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anthranilic acid</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Vitamin L<sub>2</sub></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Adenyl thiomethylpentose</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin M</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Folic_acid.htm" title="Folic acid">Folic acid</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>9</sub></a></td>
<td>Reclassified as B-complex</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin P</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Flavonoids</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin PP</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Niacin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">Vitamin B<sub>3</sub></a></td>
<td>Reclassified as B-complex</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin R, Vitamin B<sub>10</sub></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pteroylmonoglutamic acid</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin S, Vitamin B<sub>11</sub></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pteroylheptaglutamic acid</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin U</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Allantoine</td>
<td>N/A</td>
<td>No longer classified as a vitamin</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vitamin C</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.General_Chemistry.htm">General Chemistry</a></h3>
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<p><b>Vitamin C</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> water-<!--del_lnk--> soluble <!--del_lnk--> nutrient and human <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin.htm" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a> essential for life and for maintaining optimal health, used by the body for many purposes. It is also known by the chemical name of its principal form, <!--del_lnk--> L-ascorbic acid. The article on ascorbic acid contains information on its chemical properties. This article describes its biological functions, discovery and the debate on how it is used by society. Moreover, vitamin C can cure many diseases, such as skin diseases<p>
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</script><a id="General_description" name="General_description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">General description</span></h2>
<p>Vitamin C is a <!--del_lnk--> weak acid, called <!--del_lnk--> ascorbic acid or a salt <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Ascorbate">ascorbate</a>. It is the <!--del_lnk--> <small>L</small>-enantiomer of <!--del_lnk--> ascorbic acid. The <!--del_lnk--> <small>D</small>-enantiomer shows no biological activity. Both are mirror image forms of the same chemical molecular structure (see <!--del_lnk--> optical isomers).<p>The active part of the substance is the ascorbate ion, which can express itself as either an acid or a salt of ascorbate that is neutral or slightly basic. Commercial vitamin C is often a mix of ascorbic acid, sodium ascorbate and/or other ascorbates. Some supplements contain in part the <small>D</small>-enantiomer, which is useless and harmless. See the <!--del_lnk--> ascorbic acid article for a full description of the molecule's chemical properties.<p><a id="Synthesis_in_organisms" name="Synthesis_in_organisms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Synthesis in organisms</span></h3>
<p>Almost all animals and plants synthesize their own vitamin C. There are some exceptions, such as <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a> and a small number of other animals, including, <a href="../../wp/a/Ape.htm" title="Ape">apes</a>, <!--del_lnk--> guinea pigs, the <!--del_lnk--> red-vented bulbul, a <!--del_lnk--> fruit-eating bat and a species of <a href="../../wp/t/Trout.htm" title="Trout">trout</a>. This has led some scientists, including chemist <a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Pauling.htm" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> to <!--del_lnk--> hypothesize that these species either lost (or never had) the ability to produce their own Vitamin C, and that if their diets were supplemented with an amount of the nutrient proportional to the amount produced in animal species that do synthesize their own Vitamin C, better health would result. The species-specific loss of the ability to synthesize ascorbate strikingly parallels the evolutionary loss of the ability to break down <!--del_lnk--> uric acid. Uric acid and ascorbate are both strong reducing agents (electron-donors). This has led to the suggestion <!--del_lnk--> that in higher primates, uric acid has taken over some of the functions of ascorbate. Ascorbic acid can be broken down by <b>ascorbic acid oxdase</b> an enzyme which catalyes the oxidation of ascorbic acid.<p>Some <!--del_lnk--> microorganisms such as the yeast <i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> have been shown to be able to synthesize ascorbic acid. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Discovery" name="Discovery"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery</span></h3>
<p>Vitamin C was first isolated in <!--del_lnk--> 1928, and in <!--del_lnk--> 1932 it was proved to be the agent which prevents <a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a>. Both <!--del_lnk--> Charles Glen King at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Pittsburgh and <!--del_lnk--> Albert Szent-Györgyi (working with ex-<!--del_lnk--> Pittsburgh researcher <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Svirbely) came to discover what is now known as Vitamin C around April of 1932. Although Szent-Györgyi was awarded the 1937 <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Medicine, many feel King is as responsible for its development if not more so. <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> A detailed history of Vitamin C is provided <!--del_lnk--> below.<p><a id="Vitamin_C_deficiency" name="Vitamin_C_deficiency"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vitamin C deficiency</span></h3>
<p>No bodily organ stores ascorbate as a primary function, and so the body soon depletes itself of ascorbate if fresh supplies are not consumed through the digestive system, eventually leading to the deficiency disease known as <a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a> (a form of <!--del_lnk--> avitaminosis), which results in illness and death if consumption of vitamin C is not resumed in time.<p><a id="Daily_requirements_and_dose_dependent_effects" name="Daily_requirements_and_dose_dependent_effects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Daily requirements and dose dependent effects</span></h2>
<p>There is continuing debate within the scientific community over the best dose schedule (the amount and frequency of intake) of Vitamin C for maintaining optimal health in humans.<p><a id="Government_agency_recommended_intake_levels" name="Government_agency_recommended_intake_levels"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Government agency recommended intake levels</span></h3>
<p>A balanced diet without supplementation contains enough Vitamin C to prevent acute scurvy in an average healthy adult. For people who smoke, those under stress, and pregnant women it takes slightly more.<p>Recommendations for vitamin C intake have been set by various national agencies as follows:<p>40 mg per day: Food Standards Agency (UK)<p>60–95 mg per day, <!--del_lnk--> Dietary Reference Intake (DRI), Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), U.S. Food and Nutrition Board 2004.<p>The U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Dietary Reference Intake Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for a 25-year old male is 2,000 mg/day. Vitamin C is recognized to be one of the least toxic substances known to medicine. Its <!--del_lnk--> LD50 for rats is 11,900 mg kg<sup>-1</sup> <!--del_lnk--> , <!--del_lnk--> , <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Independent_dose_recommendations" name="Independent_dose_recommendations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Independent dose recommendations</span></h3>
<p>Some researchers have calculated the amount needed for an adult human to achieve similar blood serum levels as Vitamin C synthesising mammals as follows:<dl>
<dd>400 mg per day – <!--del_lnk--> Linus Pauling Institute & US National Institutes of Health (NIH) Recommendation.<dd>500 mg twice per day – Professor <!--del_lnk--> Roc Ordman's recommendation in free radical research. <dd>3000 mg per day or more during illness or pregnancy (up to 300g for some illnesses) – Vitamin C Foundation's recommendation. <dd>6000-12000 mg per day – Thomas Levy, Colorado Integrative Medical Centre recommendation.<dd>6000-18000 mg per day – <a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Pauling.htm" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>'s own daily recommendation<dd>from 3000 mg to 200,000 mg per day based on a protocol described by <!--del_lnk--> Robert Cathcart known as a vitamin C flush wherin escalating doses of Vitamin C are given until diarrhea develops, then choosing the highest dose that does not cause diarrhea (bowel tolerance threshold). High doses (thousands of mg) may result in <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea, which is harmless if the dose is reduced immediately. Some researchers claim the onset of diarrhea to be an indication of where the body’s true vitamin C requirement lies. Both Cathcart and Cameron have demonstrated that very sick patients with cancer or influenza do not display any evidence of diarrhea at all until ascorbate intake reaches levels as high as 200 grams (½ pound).</dl>
<p>There is a strong advocacy movement for large doses of Vitamin C (see <a href="#Advocacy_arguments" title="">Advocacy arguments</a> below), although not all purported benefits are supported by the medical establishment. Many pro-Vitamin C organizations promote usage levels well beyond the current <!--del_lnk--> Dietary Reference Intake (DRI).<p>There exist an extensive and growing literature critical of governmental agency dose recommendations. Key arguments include: <ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> biological halflife for vitamin C is quite short, about 30 minutes in blood plasma, a fact which NIH and IM researchers have failed to recognize. NIH researchers established the current RDA based upon tests conducted 12 hours (24 half lives) after consumption. "To be blunt," says Hickey, "the NIH gave a dose of vitamin C, waited until it had been excreted, and then measured blood levels." <li>NIH don't take into account individual differences such as age, weight, etc. For example, heavier individuals generally need more vitamin C.<li>The figures represent the amount needed to prevent the acute form of deficiency disease, while subclinical levels of the disease are not even acknowledged.<li>The amount needed to prevent other diseases is not considered.<li>Optimal health is not a consideration, as the level of health targeted is that which is marginally better than that which is considered malnourished.</ul>
<p><a id="Testing_for_ascorbate_levels_in_the_body" name="Testing_for_ascorbate_levels_in_the_body"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Testing for ascorbate levels in the body</span></h3>
<p>Simple tests exist which measure levels of ascorbate ion in the <!--del_lnk--> urine and in <!--del_lnk--> serum or <!--del_lnk--> blood plasma. However these do not accurately reflect actual tissue ascorbate levels. Reverse phase high performance <!--del_lnk--> liquid chromatography (HPLC) is used for determining the storage levels of vitamin C within <!--del_lnk--> lymphocytes and tissue. It has been observed that while serum or blood plasma levels follow the <!--del_lnk--> circadian rhythm or short term dietary changes those within tissues themselves are more stable and give a better view of the availability of ascorbate within the organism. However, very few hospital laboratories are adequately equipped and trained to carry out such detailed analyses, and require samples to be analyzed in specialized laboratories. <p><a id="Therapeutic_applications_and_doses" name="Therapeutic_applications_and_doses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Therapeutic applications and doses</span></h3>
<p>Vitamin C is needed in the diet to prevent <a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a>, however, from the time it became available in pure form in the <!--del_lnk--> 1930s, some practitioners experimented with vitamin C as a treatment for diseases other than scurvy.<p><a id="Colds" name="Colds"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Colds</span></h4>
<p>At least 29 controlled clinical trials (many double-blind and placebo-controlled) involving a total of over 11,000 participants have been conducted into vitamin C and the <a href="../../wp/c/Common_cold.htm" title="Common cold">Common cold</a>. These trials were reviewed in the 1990s and again recently.<!--del_lnk--> The trials show that vitamin C reduces the duration and severity of colds but not the frequency. The data indicate that there is a normal dose-response relationship. Vitamin C is more effective the higher the dose. The vast majority of the trials were limited to doses below 1 g/day. As doses rise, it becomes increasingly difficult to keep the trials double blind because of the obvious gastro-intestinal side effects. So, the most effective trials at doses between 2 and 10 g/day are met with skepticism. Reports from physicians have provided ample clinical confirmation.<!--del_lnk--> <p>The controlled trials and clinical experience prove that vitamin C in doses ranging from 0.1 to 2.0 g/day have a relatively small effect. The duration of colds was reduced by 7% for adults and 15% for children. The studies provide ample justification for businesses to encourage their employees to take 1 to 2 g/day during the cold season to improve workplace productivity and reduce sick days. The clinical reports provide the strongest possible evidence that vitamin C at higher doses is significantly more effective. However, the effectiveness typically comes at the price of gastro-intestinal side effects. It is easy for physicians to minimize these side effects since they cause no lasting harm. Adult patients, however, have proven reluctant to subject themselves to gas and cramping to deliver an unknown benefit (the duration and severity of colds is highly variable so the patient never knows what he/she is warding off). It is well worth the effort of identifying the small subset of individuals who can benefit from high daily doses (>10 g/day) of vitamin C without side effects and training them to regularly take 5 g/day during cold season and to increase the dose at the onset of a cold.<p>The trials proved that vitamin C is more effective for children. Reports from the field confirm the observations in the trials and suggest that children are less prone to vitamin C side effects.<!--del_lnk--> Colds and flu are a serious problem for children. Every time a cold infects a child, its growing mind and body must divert energy from its usual business of growth and development. If the cold is followed by an opportunistic infection, such as bronchitis or ear infection, more energy must be diverted. Colds are the number one trigger for asthma.<!--del_lnk--> Pre-school children in daycare are nearly constantly fighting infections (5-10 per year).<!--del_lnk--> Chronic disease in childhood is believed to sometimes have permanent developmental consequences which can contribute to decreased life expectancy.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Polio" name="Polio"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Polio</span></h4>
<p>Most notable was <!--del_lnk--> Fred R. Klenner, a doctor in general practice in <!--del_lnk--> Reidsville, North Carolina. He utilized both oral and intravenous vitamin C to treat a wide range of infections and poisons. He published a paper in <!--del_lnk--> 1949 that described how he had seen <!--del_lnk--> poliomyelitis yield to vitamin C in sufficiently large doses.<!--del_lnk--> No controlled clinical trials have been conducted to confirm effectiveness.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Heart_disease" name="Heart_disease"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Heart disease</span></h4>
<p>Vitamin C is the main component of the three ingredients in <a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Pauling.htm" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>'s patented preventive cure for Lp(a) related heart disease, the other two being the amino acid <!--del_lnk--> lysine and <!--del_lnk--> nicotinic acid (a form of Vitamin B3). Lp(a) as an atherosclerotic, evolutionary substitute for ascorbate is still discussed as a hypothesis by mainstream medical science and the Rath-Pauling related protocols have not been rigorously tested and evaluated as conventional medical treatment by the FDA.<p><a id="Viral_diseases.2C_and_poisons" name="Viral_diseases.2C_and_poisons"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Viral diseases, and poisons</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Orthomolecular medicine and a minority of scientific opinion sees vitamin C as being a low cost and safe way to treat viral disease and to deal with a wide range of poisons.<p>Vitamin C has a growing reputation for being useful in the treatment of <a href="../../wp/c/Common_cold.htm" title="Common cold">colds</a> and <!--del_lnk--> flu, owing to its recommendation by prominent biochemist <a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Pauling.htm" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>. In the years since Pauling's popular books about vitamin C, general agreement by medical authorities about larger than RDA amounts of vitamin C in health and medicine has remained elusive. Ascorbate usage in studies of up to several grams per day, however, have been associated with decreased cold duration and severity of symptoms, possibly as a result of an <!--del_lnk--> antihistamine effect <!--del_lnk--> . The highest dose treatments, published clinical results of specific orthomolecular therapy regimes pioneered by Drs. Klenner (repeated IV treatments, 400-700+ mg/kg/day <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> ) and Cathcart (oral use to bowel tolerance, up to ~150 grams ascorbate per day for flu), have remained experimentally unaddressed by conventional medical authorities for decades.<p>The Vitamin C Foundation recommends an initial usage of up to 8 grams of vitamin C every 20-30 minutes <!--del_lnk--> in order to show an effect on the symptoms of a cold infection that is in progress. Most of the studies showing little or no effect employ doses of ascorbate such as 100 mg to 500 mg per day, considered "small" by vitamin C advocates. Equally importantly, the plasma half life of high dose ascorbate is approximately 30 minutes, which implies that most high dose studies have been methodologically defective and would be expected to show a minimum benefit. Clinical studies of divided dose supplementation, predicted on pharmacological grounds to be effective, have only rarely been reported in the literature. Essentially all the claims for high dose vitamin C remain to be scientifically refuted. The clinical effectiveness of large and frequent doses of vitamin C is an open scientific question.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2002 a <!--del_lnk--> meta-study into all the published research on effectiveness of ascorbic acid in the treatment of infectious disease and toxins was conducted, by Thomas Levy, Medical Director of the Colorado Integrative Medical Centre in Denver. He claimed that evidence exists for its therapeutic role in a wide range of viral infections and for the treatment of snake bites.<p><a id="Lead_poisoning" name="Lead_poisoning"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Lead poisoning</span></h4>
<p>There is also evidence that Vitamin C is useful in preventing <!--del_lnk--> lead poisoning, possibly helping to <!--del_lnk--> chelate the toxic heavy metal from the body. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Cancer" name="Cancer"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Cancer</span></h4>
<p>In 2005 <!--del_lnk--> in vitro research by the <!--del_lnk--> National Institutes of Health indicated that Vitamin C administered in pharmacological concentrations (i.e. <!--del_lnk--> intravenous) was preferentially toxic to several strains of <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> cells. The authors noted: "These findings give plausibility to intravenous ascorbic acid in cancer treatment, and have unexpected implications for treatment of infections where H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> may be beneficial." This research appeared to support Linus Pauling's claims that Vitamin C can be used to fight cancer.<p>In 2006 the Canadian Medical Association Journal published <!--del_lnk--> in vivo research that demonstrated that intravenous vitamin C can subdue advanced-stage cancer. <p><a id="Cataracts" name="Cataracts"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Cataracts</span></h4>
<p>It has been also suggested that Vitamin C might prevent the formation of <a href="../../wp/c/Cataract.htm" title="Cataract">cataracts</a>.<p><a id="Other_effects" name="Other_effects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other effects</span></h2>
<p><a id="Contraindications" name="Contraindications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Contraindications</span></h3>
<p>A <!--del_lnk--> Contraindication is a condition which makes an individual more likely to be harmed by a dose of Vitamin C than an average person.<ul>
<li>A primary concern is people with unusual or unaddressed iron overload conditions, including <!--del_lnk--> hemochromatosis. Vitamin C enhances iron absorption. If sufferers of iron overload conditions take gram sized doses of Vitamin C, they may worsen the iron overload due to enhanced iron absorption.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Inadequate <!--del_lnk--> Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme (G6PD) levels, a genetic condition, may predispose some individuals to <!--del_lnk--> hemolytic anaemia after intake of specific oxidizing substances present in some food and drugs. This includes repeated, very large intravenous or oral dosages of vitamin C. There is a test available for G6PD deficiency <!--del_lnk--> . High dose <!--del_lnk--> Vitamin E has been proposed as a potential protective factor.</ul>
<p><a id="Side-effects" name="Side-effects"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Side-effects</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Vitamin C causes <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea in everyone if taken in quantities beyond a certain limit, which is variable to the individual. Cathcart has called this limit the <!--del_lnk--> Bowel Tolerance Limit and observed that it is higher in people with serious illness than those in good health. It ranges from 5 to 25 grams per day in healthy individuals to 300 grams per day in the seriously ill persons, such as those with <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. The diarrhea side-effect is harmless, though it can be inconvenient. The diarrhea will cease as soon as the dose is reduced.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Large doses of vitamin C may cause acid indigestion (stomach upset), particularly when taken on an empty stomach. This unpleasant but harmless side-effect can be avoided by taking the vitamin along with meals, or by offsetting its acidity by taking an antacid such as baking soda or calcium carbonate (Tums)</ul>
<p><a id="Effects_of_Overdose" name="Effects_of_Overdose"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Effects of Overdose</span></h3>
<p>Vitamin C exhibits remarkably low toxicity. For example, in the rat, the <!--del_lnk--> LD50 (the dose that will kill 50% of a population ) has been reported as 11900 mg kg-1. For a 70 kg human, this means that 833,000 mg of vitamin C would need to be <!--del_lnk--> ingested to stand a 50% chance of killing the person. However, vitamin C could not result in death when administered orally as large amounts of the vitamin cause <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea and are not absorbed. An extremely large amount of vitamin C would need to be rapidly <!--del_lnk--> injected by <!--del_lnk--> IV to stand any chance of killing a person. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Cathcart, MD, has used intravenous doses of vitamin C of 250 grams and reports that he has had no problems. The <!--del_lnk--> Council for Responsible Nutrition has set an Upper Level (UL) of 2 grams, based on transient diarrhea. Their publication on vitamin C safety notes that <table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Vitamin C"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Vitamin C"><img alt="Vitamin C" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<td>..very large doses of vitamin C have been taken daily over the course of many years, and only minor undesirable effects have been attributed with any certainty to the vitamin’s use[...] Clearly, vitamin C has a low order of toxicity.</td>
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Vitamin C"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Vitamin C"><img alt="Vitamin C" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<p><a id="Alleged_harmful_effects" name="Alleged_harmful_effects"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alleged harmful effects</span></h3>
<p>Reports of harmful effects of vitamin C tend to receive great prominence in the world's media. As such, these reports tend to generate much debate and more research into Vitamin C. Some of the harmful effects described below have been proven to be unfounded in later studies, while other effects are still undergoing further analysis.<ul>
<li>In April <!--del_lnk--> 1998 the journal <i>Nature</i> reported alleged <!--del_lnk--> carcinogenic and <!--del_lnk--> teratogenic effects of excessive doses of Vitamin C / ascorbic-acid. The effects were noted in test tube experiments and on only two of the 20 markers of free radical damage to DNA. They have not been supported by further evidence from living organisms.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The authors of the study featured in <i>Nature</i> later clarified their position in correspondence to the journal, stating that their results "show a definite increase in 8-oxoadenine after supplementation with Vitamin C. This lesion is at least ten times less mutagenic than 8-oxoguanine, and hence our study shows an overall profound protective effect of this vitamin".</ul>
<ul>
<li>In April <!--del_lnk--> 2000, <!--del_lnk--> University of Southern California researchers reported a thickening of the arteries of the neck in persons taking high vitamin C doses. It was later pointed out by vitamin C advocates that this can be explained by vitamin C's collagen synthesising role leading to thicker and stronger artery walls. (ref. para 10)</ul>
<ul>
<li>In June <!--del_lnk--> 2004, <!--del_lnk--> Duke University researchers reported an increased susceptibility to osteo-arthritis in guinea pigs fed a diet high in vitamin C. However, a <!--del_lnk--> 2003 study at <!--del_lnk--> Umeå University in <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, found that "the plasma levels of vitamin C, retinol and uric acid were inversely correlated to variables related to rheumatoid arthritis disease activity."</ul>
<ul>
<li>A speculated increased risk of <!--del_lnk--> kidney stones may be a side effect of taking Vitamin C in larger than normal amounts (>1g). The potential mechanism of action is through the <!--del_lnk--> metabolism of Vitamin C (<!--del_lnk--> ascorbic acid) to <!--del_lnk--> dehydroascorbic acid, which is then metabolized to <!--del_lnk--> oxalic acid, a known constituent of kidney stones. However, this oxalate issue is still controversial, with evidence being presented for and against the possibility of this side effect. Vitamin C has long been advocated, and used, by some less conventional physicians to prevent or alleviate some kinds of <i><b>non</b></i>-oxalate kidney stone formation. after addressing the oxalate issue. <!--del_lnk--> Vitamin B6 may mitigate the general risk of oxalate stones by decreasing oxalate production. Additionally, <a href="../../wp/t/Thiamine.htm" title="Thiamine">thiamine</a> may inhibit oxalate formation. Furthermore, correcting any magnesium deficiency may decrease the risk of kidney stones by decreasing oxalate crystallization. Increasing one's fluid intake also helps to prevent oxalate crystallization in the kidney. There is evidence that certain intestinal flora influence how much oxalate is destroyed and that their absence is a significant causal risk factor in oxalate stone formers. Patients with a predispostion to form oxalate stones or those on hemodialysis should avoid excess use of vitamin C.</ul>
<ul>
<li>"Rebound scurvy" is a theoretical, never observed, condition that could occur when daily intake of Vitamin C is rapidly reduced from a very large amount to a relatively low amount. Advocates suggest this is an exaggeration of the <i>rebound effect</i> which occurs because ascorbate-dependent enzyme reactions continue for 24-48 hours after intake is lowered, and use up vitamin C which is not being replenished. The effect is to lower one's serum vitamin C blood concentration to less than normal for a short amount of time. During this period of time there is a slight risk of cold or flu infection through reduced resistance. Within a couple of days the enzyme reactions shut down and blood serum returns to the normal level of someone not taking large supplements. This is not scurvy, which takes weeks of zero vitamin C consumption to produce symptoms. It is something people who take large vitamin C supplements need to be aware of in order to gradually reduce dosage rather than quit taking Vitamin C suddenly. (ref. para 4) This is a theoretical risk for those taking supplements - e.g. if they find themselves severely ill, and in a hospital without the supplements, at a time when they need normal or better levels of vitamin C to fight the disease <small>(ref. and search for "The major problem")</small>. At this time, many doctors and hospital staff do not know much about nor administer megadosing of supplements, so that patients may have to rely on friends or relatives to bring them their supplements.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Some writers have identified a theoretical risk of poor <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">Copper</a> absorption from high doses of Vitamin C, although little experimental evidence supports this. However, <!--del_lnk--> ceruloplasmin levels seem specifically lowered by high vitamin C intake. In one study, 600 milligrams of Vitamin C daily did not decrease copper absorption or overall body copper status in young men, but led to lower <!--del_lnk--> ceruloplasmin levels similar to those caused by copper deficiency. In another, ceruloplasmin levels were significantly reduced.</ul>
<ul>
<li>There are stories circulating among some folk remedy proponents that doses of around 12 grams per day of Vitamin C can induce an abortion in women under 4 weeks of pregnancy. This is not supported by scientific research however.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Recent studies into the use of a combination of <!--del_lnk--> Vitamin E ("natural" <i>source isomer moeity, d-alpha tocopheryl</i> ester) and vitamin C (unspecified ascorbate) in preventing oxidative stress leading to <!--del_lnk--> pre-eclampsia have failed to show <i>significant</i> (p=0.05) positive benefit at the dosage tested, Drs. Padayatty and Levine with NIH in a "Letter to the Editor" stated that the studies and another "Letter to the Editor" <i>overlooked a key reason for the lack of vitamin C on the prevention of preeclampsia. Because plasma ascorbate concentrations were not reported, we estimated them from known data, the placebo and treatment groups in the study probably had similar plasma and tissue ascorbate concentrations. Doses of 1 g per day have little effect on plasma or intracellular ascorbate concentrations.</i> In another study the same dosage did decrease average gestational time resulting in a higher incidence of <!--del_lnk--> low birthweight babies in one study. Several other studies have been more favorable but large studies into antioxidants for pre-eclampsia are continuing.</ul>
<p><a id="Conflicts_with_prescription_drugs" name="Conflicts_with_prescription_drugs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Conflicts with prescription drugs</span></h3>
<p>Pharmaceuticals designed to reduce stomach acid such as the <!--del_lnk--> proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), are among the most widely-selling drugs in the world. One PPI, <!--del_lnk--> omeprazole, has been found to lower the bioavailability of vitamin C by 12%, independent of dietary intake. This means that one would have to consume 12% more vitamin C to counteract the use of 40 mg/day of omeprazole. The probable mechanism of vitamin C reduction, intragastric pH elevated into alkalinity, would apply to all other PPI drugs, though not necessarily to doses of PPIs low enough to keep the stomach slightly acidic. <h2> <span class="mw-headline">Discovery and history</span></h2>
<p>The need to include fresh plant food or raw animal flesh in the diet to prevent disease was known from ancient times. Native peoples living in marginal areas incorporated this into their medicinal lore. For example, infusions of spruce needles were used in the temperate zones, or the leaves from species of drought-resistant trees in desert areas. In 1536, the French explorer Jacques Cartier, exploring the <!--del_lnk--> St. Lawrence River, used the local natives' knowledge to save his men who were dying of scurvy. He boiled the needles of the <!--del_lnk--> arbor vitae tree to make a tea that was later shown to contain 50 mg of vitamin C per 100 grams.<p>Through history the benefit of plant food for the survival of sieges and long sea voyages was recommended by enlightened authorities. <!--del_lnk--> John Woodall, the first appointed surgeon to the <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a>, recommended the use of <a href="../../wp/l/Lemon.htm" title="Lemon">lemon</a> juice as a preventive and cure in his book "The Surgeon's Mate" of <!--del_lnk--> 1617. The <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> writer, <!--del_lnk--> Johann Bachstrom of Leyden, in <!--del_lnk--> 1734, gave the firm opinion that <i>"scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and greens; which is alone the primary cause of the disease."</i><div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14309.jpg.htm" title="Citrus fruits were one of the first sources of vitamin C available to ship's surgeons."><img alt="Citrus fruits were one of the first sources of vitamin C available to ship's surgeons." height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ambersweet_oranges.jpg" src="../../images/143/14309.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14309.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/c/Citrus.htm" title="Citrus">Citrus</a> fruits were one of the first sources of vitamin C available to ship's surgeons.</div>
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</div>
<p>The first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of scurvy was by a ship's surgeon in the British <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, <!--del_lnk--> James Lind. While at sea in May <!--del_lnk--> 1747, Lind provided some crew members with two oranges and one lemon per day, in addition to normal rations, while others continued on <a href="../../wp/c/Cider.htm" title="Cider">cider</a>, <!--del_lnk--> vinegar or sea water, along with their normal rations. In the <a href="../../wp/h/History_of_science.htm" title="History of science">history of science</a> this is considered to be the first example of a controlled experiment comparing results on two populations of a factor applied to one group only with all other factors the same. The results conclusively showed that citrus fruits prevented the disease. Lind wrote up his work and published it in <!--del_lnk--> 1753, in <i><!--del_lnk--> Treatise on the Scurvy</i>.<p>Lind's work was slow to be noticed, partly because he gave conflicting evidence within the book and partly because of social inertia in some elements at the British admiralty who saw care for the well-being of ships' crew as a sign of weakness. There was also the fact that fresh fruit was very expensive to keep on board, whereas boiling it down to juice allowed easy storage but destroyed the vitamin. Ships' captains assumed wrongly that it didn't work, because the juice failed to cure scurvy.<p>It was <!--del_lnk--> 1795 before the British navy adopted lemons or <!--del_lnk--> lime as standard issue at sea. Limes were more popular as they could be found in British West Indian Colonies, unlike lemons which weren't found in British Dominions, and were therefore more expensive. (This practice led to the nickname <!--del_lnk--> limey for British people, especially British sailors.) Captain James Cook had previously demonstrated and proven the principle of the advantages of fresh and preserved foods, such as <!--del_lnk--> sauerkraut, by taking his crews to the Hawaiian islands and beyond without losing any of his men to scurvy. For this otherwise unheard of feat, he was awarded a medal by the British Admiralty. So the Navy was certainly well aware of the principle. The cost of providing fresh fruit on board was probably a factor in this long delay. Luxuries or non-standard supplies not provided by the Admiralty were usually provided by the Captains.<p>The name "antiscorbutic" was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as general term for those foods known to prevent scurvy, even though there was no understanding of the reason for this. These foods include lemons, limes, and oranges; <!--del_lnk--> sauerkraut, salted cabbage, malt, and <!--del_lnk--> portable soup were employed with variable effect.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1907, <!--del_lnk--> Axel Holst and <!--del_lnk--> Theodor Frølich, two <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norwegian</a> biochemists studying <a href="../../wp/b/Beriberi.htm" title="Beriberi">beriberi</a> contracted aboard ship's crews in the Norwegian Fishing Fleet, wanted a small test mammal to substitute for the <a href="../../wp/p/Pigeon.htm" title="Pigeon">pigeons</a> they used. They fed <!--del_lnk--> guinea pigs the test diet, which had earlier produced beriberi in their pigeons, and were surprised when scurvy resulted instead. Until that time scurvy had not been observed in any organism apart from humans, and it was considered an exclusively human disease.<p>In the early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="Twentieth century">twentieth century</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Polish-American scientist <!--del_lnk--> Casimir Funk conducted research into deficiency diseases, and in <!--del_lnk--> 1912 Funk developed the concept of vitamins, for the elements in food which are essential to health. Then, from <!--del_lnk--> 1928 to <!--del_lnk--> 1933, the <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungarian</a> research team of <!--del_lnk--> Joseph L Svirbely and <!--del_lnk--> Albert Szent-Györgyi and, independently, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> Charles Glen King, first isolated vitamin C and showed it to be ascorbic acid.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1928 the arctic anthropologist and adventurer <!--del_lnk--> Vilhjalmur Stefansson attempted to prove his theory of how <a href="../../wp/e/Eskimo.htm" title="Eskimo">Eskimo</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Inuit) people are able to avoid scurvy with almost no plant food in their diet. This had long been a puzzle because the disease had struck European Arctic explorers living on similar high-meat diets. Stefansson theorised that the native peoples of the Arctic got their vitamin C from fresh meat that was raw or minimally cooked. Starting in February 1928, for one year he and a colleague lived on an animal-flesh-only diet under medical supervision at <!--del_lnk--> New York's <!--del_lnk--> Bellevue Hospital; they remained healthy.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1933-<!--del_lnk--> 1934, the British chemists Sir <!--del_lnk--> Walter Norman Haworth and Sir <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Hirst and, independently, the <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Polish</a> <!--del_lnk--> Tadeus Reichstein, succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin, the first to be artificially produced. This made possible the cheap mass production of vitamin C. Haworth was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> 1937 <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Chemistry largely for this work. The synthetic form of the vitamin is identical to the natural form.<p>The Swiss pharmaceutical company <!--del_lnk--> Hoffmann-La Roche was the first to mass produce synthetic vitamin C, under the brand name of <!--del_lnk--> Redoxon, in 1934.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1959 the American <!--del_lnk--> J.J. Burns showed that the reason some mammals were susceptible to scurvy was the inability of their <!--del_lnk--> liver to produce the active <!--del_lnk--> enzyme <!--del_lnk--> L-gulonolactone oxidase, which is the last of the chain of four enzymes which synthesize ascorbic acid.<p>American biochemist <!--del_lnk--> Irwin Stone was the first to exploit Vitamin C for its food preservative properties and held patents on this. He developed the theory that vitamin C was an essential nutrient deficient in humans as a result of a genetic defect that afflicted the whole human race.<p><a id="Vitamin_C_hypothesis" name="Vitamin_C_hypothesis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vitamin C hypothesis</span></h2>
<p>Since its discovery Vitamin C has been considered a universal panacea by some, although this led to suspicions of it being overhyped by others.<p>The fact that man possesses three of the four enzymes that animals employ to manufacture ascorbates in relatively large amounts, has led researchers such as <!--del_lnk--> Irwin Stone and <a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Pauling.htm" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> to hypothesize that man's ancestors once manufactured this substance in the body millions of years ago in quantities roughly estimated at 3,000-4,000 mg daily, but later lost the ability to do this through a chance of evolution. If true, this would mean that vitamin C was misnamed as a <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin.htm" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a> and is in fact a vital <!--del_lnk--> macronutrient like fat or carbohydrate. {Irwin Stone: "The Healing Factor"}<p>Dr. Hickey, of Manchester Metropolitan University, believes that man carries a mutated and ineffective form of the genetic machinery for manufacturing the fourth of the four enzymes used by all mammals to make ascorbic acid. Cosmic rays or a retro virus could have caused this mutation, millions of years ago. {Hickey: "Ascorbate"} In humans the three surviving enzymes continue to produce the precursors to ascorbic acid but the process is incomplete and the body then disassembles them.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s <!--del_lnk--> Nobel-Prize winning chemist Linus Pauling, after contact with Irwin Stone, began actively promoting vitamin C as a means to greatly improve human health and resistance to disease. His book <i>How to Live Longer and Feel Better</i> was a bestseller and advocated taking more than 10,000 milligrams per day. It sold widely and many advocates today see its influence as the reason there was a marked downward trend in US <!--del_lnk--> heart disease from the early <!--del_lnk--> 1980s onwards.<p>Stone's work also informed the practise of Dr. <!--del_lnk--> Robert F. Cathcart III, in the <!--del_lnk--> 1970s and <!--del_lnk--> 1980s. He applied extremely large doses of ascorbate (300 grams = 0.66 pounds per day) to a wide range of viral diseases with successful results. Cathcart developed the concept of <!--del_lnk--> Bowel tolerance, the use of the onset of <!--del_lnk--> diarrhea as an indication of when the body's true requirement of ascorbic acid had been reached. He found that seriously ill people could often tolerate levels of tens of grams per day before their tolerance limit is reached.<p><!--del_lnk--> Matthias Rath is a controversial German physician who once worked with Pauling. He is an active proponent and publicist for high dose vitamin C. He has published a theory that deaths from scurvy in humans during the ice age, when vitamin C was scarce, selected for individuals who could repair arteries with a layer of <!--del_lnk--> cholesterol. He theorises that, although eventually harmful, cholesterol lining of artery walls would be beneficial in that it would keep the individual alive until access to Vitamin C allowed arterial damage to be repaired. <!--del_lnk--> Atherosclerosis is thus a vitamin C deficiency disease. Rath has also argued publicly that high doses of vitamin C can be effectively used against viral epidemics such as <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a>, <!--del_lnk--> SARS and <!--del_lnk--> bird flu.<p>It has been suggested by some advocates that ascorbic acid is really a <!--del_lnk--> food group in its own right like <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrates or <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> and should not be seen as a pharmaceutical or vitamin at all. {Irwin Stone: "The Healing Factor"}<p><a id="Chronic_scurvy" name="Chronic_scurvy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Chronic scurvy</span></h3>
<p>Identified and named by Linus Pauling, "chronic scurvy" or "subclinical scurvy" is a condition of Vitamin C deficiency which is not as easily noticeable as acute scurvy (because chronic scurvy is mostly internal), characterized by micro lesions of tissues (such as that caused by blood pulsing through arteries, which stretches the arterial walls causing them to tear slightly). It is a major contributing factor to cardio vascular disease. The condition is almost entirely preventable with supplementation of larger doses of Vitamin C (8 grams or more per day). Chronic scurvy is commonplace, even in industrialized countries.<p><a id="Politics_of_Vitamin_C" name="Politics_of_Vitamin_C"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics of Vitamin C</span></h2>
<p><a id="Regulation" name="Regulation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Regulation</span></h3>
<p>There are regulations in most countries which limit the claims on the treatment of disease that can be placed on food, drug, and nutrient product labels. Regulations include:<ul>
<li>Claims of therapeutic effect with respect to the treatment of any medical condition or disease are prohibited by the Food and Drug Administration (in the USA, and by the corresponding regulatory agencies in other countries) unless the substance has gone through a lengthy (10+ years) and expensive (200 million US dollars+) approval process, for which the applicant seeking approval must pay.<li>In the United States, the following notice is mandatory on food, drug, and nutrient product labels which make health claims: <i>These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure or prevent any disease.</i> This statement must be included even if substantial scientific evidence exists showing that the message isn't true. This may lead consumers to the false belief that Vitamin C has no value in preventing or treating diseases other than scurvy (for which treatment claims are allowed).</ul>
<p><a id="Advocacy_arguments" name="Advocacy_arguments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Advocacy arguments</span></h3>
<p>Vitamin C advocates argue that there is a large body of scientific evidence that the vitamin has a wide range of health and therapeutic benefits but which they claim have been ignored. They claim the following factors affect the marketing and distribution of Vitamin C, and the dissemination of information concerning the nutrient:<ul>
<li>There is increasing evidence of the applications and efficacy of Vitamin C, but governmental agency dose and frequency of intake recommendations have remained relatively fixed. This has lead some researchers to challenge the recommendations. In <!--del_lnk--> 2003 Steve Hickey and Hilary Roberts of the Manchester Metropolitan University published a fundamental criticism of the approach taken to fix the nutritional requirement of vitamin C. They again argued in 2004 that the RDA which is based on blood plasma and white blood cell saturation data from the <!--del_lnk--> National Institutes of Health (NIH) was based on flawed data. According to these authors, the doses required to achieve blood, tissue and body "saturation" are much larger than previously believed. They allege that the <!--del_lnk--> Institute of Medicine (IoM) and the NIH have failed to respond to an open letter from a number of scientists and medical researchers, notably Doctors Steve Hickey, Hilary Roberts, Ian Brighthope, Robert Cathcart, <!--del_lnk--> Abram Hoffer, <!--del_lnk--> Archie Kalokerinos, Tom Levy, Richard Passwater, Hugh Riordan, Andrew Saul and Patrick Holford, which called for revision of the RDI (Reference Daily Intake).</ul>
<ul>
<li>Research and the treatment approval process are so expensive, pharmaceutical companies rarely apply for approval of an unpatentable product. To do so without the protection of a patent would allow competitors to manufacture the product too, which would drive the price (and profit margin) down to a point much less desirable than the price point (and profit margin) of patentable products. The lower price would also reduce the likelihood of recuperating the company's exorbitant research funding and treatment approval costs. Vitamin C is not eligible for patenting because it is a natural substance, and because it has already been marketed to the public for some time. As of yet, no company has applied to the FDA (nor paid) for approval of Vitamin C as a treatment for any disease.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Companies selling a treatment product are not required to inform consumers or patients of other treatments, even if those treatments are more effective, less expensive, and have fewer side-effects. Medical practitioners are not required to inform their patients of treatments for which treatment approval has not been granted. This situation, coupled with the label censorship explained above makes it more difficult to keep the public informed about the benefits of and new discoveries concerning the applications and effective dosage levels of Vitamin C.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Matthias Rath and others point to low doses of Vitamin C as the cause of the current epidemics of heart disease and cancer, and have termed the situation "a genocide", implying that health care providers (and particularly cardiologists and pharmaceutical companies) are aware of Vitamin C's benefits and are deliberately seeking to block its acceptance as a therapeutic agent. Meanwhile, governments, with their bureaucratic systems of treatment approval filtering out natural and inexpensive treatments such as those applying vitamin C, have also contributed to this technology blockade.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Books</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cancer and Vitamin C</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Ewan Cameron and <a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Pauling.htm" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine, 1979<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Healing Factor: Vitamin C Against Disease</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Irwin Stone, Grosset and Dunlap<li><i><!--del_lnk--> How to Live Longer and Feel Better</i>, Linus Pauling, W.H. Freeman and Company, 1986, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-380-70289-4<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach</i> <i><b>(Part IV, Chapter 7: Vitamin C)</b></i>, <!--del_lnk--> Durk Pearson and <!--del_lnk--> Sandy Shaw, Warner Books, 1982<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Life Extension Revolution</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Saul Kent, Morrow, 1980<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mind Food and Smart Pills: How to Increase Your Intelligence and Prevent Brain Aging</i> <i><b>(Chapter 3: Vitamin C, The Champion Free Radical Scavenger)</b></i>, Ross Pelton, 1986<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin C and the Common Cold</i>, Linus Pauling, 1970<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Vitamin C, the Common Cold, and the Flu</i>, Linus Pauling, Freeman, 1976<li><i>Vitamin C</i>, Volumes I, II, III., Monograph by C.A.B Clemetson, 1989 CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-8493-4841-2</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vitamin D</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.General_Chemistry.htm">General Chemistry</a></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14310.png.htm" title="Cholecalciferol (D3)"><img alt="Cholecalciferol (D3)" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cholecalciferol.png" src="../../images/143/14310.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14310.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Cholecalciferol (D<sub>3</sub>)</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14311.png.htm" title="Ergocalciferol (D2)"><img alt="Ergocalciferol (D2)" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ergocalciferol.png" src="../../images/143/14311.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Vitamin D</b> refers to a group of fat-soluble alcohols that contribute to the maintenance of normal levels of <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Phosphorus.htm" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> blood. The two major forms of vitamin D are D<sub>2</sub> (or <!--del_lnk--> ergocalciferol) and D<sub>3</sub> or <!--del_lnk--> cholecalciferol. Vitamin D is required for the formation of strong bones and <!--del_lnk--> teeth. It is manufactured in the <!--del_lnk--> skin by the activation of a <!--del_lnk--> sterol (7-dehydrocholesterol) by <!--del_lnk--> ultraviolet radiation (sunlight). Vitamin D is classified as a <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin.htm" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a> because it is required for metabolism and deficiency can result in disease, including <!--del_lnk--> rickets and <!--del_lnk--> osteoporosis.<p>
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</script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<p>Vitamin D plays an important role in the maintenance of an intact and strong <!--del_lnk--> skeleton. The role traditionally attributed to the vitamin D system is to regulate the amount of <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Phosphorus.htm" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> blood by ensuring correct intake from <!--del_lnk--> intestines and <!--del_lnk--> secretion. Vitamin D has also been implicated in a growing list of functions related to human biology.<p>Vitamin D is produced in skin exposed to ultraviolet B radiation. The cholesterol precursor, 7-dehydrocholesterol, is unstable in UVB light, and the B-ring of the steroid structure breaks open to produce the seco-steroid, vitamin D3, more formally known as cholecalciferol. Diet is usually a minor secondary source of vitamin D, and even foods such as oily fish and eggs contain only very small amounts. It actualys plays the important role of acidic acid in the maintenance of preventing osteoperosis<p><a id="Forms" name="Forms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Forms</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><b>Vitamin D<sub>1</sub></b>: molecular compound of <!--del_lnk--> ergocalciferol with <!--del_lnk--> lumisterol, 1:1<li><b>Vitamin D<sub>2</sub></b>: <!--del_lnk--> ergocalciferol or <!--del_lnk--> calciferol (made from <!--del_lnk--> ergosterol)<li><b>Vitamin D<sub>3</sub></b>: <!--del_lnk--> cholecalciferol (made from <!--del_lnk--> 7-dehydrocholesterol). Cholecalciferol is the precursor of calcidiol, which in turn is the precursor of <!--del_lnk--> calcitriol<li><b>Vitamin D<sub>4</sub></b>: 22,23-dihydroergocalciferol<li><b>Vitamin D<sub>5</sub></b>: sitocalciferol (made from <!--del_lnk--> 7-dehydrositosterol)</ul>
<p>Vitamin D<sub>2</sub> is derived by irradiating fungi to produce <!--del_lnk--> ergocalciferol. Ergocalciferol does not naturally occur in the human body unless added by supplementation. In most mammals including humans, D<sub>3</sub> is more effective than D<sub>2</sub> at increasing 25-hydroxyvitamin D, the circulating reservoir of the vitamin D hormone. In the rat, D<sub>2</sub> is more effective as a vitamin than D<sub>3</sub>, and in the <!--del_lnk--> squirrel monkey and the chick, D<sub>3</sub> is more effective.<p>Vitamin D<sub>3</sub>, also known as <!--del_lnk--> cholecalciferol, is the form of vitamin D that is natural to all animal life, including human. It is made in the skin when <!--del_lnk--> 7-dehydrocholesterol reacts with UVB <!--del_lnk--> ultraviolet light with wavelengths 290 to 315 nm. This light is present in sunlight when the sun at sea level is more than 45 degrees above the horizon (when your shadow is no longer than you are tall, or when the UV index is more than 3). Typically, 10,000 <!--del_lnk--> IU (250 micrograms) can be made in the skin only after one minimal <!--del_lnk--> erythemal dose of exposure, or until the skin just begins to turn pink. An equilibrium is achieved in the skin when longer exposure to UVB simply degrades the product as fast as it is generated.<p><a id="Biochemistry" name="Biochemistry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biochemistry</span></h2>
<p>Cholecalciferol is transported to the liver where it is hydroxylated to calcidiol or 25-hydroxy-vitamin D, the form of the vitamin that the body stores. A blood calcidiol level is the accepted way to determine vitamin D nutritional status. The optimal level of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D remains a contentious point for debate among medical scientists. One recent consensus concludes that for optimal prevention of osteoporotic fracture the concentration should be higher than 30 ng/mL (US units), which is equal to 75 nmol/L (System International units).<p>The most active form of the vitamin is <!--del_lnk--> calcitriol (1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D<sub>3</sub>). This is both a potent hormone produced by the kidney and released into the circulation, and it is a paracrine/autocrine signalling molecule produced by many tissues for local regulation of cellular biology, but not released into the circulation. Calcitriol is synthesized from calcidiol in the <!--del_lnk--> kidneys to perform its endocrine function of maintaining the calcium economy. Calcitriol binds to a <!--del_lnk--> transcription factor which then regulates <!--del_lnk--> gene expression of transport proteins like <!--del_lnk--> TRPV6 and <!--del_lnk--> calbindin that are involved in calcium absorption in the intestine. The general result is the maintenance of <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Phosphorus.htm" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> levels in the <!--del_lnk--> bone and <!--del_lnk--> blood with the assistance of <!--del_lnk--> parathyroid hormone and <!--del_lnk--> calcitonin.<p>Biochemically, the various forms of vitamin D, including calcidiol (25D) and <!--del_lnk--> calcitriol (1,25(OH)2D) are secosteroids; i.e. broken-open steroids. Secosteroids are very similar in structure to steroids except that two of the B-ring carbon atoms (C9 and 10) of the typical four steroid rings are not fused, whereas in steroids they are fused. Molecular modeling calculations suggest that at least in theory, vitamin D might have an affinity for several steroid receptors, including <!--del_lnk--> glucocorticoid and <!--del_lnk--> thyroid receptors.<p><a id="Synthesis_mechanism_.28form_3.29" name="Synthesis_mechanism_.28form_3.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Synthesis mechanism (form 3)</span></h3>
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<td>1. Vitamin D<sub>3</sub> is synthesized from 7-dehydrocholesterol, a derivative of <!--del_lnk--> cholesterol, which is then <!--del_lnk--> photolyzed by ultraviolet light in 6-electron <!--del_lnk--> conrotatory <!--del_lnk--> electrocyclic reaction. The product is <i>pre-vitamin D<sub>3</sub></i>.</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14312.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reaction-Dehydrocholesterol-PrevitaminD3.png" src="../../images/143/14312.png" width="500" /></a></td>
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<td>2. Pre-vitamin D<sub>3</sub> then spontaneously isomerizes to Vitamin D<sub>3</sub> in a <!--del_lnk--> antarafacial hydride [1,7]<!--del_lnk--> Sigmatropic shift.</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14313.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reaction-PrevitaminD3-VitaminD3.png" src="../../images/143/14313.png" width="500" /></a></td>
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<td>3. Vitamin D<sub>3</sub> (cholecalciferol) is then hydroxylated in the liver to 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (calcidiol) and stored until it is needed. 25-hydroxycholecalciferol is further hydroxylated in the kidneys to the main biologically active form 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol) in a tightly regulated fashion. Calcitriol is represented below right (hydroxylated Carbon 1 is on the lower ring at right, hydroxylated Carbon 25 is at the upper right end).</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14314.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="193" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reaction-VitaminiD3-Calcitriol.png" src="../../images/143/14314.png" width="500" /></a></td>
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<p><a id="Nutrition" name="Nutrition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nutrition</span></h2>
<p>The U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) for an Adequate Intake (AI) for a 25-year old male for vitamin D is 5 micrograms/day (200 units/day). This rises to 15 micrograms/day (600 units/day) at age 70.<p><a id="In_food" name="In_food"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In food</span></h3>
<p>At higher latitudes, total vitamin D input from sunlight is usually not sufficient, especially in the winter. To minimize risk of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations (the measure of vitamin D nutrition status), foods such as <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a> are often fortified with vitamin D<sub>2</sub> or vitamin D<sub>3</sub>, typically giving 100 <!--del_lnk--> IU per glass. Fortified foods are the major dietary sources of vitamin D. Prior to the fortification of milk products with vitamin D in the <!--del_lnk--> 1930s, <a href="../../wp/o/Osteomalacia.htm" title="Osteomalacia">rickets</a>, commonly caused by vitamin D deficiency, was a major public health problem. In the United States milk is fortified with 10 micrograms (400 <!--del_lnk--> IU) of vitamin D per <!--del_lnk--> quart, and rickets is now uncommon there.<p>One <!--del_lnk--> cup of vitamin D fortified milk supplies about one-fourth of the official estimated adequate intake of vitamin for adults older than age 50 years. Although milk is often fortified with vitamin D, dairy products made from milk (<a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">cheese</a>, <!--del_lnk--> yogurt, <!--del_lnk--> ice cream, and so forth) are generally not. Only a few foods naturally contain significant amounts of vitamin D, including:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Shiitake <!--del_lnk--> mushrooms, one of a few natural sources of <!--del_lnk--> vegan and <!--del_lnk--> kosher vitamin D (vitamin D2),<li>Fish liver oils, such as <!--del_lnk--> cod liver oil, 1 <!--del_lnk--> Tbs. (15 mL), 1,360 IU (340% Daily value)<li>Fatty fish, such as: <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Salmon, cooked, 3.5 <!--del_lnk--> oz, 360 IU (90% DV)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mackerel, cooked, 3.5 oz, 345 IU (90% DV)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sardines, canned in oil, drained, 1.75 oz, 250 IU (70% DV)<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tuna.htm" title="Tuna">Tuna</a>, canned in oil, 3 oz, 200 IU (50% DV)<li><!--del_lnk--> Eel, cooked, 3.5 oz, 200 IU</ul>
<li>One whole <a href="../../wp/e/Egg_%2528food%2529.htm" title="Egg (food)">egg</a>, 20 IU (6% DV)</ul>
<p>The U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Dietary Reference Intake Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for a 25-year old male for vitamin D is 50 micrograms/day. This is equivalent to 2000 IU/day.<p><a id="Diseases_caused_by_deficiency" name="Diseases_caused_by_deficiency"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diseases caused by deficiency</span></h3>
<p>Vitamin D deficiency is known to cause several bone diseases including:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Rickets: a childhood disease characterized by failure of growth and deformity of long bones.<li><!--del_lnk--> Osteoporosis: a condition characterized by fragile bones.<li><a href="../../wp/o/Osteomalacia.htm" title="Osteomalacia">Osteomalacia</a>: a bone-thinning disorder in adults that is characterised by proximal muscle weakness and bone fragility. Osteomalacia can only occur in a mature skeleton.</ul>
<p>The isolation of vitamin D and its functional role in rickets was determined by <!--del_lnk--> Edward Mellanby between <!--del_lnk--> 1918–<!--del_lnk--> 1920. The 1928 Nobel Prize was awarded to <!--del_lnk--> Adolf Windaus, who discovered the steroid, 7-dehydrocholesterol, the precursor of vitamin D.<p>Vitamin D malnutrition may be linked to chronic diseases such as <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> (<!--del_lnk--> breast, <!--del_lnk--> ovarian, <!--del_lnk--> colon, <a href="../../wp/p/Prostate_cancer.htm" title="Prostate cancer">prostate</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" title="Lung cancer">lung</a> and <!--del_lnk--> skin cancer), chronic pain, several <!--del_lnk--> autoimmune diseases, <!--del_lnk--> high blood pressure, <!--del_lnk--> depression, and <!--del_lnk--> seasonal affective disorder.<p>However, recent research indicates that in many chronic diseases where vitamin D levels (25 hydroxyvitamin D) appear to be low, vitamin D supplementation can actually cause long term harm. For example, supplementation with vitamin D is potentially hazardous for those with <!--del_lnk--> sarcoidosis and other diseases involving vitamin D hypersensitivity and dysregulation. There is increasing evidence for similar vitamin D hypersensitivity and dysregulation in a wide variety of <!--del_lnk--> autoimmune diseases, including <!--del_lnk--> rheumatoid arthritis and <!--del_lnk--> inflammatory bowel disease. Waterhouse et al reports vitamin D may appear to be low in these conditions, but only because it is being energetically converted to its active hormonal form (1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D) by disease processes.<p><a id="Groups_at_greater_risk" name="Groups_at_greater_risk"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Groups at greater risk</span></h3>
<p>Older people (age 50 and over) have a higher risk of developing vitamin D deficiency. The ability of skin to convert 7-dehydrocholesterol to pre-vitamin D<sub>3</sub> is decreased in older individuals. The <!--del_lnk--> kidneys, which help convert calcidiol to its active form, sometimes do not work as well when people age. Therefore, many older people may need vitamin D supplementation.<p>Newborn infants who are exclusively <!--del_lnk--> breastfed require vitamin D supplements. <!--del_lnk--> Breast milk does not contain significant levels of the vitamin, and although infants could receive this vitamin from sunlight, parents are usually advised to avoid exposing babies to open sunshine. The Canadian and American Pediatric Associations advise vitamin D supplementation from birth onwards, with 200 IU/day (5 mcg/d) in the south up to 800 IU/day in the north. <!--del_lnk--> Infant formula is generally fortified with vitamin D, so this requirement only applies to breastfed infants. Liquid "drops" of vitamin D for infants usually include vitamin A or other vitamins, and are available in pharmacies. These products are either detergent-solublized water based preparations (given at 0.5-1 mL/day) or oil-based preparations. Vitamin D as a single infant nutrient is also available in an oil that is given as one drop/day ("Baby Drops" in North America, or "Vigantol oil" in Europe).<p>Those who avoid or are not exposed to summer midday <!--del_lnk--> sunshine may also require vitamin D supplements. In particular, recent studies have shown <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australians</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealanders</a> are vitamin D deficient, particularly after the successful "<!--del_lnk--> Slip-Slop-Slap" health campaign encouraging Australians to cover up when exposed to sunlight to prevent <!--del_lnk--> skin cancer. Ironically, a vitamin D deficiency may also lead to skin cancer, although few minutes of exposure for light-skinned individuals may be all that is required; as the production of vitamin D is very rapid. However, the dermatology community contends that even a few minutes of unprotected ultraviolet exposure a day increases the risk of skin cancer and causes photoaging of the skin. Therefore, dermatologists are now recommending supplementation of vitamin D along with sunscreen use.<p>Dark-skinned individuals may require extra vitamin D because melanin acts like a sun-block, prolonging the time required to generate vitamin D. This does not pose a problem at latitudes below about 30 degrees, where the sunshine is so high in the sky all year that enough vitamin D is produced despite the dark skin colour. At higher latitudes, however, the decreased angle of the sun's rays, reduced daylight hours in winter, and protective clothing worn to guard against cold weather diminish absorption of sunlight and the production of vitamin D. Light-skinned people at higher latitudes also face these problems, but the lower amount of pigmentation in their skin allows more sunlight to be absorbed, thereby reducing the risk of vitamin D deficiency.<p>There is also evidence that obese people have lower levels of the circulating form of vitamin D, probably because it is deposited in body fat compartments and is less bioavailable, so obese people whose vitamin D production and intake is marginal or inadequate are at higher risk of deficiency. Patients with chronic liver disease or intestinal malabsorption may require larger doses of vitamin D (up to 40,000 IU or 1 mg (1000 micrograms) daily). To maintain blood levels of calcium, therapeutic vitamin D doses are sometimes administered (up to 100,000 IU or 2.5 mg daily) to patients who have had their parathyroid glands removed (most commonly <!--del_lnk--> renal dialysis patients who have had <!--del_lnk--> tertiary hyperparathyroidism, but also patients with <!--del_lnk--> primary hyperparathyroidism) or who suffer with hypoparathyroidism.<p><a id="Overdose" name="Overdose"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Overdose</span></h3>
<p>Vitamin D in the human body has a large volume of distribution and a long half-life. In any case all common foods and correctly-formulated vitamin pills contain such small amounts of viatmin D that overdose could never occur under normal circumstances. Indeed, <!--del_lnk--> Stoss therapy involves taking a dose over a thousand times the daily RDA once every few months, and even then often fails to normalise vitamin D<sub>3</sub> levels in the body. However, oral overdose <i>has</i> been recorded due to manufacturing and industrial accidents and leads to <!--del_lnk--> hypercalcaemia and <!--del_lnk--> atherosclerosis.<p>The exact long-term safe dose is not entirely known, but intakes of up to 2000 IU (10x the RDA) are believed to be safe, and some researchers believe that 10,000 IU does not lead to long term overdose. It seems that there are chemical processes that destroy excess vitamin D, even when taken orally, although these processes have not been identified (in experiments blood levels of vitamin D do not continue to increase over many months at these doses as presumably would be needed for toxicity to occur.) Although normal food and pill vitamin D concentration levels are too low to be toxic, because of the high vitamin A content in cod-liver oil (if taken in multiples of the normal dose) it is possible to reach poisonous levels .<p>Other research disputes the view that high vitamin D intake is benign. In one study, hypercalciuria and bone loss occurred at serum concentrations of 25D above approximately 50 ng/mL in patients supplementing with up to 3600 IU/day of D3. Another study showed elevated risk of <!--del_lnk--> ischaemic heart disease when 25D was above 89 ng/mL. In many chronic diseases, research indicates that vitamin D supplementation is inadvisable. There is increasing recognition that <!--del_lnk--> Th1 immune <!--del_lnk--> inflammation, occurring in <!--del_lnk--> rheumatic diseases can result in excessive numbers of activated <!--del_lnk--> macrophages converting 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25D) to its active 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25D) hormonal form. This can lead to vitamin D dysregulation/hypersensitivity, which can lead to <!--del_lnk--> hypervitaminosis D, <!--del_lnk--> hypercalcemia and other symptoms. This is recognized as occurring in <!--del_lnk--> sarcoidosis and other diseases.<p><a id="In_cancer_prevention_and_recovery" name="In_cancer_prevention_and_recovery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In cancer prevention and recovery</span></h2>
<p>Research suggests that cancer patients who have their surgery or treatment in the summer — and therefore get more vitamin D — have a better chance of surviving than those who undergo treatment in the winter when they are exposed to less sunlight.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2005, U.S. scientists released a study, published in the American Journal of Public Health, which seems to demonstrate a beneficial correlation between vitamin D intake and prevention of cancer. Drawing from their meta-analysis of 63 published reports, the scientists claimed that an additional intake of 1,000 international units (IU) — or 25 micrograms — of the vitamin daily could lower an individual's cancer risk by 50% in colon cancer, and by 30% in breast and ovarian cancer. These are cross-sectional data, and thus the evidence is circumstantial. Longitudinal trials would be able to provide more conclusive proof of vitamin D's ability to prevent cancer.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Geographers_and_explorers.htm">Geographers and explorers</a></h3>
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<p><b>Vitus Jonassen Bering</b> (also, less correctly, <i>Behring</i>) (<!--del_lnk--> August 1681–<!--del_lnk--> December 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1741) was a <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Danish</a>-born navigator in the service of the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Navy, a captain-<i>komandor</i> known among the Russian sailors as <b>Ivan Ivanovich</b>. He was born in the town of <!--del_lnk--> Horsens in <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a> and died at <!--del_lnk--> Bering Island, near the <!--del_lnk--> Kamchatka Peninsula.<p>After a voyage to the East Indies, he joined the Russian Navy in <!--del_lnk--> 1703, serving in the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic</a> <!--del_lnk--> Fleet during the <!--del_lnk--> Great Northern War. In <!--del_lnk--> 1710–<!--del_lnk--> 1712 he served in the <!--del_lnk--> Azov Sea Fleet in <!--del_lnk--> Taganrog and took part in the <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Turkish War. He married a <!--del_lnk--> Russian woman, and in <!--del_lnk--> 1715 he made a brief visit to his hometown, never to see it again. A series of explorations of the north coast of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, the outcome of a far-reaching plan devised by <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_I_of_Russia.htm" title="Peter I of Russia">Peter the Great</a>, led up to Bering's first voyage to Kamchatka. In <!--del_lnk--> 1725, under the auspices of the Russian government, he went overland to <!--del_lnk--> Okhotsk, crossed to Kamchatka, and built the ship <i>Sviatoi Gavriil</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> St. Gabriel</i>). Aboard the ship, Bering pushed northward in <!--del_lnk--> 1728, until he could no longer observe any extension of the land to the north, or its appearance to the east.<p>In the following year he made an abortive search for mainland eastward, rediscovering one of the <!--del_lnk--> Diomede Islands (<!--del_lnk--> Ratmanov Island) observed earlier by <!--del_lnk--> Dezhnev. In the summer of <!--del_lnk--> 1730, Bering returned to <!--del_lnk--> St. Petersburg. During the long trip through <!--del_lnk--> Siberia along the whole <!--del_lnk--> Asian continent, he became very ill. Five of his children died during this trip. Bering was subsequently commissioned to a further expedition, and returned to Okhotsk in <!--del_lnk--> 1735. He had the local craftsmen Makar Rogachev and Andrey Kozmin build two vessels, <i>Sviatoi Piotr</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> St. Peter</i>) and <i>Sviatoi Pavel</i> (<i><a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">St. Paul</a></i>), in which he sailed off and in <!--del_lnk--> 1740 established the settlement of <!--del_lnk--> Petropavlovsk in Kamchatka. From there, he led an expedition towards <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1741. A storm separated the ships, but Bering sighted the southern coast of <!--del_lnk--> Alaska, and a landing was made at <!--del_lnk--> Kayak Island or in the vicinity. Under the command of <!--del_lnk--> Aleksei Chirikov, the second ship discovered the shores of the northwestern America (<!--del_lnk--> Aleksander Archipelago of present-day Alaska). These voyages of Bering and Chirikov were a major part of the Russian exploration efforts in the North Pacific known today as the <!--del_lnk--> Great Northern Expedition.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:452px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14316.png.htm" title="Map of Siberia and Russian Far East made by Vitus Bering"><img alt="Map of Siberia and Russian Far East made by Vitus Bering" height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beringmap376.png" src="../../images/143/14316.png" width="450" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Bering was soon forced by adverse conditions to return, and he discovered some of the <!--del_lnk--> Aleutian Islands on his way back. One of the sailors died and was buried on one of these islands, and the group was named after him (as the <!--del_lnk--> Shumagin Islands). Bering became too ill to command his ship, which was at last driven to refuge on an uninhabited island in the <!--del_lnk--> Commander Islands group (<i>Komandorskiye Ostrova</i>) in the southwest <!--del_lnk--> Bering Sea. On 19 December 1741 Vitus Bering died here of <a href="../../wp/s/Scurvy.htm" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a>, along with 28 men of his company. This island bears his name. A storm shipwrecked <i>Sv. Piotr</i>, but the only surviving carpenter, S. Starodubtsev, with the help of the crew managed to build a smaller vessel out of the wreckage. The new vessel had a keel length of only 12.2 meters (40 feet) and was also named <i>Sv. Piotr</i>. Out of 77 men aboard <i>Sv. Piotr</i>, only 46 survived the hardships of the expedition which claimed its last victim just one day before coming into home port. <i>Sv. Piotr</i> was in service for 12 years, sailing between Kamchatka and Okhotsk until <!--del_lnk--> 1755. Its builder, Starodubtsev, returned home with governmental awards and later built several other seaworthy ships.<p>The value of Bering's work was not fully recognized for many years, but <a href="../../wp/j/James_Cook.htm" title="James Cook">Captain Cook</a> was able to prove Bering's accuracy as an observer. Nowadays, the <!--del_lnk--> Bering Strait, the <!--del_lnk--> Bering Sea, <!--del_lnk--> Bering Island, and the <!--del_lnk--> Bering Land Bridge bear the explorer's name.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitus_Bering"</div>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"><a class="image" href="../../images/283/28392.jpg.htm" title=" "><img alt=" " height="283" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FireOverEnglandVivienLeigh.jpg" src="../../images/283/28392.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /><small>from the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Fire Over England</i> (1937)</small></td>
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<td width="85px"><b>Born</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1913<br /><!--del_lnk--> Darjeeling, <!--del_lnk--> West Bengal, <!--del_lnk--> British India (now <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>)</td>
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<td><b>Died</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1967<br /><a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Academy<br /> Awards</b></td>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Best Actress</b><br /> 1939 <i><!--del_lnk--> Gone With the Wind</i><br /> 1951 <i><!--del_lnk--> A Streetcar Named Desire</i></td>
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<p><b>Vivien Leigh</b> (<!--del_lnk--> November 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1913 – <!--del_lnk--> July 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1967) was an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actress</a>. She won two <!--del_lnk--> Academy Awards playing "<!--del_lnk--> southern belles": <!--del_lnk--> Scarlett O'Hara in <i><a href="../../wp/g/Gone_with_the_Wind_%2528film%2529.htm" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i> (1939) and <!--del_lnk--> Blanche DuBois in <i><!--del_lnk--> A Streetcar Named Desire</i> (1951), a role she had also played in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> West End. She was a prolific stage performer, frequently in collaboration with her husband, <a href="../../wp/l/Laurence_Olivier.htm" title="Laurence Olivier">Laurence Olivier</a>, who directed her in several of her roles. During her thirty-year stage career, she played parts that ranged from the heroines of <!--del_lnk--> Noël Coward and <!--del_lnk--> George Bernard Shaw comedies to classic <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">Shakespearean</a> characters such as <!--del_lnk--> Ophelia, <a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Juliet and <!--del_lnk--> Lady Macbeth.<p>Lauded for her beauty, Leigh felt that it sometimes prevented her from being taken seriously as an actress, but ill health proved to be her greatest obstacle. Affected by <!--del_lnk--> bipolar disorder for most of her adult life, she gained a reputation for being a difficult person to work with, and her career went through periods of decline. She was further weakened by recurrent bouts of <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, with which she was first diagnosed in the mid-1940s. She and Olivier divorced in 1960, and Leigh worked sporadically in film and theatre until her death from tuberculosis.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life_and_acting_career" name="Early_life_and_acting_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and acting career</span></h2>
<p>Leigh was born Vivian Mary Hartley in <!--del_lnk--> Darjeeling, <!--del_lnk--> British India to Ernest Hartley, an officer in the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Cavalry who was of <!--del_lnk--> English parentage, and Gertrude Robinson Yackje, who was of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a> descent. The family relocated to <a href="../../wp/b/Bangalore.htm" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a>, where Vivian Hartley made her first stage appearance at the age of three, reciting "Little Bo Peep" for her mother's amateur theatre group. Gertrude Hartley tried to instill in her daughter an appreciation of literature, and introduced her to the works of <!--del_lnk--> Hans Christian Andersen, <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Carroll and <a href="../../wp/r/Rudyard_Kipling.htm" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a>, as well as stories of <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a>. An only child, Vivian Hartley was sent to the "Convent of the Sacred Heart" in <!--del_lnk--> Roehampton in England, in 1920. Her closest friend at the convent was the future actress <!--del_lnk--> Maureen O'Sullivan, to whom she expressed her desire to become "a great actress".<p>Vivian Hartley completed her later education in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, returning to her parents in England in <!--del_lnk--> 1931. She discovered that one of Maureen O'Sullivan's films was playing in London's <!--del_lnk--> West End and told her parents of her ambitions to become an actress. Both were highly supportive, and her father helped her enroll at the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in London.<p>In late 1931 she met Herbert Leigh Holman, known as Leigh, a barrister thirteen years her senior. Despite his disapproval of "theatrical people", they were married on <!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1932, and upon their marriage she terminated her studies at RADA. On <!--del_lnk--> October 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1933, she gave birth to a daughter, Suzanne, but felt stifled by her domestic life. Her friends suggested her for a small part in the film <i>Things Are Looking Up</i>, which marked her film debut. She engaged an agent, John Gliddon, who believed that the name "Vivian Holman" was not suitable for an actress, and after rejecting his suggestion, "April Morn", she took "Vivian Leigh" as her professional name. Gliddon recommended her to <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Korda as a possible film actress, but Korda rejected her as lacking potential.<p>Cast in the play <i>The Mask of Virtue</i> in 1935, Leigh received excellent reviews followed by interviews and newspaper articles, among them one from the <i><!--del_lnk--> Daily Express</i> in which the interviewer noted "a lightning change came over her face", which was the first public mention of the rapid changes in mood that became characteristic of her. <!--del_lnk--> John Betjeman, the future <!--del_lnk--> Poet Laureate, also wrote about her, describing her as "the essence of English girlhood". Korda, who attended her opening-night performance, admitted his error and signed her to a film contract, with the spelling of her name revised to "Vivien Leigh". She continued with the play, but when Korda moved it to a larger theatre, Leigh was found to be unable to project her voice adequately, or to hold the attention of so large an audience, and the play folded soon after. In 1960 Leigh recalled her ambivalence towards her first experience of critical acclaim and sudden fame, commenting, "some critics saw fit to be as foolish as to say that I was a great actress. And I thought, that was a foolish, wicked thing to say, because it put such an onus and such a responsibility onto me, which I simply wasn't able to carry. And it took me years to learn enough to live up to what they said for those first notices. I find it so stupid. I remember the critic very well, and have never forgiven him."<p><a id="Meeting_Laurence_Olivier" name="Meeting_Laurence_Olivier"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Meeting Laurence Olivier</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/49/4972.jpg.htm" title="Leigh with Laurence Olivier in Fire Over England (1937), their first collaboration"><img alt="Leigh with Laurence Olivier in Fire Over England (1937), their first collaboration" height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FireOverEnglandVivienLeighLaurenceOlivier.jpg" src="../../images/260/26047.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/49/4972.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Leigh with <a href="../../wp/l/Laurence_Olivier.htm" title="Laurence Olivier">Laurence Olivier</a> in <i><!--del_lnk--> Fire Over England</i> (1937), their first collaboration</div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/l/Laurence_Olivier.htm" title="Laurence Olivier">Laurence Olivier</a> saw Leigh in <i>The Mask of Virtue</i>, and a friendship developed after he congratulated her on her performance. While playing lovers in the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Fire Over England</i> (1937), Olivier and Leigh developed a strong attraction, and after filming was completed, they began an affair. During this time Leigh read the <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Mitchell novel <i><!--del_lnk--> Gone with the Wind</i> and instructed her American agent to suggest her to <!--del_lnk--> David O. Selznick, who was planning a film version. She remarked to a journalist, "I've cast myself as <!--del_lnk--> Scarlett O'Hara", and the film critic C. A. Lejeune recalled a conversation of the same period in which Leigh "stunned us all" with the assertion that Olivier "won't play <!--del_lnk--> Rhett Butler, but I shall play Scarlett O'Hara. Wait and see."<p>Leigh played <!--del_lnk--> Ophelia to Olivier's <!--del_lnk--> Hamlet in an <!--del_lnk--> Old Vic Theatre production, and Olivier later recalled an incident during which her mood rapidly changed as she was quietly preparing to go onstage. Without apparent provocation, she began screaming at him, before suddenly becoming silent and staring into space. She was able to perform without mishap, and by the following day, she had returned to normal with no recollection of the event. It was the first time Olivier witnessed such behaviour from her. They began living together; Holman and Olivier's wife, the actress <!--del_lnk--> Jill Esmond, each having refused to grant either a divorce.<p>Leigh appeared with <!--del_lnk--> Robert Taylor, <!--del_lnk--> Lionel Barrymore and Maureen O'Sullivan in <i><!--del_lnk--> A Yank at Oxford</i> (1938), the first of her films to receive attention in the United States. During production she developed a reputation for being difficult and unreasonable, and Korda instructed her agent to warn her that her option would not be renewed if her behaviour did not improve. Her next role was in <i><!--del_lnk--> St. Martin's Lane</i> (1938) with <!--del_lnk--> Charles Laughton.<p><a id="Achieving_international_success" name="Achieving_international_success"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Achieving international success</span></h2>
<p>Olivier had been attempting to broaden his film career; despite his success in Britain, he was not well-known in the United States and earlier attempts to introduce him to the American market had failed. Offered the role of <!--del_lnk--> Heathcliff in <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Goldwyn's production of <i><!--del_lnk--> Wuthering Heights</i> (1939), he travelled to Hollywood, leaving Leigh in London. Goldwyn and the film's director, <!--del_lnk--> William Wyler, offered Leigh the secondary role of Isabella, but she refused it, saying she would only play Cathy, a role already assigned to <!--del_lnk--> Merle Oberon.<p>Hollywood was in the midst of a widely publicised search to find an actress to portray <!--del_lnk--> Scarlett O'Hara in <!--del_lnk--> David O. Selznick's production of <a href="../../wp/g/Gone_with_the_Wind_%2528film%2529.htm" title="Gone with the Wind (film)"><i>Gone with the Wind</i></a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1939). Leigh's American agent was the London representative of the Myron Selznick Agency (Myron was David's brother), and in February 1938 she asked that her name be placed in consideration for the role of Scarlett. That month, David Selznick watched her two most recent pictures, <i>Fire Over England</i> and <i>A Yank at Oxford</i>, and from that time she became a serious contender for the part. Between February and August, Selznick rented all of her English pictures, and by August he was in negotiation with producer <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Korda, to whom Leigh was under contract, for her services later that year. On October 18, Selznick wrote in a confidential memo to director <!--del_lnk--> George Cukor, "I am still hoping against hope for that new girl." Leigh travelled to Los Angeles, ostensibly to be with Olivier. When Leigh met Olivier's American <!--del_lnk--> agent <!--del_lnk--> Myron Selznick, he felt that she possessed the qualities his brother David O. Selznick was searching for. Myron Selznick took Leigh and Olivier to the set where the burning of the Atlanta Depot scene was being filmed, and introduced Leigh. The following day, Leigh read a scene for Selznick, who organised a <!--del_lnk--> screen test and wrote to his wife, "She's the Scarlett dark horse and looks damn good. Not for anyone's ear but your own: it's narrowed down to <!--del_lnk--> Paulette Goddard, <!--del_lnk--> Jean Arthur, <!--del_lnk--> Joan Bennett and Vivien Leigh". The director George Cukor concurred and praised the "incredible wildness" of Leigh, who was given the part soon after.<p>Filming proved difficult for Leigh; Cukor was dismissed and replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Victor Fleming, with whom Leigh frequently quarrelled. She and <!--del_lnk--> Olivia de Havilland secretly met with Cukor at night and on weekends for his advice about how they should play their parts. She befriended <!--del_lnk--> Clark Gable, his wife <!--del_lnk--> Carole Lombard and de Havilland, but she clashed with <!--del_lnk--> Leslie Howard, with whom she was required to play several emotional scenes. Adding to her distress, she was sometimes required to work seven days a week, often late into the night, and she missed Olivier who was working in New York. She wrote to Leigh Holman, "I loathe Hollywood.... I will never get used to this – how I <i>hate</i> film acting."<p>In 2006 de Havilland responded to claims of Leigh's manic behaviour during filming <i>Gone with the Wind</i>, published in a biography of Laurence Olivier. She defended Leigh, saying, "Vivien was impeccably professional, impeccably disciplined on <i>Gone with the Wind</i>. She had two great concerns: doing her best work in an extremely difficult role and being separated from Larry [Olivier], who was in New York."<p><i>Gone with the Wind</i> brought Leigh immediate attention and fame, but she was quoted as saying, "I'm not a film star – I'm an actress. Being a film star – just a film star – is such a false life, lived for fake values and for publicity. Actresses go on for a long time and there are always marvellous parts to play." Among the ten <!--del_lnk--> Academy Awards won by <i>Gone with the Wind</i> was a <!--del_lnk--> Best Actress award for Leigh, who also won a <!--del_lnk--> New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress.<p><a id="Marriage_and_joint_projects" name="Marriage_and_joint_projects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Marriage and joint projects</span></h2>
<p>In February 1940 Jill Esmond agreed to divorce Olivier, and Holman also agreed to divorce Leigh, although they maintained a strong friendship for the rest of Leigh's life. Esmond was granted custody of Tarquin, her son with Olivier, and Holman was granted custody of Suzanne, his daughter with Leigh. On <!--del_lnk--> August 30 Olivier and Leigh were married in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Barbara, California, in a ceremony attended only by their witnesses, <!--del_lnk--> Katharine Hepburn and <!--del_lnk--> Garson Kanin.<p>Leigh hoped to star with Olivier and made a screentest for <i><!--del_lnk--> Rebecca</i>, which was to be directed by <a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_Hitchcock.htm" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Alfred Hitchcock</a> with Olivier in the leading role, but after viewing her screentest Selznick noted that "she doesn't seem right as to sincerity or age or innocence", a view shared by Hitchcock, and Leigh's mentor, George Cukor. Selznick also observed that she had shown no enthusiasm for the part until Olivier had been confirmed as the lead actor, and subsequently cast <!--del_lnk--> Joan Fontaine. He also refused to allow her to join Olivier in <i><!--del_lnk--> Pride and Prejudice</i> (1940), and <!--del_lnk--> Greer Garson took the part Leigh had envisioned for herself. <i><!--del_lnk--> Waterloo Bridge</i> (1940) was to have starred Olivier and Leigh, however Selznick replaced Olivier with <!--del_lnk--> Robert Taylor, then at the peak of his success as one of <!--del_lnk--> Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's most popular male stars. Leigh's top-billing reflected her status in Hollywood, and despite her reluctance to participate without Olivier, the film proved to be popular with audiences and critics.<p>She and Olivier mounted a stage production of <i><a href="../../wp/r/Romeo_and_Juliet.htm" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a></i> for <!--del_lnk--> Broadway. The New York press discussed the adulterous nature that had marked the beginning of Olivier and Leigh's relationship, and questioned their ethics in not returning to England to help with the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">war</a> effort, and the critics were hostile in their assessment of the production. <!--del_lnk--> Brooks Atkinson for the <i><!--del_lnk--> New York Times</i> wrote, "Although Miss Leigh and Mr Olivier are handsome young people they hardly act their parts at all." While most of the blame was attributed to Olivier's acting and direction, Leigh was also criticised, with <!--del_lnk--> Bernard Grebanier commenting on the "thin, shopgirl quality of Miss Leigh's voice." The couple had invested almost their entire savings into the project, and its failure was a financial disaster for them.<p>They filmed <i><!--del_lnk--> That Hamilton Woman</i> (1941) with Olivier as <!--del_lnk--> Horatio Nelson and Leigh as <!--del_lnk--> Emma Hamilton. With Britain engaged in World War II, it was one of several Hollywood films made with the aim of arousing a pro-British sentiment among American audiences. The film was popular in the United States, but was an outstanding success in the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. <a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> arranged a screening for a party which included <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> and, on its conclusion, addressed the group, saying, "Gentlemen, I thought this film would interest you, showing great events similar to those in which you have just been taking part." The Oliviers remained favourites of Churchill, attending dinners and occasions at his request for the rest of his life, and of Leigh he was quoted as saying, "By Jove, she's a clinker."<p>The Oliviers returned to England, and Leigh toured through <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> in 1943, performing for troops before falling ill with a persistent cough and fevers. In 1944 she was diagnosed as having <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> in her left <!--del_lnk--> lung, but after spending several weeks in hospital, she appeared to be cured. In spring she was filming <i><!--del_lnk--> Caesar and Cleopatra</i> (1945) when she discovered she was pregnant, but suffered a miscarriage. She fell into a deep depression which reached its nadir when she turned on Olivier, verbally and physically attacking him until she fell to the floor sobbing. This was the first of many major breakdowns related to manic-depression, or bipolar mood disorder. Olivier came to recognise the symptoms of an impending episode – several days of hyperactivity followed by a period of <!--del_lnk--> depression and an explosive breakdown, after which Leigh would have no memory of the event, but would be acutely embarrassed and remorseful.<p>She was well enough to resume acting in 1946 in a successful London production of <!--del_lnk--> Thornton Wilder's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Skin of Our Teeth</i>, but her films of this period, <i><!--del_lnk--> Caesar and Cleopatra</i> (1945) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Anna Karenina</i> (1948), were not great successes.<p>In 1947 Olivier was knighted, and Leigh accompanied him to <a href="../../wp/b/Buckingham_Palace.htm" title="Buckingham Palace">Buckingham Palace</a> for the investiture. She became Lady Olivier, a title she continued to use after their divorce, until she died.<p>By 1948 Olivier was on the Board of Directors for the <!--del_lnk--> Old Vic Theatre, and he and Leigh embarked on a tour of <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> to raise funds for the theatre. During their six-month tour, Olivier performed <i><!--del_lnk--> Richard III</i> and also performed with Leigh in <i><!--del_lnk--> The School for Scandal</i> and <i>The Skin of Our Teeth</i>. The tour was an outstanding success, and although Leigh was plagued with <!--del_lnk--> insomnia and allowed her understudy to replace her for a week while she was ill, she generally withstood the demands placed upon her, with Olivier noting her ability to "charm the press". Members of the company later recalled several quarrels between the couple, with the most dramatic of these occurring in <!--del_lnk--> Christchurch when Leigh refused to go on stage. Olivier slapped her face, and Leigh slapped him in return and swore at him before she made her way to the stage. By the end of the tour, both were exhausted and ill, and Olivier told a journalist, "You may not know it, but you are talking to a couple of walking corpses." Later he would comment that he "lost Vivien" in Australia.<p>The success of the tour encouraged the Oliviers to make their first <!--del_lnk--> West End appearance together, performing the same works with one addition, <i><!--del_lnk--> Antigone</i>, included at Leigh's insistence because she wished to play a role in a tragedy.<p>Leigh next sought the role of <!--del_lnk--> Blanche DuBois in the <!--del_lnk--> West End stage production of <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee Williams's <i><!--del_lnk--> A Streetcar Named Desire</i>, and was cast after Williams and the play's producer <!--del_lnk--> Irene Mayer Selznick saw her in the <i>The School for Scandal</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Antigone</i>, and Olivier was contracted to direct. Containing a rape scene and references to promiscuity and homosexuality, the play was destined to be controversial, and the media discussion about its suitability added to Leigh's anxiety, but she believed strongly in the importance of the work. <!--del_lnk--> J. B. Priestley denounced the play and Leigh's performance, and the critic <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Tynan commented that Leigh was badly miscast because British actors were "too well-bred to emote effectively on stage". Olivier and Leigh were chagrined that part of the commercial success of the play lay in audience members attending to see what they believed would be a salacious and sensationalist story, rather than the <!--del_lnk--> Greek tragedy that they envisioned, but the play also had strong supporters, among them <!--del_lnk--> Noël Coward who described Leigh as "magnificent".<p>After 326 performances Leigh finished her run; however, she was soon engaged for the <!--del_lnk--> film version. Her irreverent and often bawdy sense of humour allowed her to establish a rapport with her co-star <!--del_lnk--> Marlon Brando, but she had difficulty with the director <!--del_lnk--> Elia Kazan, who did not hold her in high regard as an actress. He later commented that "she had a small talent", but as work progressed, he became "full of admiration" for "the greatest determination to excel of any actress I've known. She'd have crawled over broken glass if she thought it would help her performance." Leigh found the role gruelling and commented to the <i><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles Times</i>, "I had nine months in the theatre of Blanche DuBois. Now she's in command of me." The film won glowing reviews for her, and she won a second <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Actress, a <!--del_lnk--> BAFTA Award and a <!--del_lnk--> New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress. Tennessee Williams commented that Leigh brought to the role "everything that I intended, and much that I had never dreamed of", but in later years, Leigh would say that playing Blanche DuBois "tipped me over into madness".<p><a id="Continuing_illness" name="Continuing_illness"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Continuing illness</span></h2>
<p>In 1951, Leigh and Olivier performed two plays about <a href="../../wp/c/Cleopatra_VII.htm" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> Antony and Cleopatra</i> and <!--del_lnk--> George Bernard Shaw's <i><!--del_lnk--> Caesar and Cleopatra</i>, alternating the play each night and winning good reviews. They took the productions to New York, where they performed a season at the <!--del_lnk--> Ziegfeld Theatre into 1952. The reviews there were also mostly positive, but the critic <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Tynan angered them when he suggested that Leigh's was a mediocre talent which forced Olivier to compromise his own. Tynan's diatribe almost precipitated another collapse; Leigh, terrified of failure and intent on achieving greatness, dwelt on his comments, while ignoring the positive reviews of other critics.<p>In January 1953 Leigh travelled to <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Ceylon</a> to film <i><!--del_lnk--> Elephant Walk</i> with <!--del_lnk--> Peter Finch. Shortly after filming commenced, she suffered a breakdown, and <!--del_lnk--> Paramount Studios replaced her with <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Taylor. Olivier returned her to their home in England, where between periods of incoherence, Leigh told him that she was in love with Finch, and had been having an affair with him. She gradually recovered over a period of several months.<p>As a result of this episode, many of the Oliviers' friends learnt of her problems. <!--del_lnk--> David Niven said she had been "quite, quite mad", and in his diary <!--del_lnk--> Noël Coward expressed surprise that "things had been bad and getting worse since 1948 or thereabouts."<p>Leigh recovered sufficiently to play <i><!--del_lnk--> The Sleeping Prince</i> with Olivier in 1953, and in 1955 they performed a season at <a href="../../wp/s/Stratford-upon-Avon.htm" title="Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a> in Shakespeare's <i><!--del_lnk--> Twelfth Night</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/m/Macbeth.htm" title="Macbeth">Macbeth</a></i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Titus Andronicus</i>. They played to capacity houses and attracted generally good reviews, Leigh's health seemingly stable. <!--del_lnk--> Noël Coward was enjoying success with the play <i><!--del_lnk--> South Sea Bubble</i>, with Leigh in the lead role, but she became pregnant and withdrew from the production. Several weeks later, she miscarried and entered a period of depression that lasted for months. She joined Olivier for a European tour with <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, but the tour was marred by Leigh's frequent outbursts against Olivier and other members of the company. After their return to London, her former husband Leigh Holman, who continued to exert a strong influence over her, stayed with the Oliviers and helped calm her.<p>In 1958, considering her marriage to be over, Leigh began a relationship with the actor <!--del_lnk--> Jack Merivale, who knew of Leigh's medical condition and assured Olivier he would care for her. She achieved a success in 1959 with the Noël Coward comedy <i>Look After Lulu</i>, with <i>The Times</i> critic describing her as "beautiful, delectably cool and matter of fact, she is mistress of every situation."<p>In 1960 she and Olivier divorced, and Olivier married the actress <!--del_lnk--> Joan Plowright. In his autobiography he discussed the years of problems they had experienced because of Leigh's illness, writing, "Throughout her possession by that uncannily evil monster, manic depression, with its deadly ever-tightening spirals, she retained her own individual canniness – an ability to disguise her true mental condition from almost all except me, for whom she could hardly be expected to take the trouble."<p><a id="Final_years_and_death" name="Final_years_and_death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Final years and death</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28396.jpg.htm" title="Leigh photographed in 1958"><img alt="Leigh photographed in 1958" height="201" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vivien_Leigh_1958.jpg" src="../../images/283/28396.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28396.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Leigh photographed in 1958</div>
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<p>Merivale proved to be a stable influence for Leigh, but despite her apparent contentment she was quoted by <!--del_lnk--> Radie Harris as confiding that she "would rather have lived a short life with Larry [Olivier] than face a long one without him". Her first husband, Leigh Holman, also spent considerable time with her. Merivale joined her for a tour of Australia, New Zealand and <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> that lasted from July 1961 until May 1962, and Leigh enjoyed positive reviews without Olivier sharing the spotlight with her. Though she was still beset by bouts of depression, she continued to work in the theatre and in 1963 won a <!--del_lnk--> Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her role in the Broadway musical <i><!--del_lnk--> Tovarich</i>. She also appeared in the films <i><!--del_lnk--> The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone</i> (1961) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Ship of Fools</i> (1965).<p>In May 1967 she was rehearsing to appear with <!--del_lnk--> Michael Redgrave in <!--del_lnk--> Edward Albee's <i><!--del_lnk--> A Delicate Balance</i> when she became ill with <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> but, after resting for several weeks, seemed to be recovering. On the night of July 7, Merivale left her as usual, to perform in a play, and returned home around midnight to find her asleep. About thirty minutes later (by now <!--del_lnk--> July 8), he returned to the bedroom and discovered her body on the floor. She had been attempting to walk to the bathroom, and as her lungs filled with liquid, she had collapsed. Merivale contacted Olivier, who was receiving treatment for <a href="../../wp/p/Prostate_cancer.htm" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> in a nearby hospital. In his autobiography, Olivier described his "grievous anguish" as he immediately travelled to Leigh's residence, to find that Merivale had moved her body onto the bed. Olivier paid his respects, and "stood and prayed for forgiveness for all the evils that had sprung up between us", before helping Merivale make funeral arrangements.<p>She was <!--del_lnk--> cremated, and her ashes were scattered on the lake at her home, Tickerage Mill, near <!--del_lnk--> Blackboys, <!--del_lnk--> East Sussex, England. A memorial service was held at <!--del_lnk--> St Martin-in-the-Fields, with a final tribute read by <!--del_lnk--> John Gielgud. In the United States, she became the first actress honoured by "The Friends of the Libraries at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Southern California". The ceremony was conducted as a memorial service, with selections from her films shown and tributes provided by such associates as <!--del_lnk--> George Cukor.<p><a id="Critical_comments" name="Critical_comments"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Critical comments</span></h2>
<p>Vivien Leigh was considered one of the most beautiful actresses of her day, and her directors emphasised this in most of her films. When asked if she believed her beauty had been a handicap, she said, "people think that if you look fairly reasonable, you can't possibly act, and as I only care about acting, I think beauty can be a great handicap, if you really want to look like the part you're playing, which isn't necessarily like you."<p><!--del_lnk--> George Cukor commented that Leigh was a "consummate actress, hampered by beauty", and Laurence Olivier said that critics should "give her credit for being an actress and not go on forever letting their judgements be distorted by her great beauty." <!--del_lnk--> Garson Kanin shared their viewpoint and described Leigh as "a stunner whose ravishing beauty often tended to obscure her staggering achievements as an actress. Great beauties are infrequently great actresses—simply because they don't need to be. Vivien was different; ambitious, persevering, serious, often inspired."<p>Leigh explained that she played "as many different parts as possible" in an attempt to learn her craft and to dispel prejudice about her abilities. She believed that comedy was more difficult to play than drama because it required more precise timing, and said that more emphasis should be placed upon comedy as part of an actor's training. Nearing the end of her career, which ranged from <!--del_lnk--> Noël Coward comedies to Shakespearean tragedies, she observed, "It's much easier to make people cry than to make them laugh."<p>Her early performances brought her immediate success in Britain, but she remained largely unknown in other parts of the world until the release of <i>Gone with the Wind</i>. In December 1939 the <i><!--del_lnk--> New York Times</i> wrote, "Miss Leigh's Scarlett has vindicated the absurd talent quest that indirectly turned her up. She is so perfectly designed for the part by art and nature that any other actress in the role would be inconceivable", and as her fame escalated, she was featured on the cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Time Magazine</i> as Scarlett. In 1969 critic <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Sarris commented that the success of the film had been largely due to "the inspired casting" of Leigh, and in 1998 wrote that "she lives in our minds and memories as a dynamic force rather than as a static presence." <!--del_lnk--> Leonard Maltin described the film as one of the all-time greats, writing in 1998 that Leigh "brilliantly played" her role.<p>Her performance in the <!--del_lnk--> West End production of <i>A Streetcar Named Desire</i>, described by the theatre writer <!--del_lnk--> Phyllis Hartnoll as "proof of greater powers as an actress than she had hitherto shown", led to a lengthy period during which she was considered one of the finest actresses in British theatre. Discussing the subsequent film version, <!--del_lnk--> Pauline Kael wrote that Leigh and <!--del_lnk--> Marlon Brando gave "two of the greatest performances ever put on film" and that Leigh's was "one of those rare performances that can truly be said to evoke both fear and pity."<p>Kenneth Tynan ridiculed Leigh's performance opposite Olivier in the 1955 production of <i><!--del_lnk--> Titus Andronicus</i>, commenting that she "receives the news that she is about to be ravished on her husband's corpse with little more than the mild annoyance of one who would have preferred foam rubber." He was one of several critics to react negatively to her reinterpretation of <!--del_lnk--> Lady Macbeth in 1955, saying that her performance was insubstantial and lacked the necessary fury demanded of the role; however, after her death he revised his opinion, describing his earlier criticism as "one of the worst errors of judgement" he had ever made. He came to believe that Leigh's interpretation, in which Lady Macbeth uses her sexual allure to keep Macbeth enthralled, "made more sense ... than the usual battle-axe" portrayal of the character. In a survey of theatre critics conducted shortly after Leigh's death, several named it as one of her greatest achievements in theatre.<p>In 1969 a plaque to Leigh was placed in the actors' church, <!--del_lnk--> St Paul's, Covent Garden, and in 1985 a portrait of her was included in a series of <a href="../../wp/p/Postage_stamp.htm" title="Postage stamp">postage stamps</a>, along with <a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_Hitchcock.htm" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Alfred Hitchcock</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Chaplin, <!--del_lnk--> Peter Sellers and <!--del_lnk--> David Niven to commemorate "British Film Year".<p>The <!--del_lnk--> British Library in London purchased the papers of Laurence Olivier from his estate in 1999. Known as <i>The Laurence Olivier Archive</i>, the collection includes many of Vivien Leigh's personal papers, including numerous letters written by her to Olivier. The papers of Vivien Leigh, including letters, photographs, contracts and diaries, are owned by her daughter, Mrs Suzanne Farrington. In 1994 the <!--del_lnk--> National Library of Australia purchased a photograph album, monogrammed "L & V O" and believed to have belonged to the Oliviers, containing 573 photographs of the couple during their 1948 tour of Australia. It is now held as part of the record of the history of the performing arts in Australia.<p><a id="Awards_and_nominations" name="Awards_and_nominations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards and nominations</span></h2>
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<th>Year</th>
<th>Award</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> 1939</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Actress (won)<br /><!--del_lnk--> New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress (won)</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Gone With the Wind</i></td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1952</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Actress (won)<br /><!--del_lnk--> BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role (won)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama (nominated)<br /><!--del_lnk--> New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress (won)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Venice Film Festival - Volpi Cup (won)</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> A Streetcar Named Desire</i></td>
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<td>1963</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical (won)</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Tovarich</i></td>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;">Awards</th>
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<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><a href="../../wp/b/Bette_Davis.htm" title="Bette Davis">Bette Davis</a><br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> Jezebel</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Actress</b><br /> 1939<br /><b>for <i><a href="../../wp/g/Gone_with_the_Wind_%2528film%2529.htm" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i></b></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Ginger Rogers<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> Kitty Foyle</i></b></td>
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<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Judy Holliday<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> Born Yesterday</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b>Academy Award for Best Actress</b><br /> 1951<br /><b>for <i><!--del_lnk--> A Streetcar Named Desire</i></b></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Shirley Booth<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> Come Back, Little Sheba</i></b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b>(tie)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Anna Maria Alberghetti<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> Carnival</i><br /> and<br /><!--del_lnk--> Diahann Carroll<br /> for <i>No Strings</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Tony Award for Best<br /> Leading Actress in a Musical</b><br /> 1963<br /><b>for <i><!--del_lnk--> Tovarich</i></b></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Carol Channing<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> Hello, Dolly!</i></b></td>
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</table>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivien_Leigh"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vladimir Lenin</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov "<i>Lenin</i>"<br /> Влади́мир Ильи́ч Улья́нов, "Ле́нин"</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14317.jpg.htm" title="Vladimir Lenin"><img alt="Vladimir Lenin" height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin_1920.jpg" src="../../images/143/14317.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
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<div style="background:lavender;"><!--del_lnk--> Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars</div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> November 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1917 – <!--del_lnk--> January 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1924</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Kerensky</td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alexey Ivanovich Rykov</td>
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<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1870<br /><!--del_lnk--> Simbirsk, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a></td>
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<tr>
<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> January 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1924<br /><a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <!--del_lnk--> USSR</td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bolshevik Party</td>
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<th>Profession</th>
<td>Politician</td>
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<p><b>Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov</b> (<a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Владимир Ильич Ульянов</span>, better known by the alias <b><span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> Lenin</span> </b> (Ленин)) (<!--del_lnk--> April 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1870 – <!--del_lnk--> January 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1924), was a <!--del_lnk--> Russian <!--del_lnk--> revolutionary, a <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communist</a> politician, the main leader of the <!--del_lnk--> October Revolution, the first head of <!--del_lnk--> Soviet Russia, and the primary theorist of the <!--del_lnk--> ideology that has come to be called <!--del_lnk--> Leninism, which is a variant of <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14318.jpg.htm" title="Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) circa 1887"><img alt="Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) circa 1887" height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin-circa-1887.jpg" src="../../images/143/14318.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14318.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) circa 1887</div>
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<p>Born in Simbirsk, <!--del_lnk--> Russian Empire (now <!--del_lnk--> Ulyanovsk), Lenin was the son of Frank , a Russian official in <!--del_lnk--> public education who worked for progressive democracy and free universal education in Russia, and <!--del_lnk--> Maria Alexandrovna Ulyanova. The family was of mixed ethnic ancestry. "Lenin's antecedents were Russian, <!--del_lnk--> Kalmyk, <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a>, <!--del_lnk--> German and <!--del_lnk--> Swedish, and possibly others". Lenin was baptized into the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Orthodox Church.<p>Two tragedies occurred early in his life. The first occurred when his father died of a <!--del_lnk--> cerebral hemorrhage in 1886. In May 1887, his eldest brother <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Ulyanov was hanged for participating in a terrorist plot (bomb attack) threatening the life of <!--del_lnk--> Tsar <!--del_lnk--> Alexander III; his sister Anna, who was with Alexander at the time of his arrest, was banished to his family estate, the village of <!--del_lnk--> Kokushkino, about 40 km (25 mi) off <!--del_lnk--> Kazan. This radicalized Lenin. His official Soviet biographies have this event as central to his revolutionary exploits. A famous painting by Belousov, <!--del_lnk--> "We Will Follow a Different Path", reprinted in millions of Soviet textbooks, depicted young Lenin and his mother grieving the loss of his elder brother. The phrase "We will follow a different path" meant that Lenin chose a <!--del_lnk--> Marxist approach for a popular revolution, instead of anarchistic, individualistic methods. As Lenin became interested in <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, he got involved in student protests and was subsequently arrested. He was then expelled from <!--del_lnk--> Kazan University. He continued to study independently and by <!--del_lnk--> 1891 had earned a <!--del_lnk--> license to practice law. He also distinguished himself in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Greek, and also learned <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>. Lenin is also credited with translating the <!--del_lnk--> Communist Manifesto into Russian in the period between being expelled from the University and obtaining his license to practice law.<p><a id="Philosophical_work" name="Philosophical_work"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Philosophical work</span></h2>
<p>Lenin was an author of several theoretical works in <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> such as <!--del_lnk--> Materialism and Empiriocriticism which became fundamental in Marxist-Leninist philosophy.<p><a id="Revolutionary" name="Revolutionary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Revolutionary</span></h2>
<p>Lenin worked for some years in <!--del_lnk--> Samara, Russia, then in 1893 moved to <!--del_lnk--> St Petersburg. Rather than settling into a legal career, he became more involved in <!--del_lnk--> revolutionary propaganda efforts and the study of <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> December 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1895, he was arrested and held by authorities for 14 months, then exiled to the village of <!--del_lnk--> Shushenskoye in <!--del_lnk--> Siberia.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14319.jpg.htm" title="Lenin's mug shot, Dec. 1895"><img alt="Lenin's mug shot, Dec. 1895" height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin-1895-mugshot.jpg" src="../../images/143/14319.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14319.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lenin's <!--del_lnk--> mug shot, Dec. 1895</div>
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<p>In July 1898, he married Nadezhda Krupskaya, who was a socialist activist. In April 1899, he published the book <i><!--del_lnk--> The Development of Capitalism in Russia</i>. In 1900 his exile ended and he travelled in Russia and elsewhere in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. He lived in <!--del_lnk--> Zurich, <a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> (where he lectured and studied at Geneva State University), <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, and during his exile co-founded the newspaper <i><!--del_lnk--> Iskra</i> with <!--del_lnk--> Julius Martov, later a leading opponent. He also wrote several articles and books related to the revolutionary movement. At this period, he started using various aliases, finally settling upon Lenin.<p>He was active in the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP; РСДРП in Russian), and in 1903 he led the <!--del_lnk--> Bolshevik faction after a split with the <!--del_lnk--> Mensheviks that was partly inspired by his pamphlet <i><!--del_lnk--> What is to be Done?.</i> This is said to be one of the most influential pamphlets in pre-revolutionary Russia, with Lenin himself claiming that 3 out of 5 workers had read it or had it read to them. In 1906 he was elected to the Presidium of the RSDLP. In 1907, he moved to <!--del_lnk--> Finland for security reasons. He continued to travel in Europe and participated in many <!--del_lnk--> socialist meetings and activities, including the <!--del_lnk--> Prague Party Conference of 1912 and the <!--del_lnk--> Zimmerwald Conference of 1915. Lenin was the main leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Zimmerwald Left. When <!--del_lnk--> Inessa Armand left Russia and settled in Paris, she met Lenin and other Bolsheviks living in exile, and it is believed that she became Lenin's lover during this time. Lenin later moved to <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14320.jpg.htm" title="House where Lenin lived in 1916 in Zurich, Switzerland."><img alt="House where Lenin lived in 1916 in Zurich, Switzerland." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin-switzerland.jpg" src="../../images/143/14320.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14320.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> House where Lenin lived in <!--del_lnk--> 1916 in <!--del_lnk--> Zurich, <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.</div>
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<p>When the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a> began in 1914 and the large Social Democratic parties of Europe (at that time self-described as Marxist), including luminaries such as <!--del_lnk--> Karl Kautsky, supported their various countries' war efforts, Lenin was shocked, at first refusing to believe that the German Social Democrats had voted for war credits. This led him to a final split with the <!--del_lnk--> Second International, which was composed of these parties. Lenin adopted the position that what he described as an 'imperialist war' should be turned into a civil war between the classes.<p>After the 1917 <!--del_lnk--> February Revolution in Russia and the overthrow of Tsar <!--del_lnk--> Nicholas II, Lenin knew he needed to travel back to Russia as soon as possible. But he was isolated in neutral <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> as the First World War was raging. The Swiss communist <!--del_lnk--> Fritz Platten, however, managed to negotiate with the German government for Lenin and his company to travel through Germany by <a href="../../wp/t/Train.htm" title="Train">train</a>. The German government hoped Lenin would cause political unrest back in Russia, which would help to end the war on the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern front. Once through Germany, Lenin continued by ferry to <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, and the rest of the trip through <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia was arranged by the Swedish communists <!--del_lnk--> Otto Grimlund and <!--del_lnk--> Ture Nerman.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1917 Lenin arrived in <!--del_lnk--> Petrograd and took a leading role within the Bolshevik movement, publishing the <i><!--del_lnk--> April Theses</i>, which called for an uncompromising opposition to the provisional government. Initially, Lenin isolated his party through this lurch to the left. However, this uncompromising stand meant that the Bolsheviks were to become the obvious home for all those who became disillusioned with the provisional government, and with the "luxury of opposition" the Bolsheviks did not have to assume responsibility for any policies implemented by the government.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14321.jpg.htm" title="Lenin disguised as "Vilén" wearing a wig and with his beard shaved off in Finland August 11, 1917"><img alt="Lenin disguised as "Vilén" wearing a wig and with his beard shaved off in Finland August 11, 1917" height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin_05d.jpg" src="../../images/143/14321.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14321.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lenin disguised as <i>"<!--del_lnk--> Vilén"</i> wearing a wig and with his beard shaved off in Finland <!--del_lnk--> August 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1917</div>
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<p>Meanwhile, <!--del_lnk--> Aleksandr Kerensky and other opponents of the Bolsheviks accused Lenin of being a paid German agent. In response <a href="../../wp/l/Leon_Trotsky.htm" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, formerly a Menshevik, but now moving closer to the Bolshevik position, made a defensive speech on <!--del_lnk--> July 17, saying: "An intolerable atmosphere has been created, in which you as well as we are choking. They are throwing dirty accusations at Lenin and Zinoviev. Lenin has fought thirty years for the revolution. I have fought twenty years against the oppression of the people. And we cannot but cherish a hatred for German militarism. ... I have been sentenced by a German court to eight months’ imprisonment for my struggle against German militarism. This everybody knows. Let nobody in this hall say that we are hirelings of Germany." <!--del_lnk--> <p>After a failed <!--del_lnk--> Bolshevik rising in July, Lenin fled to Finland for safety. Here he wrote "<!--del_lnk--> State and Revolution" <!--del_lnk--> , which called for a new form of government based on workers' councils, or <!--del_lnk--> soviets elected and revocable at all moments by the workers. He returned to Petrograd in October, inspiring the <!--del_lnk--> October Revolution with the slogan "All Power to the Soviets!" Lenin directed the overthrow of the <!--del_lnk--> Provisional Government from the <!--del_lnk--> Smolny Institute from the 6th to the 8th of November 1917. The storming and capitulation of the <!--del_lnk--> Winter Palace on the night of the 7th to 8th of November marked the beginning of Soviet rule.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Head_of_the_Soviet_state" name="Head_of_the_Soviet_state"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Head of the Soviet state</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 8, Lenin was elected as the <!--del_lnk--> Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars by the Russian Soviet Congress.<p>"Communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the entire country," Lenin said, emphasizing the importance of bringing <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> to all corners of Russia and modernizing industry and agriculture. "We must show the peasants that the organization of industry on the basis of modern, advanced technology, on electrification which will provide a link between town and country, will put an end to the division between town and country, will make it possible to raise the level of culture in the countryside and to overcome, even in the most remote corners of land, backwardness, ignorance, poverty, disease, and barbarism." He was very concerned about creating a free universal health care system for all, the emancipation of women, and teaching the <!--del_lnk--> illiterate Russian people to read and write. But first and foremost, the new Bolshevik government needed to take Russia out of the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War</a>.<p>Faced with the threat of a continuing German advance eastwards, Lenin argued that Russia should immediately sign a peace treaty. Other <!--del_lnk--> Bolshevik leaders, such as <!--del_lnk--> Bukharin, advocated continuing the war as a means of fomenting revolution in Germany. Trotsky, who led the negotiations, advocated an intermediate position, of "No War, No Peace", calling for a peace treaty only on the conditions that no territorial gains on either side be consolidated. After the negotiations collapsed, the Germans renewed their advance, resulting in the loss of much of Russia's western territory. As a result of this turn of events, Lenin's position consequently gained the support of the majority in the Bolshevik leadership. On <!--del_lnk--> March 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1918, Lenin removed Russia from World War I by agreeing to the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, under which Russia lost significant territories in Europe.<p>After the Bolsheviks lost the elections for the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Constituent Assembly, they used the Red Guards to shut down the first session of the Assembly on <!--del_lnk--> January 19 and relied on support from the soviets. This marked the beginning of the steady elimination from political life of all factions and parties whose views did not correspond to the position taken by Lenin and the Bolsheviks, especially as further exhibited by the Civil War pattern of repeatedly dissolving not-so-favourable Congresses of Soviets.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/75/7595.jpg.htm" title="Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin and Mikhail Kalinin 1919"><img alt="Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin and Mikhail Kalinin 1919" height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stalin-Lenin-Kalinin-1919.jpg" src="../../images/75/7595.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/75/7595.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, Vladimir Lenin and <!--del_lnk--> Mikhail Kalinin 1919</div>
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<p>The Bolsheviks formed a coalition government with the left wing of the <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Revolutionaries. However, their coalition collapsed after the Social Revolutionaries opposed the Brest-Litovsk treaty, and joined other parties in seeking to overthrow the Bolshevik government. Lenin responded to these efforts by a policy of wholesale persecution, which included jailing some of the members of the opposing parties.<p>Lenin had a certain admiration for the Irish socialist revolutionary <!--del_lnk--> James Connolly, and the Soviet Union was the first country to recognise the Irish Republic.<p>
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<div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14322.jpg.htm" title="Lenin in his Kremlin office, 1918"><img alt="Lenin in his Kremlin office, 1918" height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin-office-1918.jpg" src="../../images/143/14322.jpg" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14322.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lenin in his Kremlin office, 1918</div>
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<p><a id="Creation_of_the_secret_police" name="Creation_of_the_secret_police"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Creation of the secret police</span></h2>
<p>From early 1918, Lenin campaigned for a single, democratically accountable individual to be put in charge of each enterprise, contrary to most conceptions of workers' self-management, but absolutely essential for efficiency and expertise. As S.A. Smith wrote: "By the end of the civil war, not much was left of the democratic forms of industrial administration promoted by the <!--del_lnk--> factory committees in 1917, but the government argued that this did not matter since industry had passed into the ownership of a workers' state."<p>To protect the newly-established Bolshevik government from counterrevolutionaries and other political opponents, the Bolsheviks created a secret police, the <!--del_lnk--> Cheka. The Bolsheviks had planned to hold a trial for the former <!--del_lnk--> Tsar, but in August 1918, when the <!--del_lnk--> White Army was advancing on <!--del_lnk--> Yekaterinburg (where the once royal family was being held), <!--del_lnk--> Sverdlov acceded to the request of the local Soviet to execute the Tsar right away, rather than having him taken by the Whites. In the event both the Tsar and the rest of his immediate family was executed, though whether this was a decision of the central government or the local Soviet remains the subject of historical dispute. (For the most recent and most extensive investigation into these murky events and into the question of who was ultimately responsible for the killings see <i>The Fate of the Romanovs</i> (2003) by Greg King and Penny Wilson <!--del_lnk--> .)<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14323.jpg.htm" title="Lenin and Fritz Platten in 1919."><img alt="Lenin and Fritz Platten in 1919." height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin.platten_%282%29.jpg" src="../../images/143/14323.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14323.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lenin and <!--del_lnk--> Fritz Platten in 1919.</div>
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<p><a id="Assassination_attempt" name="Assassination_attempt"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Assassination attempt</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1918, an assassination attempt was made against Lenin’s car in Petrograd by unknown gunmen. Lenin and <!--del_lnk--> Fritz Platten were in the back of the car together, after having given a public speech. When the shooting started, "Platten grabbed Lenin by the head and pushed him down. ... Platten’s hand was covered in blood, having been grazed by a bullet as he was shielding Lenin."<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1918, <!--del_lnk--> Fanya Kaplan, a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Revolutionary Party, approached Lenin after he had spoken at a meeting and was on the way to his car. She called out to Lenin, who turned to answer. She immediately fired three shots, two of which struck him in the shoulder and lung. Lenin was taken to his apartment in <!--del_lnk--> the Kremlin, refusing to venture to a hospital since he believed that other assassins would be waiting there. Doctors were summoned but decided that it was too dangerous to remove the bullets. Lenin eventually recovered, though his health declined from this point. It is believed that the incident contributed to his later <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">strokes</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/79/7985.jpg.htm" title="Lenin with Trotsky and soldiers in Kronstadt, 1921"><img alt="Lenin with Trotsky and soldiers in Kronstadt, 1921" height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Trotzki_and_Lenin_in_Petrograd.jpg" src="../../images/79/7985.jpg" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/79/7985.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lenin with <!--del_lnk--> Trotsky and soldiers in <!--del_lnk--> Kronstadt, 1921</div>
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<p>The Communist government responded to the assassination attempt, and to the increasingly mobilizing anti-communist offensive of which it was a component, with what they termed the <!--del_lnk--> Red Terror. Tens of thousands of real and perceived enemies of the Revolution, many accused of actively conspiring against the Bolshevik government, were executed or put in labor camps. The Red Terror coincided with the escalation of the Civil War and the implementation of a policy known as War Communism. Amongst other things this involved forced grain requisitions from the peasantry, and became a cause of widespread famine. <!--del_lnk--> .<p>According to Orlando Figes, Lenin had always been an advocate of "mass terror against enemies of the revolution" and was open about his view that the proletarian state was a system of organized violence against the capitalist establishment. Figes also claims that the terror, while encouraged by the Bolsheviks, had its roots in a popular anger against the privileged. When in late 1918 Kamenev and Bukharin tried to curb the "excesses" of the Cheka, it was Lenin who defended it. Lenin remained an enthusiastic advocate of mass terror. In 1922, on his instigation, some 8000 priests and laymen were executed, following an uprising by the clergy in the textile town of Shuia.<p><a id="Russian_Communist_Party_and_civil_war" name="Russian_Communist_Party_and_civil_war"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Russian Communist Party and civil war</span></h2>
<p>In March 1919, Lenin and other <!--del_lnk--> Bolshevik leaders met with revolutionary socialists from around the world and formed the <!--del_lnk--> Communist International. Members of the Communist International, including Lenin and the Bolsheviks themselves, broke off from the broader socialist movement. From that point onwards, they would become known as <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communist">communists</a>. In Russia, the Bolshevik Party was renamed the "<!--del_lnk--> Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)," which eventually became the <!--del_lnk--> CPSU.<p>Meanwhile, the <!--del_lnk--> civil war raged across <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>. A wide variety of political movements and their supporters took up arms to support or overthrow the Soviet government. Although many different factions were involved in the civil war, the two main forces were the <!--del_lnk--> Red Army (communists) and the <!--del_lnk--> White Army (traditionalists). Foreign powers such as France, Britain, the United States and Japan also intervened in this war (on behalf of the White Army), though their impact was peripheral at best. Eventually, the more organizationally proficient Red Army, led by <a href="../../wp/l/Leon_Trotsky.htm" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, won the civil war, defeating the White Russian forces and their allies in 1920. Smaller fights, however, continued for several more years.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14324.jpg.htm" title=""Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth," 1920 Communist poster"><img alt=""Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth," 1920 Communist poster" height="323" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tov_lenin_ochishchaet.jpg" src="../../images/143/14324.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14324.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth," 1920 Communist poster</div>
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<p>Both White and Red Army forces, during this tumultuous time of war and revolution, "behaved with great brutality and cruelty in areas they controlled. Towns were burned, property destroyed or stolen, peasant farmers' crops and livestock taken by force — if people objected, they faced torture and execution." <!--del_lnk--> Far from being dictated by military necessity, Brovkin has argued that this level of terror was highly counterproductive. Alienation of the population behind the lines can explain, according to him, both red and white defeats during the civil war.<p>In late 1919, successes against the White Russian forces convinced Lenin that it was time to spread the revolution to the West, by force if necessary. When the newly independent <!--del_lnk--> Second Polish Republic began securing its eastern territories annexed by Russia in the <!--del_lnk--> partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, it clashed with Bolshevik forces for dominance in these areas, which led to the outbreak of the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Soviet_War.htm" title="Polish-Soviet War">Polish-Soviet War</a> in 1919. With the <!--del_lnk--> revolution in Germany and the <!--del_lnk--> Spartacist League on the rise, Lenin viewed this as the perfect time and place to "probe Europe with the <!--del_lnk--> bayonets of the Red Army." Lenin saw Poland as the bridge that the Red Army would have to cross in order to link up the Russian Revolution with the communist supporters in the German Revolution, and to assist other communist movements in <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe. However the defeat of Soviet Russia in the Polish-Soviet War invalidated these plans.<p>Lenin was a harsh critic of <!--del_lnk--> imperialism. In 1917 he declared the unconditional right of self-determination and separation for national minorities and oppressed nations, usually defined as those nation-states that were previously subject to capitalist imperial control. However, when the Russian Civil War was won he used military force to assimilate the newly independent nations <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/a/Azerbaijan.htm" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, arguing that the inclusion of those countries into the newly emerging Soviet government would shelter them from capitalist imperial ambitions. <!--del_lnk--> <p>The long years of war, the Bolshevik policy of <!--del_lnk--> War communism, the <!--del_lnk--> Russian famine of 1921, and the encirclement of hostile governments took their toll on Russia, however, and much of the country lay in ruins. There were many peasant uprisings, the largest being the <!--del_lnk--> Tambov rebellion. After an uprising by the sailors at <!--del_lnk--> Kronstadt in March 1921, Lenin replaced the policy of <!--del_lnk--> War Communism with the <!--del_lnk--> New Economic Policy (NEP), in a successful attempt to rebuild <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industry</a> and especially <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. The new policy was based on a recognition of political and economic realities, though it was intended merely as a tactical retreat from the socialist ideal. The whole policy was later reversed by Stalin.<p><a id="Lenin.27s_stance_on_anti-Semitism" name="Lenin.27s_stance_on_anti-Semitism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Lenin's stance on anti-Semitism</span></h2>
<p>- On a gramophone recording in 1919, Lenin stated: - - "The Tsarist police, in alliance with the landowners and the capitalists, organized <!--del_lnk--> pogroms against the Jews. The landowners and capitalists tried to divert the hatred of the workers and peasants who were tortured by want against the Jews. ... Only the most ignorant and downtrodden people can believe the lies and slander that are spread about the Jews. ... It is not the Jews who are the enemies of the working people. The enemies of the workers are the capitalists of all countries. Among the Jews there are working people, and they form the majority. They are our brothers, who, like us, are oppressed by capital; they are our comrades in the struggle for socialism. ... Shame on accursed Tsarism which tortured and persecuted the Jews. Shame on those who foment hatred towards the Jews, who foment hatred towards other nations." <!--del_lnk--> - - While Lenin remained opposed to outward forms of anti-semitism (and all forms of racism), allowing Jewish people to rise to the highest offices in both party and state, the record of his government in this regard was highly uneven. The 1921 campaign against religion saw the seizure of many synagogues. Lenin, moreover, was aware of pogroms carried out by units of the Red Army during the war with Poland, though the whole issue was effectively ignored. It has been said of this by the Russian historian Dimitri Volkogonov that "While condemning anti-Semitism in general, Lenin was unable to analyse, let alone eradicate, its prevalence in Soviet society." - - However, according to Jewish historian Zvi Gitelman: "Never before in Russian history - and never subsequently has a government made such an effort to uproot and stamp out anti-Semitism". -<p><a id="Later_life" name="Later_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later life</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14325.jpg.htm" title="Kamenev and Lenin at Gorki Leninskiye, 1922"><img alt="Kamenev and Lenin at Gorki Leninskiye, 1922" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kamenev.lenin.jpg" src="../../images/143/14325.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14325.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Kamenev and Lenin at <!--del_lnk--> Gorki Leninskiye, 1922</div>
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<p>Lenin's health had already been severely damaged by the strains of revolution and war. The assassination attempt earlier in his life also added to his health problems. The bullet was still lodged in his neck, too close to his spine for medical techniques of the time to remove. In May 1922, Lenin had his first stroke. He was left partially paralyzed on his right side, and his role in government declined. After the second stroke in December of the same year, he resigned from active politics. In March 1923, he suffered his third stroke and was left bedridden for the remainder of his life, no longer able to speak.<p>After his first stroke, Lenin dictated several papers regarding the government to his wife. Most famous of these is Lenin's Testament, which among other things criticized top-ranking communists, especially <a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>. Of Stalin, who had been the Communist Party's general secretary since April 1922, Lenin said that he had "unlimited authority concentrated in his hands" and suggested that "comrades think about a way of removing Stalin from that post." Upon Lenin's death, his wife mailed his Testament to the central committee, to be read at the 13th Party Congress in May 1924. However, because the will criticized all of the most prominent figures in the central committee: <!--del_lnk--> Zinoviev, <!--del_lnk--> Kamenev, <!--del_lnk--> Bukharin and <a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" title="Josef Stalin">Stalin</a>, the committee had a vested interest in not releasing the will to the wider public. The central committee justified this by stating that Lenin had been mentally ill in his final years and, as such, his final judgments were not to be trusted. <i>Lenin's Testament</i> was first officially published in 1926 in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Max Eastman. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Lenin died on <!--del_lnk--> January 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1924 (not <!--del_lnk--> January 21), aged 53. Rumors of Lenin having <!--del_lnk--> syphilis sprang up shortly after his death. The official cause given for Lenin's death was cerebral arteriosclerosis, or a fourth stroke. But out of the 27 physicians who treated him, only eight signed onto that conclusion in his autopsy report. Therefore, several other theories regarding his death have been put forward.<p>Documents released after the fall of the U.S.S.R., along with memoirs of Lenin's physicians, suggest that Lenin was treated for syphilis as early as 1895. Documents suggest that <!--del_lnk--> Alexei Abrikosov, the pathologist in charge of the autopsy, was ordered to prove that Lenin did not die of syphilis. Abrikosov did not mention syphilis in the autopsy; however, the blood-vessel damage, the paralysis and other incapacities he cited are typical of syphilis. Upon a second release of the autopsy report, none of the organs, major arteries, or brain areas usually affected by syphilis were cited.<p>In 1923, Lenin's doctors treated him with <!--del_lnk--> Salvarsan, the only drug at the time specifically used to treat syphilis, and <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium_iodide.htm" title="Potassium iodide">potassium iodide</a>, which was customary at the time in treating the disease.<p>Although he might have had syphilis, he had no visible lesions anywhere on his body that normally accompany the later stages of the disease. Most historians still agree that the most likely cause of his death was a stroke induced by the bullet still lodged in his neck from the assassination attempt.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14327.jpg.htm" title="Lenin's body in the Lenin Mausoleum, Moscow"><img alt="Lenin's body in the Lenin Mausoleum, Moscow" height="141" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin%27s_body.jpg" src="../../images/143/14327.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14327.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Lenin's body in the <!--del_lnk--> Lenin Mausoleum, Moscow</div>
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<p>The city of Petrograd was renamed <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a> in his honour three days after Lenin's death. This remained the name of the city until the collapse and liquidation of the Soviet Union in 1991, when it reverted to its original name, St Petersburg.<p>During the early 1920s the Russian movement of <!--del_lnk--> cosmism was quite popular and there was an intent to <!--del_lnk--> cryonically preserve Lenin's body in order to revive him in the future. Necessary equipment was purchased abroad, but for a variety of reasons the plan was not realized. Instead his body was <!--del_lnk--> embalmed and placed on permanent exhibition in the <!--del_lnk--> Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow on <!--del_lnk--> January 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1924.<p><a id="After_death" name="After_death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">After death</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14328.jpg.htm" title=" The Lenin Mausoleum at Red Square, Moscow"><img alt=" The Lenin Mausoleum at Red Square, Moscow" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lenin%27s_Tomb.jpg" src="../../images/143/14328.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14328.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
<br /> The Lenin Mausoleum at <!--del_lnk--> Red Square, <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a></div>
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<p>Lenin's preserved body is on permanent display at the <!--del_lnk--> Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow. Because of Lenin's unique role in the creation of the first Communist state, and despite his expressed wish shortly before his death that no memorials be created for him, his character was elevated over time to the point of near religious reverence. By the 1980s, every major city in the Soviet Union had a statue of Lenin in its central square, either a Lenin street or a Lenin Square near the centre, and often 20 or more smaller statues and busts throughout its territory. Collective farms, medals, hybrids of wheat, and even an asteroid were named after him. Children were taught stories about "granddad Lenin" while they were still in nursery.<p>Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the level of reverence for Lenin in post-Soviet republics has gone down considerably, but he is still considered an important figure by the generations who grew up during the Soviet period. <!--del_lnk--> Most statues of Lenin have been torn down in <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe, but many still remain in Russia. The city of Leningrad returned to its original name, <!--del_lnk--> St Petersburg, but the surrounding <!--del_lnk--> Leningrad Oblast still carries his name. The citizens of <!--del_lnk--> Ulyanovsk, Lenin's birthplace, have so far resisted all attempts to revert its name to Simbirsk. The subject of interring Lenin's body has been a recurring topic for the past several years in Russia.<p><a id="Lenin.27s_brain_study" name="Lenin.27s_brain_study"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lenin's brain study</span></h3>
<p>Lenin's <a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" title="Brain">brain</a> was removed before his body was <!--del_lnk--> embalmed. The <!--del_lnk--> Soviet government commissioned the well-known German neuroscientist <!--del_lnk--> Oskar Vogt to study Lenin's brain and to locate the precise location of the brain cells that are responsible for "genius". The study was performed in <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Bekhterev's Institute of the Brain. Vogt published a paper on the brain in 1929 where he reported that while the brain was discolored, shrunken, and showed "widespread areas of softening"<!--del_lnk--> , some <!--del_lnk--> pyramidal neurons in the third layer of Lenin's <!--del_lnk--> cerebral cortex were very large. However, the conclusion of its relevance to genius was contested. Vogt's work was considered unsatisfactory by the Soviets. Further research was continued by the Soviet team, but the work on Lenin's brain was no longer advertised. Contemporary <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomists</a> are no longer convinced that <!--del_lnk--> morphology alone can determine the functioning of the brain.<p><a id="Censorship_of_Lenin_in_the_Soviet_Union" name="Censorship_of_Lenin_in_the_Soviet_Union"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Censorship of Lenin in the Soviet Union</span></h2>
<p>Lenin's writings were carefully censored under the Soviet regime after his death. In the early 1930s, it became accepted dogma under Stalin to assume that neither Lenin nor the Central Committee could ever be wrong. Therefore, it was necessary to remove evidence of situations where they had actually disagreed, since in those situations it was impossible for both to have been right at the same time. Trotsky was a particularly vocal critic of these practices, which he saw as a form of deification of a mere human being who could, and did, make mistakes. <!--del_lnk--> Later, even the fifth <i>complete</i> Soviet edition of Lenin's works (published in 55 thick volumes between 1958 and 1965) left out parts that either contradicted dogma or showed their author in too poor a light. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vodafone</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Business_Studies.Companies.htm">Companies</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><b>Vodafone Group plc</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:16px 0 16px 0;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Image:VodafoneNewLogo.jpg" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:VodafoneNewLogo.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="195" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Type</th>
<td>Public (<!--del_lnk--> LSE: <!--del_lnk--> VOD,<br /><!--del_lnk--> NYSE: <!--del_lnk--> VOD, <!--del_lnk--> FWB: <!--del_lnk--> VOD)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;">Founded</th>
<td>1983 as <b>Racal Telecom</b>, independent 1991</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;">Headquarters</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Newbury, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <!--del_lnk--> UK</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;">Key people</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> Sir <!--del_lnk--> John Bond, Chairman<br />
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Paul Hazen, Deputy Chairman<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17939.png.htm" title="Flag of India"><img alt="Flag of India" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg" src="../../images/6/607.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Arun Sarin, CEO</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">Industry</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mobile <!--del_lnk--> telecommunications</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Products</th>
<td>Mobile networks, Telecom services, Etc.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Revenue</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/28/2890.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up_Darker.svg" src="../../images/28/2890.png" width="10" /></a> £29.350 billion <a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">GBP</a> (2006)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Net income</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1525.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_Arrow_Down.svg" src="../../images/15/1525.png" width="10" /></a> £21.821 billion <a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">GBP</a> (2006)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.75em;"><!--del_lnk--> Website</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.vodafone.com</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Vodafone Group plc</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> mobile network operator headquartered in <!--del_lnk--> Newbury, Berkshire, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. It is the largest mobile telecommunications network company in the world by turnover and has a market value of about £86 billion (November 2006). Vodafone currently has equity interests in 27 countries and Partner Networks (networks in which it has no equity stake) in a further 33 countries. Its portfolio of global services, supported by its global brand, is available in a total of 59 countries. The name Vodafone comes from <b>Vo</b>ice <b>da</b>ta <b>fone</b>, chosen by the company to "reflect the provision of voice and data services over mobile phones."<p>At <!--del_lnk--> 31 January <!--del_lnk--> 2007 Vodafone had 200 million proportionate customers in 27 markets across 5 continents. <!--del_lnk--> ("Proportionate customers" means, for example, that if Vodafone has a 30% stake in a business with a million customers, that is counted as 300,000). On this measure it is the second-largest mobile telecom group in the world behind <!--del_lnk--> China Mobile. The six markets where it has more than ten million proportionate customers are the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. In the U.S., these customers come via its minority stake in <!--del_lnk--> Verizon Wireless, and in the other five markets Vodafone has majority-controlled subsidiaries.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 30 May <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the company announced a loss before tax of £14.9 billion ($27.9bn) for 2005, the biggest loss in British corporate history. The loss for the year from continuing operations was £17.2 billion and the bottom line loss for the financial year was £21.8 billion. The company was pushed into loss by impairment charges of £23.5 billion, which related to the acquisition of <!--del_lnk--> Mannesmann several years earlier, and losses of £4.6 billion in relation to its discontinued business in Japan. At an operating level it remained highly profitable, with an operating profit on continuing operations of £9.4 billion before impairment costs.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 11 February <!--del_lnk--> 2007 Vodafone agreed to acquire a controlling interest of 67% in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Hutch-Essar for US$11.1 billion, pipping <!--del_lnk--> Reliance Communications, <!--del_lnk--> Hinduja Group, and <!--del_lnk--> Essar Group, owner of the remainder. Hutch is India's fourth largest mobile provider. The company has offered to buy Essar's stake on the same terms. <p>
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<p><a id="Vodafone_in_Europe" name="Vodafone_in_Europe"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Vodafone in Europe</span></h2>
<p>Vodafone currently operates in the following countries in Europe. The proportionate customer numbers are for December 2005:<table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Network Name <small>(former)</small></th>
<th>Ownership</th>
<th>Proportionate Customers</th>
<th>Market Share; Rank</th>
<th>Local Competitor(s)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" title="Albania">Albania</a></td>
<td>Vodafone</td>
<td>99.9%</td>
<td>919,000</td>
<td>48%; 2/2</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> AMC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> A1</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>38.7%; 1/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile, <!--del_lnk--> One, <!--del_lnk--> 3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Proximus</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>48.7%; 1/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Base, <!--del_lnk--> Mobistar</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mobiltel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>4,000,000</td>
<td>52.5%; 1/4</td>
<td>
<p><!--del_lnk--> GloBul,<!--del_lnk--> Vivatel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> VIPnet</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>42.9%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile, <!--del_lnk--> Tele2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Republic of Cyprus</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cytamobile-Vodafone</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>89.5%; 1/2</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Areeba</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Turkish_Republic_of_Northern_Cyprus.htm" title="Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus">Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> KKTC Vodafone</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>no data available</td>
<td>?;2/2</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> KKTCell</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Oskar)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>2,413,000</td>
<td>19.62%; 3/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> O<sub>2</sub>, <!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> TDC Mobil</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>41.4%; 1/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sonofon, <!--del_lnk--> Telia, <!--del_lnk--> 3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elisa Oyj <small>(Radiolinja)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; 1/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tele2, EMT</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elisa Oyj <small>(Radiolinja)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>30%; 1/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sonera, Finnet</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Metropolitan)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> SFR</td>
<td>43.9%</td>
<td>17,101,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 30 June <!--del_lnk--> 2005)</td>
<td>36%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orange, <!--del_lnk--> Bouygues Télécom</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
<td>Vodafone <small>(D2)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>30,622,000</td>
<td>35.64%; 2/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile, <!--del_lnk--> E-Plus, <!--del_lnk--> O<sub>2</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Panafon)</small></td>
<td>99.9%</td>
<td>4,955,000</td>
<td>35.6%; 2/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cosmote, <!--del_lnk--> TIM Hellas, <!--del_lnk--> Q-telecom</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></td>
<td>Vodafone</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>2,134,000</td>
<td>21.41%; 3/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile, <!--del_lnk--> Pannon</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Og Vodafone; Tal, Íslandssími)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>35%; 2/2</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Síminn, Sko, <!--del_lnk--> HIVE</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eircell-Vodafone <small>(Eircell)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>2,178,000</td>
<td>51%; 1/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> O<sub>2</sub>, <!--del_lnk--> Meteor, <!--del_lnk--> 3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Omnitel)</small></td>
<td>76.86%</td>
<td>20,129,000</td>
<td>35%; 2/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> TIM, <!--del_lnk--> Wind, <!--del_lnk--> 3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Latvia.htm" title="Latvia">Latvia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bitė Latvija</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; 3/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> LMT GSM,<!--del_lnk--> Tele2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bitė Lietuva</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tele2, <!--del_lnk--> Omnitel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td>
<td>LUXGSM</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>64%; 1/5</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tango, VOXmobile</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Malta.htm" title="Malta">Malta</a></td>
<td>Vodafone <small>(Telecell)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>188,000</td>
<td>54%; 1/2</td>
<td>Go Mobile</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Netherlands</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Libertel)</small></td>
<td>99.9%</td>
<td>3,817,000</td>
<td>24.2%; 2/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> KPN, <!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile, <!--del_lnk--> Orange</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Plus GSM</td>
<td>19.6%</td>
<td>2,112,000</td>
<td>33%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orange, <!--del_lnk--> Play, <!--del_lnk--> Era</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Telecel)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>4,618,000</td>
<td>37.2%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> TMN, <!--del_lnk--> Optimus</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Connex)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>7,717,000</td>
<td>45.4%; 2/5</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orange, <!--del_lnk--> Cosmote, <!--del_lnk--> Zapp Mobile</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></td>
<td>Si.mobil-Vodafone</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>24.9%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mobitel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(Airtel)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>14,464,000</td>
<td>33.1%; 2/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> Orange, <!--del_lnk--> Yoigo</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Telenor <small>(Vodafone; Europolitan)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>16%; 3/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Telia, <!--del_lnk--> Tele2, <!--del_lnk--> 3,</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Swisscom</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>62%; 1/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orange SA, <!--del_lnk--> TDC, <!--del_lnk--> Tele2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone<small>(Telsim)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>12,748,000</td>
<td>24%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Turkcell, <!--del_lnk--> Avea</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>16,939,000</td>
<td>24%; 2/5</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> O<sub>2</sub>, <!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile, <!--del_lnk--> 3, <!--del_lnk--> Orange UK</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="8"><small>* Local company with more than 50% being owned by the parent company is considered a <!--del_lnk--> Subsidiary; Ownership of less than 50% makes the local company an <!--del_lnk--> Affiliate. Local companies without ownership at all are Partners. </small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>see About Vodafone: <!--del_lnk--> Global Footprint, 30 June 2006<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>In 1982 <!--del_lnk--> Racal Electronics plc's subsidiary Racal Strategic Radio Ltd. won one of two UK cellular telephone network licences. The network, known as Racal Vodafone was 80% owned by Racal, with <!--del_lnk--> Millicom and the <!--del_lnk--> Hambros Technology Trust owning 15% and 5% respectively. Vodafone was launched on <!--del_lnk--> 1 January <!--del_lnk--> 1985. Racal Strategic Radio was renamed Racal Telecommunications Group Limited in 1985. On <!--del_lnk--> 29 December <!--del_lnk--> 1986 Racal Electronics bought out the minority shareholders of Vodafone for GB£110 million.<p>In September 1988 the company was again renamed Racal Telecom and on <!--del_lnk--> 26 October 1988 Racal Electronics floated 20% of the company. The floation valued Racal Telecom at GB£1.7 billion. On <!--del_lnk--> 16 September 1991 Racal Telecom was demerged from Racal Electronics as <b>Vodafone Group.</b><p>In July 1996 Vodafone acquired the two thirds of <!--del_lnk--> Talkland it did not already own for £30.6 million. On 19 November 1996, in a defensive move, Vodafone purchased <!--del_lnk--> Peoples Phone for £77 million, a 181 store chain whose customers were overwhelmingly using Vodafone's network. In a similar move the company acquired the 80% of Astec Communications that it did not own, a service provider with 21 stores.<p>In 1997 Vodafone introduced its <i>Speechmark</i> logo, as it is a <!--del_lnk--> quotation mark in a circle; the O's in the Vodafone logotype are opening and closing quotation marks, suggesting conversation.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 29 June <!--del_lnk--> 1999 Vodafone completed its purchase of <!--del_lnk--> AirTouch Communications, Inc. and changed its name to <b>Vodafone Airtouch plc</b>. Trading of the new company commenced on <!--del_lnk--> 30 June 1999. To approve the merger, Vodafone sold its 17.2% stake in <!--del_lnk--> E-Plus Mobilefunk. The acquisition gave Vodafone a 35% share of <!--del_lnk--> Mannesmann, owner of the largest German mobile network.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 21 September <!--del_lnk--> 1999 Vodafone agreeded to merge its U.S. wireless assets with those of <!--del_lnk--> Bell Atlantic Corp to form <!--del_lnk--> Verizon Wireless. The merger was completed on <!--del_lnk--> 4 April 2000.<p>In November 1999 Vodafone made an unsolicited bid for Mannesmann, which was rejected. Vodafone's interest in Mannesmann had been increased by the latter's purchase of Orange, the UK mobile operator. Chris Gent would later say Mannesmann move into the UK broke a "gentleman's agreement" not to compete in each other's home territory. The hostile takeover provoked strong protest in Germany and a "titanic struggle" which saw Mannesmann resist Vodafone's efforts. However on <!--del_lnk--> 3 February 2000 the Mannesmann board agreed to an increased offer of £112bn, then the largest corporate merger ever. The EU approved the merger in April 2000. The conglomerate was subsequently broken up and all manufacturing related operations sold off.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 28 July <!--del_lnk--> 2000: Reverts to its former name, <b>Vodafone Group Plc</b><li><!--del_lnk--> 16 April <!--del_lnk--> 2001: First <!--del_lnk--> 3G voice call on Vodafone United Kingdom's 3G network.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/100/10080.jpg.htm" title="Vodafone in Iaşi, Romania."><img alt="Vodafone in Iaşi, Romania." class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vodafone.Iasi-Romania.JPG" src="../../images/100/10080.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/100/10080.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Vodafone in <!--del_lnk--> Iaşi, <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/100/10085.png.htm" title="A map showing Vodafone's operations in Europe."><img alt="A map showing Vodafone's operations in Europe." class="thumbimage" height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map_Vodafone.png" src="../../images/100/10085.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/100/10085.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A map showing Vodafone's operations in Europe.</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>2001: Takes over <i>Eircell</i>, then part of <!--del_lnk--> eircom in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, and rebrands it <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Ireland.<li>2001-2002: Acquires Japan's third-largest mobile operator J-Phone, which had introduced camera phones first in Japan.<li><!--del_lnk--> 17 December <!--del_lnk--> 2001: Introduces the concept of "Partner Networks" by signing <!--del_lnk--> TDC Mobil of Denmark. The new concept involves the introduction of Vodafone international services to the local market, without the need of investment by Vodafone. The concept would be used to extend the Vodafone brand and services into markets where it does not have stakes in local operators. Vodafone services would be marketed under the dual-brand scheme, where the Vodafone brand is added at the end of the local brand. (i.e., TDC Mobil-Vodafone etc.)<li><!--del_lnk--> 2 February <!--del_lnk--> 2002: Finland is added into the mobile community, as Radiolinja is signed as a Partner Network. Radiolinja later changed its named to <!--del_lnk--> Elisa.<li>2002: Rebrands Japan's J-sky mobile internet service as <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone live!™<li><!--del_lnk--> 3 December <!--del_lnk--> 2002: Brand is introduced in the Estonian market with signing of a Partner Network Agreement with Radiolinja (Eesti). Radiolinja (Eesti) later changed its name to <!--del_lnk--> Elisa.<li><!--del_lnk--> 7 January <!--del_lnk--> 2003: Signs a group-wide Partner agreement with <!--del_lnk--> mobilkom Austria. As a result, <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Slovenia.htm" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a> is added to the community.<li><!--del_lnk--> 16 April <!--del_lnk--> 2003: <!--del_lnk--> Og Vodafone is introduced in the Icelandic market.<li><!--del_lnk--> 13 May <!--del_lnk--> 2003:<!--del_lnk--> Omnitel is rebranded <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Italy.<li><!--del_lnk--> 21 July <!--del_lnk--> 2003: <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> is added to the community, with the signing of a Partner Network agreement with <!--del_lnk--> Bité.<li><!--del_lnk--> 16 February <!--del_lnk--> 2004: Signs a Partner Network Agreement with <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>'s LuxGSM.<li><!--del_lnk--> 20 February <!--del_lnk--> 2004: Signs a Partner Network Agreement with <!--del_lnk--> Cyta of Cyprus. Cyta agreed to rename its mobile phone operations to Cytamobile-Vodafone.<li><!--del_lnk--> April <!--del_lnk--> 2004: Purchases Singlepoint airtime provider from John Caudwell (Caudwell Group) and approx 1.5million customers onto its base for est £405million, adding sites in Stoke on Trent (England) to existing sites in Newbury (HQ), Birmingham, Warrington and Banbury<li>November 2004: Introduces <!--del_lnk--> 3G services into Europe.<li>June 2005: Increases its participation in Romania's <!--del_lnk--> Connex to 99%; also buys <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech</a> mobile operator Oskar.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1 July <!--del_lnk--> 2005: Oskar of Czech Republic is rebranded as Oskar-Vodafone.<li><!--del_lnk--> 17 October <!--del_lnk--> 2005: <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Portugal launches a revised logo, using new text designed by <!--del_lnk--> Dalton Maag, and a 3D version of the Speechmark logo, but still retaining a red background and white writing (or vice versa). Also, various operating companies start to drop the use of the SIM card pattern in the company logo. (The rebranding of Oskar-Vodafone and Connex-Vodafone also does not use the SIM card pattern.) A custom typeface by <!--del_lnk--> Dalton Maag (based on their font family InterFace) forms part of the new identity.<li><!--del_lnk--> 28 October <!--del_lnk--> 2005: <!--del_lnk--> Connex in Romania is rebranded as Connex-Vodafone.<li><!--del_lnk--> 31 October <!--del_lnk--> 2005: Reaches an agreement to sell Vodafone Sweden to <!--del_lnk--> Telenor for approximately <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">€</a> 1 billion. After the sale, Vodafone Sweden becomes a Partner Network.<li><!--del_lnk--> 13 December <!--del_lnk--> 2005: Wins an auction to buy <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>'s second-largest mobile phone company, <!--del_lnk--> Telsim, for <!--del_lnk--> $4.5 billion. <!--del_lnk--> <li>December 2005: <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Spain becomes the second member of the group to adopt the revised logo, and it is phased in over the following six months in other countries.<li><!--del_lnk--> 5 January <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Announces the completion of the sale of <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Sweden to <!--del_lnk--> Telenor.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1 February <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Oskar Vodafone becomes <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Czech Republic, adopting the revised logo.<li><!--del_lnk--> 22 February <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Announces that it is extending its footprint to <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> with the signing of Partner Network Agreement with Mobiltel, which is part of <!--del_lnk--> mobilkom Austria group.<li><!--del_lnk--> 12 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Former chief, Sir Christopher Gent, who was appointed the honorary post Chairman for Life in 2003, quits following rumours of boardroom rifts.<li><!--del_lnk--> 11 April <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Announces that it has signed an extension to its Partner Network Agreement with BITE Group, enabling its Latvian subsidiary "BITE Latvija" to become the latest member of Vodafone's global partner community.<li><!--del_lnk--> 20 April <!--del_lnk--> 2006: <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Sweden changes its name to Telenor Sverige AB.<li><!--del_lnk--> 26 April <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Connex-Vodafone becomes <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Romania, also adopting the new logo.<li><!--del_lnk--> 30 May <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Announces the biggest loss in British corporate history (£14.9 billion) and plans to cut 400 jobs; reports one-off costs of £23.5 billion due to the revaluation of their <!--del_lnk--> Mannesmann subsidiary.<li><!--del_lnk--> 25 August <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Announces the sale of 25% stake in Belgium's <!--del_lnk--> Proximus for Euro 2 billion. After the deal, Proximus will still be part of the community as a Partner Network.<li><!--del_lnk--> 5 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Vodafone announces first single brand partnership with <!--del_lnk--> Og Vodafone which will now operate under the name <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Iceland<li><!--del_lnk--> 19 December <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Announces the sale of 25% stake in Switzerland's <!--del_lnk--> Swisscom for CHF4.25 billion (£1.8 billion). After the deal, Swisscom will still be part of the community as a Partner Network.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1 January <!--del_lnk--> 2007: Telsim in Turkey adopts Vodafone dual branding as <!--del_lnk--> Telsim Vodafone.<li><!--del_lnk--> 1 April <!--del_lnk--> 2007: <!--del_lnk--> Telsim Vodafone Turkey drops its original brand and becomes <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Turkey</ul>
<p><a id="Vodafone_in_Asia-Pacific" name="Vodafone_in_Asia-Pacific"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Vodafone in Asia-Pacific</span></h2>
<p>Vodafone currently operates in the following countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The proportionate customer numbers are at <!--del_lnk--> 30 June <!--del_lnk--> 2006:<table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Network Name <small>(former)</small></th>
<th>Ownership</th>
<th>Proportionate Customers</th>
<th>Market Share; Rank</th>
<th>Local Competitor/s</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></td>
<td>Vodafone</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>3,278,000</td>
<td>8%; 3/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Telstra, <!--del_lnk--> Optus, <!--del_lnk--> 3, <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Mobile</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China (Mainland)</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> China Mobile</td>
<td>3.3%</td>
<td>8,250,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 30 June <!--del_lnk--> 2005)</td>
<td>65%; 1/2</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> China Unicom</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">China (Hong Kong)</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> SmarTone-Vodafone <small>(SmarTone)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; 2/5</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 3, Peoples, <!--del_lnk--> CSL, New World, <!--del_lnk--> PCCW</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Fiji.htm" title="Fiji">Fiji</a></td>
<td>Vodafone</td>
<td>49%</td>
<td>95,000</td>
<td>100%; 1/1</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> XL</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; 3/</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Telkomsel, <!--del_lnk--> Indosat IM3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> AirTel</td>
<td>4.4%</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>?%; 1/</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, <!--del_lnk--> Reliance Communications, <!--del_lnk--> Idea, Spice, <!--del_lnk--> Aircel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hutch</td>
<td>67%</td>
<td>15,611,000</td>
<td>10.99%; 4/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Celcom</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>31.2%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Maxis Communications, <!--del_lnk--> Digi.com</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone <small>(BellSouth)</small></td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>2,200,000</td>
<td>52.4%; 1/2</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Telecom</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Samoa.htm" title="Samoa">Samoa</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> M1</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>28.5%; 3/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> SingTel, <!--del_lnk--> StarHub</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dialog</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; 1/4</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="7"><small>note:50% ownership of local company is considered a <!--del_lnk--> Subsidiary; Less than 50% makes the local company an <!--del_lnk--> Affiliate. Local companies without ownership are Partners. </small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><small>** data based on the assumption of the expected completion of the complex transaction in second quarter 2007</small><p><a id="History_2" name="History_2"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>July 1993: BellSouth New Zealand's network went live.<li>October 1993: <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Australia's network went live.<li>July 1994: <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Fiji's network went live.<li>November 1998: Purchases <!--del_lnk--> BellSouth New Zealand, it later becomes <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone New Zealand.<li>1999-2000: J-Phone launched the <!--del_lnk--> J-sky mobile internet service in response to <!--del_lnk--> DoCoMo's <!--del_lnk--> i-Mode service.<li>December 2002: J-Phone's <!--del_lnk--> 3G network went live.<li><!--del_lnk--> 3 November <!--del_lnk--> 2003: <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> becomes a part of the community as <!--del_lnk--> M1 is signed as partner network<li><!--del_lnk--> October 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2003: <!--del_lnk--> J-Phone becomes '<!--del_lnk--> Vodafone'; <!--del_lnk--> J-Phone's mobile internet service <!--del_lnk--> J-Sky becomes <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Live!<li>April 2005: <!--del_lnk--> SmarTone changed the name of its brand to '<!--del_lnk--> SmarTone-Vodafone' after both companies signed a Partner Network Agreement.<li>August 2005: Launches 3G technology in <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<li>October 2005: Begins launching 3G technology in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 28 October <!--del_lnk--> 2005: Announces the acquisition of a 10 per cent stake in India's <!--del_lnk--> Bharti Televentures, which operates the largest mobile phone network in India under the brand name <!--del_lnk--> AirTel.<li><!--del_lnk--> 22 December <!--del_lnk--> 2005: Announces the completion of the acquisition of the 10% stake in <!--del_lnk--> Bharti Televentures of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 25 January <!--del_lnk--> 2006: <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> are added to the Vodafone footprint as Vodafone Group signs a partner network agreement with <!--del_lnk--> Telekom Malaysia.<li><!--del_lnk--> 17 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006: Announces an agreement to sell all its interest in <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Japan to <!--del_lnk--> SoftBank for £8.9 billion of which £6.8 billion will be received in cash on closing of deal. Vodafone Japan later changed its name to <!--del_lnk--> SoftBank Mobile<li><!--del_lnk--> 9 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006:: <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone New Zealand buys New Zealand's 3rd largest <!--del_lnk--> I.S.P., <!--del_lnk--> iHug<li><!--del_lnk--> 1 November <!--del_lnk--> 2006: <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Australia signs the <!--del_lnk--> Australian Football League (AFL)'s biggest individual club sponsorship deal with the <!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Lions from seasons <!--del_lnk--> 2007-<!--del_lnk--> 2009<li><!--del_lnk--> 6 February <!--del_lnk--> 2007: Along with the partnership with <!--del_lnk--> Digicel Caribbean (see below), Samoa is added as a Partner Market.<li><!--del_lnk--> 11 February <!--del_lnk--> 2007: Acquires a controlling interest of 67% in <!--del_lnk--> Hutchison Essar Limited for US$11.1 billion. At the same time, it sells back 5.6% of <!--del_lnk--> AirTel stake back to the Mittals. Vodafone will retain a 4.4% stake in <!--del_lnk--> AirTel.</ul>
<p><a id="Vodafone_in_the_Middle_East_and_Africa" name="Vodafone_in_the_Middle_East_and_Africa"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Vodafone in the Middle East and Africa</span></h2>
<p>Vodafone currently operates in the following countries in the Middle East and Africa region. The proporationate customer numbers are as at <!--del_lnk--> 31 December <!--del_lnk--> 2005.<table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Network Name <small>(former)</small></th>
<th>Ownership</th>
<th>Proportionate Customers</th>
<th>Market Share</th>
<th>Status</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bahrain.htm" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MTC-Vodafone</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>33%; 2/2</td>
<td>Partner</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Democratic Republic of Congo</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodacom</td>
<td>25.5%*</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>49%; 1/?</td>
<td>*</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone</td>
<td>55%</td>
<td>9,800,000</td>
<td>47%; 2/3</td>
<td>Subsidiary</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Safaricom</td>
<td>35%</td>
<td>1,221,000</td>
<td>63.86%; 1/2</td>
<td>Affiliate</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MTC-Vodafone</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>59.45%; 1/2</td>
<td>Partner</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodacom</td>
<td>44.15%*</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>80%; 1/2</td>
<td>*</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodacom</td>
<td>49%*</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>33%; 2/2</td>
<td>*</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodacom</td>
<td>50%</td>
<td>7,043,000</td>
<td>59%; 1/3</td>
<td>Subsidiary</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vodacom</td>
<td>32.5%*</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>55%; 1/?</td>
<td>*</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="8"><small>*Held through the affiliate, <!--del_lnk--> Vodacom <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>; therefore Vodafone Group does not have direct formal relationships with them. </small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="History_3" name="History_3"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>October 1998: Vodafone Egypt network went live under the name <!--del_lnk--> ClickGSM.<li><!--del_lnk--> 18 September <!--del_lnk--> 2002: Vodafone signs a Partner Network Agreement with MTC group of <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>. The agreement involved the rebranding of MTC to <a href="../../wp/v/Vodafone.htm" title="MTC-Vodafone">MTC-Vodafone</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 29 December <!--del_lnk--> 2003: Vodafone signs another Partner Network Agreement with Kuwait's MTC group. The second agreement involves the co-operation in Bahrain and the branding of the network as <a href="../../wp/v/Vodafone.htm" title="MTC-Vodafone">MTC-Vodafone</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> 3 November <!--del_lnk--> 2004: Announces that its South African affiliate <!--del_lnk--> Vodacom has agreed to introduce Vodafone's international services, such as <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone live! and partner agreements, to its local market.<li><!--del_lnk--> 3 November <!--del_lnk--> 2005: Announces that it is in exclusive talks to buy the 15% stake of VenFin in <!--del_lnk--> Vodacom Group, reaching agreement the following day. Vodafone and <!--del_lnk--> Telkom will then have a 50% stake each in <!--del_lnk--> Vodacom.<li>08 November 2006: Announces a deal with <!--del_lnk--> Telecom Egypt resulting in further co-operation in the Egyptian market; and increasing of stake in <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Egypt. After the deal, <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Egypt will be 55% owned by the group, while the remaining 45% will be owned by <!--del_lnk--> Telecom Egypt.</ul>
<p><a id="Vodafone_in_the_Americas" name="Vodafone_in_the_Americas"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Vodafone in the Americas</span></h2>
<p>Vodafone currently operates in the following countries in the Americas region.<table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<th><small>region/territory</small></th>
<th>Network Name <small>(former)</small></th>
<th>Ownership</th>
<th>Proportionate Customers</th>
<th>Market Share</th>
<th>Official Website</th>
<th>Local Competitor/s</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/a/Antigua_and_Barbuda.htm" title="Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelantiguaandbarbuda.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CTI Móvil</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>32%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.cti.com.ar</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Personal, <!--del_lnk--> movistar</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/b/Barbados.htm" title="Barbados">Barbados</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelbarbados.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/b/Bermuda.htm" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelbermuda.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Claro</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>24.0%; 3/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.claro.com.br</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vivo, <!--del_lnk--> TIM, <!--del_lnk--> Oi</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/c/Chile.htm" title="Chile">Chile</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Claro <small>(Smartcom)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>16.7%; 3/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.clarochile.cl</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> Entel PCS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Comcel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>64.26%; 1/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.comcel.com</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> Colombia Móvil</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/d/Dominica.htm" title="Dominica">Dominica</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digiceldominica.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/e/Ecuador.htm" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Porta</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>65.4%; 1/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.porta.net</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> Alegro PCS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/e/El_Salvador.htm" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Claro <small>(CTE Personal)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>34%; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.claro.com.sv</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> Tigo, <!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3"><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/French_Guiana.htm" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a></td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td rowspan="3">0%</td>
<td rowspan="3">--</td>
<td rowspan="3">
</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> www.digicel.fr</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Orange SA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Guadeloupe.htm" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Martinique.htm" title="Martinique">Martinique</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/g/Grenada.htm" title="Grenada">Grenada</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelgrenada.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Claro <small>(PCS Digital)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>47%; 1/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.claro.com.gt</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> Tigo</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/g/Guyana.htm" title="Guyana">Guyana</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelguyana.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelhaiti.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" title="Honduras">Honduras</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Claro <small>(PCS Honduras)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>37%; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.claro.com.hn</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digiceljamaica.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Telcel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>77.14%; 1/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.telcel.com</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> Iusacell, <!--del_lnk--> Unefon</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Netherlands</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Aruba.htm" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelaruba.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bonaire</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelbonaire.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Curaçao</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelcuracao.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/n/Nicaragua.htm" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Claro <small>(Enitel)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>68%; 1/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.claro.com.ni</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CTI Móvil <small>(Porthable)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>12%; 4/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.cti.com.py]</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Personal, <!--del_lnk--> Tigo, <!--del_lnk--> VOX</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Claro <small>(<!--del_lnk--> TIM)</small></td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>36%; 2/3</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.claro.com.pe</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> St Kitts and Nevis</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelstkittsandnevis.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> St Lucia</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelstlucia.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> St Vincent and the Grenadines</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelsvg.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/t/Trinidad_and_Tobago.htm" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digiceltt.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3"><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Anguilla.htm" title="Anguilla">Anguilla</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelanguilla.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Cayman_Islands.htm" title="Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digicelcayman.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Turks and Caicos</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Digicel</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>?%; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.digiceltci.com</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Verizon Wireless</td>
<td>45%</td>
<td>22,785,000</td>
<td>?%; 2/4</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.verizonwireless.com</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cingular, <!--del_lnk--> Sprint, <!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/u/Uruguay.htm" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CTI Móvil</td>
<td>0%</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>17%; ?/?</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.cti.com.uy</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> movistar, <!--del_lnk--> ancel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="8"><small>* Local company with more than 50% being owned by the parent company is considered a <!--del_lnk--> Subsidiary; Ownership of less than 50% makes the local company an <!--del_lnk--> Affiliate. Local companies without ownership at all are Partners. </small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="United_States" name="United_States"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">United States</span></h4>
<p>In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, Vodafone owns 45% of <!--del_lnk--> Verizon Wireless, the country's second largest mobile carrier. The percentage of the customer base and revenues of Verizon Wireless that Vodafone consolidates is slightly lower, since some Verizon Wireless subsidiaries have minority investors. (Hence the exact percentages that Vodafone and Verizon report vary from period to period: in June 2006 Vodafone reported that Verizon Wireless owned 98.6% of its customers at that date.) Before this joint venture was formed, Vodafone merged with <!--del_lnk--> AirTouch Communications of the U.S. in June 1999 and changed its name to Vodafone Airtouch Plc. In September 1999, Vodafone Airtouch announced a $70-billion joint venture with <!--del_lnk--> Bell Atlantic Corp. The first wireless business with a national footprint in the U.S., Verizon Wireless was composed of Bell Atlantic's and Vodafone AirTouch's U.S. wireless assets and began operations on <!--del_lnk--> April 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2000. However, <!--del_lnk--> Verizon Communications—the company formed when Bell Atlantic and <!--del_lnk--> GTE merged on <!--del_lnk--> June 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2000—owns a majority of Verizon Wireless and Vodafone's branding is not used, nor is the CDMA network compatible with GSM phones. This relationship has been quite profitable for Vodafone, but there have historically been three problems with it. The first is the above-mentioned incompatibility with the GSM 900/1800 MHZ standard used by Vodafone's other networks, and the consequent difficulty of offering roaming between Vodafone's U.S. and other networks. The other two stem from the fact that Vodafone does not have management control over Verizon Wireless. Vodafone is thus unable to use the Vodafone brand for its U.S. operations, and (perhaps more importantly) has no control of dividend policy at Verizon Wireless and is therefore entirely at the mercy of Verizon management with respect to cash flow from Verizon Wireless.<p>Perhaps as a consequence of these reasons, Vodafone made a bid for the entirety of <!--del_lnk--> AT&T Wireless when that company was for sale in 2004. Had this bid been successful, Vodafone would presumably have sold its stake in Verizon Wireless, and then rebranded the resultant business as Vodafone. However, <!--del_lnk--> Cingular Wireless (a joint venture of SBC Communications and BellSouth (both now <a href="../../wp/a/AT%2526T.htm" title="AT&T">AT&T</a>)) ultimately outbid Vodafone and took control of AT&T Wireless, and Vodafone's relationship with Verizon has continued.<p>Early in 2006 Verizon re-iterated their desire to buy-out the remaining 45% of Stock of Verizon Wireless from Vodafone Group.. Vodafone has also repeatedly indicated that it would be willing to buy out Verizon's stake.<p><a id="Latin_America" name="Latin_America"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Latin America</span></h4>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 15 November <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Vodafone Group announced a group-wide co-operation agreement with America Movil of Mexico. The agreement involves co-operation on international services and roaming. The services include Voice and GPRS Roaming services, Preferred Roaming and Virtual Home Environment. Included in the agreement are the 13 networks owned and controlled by America Movil (except Tracfone in the United States), and the various operating companies of Vodafone and its Partner Networks.<p><a id="Caribbean" name="Caribbean"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Caribbean</span></h4>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 6 February <!--del_lnk--> 2007, Vodafone Group signed a three-year partnership agreement with <!--del_lnk--> Digicel Group. The agreement, which includes Digicel's sister operation in <a href="../../wp/s/Samoa.htm" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>, will result to the offering of new roaming capabilities. The two groups will also become preferred roaming partners of each other. Along with Digicel's markets, the Vodafone brand is now present in 81 countries, regions, and territories.<p><a id="Financial_results" name="Financial_results"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Financial results</span></h2>
<p>For more details, please visit <!--del_lnk--> <p>From its <!--del_lnk--> 31 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006 year end onwards Vodafone will report its results in accordance with <!--del_lnk--> International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). It has issued results amended to IFRS standards for its <!--del_lnk--> 31 March <!--del_lnk--> 2004 and <!--del_lnk--> 31 March <!--del_lnk--> 2005 year ends for information purposes, and these are shown in the first table below.<p>Vodafone has some large minority stakes, which are not included in its consolidated turnover. In order to provide additional information on the overall scale and growth trends of its business it publishes "proportionate turnover" figures and these are included in the tables below. For example, if a business in which it owns a 45% stake has turnover of £10 billion, that equals £4.5 billion of proportionate turnover for Vodafone. Proportionate turnover is not an official accounting measure and Vodafone's proportionate turnover should be compared with other companies' statutory turnover.<p>Vodafone also produces proportionate customer number figures on a similar basis, eg. if an operator in which it has a 30% stake has 10 million customers that equals 3 million proportionate Vodafone customers. This is a common practice in the mobile telecommunications industry.<table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th>Year ended <!--del_lnk--> 31 March</th>
<th>Turnover £m</th>
<th>Profit before tax £m</th>
<th>Profit for the year £m</th>
<th>Basic <!--del_lnk--> eps (pence)</th>
<th>Proportionate customers (m)</th>
<th>Proportionate turnover £m</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2006*</td>
<td>29,350</td>
<td>(14,835)</td>
<td>(21,821)</td>
<td>(35.01)</td>
<td>170.6</td>
<td>48,455</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2005</td>
<td>34,073</td>
<td>7,951</td>
<td>6,518</td>
<td>9.68</td>
<td>154.8</td>
<td>43,602</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2004</td>
<td>32,492</td>
<td>9,013</td>
<td>6,112</td>
<td>8.70</td>
<td>133.4</td>
<td>39,446</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><small>*Losses for year to 31 March 2006 reflect write downs of assets, principally in relation to the Mannesmann acquisition. Proportionate turnover includes £7,100 million from discontinued operations.</small><p>The following table shows Vodafone's results under <!--del_lnk--> UK generally accepted accounting principles (UK GAAP). By the end of its key acquisition drive, which ran from 1999 to 2002, Vodafone had more than £100 billion of <!--del_lnk--> goodwill on its <!--del_lnk--> balance sheet. As UK GAAP requires goodwill to be written off against the profit and loss account Vodafone has shown large statutory losses since then. However this write off of goodwill is purely an accounting adjustment and does not affect Vodafone's cash position or its ability to pay dividends. Despite the reported losses it is in reality a highly profitable company, and this is reflected in the fact that it has often been ranked among the top twenty companies in the world by <!--del_lnk--> market capitalisation. Vodafone's accounts for the years shown in the table below include a great number of material one off transactions, and apart from noting the rapid expansion of the group in the years covered, no conclusions about underlying trends should be drawn from the figures without examining the accounts in more detail.<table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th>Year ended <!--del_lnk--> 31 March</th>
<th>Turnover £m</th>
<th>Profit/(loss) before tax £m</th>
<th>Profit/(loss) for the year £m</th>
<th>Basic <!--del_lnk--> eps (pence)</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Amortisation of <!--del_lnk--> goodwill £m</th>
<th>Proportionate customers (m)</th>
<th>Proportionate turnover £m +</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2005</td>
<td>34,133</td>
<td>(4,702)</td>
<td>(7,540)</td>
<td>(11.39)</td>
<td>14,700</td>
<td>154.8</td>
<td>43,602</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2004</td>
<td>33,559</td>
<td>(5,047)</td>
<td>(9,015)</td>
<td>(13.24)</td>
<td>15,207</td>
<td>133.4</td>
<td>39,446</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2003</td>
<td>30,375</td>
<td>(6,208)</td>
<td>(9,819)</td>
<td>(14.41)</td>
<td>14,056</td>
<td>119.7</td>
<td>33,926</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><sup>1</sup> Vodafone Group Plc. Key Performance Indicator press release for the quarter to <!--del_lnk--> 30 June <!--del_lnk--> 2005, <!--del_lnk--> 25 July <!--del_lnk--> 2005.<p><a id="Corporate_sponsorship" name="Corporate_sponsorship"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Corporate sponsorship</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Clare <!--del_lnk--> Gaelic Athletic Association, Ireland (formerly sponsored by Eircell)<li><!--del_lnk--> Daily Express Life Savers Awards<li><a href="../../wp/d/David_Beckham.htm" title="David Beckham">David Beckham</a> A two-year deal that was signed in 2002, later extended by another 12 months then ended in July 2005<li><!--del_lnk--> DTM (the German <!--del_lnk--> touring car series)<li><!--del_lnk--> England cricket team<li><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Oaks and <!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Derby <!--del_lnk--> horse races at <!--del_lnk--> Epsom.<li><!--del_lnk--> AFC Newbury (The football club from <!--del_lnk--> Newbury, where Vodafone was founded.)<li><!--del_lnk--> McLaren Formula One constructor (from 2007), primary sponsor<li><!--del_lnk--> UEFA Champions League from the 2006/7 season<li><!--del_lnk--> Brisbane Lions Football Club, Australian rules football team, major sponsor from 2007<li><!--del_lnk--> Port Adelaide Football Club Australian rules football team, joint major sponsor since 1997<li><!--del_lnk--> St Kilda Football Club Australian rules football team, joint major sponsor from 2007<li><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Arena Rosenholm multisport arena in <!--del_lnk--> Karlskrona, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> (since 2005)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vodafone Arena Multi purpose venue. Arena in <!--del_lnk--> Melbourne Park, <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> West Coast Eagles, Australian rules football team, elite sponsor since March 2006<li><!--del_lnk--> Triple 8 Race Engineering, V8 Supercars team, primary sponsor (since 2007)<li><!--del_lnk--> British University Sports Association (BUSA),<li><!--del_lnk--> Olympiakos, Greek football team<li><!--del_lnk--> Newbury Comedy Festival since 2004<li><!--del_lnk--> Al Ahly Football team from Egypt, Champion of Africa and Bronze Medalist at the Fifa CWC<li><!--del_lnk--> Home-Start International Worldwide family support charity, working with volunteers to help children</ul>
<p>Previous relationships include sponsorships of <!--del_lnk--> SL Benfica, <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester_United_F.C..htm" title="Manchester United F.C.">Manchester United</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ferrari <a href="../../wp/f/Formula_One.htm" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> constructor and <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand Warriors Rugby League team.<p><a id="Products" name="Products"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Products</span></h2>
<p><a id="USB_3G_modems" name="USB_3G_modems"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">USB 3G modems</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:187px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/100/10091.jpg.htm" title="Vodafone 3G USB modem"><img alt="Vodafone 3G USB modem" class="thumbimage" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HuaweiE220.JPG" src="../../images/100/10091.jpg" width="185" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/100/10091.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Vodafone <!--del_lnk--> 3G <!--del_lnk--> USB <!--del_lnk--> modem</div>
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<p>The company <!--del_lnk--> Huawei makes <!--del_lnk--> USB <!--del_lnk--> 3G <!--del_lnk--> datacard <!--del_lnk--> modems for Vodafone (Vodafone Mobile Connect USB Modem).<p>Using this USB card, customers are able to access 3G broadband services, from many types of computer. The software <!--del_lnk--> installs itself from the modem, reducing the need for technical expertise from users.<p>Using <!--del_lnk--> HSDPA technology, it offers download speeds of up to 3.6 <!--del_lnk--> Mbps and upload speeds of upto 384 Kbps, which depends on Vodafone's network on each of the countries offering 3G services. When outside of 3G broadband coverage, customers will automatically be able to access the web using Vodafone´s existing <!--del_lnk--> GPRS services.<p>For further information, please visit <!--del_lnk--> http://www.vodafone.co.uk/usbmodem<p><a id="Fixed_Line_Services" name="Fixed_Line_Services"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Fixed Line Services</span></h3>
<p>In Spetember 2006, Vodafone announced that its move to enter the fixed-line broadband space in the UK. It has entered into an agreement with BT to resell BT's DSL Broadband connections under its own brand name.<p>Vodafone is present in the fixed-line space in Germany through <!--del_lnk--> Arcor, a telecom operator in which Vodafone holds a majority stake.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Vodafone are to thank for the current size and shape of <!--del_lnk--> SIM card in Europe. The small rectangle with one corner slit was their invention which they allowed other network providers to use in the interest of the customer, so that all SIMs fit all mobile phones. This is the reason why Vodafone is the only company able to use the shape within their marketing strategies and brand logos and imagery.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Vodafone does not yet have any network coverage in <!--del_lnk--> Madhya Pradesh, India, the state in which its global CEO <!--del_lnk--> Arun Sarin was born. <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Audio Branding</span></h2>
<p>March 2007 - Vodafone commissions <!--del_lnk--> Walter Werzowa, founder and owner of the audio branding company, <!--del_lnk--> Musikvergnuegen, to create the Vodafone Small Business Tariffs' Mnemonic.<!--
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geology_and_geophysics.htm">Geology and geophysics</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22736.jpg.htm" title="Volcanic Pipe"><img alt="Volcanic Pipe" height="302" longdesc="/wiki/Image:VolcanicPipe.jpg" src="../../images/227/22736.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22736.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Volcanic Pipe</div>
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<p><b>Volcanic pipes</b> are <!--del_lnk--> subterranean <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geological</a> structures formed by the violent, <!--del_lnk--> supersonic eruption of deep-origin <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>. They are considered to be a type of <i><!--del_lnk--> diatreme</i>. Volcanic pipes are composed of a deep, narrow cone of solidified <a href="../../wp/m/Magma.htm" title="Magma">magma</a> (described as "carrot-shaped"), and are usually largely composed of one of two characteristic rock types — <!--del_lnk--> kimberlite or <!--del_lnk--> lamproite. These rocks reflect the composition of the volcanoes' deep magma sources, where the Earth is rich in <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>. Volcanic pipes are relatively rare. They are well known as the primary source of <a href="../../wp/d/Diamond.htm" title="Diamond">diamonds</a>, and are mined for this purpose.<p>
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<p>Volcanic pipes form as the result of violent eruptions of deep-origin volcanoes. These volcanoes originate at least three times as deep as most other volcanoes, and the resulting magma that is pushed toward the surface is high in magnesium and <!--del_lnk--> volatile compounds such as <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. As the body of magma rises toward the surface, the volatile compounds <!--del_lnk--> transform to <a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" title="Gas">gaseous phase</a> as <!--del_lnk--> pressure is reduced with decreasing depth. This sudden expansion propels the magma upward at rapid speeds, resulting in a shallow supersonic eruption. A useful analogy to this process is the uncorking of a warm or shaken bottle of <!--del_lnk--> champagne.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22737.jpg.htm" title="The Crater, Hypipamee National Park, Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia. This residue of a pipe is about 100m across."><img alt="The Crater, Hypipamee National Park, Atherton Tableland, Queensland, Australia. This residue of a pipe is about 100m across." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Crater-Hypipamee.JPG" src="../../images/227/22737.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22737.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>The Crater</b>, Hypipamee National Park, <!--del_lnk--> Atherton Tableland, <!--del_lnk--> Queensland, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. This residue of a pipe is about 100m across.</div>
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<p><a id="Kimberlite_pipes" name="Kimberlite_pipes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Kimberlite pipes</span></h3>
<p>In kimberlite pipes, the eruption ejects a column of overlying material directly over the magma column, and does not form a large above-ground elevation as typical volcanoes do; instead, a low ring of <!--del_lnk--> ejecta known as a <i><!--del_lnk--> tuff ring</i> forms around a bowl-shaped depression over the subterranean column of magma. Over time, the tuff ring may erode back into the bowl, leveling out the depression by filling it with washed-back ejecta.<p><a id="Lamproite_pipes" name="Lamproite_pipes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lamproite pipes</span></h3>
<p>Lamproite pipes operate similarly to kimberlite pipes, except that the boiling water and volatile compounds contained in the magma act <a href="../../wp/c/Corrosion.htm" title="Corrosion">corrosively</a> on the overlying rock, resulting in a broader cone of eviscerated rock (the ejection of this rock also forms a tuff ring, like kimberlite eruptions). This broad cone is then filled with volcanic ash and materials. Finally, the degassed magma is pushed upward, filling the cone. The result is a <!--del_lnk--> martini-glass shaped deposit of volcanic material (both solidified magma, and ejecta) which appears mostly flat from the surface.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_pipe"</div>
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| ['Geology', 'Volcano', 'Magma', 'Magnesium', 'Diamond', 'Water', 'Carbon dioxide', 'Gas', 'Australia', 'Corrosion'] |
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<div style="width:332px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14331.png.htm" title="Volcano 1. Magma chamber 2. Country rock 3. Conduit (pipe) 4. Base 5. Sill 6. Branch pipe 7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano 8. Flank 9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano 10. Throat 11. Parasitic cone 12. Lava flow 13. Vent 14. Crater 15. Ash cloud"><img alt="Volcano 1. Magma chamber 2. Country rock 3. Conduit (pipe) 4. Base 5. Sill 6. Branch pipe 7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano 8. Flank 9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano 10. Throat 11. Parasitic cone 12. Lava flow 13. Vent 14. Crater 15. Ash cloud" height="345" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volcano_scheme.svg" src="../../images/143/14331.png" width="330" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14331.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Volcano<br /> 1. Magma chamber<br /> 2. Country rock<br /> 3. Conduit (pipe)<br /> 4. Base<br /> 5. Sill<br /> 6. Branch pipe<br /> 7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano<br /> 8. Flank<br /> 9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano<br /> 10. Throat<br /> 11. Parasitic cone<br /> 12. Lava flow<br /> 13. Vent<br /> 14. Crater<br /> 15. Ash cloud</div>
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<p>A <b>volcano</b> is an opening (or rupture) in the Earth's surface or crust, which allows hot, usually molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from deep below the surface. Volcanic activity involving the <!--del_lnk--> extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like mountains over a period of time.<p>Volcanoes are generally found where two to three <a href="../../wp/p/Plate_tectonics.htm" title="Tectonic plates">tectonic plates</a> <!--del_lnk--> pull apart or are <!--del_lnk--> coming together. A <!--del_lnk--> mid-oceanic ridge, like the <!--del_lnk--> Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by "divergent tectonic plates" pulling apart; the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by "convergent tectonic plates" coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another (like the <!--del_lnk--> San Andreas fault). Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching of the Earth's crust and where the crust grows thin (called "non-hotspot intraplate volcanism"), such as in the <!--del_lnk--> African Rift Valley or the European <!--del_lnk--> Rhine Graben with its <!--del_lnk--> Eifel volcanoes).<p>Finally, volcanoes can be caused by "<!--del_lnk--> mantle plumes," so-called "<!--del_lnk--> hotspots;" these hotspots can occur far from plate boundaries, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian Islands. Interestingly, hotspot volcanoes are also found elsewhere in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>, especially on rocky planets and moons.<p>
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<p><a id="Divergent_plate_boundaries" name="Divergent_plate_boundaries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Divergent plate boundaries</span></h3>
<p>At the mid-oceanic <!--del_lnk--> ridges, two <!--del_lnk--> tectonic plates diverge from one another. New <a href="../../wp/c/Crust_%2528geology%2529.htm" title="Crust (geology)">oceanic crust</a> is being formed by hot molten rock slowly cooling down and solidifying. In these places, the crust is very thin and eruptions occur frequently because of the pull by the tectonic plates. The main part of the mid-oceanic ridges are at the bottom of the ocean, and most volcanic activity is submarine. <!--del_lnk--> Black smokers are a typical example of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge comes above sea-level, volcanoes like the <!--del_lnk--> Hekla on <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> are formed. Divergent plate boundaries create new seafloor and volcanic islands.<p><a id="Convergent_plate_boundaries" name="Convergent_plate_boundaries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Convergent plate boundaries</span></h3>
<p>In places where one tectonic plate submerges beneath another, the crust melts and becomes <a href="../../wp/m/Magma.htm" title="Magma">magma</a>. This surplus amount of magma generated in one location causes the formation of the volcano. Typical examples for this kind of volcano are the volcanoes in the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Ring of Fire, and also <!--del_lnk--> Mount Etna and <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Vesuvius.htm" title="Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a>.<p><a id="Hotspots" name="Hotspots"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hotspots</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Hotspots are not located on the ridges of tectonic plates, but on top of <!--del_lnk--> mantle plumes, where the <!--del_lnk--> convection of <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> mantle creates a column of hot material that rises until it reaches the crust. The temperature of the plume causes the crust to melt and form pipes, which can vent magma. Because the tectonic plates move whereas the mantle plume remains in the same place, each volcano becomes extinct after a while and a new volcano is then being formed as the plate shifts over the hotspot. The <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian Islands are thought to be formed in such a manner, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Snake River Plain, with the <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone Caldera being the current part of the North American plate over the hotspot.<p><a id="Petitspots" name="Petitspots"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Petitspots</span></h3>
<p>In July 2006, volcanoes were discovered that did not fit in any of the above-mentioned categories, since they are located far from the plate boundary, but are too small to be the result of a mantle plume. A new theory suggests that submergence of tectonic plates causes stress all over the plate, which causes the plate to crack in some places. However, other scientists believe the mantle plume theory to be incorrect, and consider this discovery a confirmation of their ideas.<p><a id="Shape" name="Shape"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Shape</span></h2>
<p>The most common perception of a volcano is of a <!--del_lnk--> conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a <!--del_lnk--> crater in its top. This describes just one of many types of volcano and the features of volcanoes are much more complicated. The structure and behaviour of volcanoes depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by <!--del_lnk--> lava domes rather than a <!--del_lnk--> summit crater, whereas others present <a href="../../wp/l/Landscape.htm" title="Landscape">landscape</a> features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (lava, which is what magma is called once it has broken the surface, and <!--del_lnk--> ash) and gases (mainly <!--del_lnk--> steam and magmatic gases) can be located anywhere on the landform. Many of these vents give rise to smaller cones such as <!--del_lnk--> Pu<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>u <font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>Ō<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>ō on a flank of <!--del_lnk--> Hawai<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>i's <a href="../../wp/k/K%25C4%25ABlauea.htm" title="Kīlauea">Kīlauea</a>.<p>Other types of volcanoes include <!--del_lnk--> cryovolcanos (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of <a href="../../wp/j/Jupiter.htm" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn.htm" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Neptune.htm" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>; and <!--del_lnk--> mud volcanoes, which are formations often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of <!--del_lnk--> igneous volcanoes, except when a mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.<p><a id="Shield_volcanoes" name="Shield_volcanoes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Shield volcanoes</span></h3>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14332.jpg.htm" title="Toes of a pāhoehoe advance across a road in Kalapana on the east rift zone of Kīlauea Volcano in Hawaiʻi."><img alt="Toes of a pāhoehoe advance across a road in Kalapana on the east rift zone of Kīlauea Volcano in Hawaiʻi." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PahoehoeLava.jpg" src="../../images/143/14332.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14332.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Toes of a <!--del_lnk--> pāhoehoe advance across a road in <!--del_lnk--> Kalapana on the east rift zone of <!--del_lnk--> Kīlauea Volcano in <!--del_lnk--> Hawai<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>i.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Hawai<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>i and <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> are examples of places where volcanoes extrude huge quantities of basaltic <!--del_lnk--> lava that gradually build a wide mountain with a shield-like profile. Their lava flows are generally very hot and very fluid, contributing to long flows. The largest lava shield on Earth, <a href="../../wp/m/Mauna_Loa.htm" title="Mauna Loa">Mauna Loa</a>, rises over 9,000 m from the ocean floor, is 120 km in diameter and forms part of the <!--del_lnk--> Big Island of Hawai<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>i. <!--del_lnk--> Olympus Mons is the largest shield volcano on <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a>, and is the tallest known mountain in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>. Smaller versions of shield volcanoes include <i>lava cones</i>, and <i>lava mounds</i>.<p>Quiet eruptions spread out basaltic lava in flat layers. The buildup of these layers form a broad volcano with gently sloping sides called a shield volcano. Examples of shield volcanoes are the Hawaiian Islands.<p><a id="Cinder_cones" name="Cinder_cones"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cinder cones</span></h3>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Volcanic cones</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> cinder cones</i> result from eruptions that throw out mostly small pieces of <!--del_lnk--> scoria and <!--del_lnk--> pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 m high. Most cinder cones erupt only once. Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. <!--del_lnk--> Parícutin in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Sunset Crater in <!--del_lnk--> Arizona are examples of cinder cones.<p><a id="Stratovolcanoes" name="Stratovolcanoes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stratovolcanoes</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14333.jpg.htm" title="In difference to pāhoehoe, Aa is a term of Polynesian origin, pronounced Ah-ah, for rough, jagged, spiny lavaflow"><img alt="In difference to pāhoehoe, Aa is a term of Polynesian origin, pronounced Ah-ah, for rough, jagged, spiny lavaflow" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aa_large.jpg" src="../../images/143/14333.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14333.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In difference to pāhoehoe, Aa is a term of Polynesian origin, pronounced Ah-ah, for rough, jagged, spiny lavaflow</div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Stratovolcanoes</i> are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and other <!--del_lnk--> ejecta in alternate layers, the strata that give rise to the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as <i>composite volcanoes</i>. Classic examples include <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Fuji in Japan, <!--del_lnk--> Mount Mayon in the Philippines, and <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Vesuvius.htm" title="Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Stromboli in Italy.<p><a id="Super_volcanoes" name="Super_volcanoes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Super volcanoes</span></h3>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Super volcano</i> is the popular term for large volcanoes that usually have a large <!--del_lnk--> caldera and can potentially produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such eruptions would be able to cause severe cooling of global temperatures for many years afterwards because of the huge volumes of sulfur and ash erupted. They can be the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples include <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone Caldera in <a href="../../wp/y/Yellowstone_National_Park.htm" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lake Taupo in <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lake_Toba.htm" title="Lake Toba">Lake Toba</a> in <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. Supervolcanoes are hard to identify centuries later, given the enormous areas they cover. <!--del_lnk--> Large igneous provinces are also considered supervolcanoes because of the vast amount of <!--del_lnk--> basalt lava erupted.<p><a id="Submarine_volcanoes" name="Submarine_volcanoes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Submarine volcanoes</span></h3>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14334.jpg.htm" title="Pillow lava (NOAA)"><img alt="Pillow lava (NOAA)" height="91" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nur05018.jpg" src="../../images/143/14334.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14334.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pillow lava (<!--del_lnk--> NOAA)</div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Submarine volcanoes</i> are common features on the ocean floor. Some are active and, in shallow water, disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the surface of the sea. Many others lie at such great depths that the tremendous weight of the water above them prevents the explosive release of steam and gases, although they can be detected by <!--del_lnk--> hydrophones and discoloration of water because of <!--del_lnk--> volcanic gases. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface. Because of the rapid cooling effect of water as compared to air, and increased buoyancy, submarine volcanoes often form rather steep pillars over their volcanic vents as compared to above-surface volcanos. In due time, they may break the ocean surface as new islands. <!--del_lnk--> Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes.<p><a id="Subglacial_volcanoes" name="Subglacial_volcanoes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Subglacial volcanoes</span></h3>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Subglacial volcanoes</i> develop underneath icecaps. They are made up of flat <!--del_lnk--> lava flows atop extensive pillow lavas and <!--del_lnk--> palagonite. When the icecap melts, the lavas on the top collapse leaving a flat-topped mountain. Then, the pillow lavas also collapse, giving an angle of 37.5 degrees. Very good examples of this can be seen in Iceland. These volcanoes are also called table volcanoes, tuyas or (uncommonly) mobergs.<p><a id="Erupted_material" name="Erupted_material"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Erupted material</span></h2>
<p><a id="Lava_composition" name="Lava_composition"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lava composition</span></h3>
<p>Another way of classifying volcanoes is by the <i>composition of material erupted</i> (<!--del_lnk--> lava), since this affects the shape of the volcano. Lava can be broadly classified into 4 different compositions (Cas & Wright, 1987):<ul>
<li>If the erupted <a href="../../wp/m/Magma.htm" title="Magma">magma</a> contains a high percentage (>63%) of <!--del_lnk--> silica, the lava is called <!--del_lnk--> felsic. <ul>
<li>Felsic lavas (or <!--del_lnk--> rhyolites) tend to be highly <!--del_lnk--> viscous (not very fluid) and are erupted as domes or short, stubby flows. Viscous lavas tend to form <!--del_lnk--> stratovolcanoes or lava domes. <!--del_lnk--> Lassen Peak in <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> is an example of a volcano formed from felsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.<li>Because siliceous magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap <!--del_lnk--> volatiles (gases) that are present, which cause the magma to erupt catastrophically, eventually forming <!--del_lnk--> stratovolcanoes. <!--del_lnk--> Pyroclastic flows (<!--del_lnk--> ignimbrites) are highly hazardous products of such volcanoes, since they are composed of molten volcanic ash too heavy to go up into the atmosphere, so they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large eruptions. Temperatures as high as 1,200 °C are known to occur in <!--del_lnk--> pyroclastic flows, which will incinerate everything flammable in their path and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be laid down, often up to many meters thick. <!--del_lnk--> Alaska's <!--del_lnk--> Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, formed by the eruption of <!--del_lnk--> Novarupta near <!--del_lnk--> Katmai in 1912, is an example of a thick <!--del_lnk--> pyroclastic flow or <!--del_lnk--> ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough to be erupted high into the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> may travel many kilometres before it falls back to ground as a <!--del_lnk--> tuff.</ul>
<li>If the erupted magma contains 52-63% silica, the lava is of <i>intermediate</i> composition. <ul>
<li>These "<!--del_lnk--> andesitic" volcanoes generally only occur above <!--del_lnk--> subduction zones (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Mount Merapi in <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>).</ul>
<li>If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is called <!--del_lnk--> mafic (because it contains higher percentages of <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> (Mg) and <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> (Fe)) or <!--del_lnk--> basaltic. These lavas are usually much less viscous than rhyolitic lavas, depending on their eruption <!--del_lnk--> temperature; they also tend to be hotter than felsic lavas. Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings: <ul>
<li>At <!--del_lnk--> mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic <a href="../../wp/p/Plate_tectonics.htm" title="Tectonic plate">plates</a> are pulling apart, basaltic lava erupts as <!--del_lnk--> pillows to fill the gap;<li><!--del_lnk--> Shield volcanoes (e.g. the <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian Islands, including <a href="../../wp/m/Mauna_Loa.htm" title="Mauna Loa">Mauna Loa</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Kilauea), on both <!--del_lnk--> oceanic and <a href="../../wp/c/Continental_crust.htm" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a>;<li>As <!--del_lnk--> continental flood basalts.</ul>
<li>If the erupted magma contains <=45% silica, the lava is called <!--del_lnk--> ultramafic. Ultramafic flows are very rare; indeed, it is likely that none have been erupted at the Earth's surface since the <!--del_lnk--> Proterozoic, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and probably more fluid than common mafic lavas.</ul>
<p><a id="Lava_texture" name="Lava_texture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lava texture</span></h3>
<p>Two types of lava are erupted according to the <!--del_lnk--> surface texture: <font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>A<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>a (pronounced <!--del_lnk--> IPA <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʔaʔa]</span>) and <!--del_lnk--> pāhoehoe (pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[paːho͡eːho͡eː]</span>), both words having <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian origins. <font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>A<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>a is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is what most viscous and hot lava flows look like. However, even basaltic or mafic flows can be erupted as <font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>a<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>a flows, particularly if the eruption rate is high and the slope is steep. Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Usually, only mafic flows will erupt as pāhoehoe, since they often erupt at higher temperatures or have the proper chemical make-up to allow them to flow at a higher fluidity.<p><a id="Volcanic_activity" name="Volcanic_activity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Volcanic activity</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14335.jpg.htm" title="A volcanic fissure and lava channel."><img alt="A volcanic fissure and lava channel." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volcano_q.jpg" src="../../images/143/14335.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14335.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A volcanic fissure and lava channel.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14336.jpg.htm" title="Mount St. Helens shortly after the eruption of May 18, 1980"><img alt="Mount St. Helens shortly after the eruption of May 18, 1980" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volcano.jpeg" src="../../images/143/14336.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14336.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/m/Mount_St._Helens.htm" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a> shortly after the eruption of <!--del_lnk--> May 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1980</div>
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<p>A popular way of classifying magmatic volcanoes goes by their frequency of eruption, with those that erupt regularly called <b>active</b>, those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet called <b>dormant</b>, and those that have not erupted in historical times called <b>extinct</b>. However, these popular classifications—extinct in particular—are practically meaningless to scientists. They use classifications which refer to a particular volcano's formative and eruptive processes and resulting shapes, which was explained above.<p>There is no real consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active" volcano. The lifespan of a volcano can vary from months to several million years, making such a distinction sometimes meaningless when compared to the lifespans of humans or even civilizations. For example, many of Earth's volcanoes have erupted dozens of times in the past few thousand years but are not currently showing signs of eruption. Given the long lifespan of such volcanoes, they are very active. By our lifespans, however, they are not. Complicating the definition are volcanoes that become restless (producing earthquakes, venting gasses, or other non-eruptive activities) but do not actually erupt.<p>Scientists usually consider a volcano <b>active</b> if it is currently erupting or showing signs of unrest, such as unusual earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions. Many scientists also consider a volcano active if it has erupted in historic time. It is important to note that the span of recorded history differs from region to region; in the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, recorded history reaches back more than 3,000 years but in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, it reaches back less than 300 years, and in <!--del_lnk--> Hawaii, little more than 200 years. The Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program's definition of 'active' is having erupted within the last 10,000 years.<p><b>Dormant</b> volcanoes are those that are not currently active (as defined above), but could become restless or erupt again. Confusion however, can arise because many volcanoes which scientists consider to be <i>active</i> are referred to as <i>dormant</i> by laypersons or in the media.<p><b>Extinct</b> volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again. Whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano" <!--del_lnk--> calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct.<p>For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone Caldera in <a href="../../wp/y/Yellowstone_National_Park.htm" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a> is at least 2 million years old and hasn't erupted violently for approximately 640,000 years, although there has been some minor activity relatively recently, with hydrothermal eruptions less than 10,000 years ago and lava flows about 70,000 years ago. For this reason, scientists do not consider the Yellowstone Caldera extinct. In fact, because the caldera has frequent earthquakes, a very active geothermal system (i.e., the entirety of the geothermal activity found in Yellowstone National Park), and rapid rates of ground uplift, many scientists consider it to be an active volcano.<p><a id="Notable_volcanoes" name="Notable_volcanoes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable volcanoes</span></h2>
<p><a id="On_Earth" name="On_Earth"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">On Earth</span></h3>
<p>The 16 current <a href="../../wp/d/Decade_Volcanoes.htm" title="Decade Volcanoes">Decade Volcanoes</a> are:<dl>
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<td width="50%">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Avachinsky-<a href="../../wp/k/Koryaksky.htm" title="Koryaksky">Koryaksky</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Kamchatka, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a><li><a href="../../wp/c/Colima_%2528volcano%2529.htm" title="Colima (volcano)">Colima</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Mount Etna, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a><li><a href="../../wp/g/Galeras.htm" title="Galeras">Galeras</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a><li><a href="../../wp/m/Mauna_Loa.htm" title="Mauna Loa">Mauna Loa</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Hawai<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>i, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Merapi, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Nyiragongo, <a href="../../wp/d/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a><li><a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Rainier.htm" title="Mount Rainier">Mount Rainier</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Washington, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></ul>
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<td width="50%">
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sakurajima.htm" title="Sakurajima">Sakurajima</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Santamaria/Santiaguito, <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a><li><a href="../../wp/s/Santorini.htm" title="Santorini">Santorini</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Taal Volcano, <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Teide, <!--del_lnk--> Canary Islands, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a><li><a href="../../wp/u/Ulawun.htm" title="Ulawun">Ulawun</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Papua_New_Guinea.htm" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a><li><a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Unzen.htm" title="Mount Unzen">Mount Unzen</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Vesuvius, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
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<p><a id="Elsewhere_in_the_solar_system" name="Elsewhere_in_the_solar_system"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Elsewhere in the solar system</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14337.jpg.htm" title="Olympus Mons (Latin, "Mount Olympus") is the tallest known mountain in our solar system, located on the planet Mars."><img alt="Olympus Mons (Latin, "Mount Olympus") is the tallest known mountain in our solar system, located on the planet Mars." height="377" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Olympus_Mons.jpeg" src="../../images/143/14337.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14337.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Olympus Mons (<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, "Mount Olympus") is the tallest known <!--del_lnk--> mountain in our <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>, located on the <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a> <!--del_lnk--> Mars.</div>
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<p>The Earth's <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a> has no large volcanoes and no volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core. However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as <!--del_lnk--> maria (the darker patches seen on the moon), <!--del_lnk--> rilles and <!--del_lnk--> domes.<p>The planet <!--del_lnk--> Venus has a surface that is 90% <!--del_lnk--> basalt, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago, from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Lava flows are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning, have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active.<p>There are several extinct volcanoes on <!--del_lnk--> Mars, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include <!--del_lnk--> Arsia Mons, <!--del_lnk--> Ascraeus Mons, <!--del_lnk--> Hecates Tholus, <!--del_lnk--> Olympus Mons, and <!--del_lnk--> Pavonis Mons. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years, but the European <i><!--del_lnk--> Mars Express</i> spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14338.jpg.htm" title="Galileo orbiter reveals volcanic activity on Jupiter's moon Io."><img alt="Galileo orbiter reveals volcanic activity on Jupiter's moon Io." height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PIA00703.jpg" src="../../images/143/14338.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14338.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Galileo orbiter reveals volcanic activity on <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter's moon <!--del_lnk--> Io.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jupiter's <!--del_lnk--> moon <!--del_lnk--> Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar system because of <!--del_lnk--> tidal interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <!--del_lnk--> sulfur dioxide and <!--del_lnk--> silicate rock, and as a result, <!--del_lnk--> Io is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the solar system, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February <!--del_lnk--> 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the solar system occurred on Io . <!--del_lnk--> Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's <!--del_lnk--> Galilean moons, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into ice on the frigid surface. This process is known as <!--del_lnk--> cryovolcanism, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>.<p>In 1989 the <!--del_lnk--> Voyager 2 spacecraft observed <!--del_lnk--> cryovolcanos (ice volcanoes) on <!--del_lnk--> Triton, a <!--del_lnk--> moon of <!--del_lnk--> Neptune, and in 2005 the <a href="../../wp/c/Cassini-Huygens.htm" title="Cassini-Huygens">Cassini-Huygens</a> probe photographed <!--del_lnk--> fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus, a moon of <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn.htm" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>. The ejecta may be composed of <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a>, liquid <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, dust, or <!--del_lnk--> methane compounds. Cassini-Huygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the <!--del_lnk--> Saturnian moon <!--del_lnk--> Titan, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere. It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the <!--del_lnk--> Kuiper Belt Object <!--del_lnk--> Quaoar.<p><a id="Effects_of_volcanoes" name="Effects_of_volcanoes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Effects of volcanoes</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14339.jpg.htm" title="Volcanic "injection""><img alt="Volcanic "injection"" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volcanic_injection.jpg" src="../../images/143/14339.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14339.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Volcanic "injection"</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14340.png.htm" title="Solar radiation reduction from volcanic eruptions"><img alt="Solar radiation reduction from volcanic eruptions" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mauna_Loa_atmospheric_transmission.png" src="../../images/143/14340.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14340.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Solar radiation reduction from volcanic eruptions</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14341.png.htm" title="Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes."><img alt="Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes." height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TOMS_SO2_time_nov03.png" src="../../images/143/14341.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14341.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sulfur dioxide emissions by volcanoes.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14342.jpg.htm" title="Average concentration of sulfur dioxide over the Sierra Negra Volcano (Galapagos Islands) from October 23-November 1, 2005"><img alt="Average concentration of sulfur dioxide over the Sierra Negra Volcano (Galapagos Islands) from October 23-November 1, 2005" height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SO2_Galapagos_20051101.jpg" src="../../images/143/14342.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14342.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Average concentration of sulfur dioxide over the Sierra Negra Volcano (<!--del_lnk--> Galapagos Islands) from October 23-November 1, 2005</div>
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<p>There are many different kinds of volcanic activity and eruptions: <!--del_lnk--> phreatic eruptions (steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-<!--del_lnk--> silica <!--del_lnk--> lava (e.g., <!--del_lnk--> rhyolite), effusive eruption of low-silica lava (e.g., <!--del_lnk--> basalt), <!--del_lnk--> pyroclastic flows, <!--del_lnk--> lahars (debris flow) and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> emission. All of these activities can pose a hazard to humans. Volcanic activity is often accompanied by <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, <!--del_lnk--> hot springs, <!--del_lnk--> fumaroles, <!--del_lnk--> mud pots and <!--del_lnk--> geysers. Low-magnitude earthquakes often precede eruptions.<p>The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to the next. <!--del_lnk--> Water vapor is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <!--del_lnk--> sulphur dioxide. Other principal volcanic gases include <!--del_lnk--> hydrogen sulphide, <!--del_lnk--> hydrogen chloride, and <!--del_lnk--> hydrogen fluoride. A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <!--del_lnk--> carbon monoxide, <!--del_lnk--> halocarbons, organic compounds, and volatile metal chlorides.<p>Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H<sub>2</sub>O), carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 10-20 miles above the Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections come from the conversion of sulphur dioxide to <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfuric_acid.htm" title="Sulphuric acid">sulphuric acid</a> (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>), which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine <!--del_lnk--> sulfate <!--del_lnk--> aerosols. The aerosols increase the Earth's <!--del_lnk--> albedo—its reflection of radiation from the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> back into space - and thus cool the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming the <!--del_lnk--> stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years. The sulphate aerosols also promote complex <!--del_lnk--> chemical reactions on their surfaces that alter chlorine and <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect, together with increased stratospheric <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> levels from <!--del_lnk--> chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys <a href="../../wp/o/Ozone.htm" title="Ozone">ozone</a> (O<sub>3</sub>). As the aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei for <!--del_lnk--> cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's <!--del_lnk--> radiation balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground as <a href="../../wp/a/Acid_rain.htm" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep source of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a> for biogeochemical cycles.<p>Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic activity releases about 130 to 230 <!--del_lnk--> teragrams (145 million to 255 million <!--del_lnk--> short tons) of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> each year. Volcanic eruptions may inject <!--del_lnk--> aerosols into the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>. Large injections may cause visual effects such as unusually colorful sunsets and affect global climate mainly by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide the benefit of adding nutrients to soil through the <!--del_lnk--> weathering process of volcanic rocks. These fertile soils assist the growth of plants and various crops. Volcanic eruptions can also create new islands, as the magma dries on the water.<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p><i>Volcano</i> is thought to derive from <!--del_lnk--> Vulcano, a volcanic island in the <!--del_lnk--> Aeolian Islands of <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> whose name in turn originates from <!--del_lnk--> Vulcan, the name of a god of <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fire</a> in <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a>. The study of volcanoes is called <!--del_lnk--> volcanology, sometimes spelled <i>vulcanology</i>.<p>The Roman name for the island <i><!--del_lnk--> Vulcano</i> has contributed the word for <i>volcano</i> in most modern European languages.<p><a id="Past_beliefs" name="Past_beliefs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Past beliefs</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14343.jpg.htm" title="Kircher's model of the Earth's internal fires, from Mundus Subterraneus"><img alt="Kircher's model of the Earth's internal fires, from Mundus Subterraneus" height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kircherearthfires.jpg" src="../../images/143/14343.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14343.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Kircher's model of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s internal fires, from <i>Mundus Subterraneus</i></div>
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<p>Before it was understood that most of the Earth's interior is molten, various explanations existed for volcano behaviour. For decades after awareness that compression and radioactive materials may be heat sources, their contributions were specifically discounted. Volcanic action was often attributed to <!--del_lnk--> chemical reactions and a thin layer of molten rock near the surface. Many ancient accounts claim that <!--del_lnk--> divine intervention was the actual cause of volcanic eruptions.<p>One early idea counter to this, however, was <!--del_lnk--> Jesuit <a href="../../wp/a/Athanasius_Kircher.htm" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a> (1602-1680), who witnessed eruptions of <!--del_lnk--> Aetna and <!--del_lnk--> Stromboli, then visited the crater of <!--del_lnk--> Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by the burning of <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <!--del_lnk--> bitumen and <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a>.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vole</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Vole</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14345.jpg.htm" title="The meadow vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus, is found in many parts of North America"><img alt="The meadow vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus, is found in many parts of North America" height="177" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Meadvole.jpg" src="../../images/143/14345.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>The <!--del_lnk--> meadow vole, <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i>, is found in many parts of North America</small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rodentia<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cricetidae<br />
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<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Arvicolinae<br />
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<center>Genera</center>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Microtus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Myodes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Phenacomys</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Lagurus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Arvicola</i><hr />
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<p>A <b>vole</b> is a small <!--del_lnk--> rodent resembling a <!--del_lnk--> mouse but with a stouter body, a shorter hairy tail, a slightly rounder head, and smaller ears and eyes.<p>
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</script><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<p>Most vole species have rootless <!--del_lnk--> molars that fold into a series of triangles. Voles are one of the few rodents whose molars continue to grow during their entire life. There is little to distinguish a vole from a <!--del_lnk--> lemming.<p>Voles exhibit complex genetic structures with much variation, and appear to be evolving rapidly when compared to other vertibrates. Species have been found with anywhere from 17-64 chromosomes. Female voles have been found with chromosomes from both sexes. All of these variations result in very little physical aberration: most vole species are virtually indistinguishable.<p>All rodents have <!--del_lnk--> incisors that grow continuously.<p>Adult voles, depending on the species, are three to seven inches long.<p><a id="Habitat" name="Habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Habitat</span></h2>
<p>Voles live in a variety of environments. The North American <!--del_lnk--> Meadow Vole lives in networks of above-ground "runways" in grassy areas, as well as underground burrows. California's <!--del_lnk--> Red Tree Vole lives in the treetops.<p><a id="Range" name="Range"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Range</span></h2>
<p>Sometimes known as meadow mice or field mice in America, approximately 70 species of voles can be found in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, North <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h2>
<p>Depending on the species, the vole's diet consists of <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seeds</a>, <!--del_lnk--> tubers, <!--del_lnk--> conifers needles, bark, various green vegetation such as grass and <!--del_lnk--> clover, and insects.<p><a id="Predators" name="Predators"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Predators</span></h2>
<p>Many <!--del_lnk--> carnivores such as <!--del_lnk--> wolves, <a href="../../wp/o/Owl.htm" title="Owl">owls</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" title="Hawk">hawks</a>, <!--del_lnk--> coyotes, <a href="../../wp/f/Fox.htm" title="Fox">foxes</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Weasel.htm" title="Weasel">weasels</a>, <!--del_lnk--> cats and <!--del_lnk--> fish eat voles.<p><a id="Age" name="Age"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Age</span></h2>
<p>The average life of a vole is 3–6 months. Voles rarely live longer than 12 months. The longest lifespan of a vole ever recorded was 18 months.<p><a id="Popular_culture" name="Popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Popular culture</span></h2>
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<li>The website <i>Fanfiction.Net</i> is often referred to derogatively as the "Pit of Voles".</ul>
<ul>
<li>The character of Ratty in <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Grahame's children's novel <!--del_lnk--> The Wind in the Willows is actually a <!--del_lnk--> water vole (<i>Arvicola amphibus</i>), not a rat.</ul>
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<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Inquirer</i>, an IT web newsletter, nicknames the software company, <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft.htm" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, "the <strong class="selflink">vole</strong>".</ul>
<ul>
<li>In an episode of the first season of the British situation comedy <!--del_lnk--> Green Wing (2004) Dr. Caroline Todd likens colleague Dr. Martin Dear to a vole. Everyone concurs.</ul>
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<li>An episode of the U.S. animated comedy, <!--del_lnk--> King Of The Hill, confused a character (Bill) with a vole for comic effect.</ul>
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<li>Voles were frequently mentioned in the series <a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek__Deep_Space_Nine.htm" title="Star Trek: Deep Space Nine">Star Trek: Deep Space Nine</a> as a common type of vermin aboard the space station DS9, usually found in the Cargo Bay or in Engineering.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vole"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Volga River</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: larger; background-color: #CEDEFF;">Volga River</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height: 1.2; border-bottom: 1px solid #CEDEFF;">
<div style="border: 1px solid #CEDEFF;"><a class="image" href="../../images/128/12837.jpg.htm" title="Volga in Yaroslavl (autumn morning)"><img alt="Volga in Yaroslavl (autumn morning)" height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Russia_River_Volga.jpg" src="../../images/128/12837.jpg" width="288" /></a></div>
<center>Volga in <!--del_lnk--> Yaroslavl (autumn morning)</center>
</td>
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<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Origin</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Valdai Hills</td>
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<tr>
<td><b>Mouth</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Basin countries</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a></td>
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<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td>3,692 km (2,293 mi)</td>
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<tr style="white-space: nowrap;">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Source elevation</b></td>
<td>225 m (738 ft)</td>
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<td><b>Avg. <!--del_lnk--> discharge</b></td>
<td>8,000 m³/s (282,517 ft³/s)</td>
</tr>
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<td><b>Basin area</b></td>
<td>1,380,000 km² (532,821 mi²)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Volga</b>, widely viewed as the national river of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, flows through the western part of the country. It is <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>'s longest <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a>, with a length of <!--del_lnk--> 3,690 km (2,293 miles), and forms the core of the largest river system in Europe. Some of the largest <!--del_lnk--> reservoirs in the world can be found along the river.<p>
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</script><a id="Nomenclature" name="Nomenclature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nomenclature</span></h2>
<p>The Russian hydronym <i>Во́лга</i> is akin to the Slavic word for "wetness", "humidity" (<i>влага</i>, <i>волога</i>). It is transliterated as <i>Volga</i> in English and as <i>Wolga</i> in <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>. Another possibility is that the river's name has <!--del_lnk--> Finnic roots.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Turkic populations living along the river formerly referred to it as <!--del_lnk--> Itil or <!--del_lnk--> Atil. <a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" title="Attila the Hun">Attila the Hun</a> might have been named after this river as well. In modern Turkic languages, the Volga is known as <i>İdel</i> (<i>Идел</i>) in <!--del_lnk--> Tatar, <i>Атăл (Atăl)</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Chuvash and <i>İdil</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Turkish. Another version of the same root is represented by <!--del_lnk--> Mari <i>Юл (Jul)</i>.<p>A still more ancient hydronym is the <!--del_lnk--> Scythian name of the river, <i>Rha</i>, which may reflect the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Avestan and <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> names <i>Rañha</i> and <i>Rasah</i> for a sacred river. This ancient name survives in the modern <!--del_lnk--> Mordvin name for the Volga, <i>Рав (Raw)</i>.<p><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12838.png.htm" title="Map of the Volga watershed"><img alt="Map of the Volga watershed" height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volgarivermap.png" src="../../images/128/12838.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12838.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the Volga watershed</div>
</div>
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<p>Rising in the <!--del_lnk--> Valdai Hills 225 m (740 ft) above sea level north-west of <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and about 320 kilometres south-east of <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, the Volga heads east past <!--del_lnk--> Sterzh, <!--del_lnk--> Tver', <!--del_lnk--> Dubna, <!--del_lnk--> Rybinsk, <!--del_lnk--> Yaroslavl, <!--del_lnk--> Nizhny Novgorod and <!--del_lnk--> Kazan. From there it turns south, flows past <!--del_lnk--> Ulyanovsk, <!--del_lnk--> Tolyatti, <!--del_lnk--> Samara, <!--del_lnk--> Saratov and <!--del_lnk--> Volgograd, and discharges into the <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> below <!--del_lnk--> Astrakhan at 28 metres below sea level. At its most strategic point, it bends toward the <!--del_lnk--> Don ("the big bend"). Volgograd, formerly Stalingrad, is located there.<p>The Volga has many <!--del_lnk--> tributaries, most importantly the <!--del_lnk--> Kama, the <!--del_lnk--> Oka, the <!--del_lnk--> Vetluga, and the <!--del_lnk--> Sura rivers. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which drains an area of about 1.35 million square kilometres in the most heavily populated part of Russia. The <!--del_lnk--> Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres and includes as many as 500 channels and smaller rivers. The largest estuary in Europe, it is the only place in Russia where <!--del_lnk--> pelicans, <a href="../../wp/f/Flamingo.htm" title="Flamingo">flamingoes</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length during three months of each year.<p>The Volga drains most of Western Russia. Its many large reservoirs provide <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and hydroelectric power. The <!--del_lnk--> Moscow Canal, the <!--del_lnk--> Volga-Don Canal, and the <!--del_lnk--> Mariinsk Canal systems form navigable <!--del_lnk--> waterways connecting Moscow to the <!--del_lnk--> White Sea, the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, the <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Azov and the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. High levels of chemical pollution currently give cause for environmental concern.<p>The fertile river valley provides large quantities of wheat, and also has many mineral riches. A substantial petroleum industry centres on the Volga valley. Other minerals include natural gas, salt, and potash. The Volga Delta and the nearby <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> offer superb fishing grounds. <!--del_lnk--> Astrakhan, at the delta, is the centre of the <!--del_lnk--> caviar industry.<p><a id="Confluents_.28downstream_to_upstream.29" name="Confluents_.28downstream_to_upstream.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Confluents (downstream to upstream)</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12839.jpg.htm" title="Rzhev is the uppermost town situated on the Volga (early part of 20th century)."><img alt="Rzhev is the uppermost town situated on the Volga (early part of 20th century)." height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rzhev.jpg" src="../../images/128/12839.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12839.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Rzhev is the uppermost town situated on the Volga (early part of 20th century).</div>
</div>
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<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Samara (in <!--del_lnk--> Samara)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kama (south of <!--del_lnk--> Kazan)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kazanka (in <!--del_lnk--> Kazan)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sviyaga (west of <!--del_lnk--> Kazan)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vetluga (near <!--del_lnk--> Kozmodemyansk)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sura (in <!--del_lnk--> Vasilsursk)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kerzhenets (near <!--del_lnk--> Lyskovo)<li><!--del_lnk--> Oka (in <!--del_lnk--> Nizhny Novgorod)<li><!--del_lnk--> Uzola (near <!--del_lnk--> Balakhna)<li><!--del_lnk--> Unzha (near <!--del_lnk--> Yuryevets)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kostroma (in <!--del_lnk--> Kostroma)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kotorosl (in <!--del_lnk--> Yaroslavl)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sheksna (in <!--del_lnk--> Cherepovets)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mologa (near <!--del_lnk--> Vesyegonsk)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kashinka (near <!--del_lnk--> Kalyazin)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nerl (near Kalyazin)<li><!--del_lnk--> Medveditsa (near <!--del_lnk--> Kimry)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dubna (in <!--del_lnk--> Dubna) <li><!--del_lnk--> Shosha (near <!--del_lnk--> Konakovo)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tvertsa (in <!--del_lnk--> Tver)<li><!--del_lnk--> Akhtuba (near <!--del_lnk--> Volzhsky) - a <!--del_lnk--> distributary</ul>
<p><a id="Reservoirs_on_the_Volga" name="Reservoirs_on_the_Volga"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reservoirs on the Volga</span></h3>
<p>Nine major <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power stations and several large artificial lakes formed by dams lie along the Volga. The reservoirs, upstream to downstream, are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Volgo Lake<li><!--del_lnk--> Ivankovo Reservoir (the Moscow Sea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Uglich Reservoir<li><!--del_lnk--> Rybinsk Reservoir<li><!--del_lnk--> Gorky Reservoir<li><!--del_lnk--> Cheboksary Reservoir<li><!--del_lnk--> Kuybyshev Reservoir<li><!--del_lnk--> Saratov Reservoir<li><!--del_lnk--> Volgograd Reservoir</ul>
<p><a id="Human_history" name="Human_history"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Human history</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12853.jpg.htm" title="Many Orthodox shrines and monasteries are strewn along the banks of the Volga."><img alt="Many Orthodox shrines and monasteries are strewn along the banks of the Volga." height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volga_tolga.jpg" src="../../images/128/12853.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12853.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Many Orthodox shrines and monasteries are strewn along the banks of the Volga.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The ancient scholar <a href="../../wp/p/Ptolemy.htm" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> of Alexandria mentions the lower Volga in his <i>Geography</i> (Book 5, Chapter 8, 2nd Map of Asia). He calls it the <i>Rha</i>, which was the Scythian name for the river. Ptolemy believed the Don and the Volga shared the same upper branch, which flowed from the <!--del_lnk--> Hyperborean Mountains.<p>The downstream of the Volga, widely believed to have been a cradle of the <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Indo-European civilization, was settled by Huns and other Turkic peoples in the first millennium AD, replacing <!--del_lnk--> Scythians.<p>Subsequently the river basin played an important role in the movements of peoples from Asia to Europe. A powerful polity of <!--del_lnk--> Volga Bulgaria once flourished where the <!--del_lnk--> Kama river joins the Volga, while <a href="../../wp/k/Khazars.htm" title="Khazaria">Khazaria</a> controlled the lower stretches of the river. Such Volga cities as <!--del_lnk--> Atil, <!--del_lnk--> Saqsin, or <!--del_lnk--> Sarai were among the largest in the medieval world. The river served as an important <!--del_lnk--> trade route connecting <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia, <!--del_lnk--> Rus', and Volga Bulgaria with Khazaria and <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12854.jpg.htm" title="Several old towns, including Kalyazin and Mologa, were flooded by Soviet authorities in the 1940s."><img alt="Several old towns, including Kalyazin and Mologa, were flooded by Soviet authorities in the 1940s." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bell_tower_in_Kalyazin.jpg" src="../../images/128/12854.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12854.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Several old towns, including <!--del_lnk--> Kalyazin and <!--del_lnk--> Mologa, were flooded by Soviet authorities in the 1940s.</div>
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<p>Khazars were replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Kipchaks, <!--del_lnk--> Kimeks and <!--del_lnk--> Mongols, who founded the <!--del_lnk--> Golden Horde in the lower stream of Volga. Later the Empire broke into the <!--del_lnk--> Khanate of Kazan and <!--del_lnk--> Khanate of Astrakhan; subsequently they were conquered by Russians in the 16th century.<p>In modern times, the city on the big bend of the Volga, currently known as Volgograd, witnessed the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Stalingrad.htm" title="Battle of Stalingrad">Battle of Stalingrad</a>, the bloodiest battle in human history. The Russian people's deep feeling for the Volga often finds echoes in their songs and literature (see <!--del_lnk--> The Volga Boatmen's Song for one conspicuous example).<p><a id="Ethnic_groups" name="Ethnic_groups"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ethnic groups</span></h2>
<p>The indigenous population of Upper Volga were Finnic <!--del_lnk--> Merya, that were assimilated to Russians. Other Finnic ethnic groups are <!--del_lnk--> Maris and <!--del_lnk--> Mordvins of middle Volga. Turkic populations appeared in the <!--del_lnk--> 600s and assimilated some Finnic and Indo-European population at the middle and lower Volga, later they were transformed to <!--del_lnk--> Christian <!--del_lnk--> Chuvash and <!--del_lnk--> Muslim <!--del_lnk--> Tatars; also to <!--del_lnk--> Nogais, which were supplanted to <!--del_lnk--> Daghestan later. Mongolian Buddhists <!--del_lnk--> Kalmyks resettled to Volga in the 17th century.<p>The Volga region is home to a German minority group, the <!--del_lnk--> Volga Germans. <!--del_lnk--> Catherine the Great had issued a Manifesto in 1763 inviting all foreigners to come and populate the region, offering them numerous incentives to do so. This was partly to develop the region but also to provide a buffer zone between the Russians and the Mongol hordes to the east. Because of conditions in German territories, the Germans responded in the largest numbers. Under the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> a slice of the region was turned into the <!--del_lnk--> Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to house many of the Volga Germans. Others were executed or dispersed throughout the Soviet Union prior to and after World WarII!<p><a id="Navigation" name="Navigation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Navigation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12855.jpg.htm" title="Owing to the Coriolis effect, the Volga has a rocky right bank."><img alt="Owing to the Coriolis effect, the Volga has a rocky right bank." height="280" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volga_steep_Tatarstan.jpg" src="../../images/128/12855.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12855.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Owing to the <!--del_lnk--> Coriolis effect, the Volga has a rocky right bank.</div>
</div>
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<p>The Volga is of great importance to inland shipping and transport in Russia: all the dams in the river have been equipped with large (double) <!--del_lnk--> ship locks, so that vessels of considerable dimensions can actually travel from the <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> almost to the upstream end of the river. Connections with the <!--del_lnk--> Don River and the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> are possible through the <!--del_lnk--> Volga-Don Canal. Connections with the lakes of the north (<!--del_lnk--> Lake Ladoga, <!--del_lnk--> Lake Onega), <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> and the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> are possible through the <!--del_lnk--> Volga-Baltic Waterway; and a liaison with Moscow has been realised by the <!--del_lnk--> Moscow Canal connecting the Volga and the <!--del_lnk--> Moskva rivers. This infrastructure has been designed for vessels of a relatively large scale (lock dimensions of 290 x 30 meters on the Volga, slightly smaller on some of the other rivers and canals) and it spans many thousands of kilometers.<p>Until recently access to the Russian waterways was only granted on a very limited scale. The increasing contacts between the European Union and Russia have led to new policies with regard to the access to the Russian inland waterways. It is expected that vessels of other nations will be allowed on the Russian rivers soon. (Source: <!--del_lnk--> NoorderSoft Waterways Database)<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_River"</div>
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<p><b>Volleyball</b> is an <!--del_lnk--> Olympic sport in which two teams separated by a high net use their hands, arms, or (rarely) other parts of their bodies to hit a ball back and forth over the net. Each team is allowed three hits to get the ball over the net to the other team. A point is scored if the ball hits the ground in the opponents' court, if the opponents commit a fault, or if they fail to return the ball properly.<div class="thumb tright">
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<p>Volleyball can be a very active sport that can be an excellent source for <!--del_lnk--> aerobic exercise. It also helps players improve their hand-eye coordination and the ability to override the instinctive desire to dodge a fast-moving object such as a ball.<p>
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</script><a id="History_of_the_game" name="History_of_the_game"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of the game</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> February 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1895, in <!--del_lnk--> Holyoke, Massachusetts, <!--del_lnk--> William G. Morgan, a <!--del_lnk--> YMCA physical education director, created a new game called <i>Mintonette</i> as a pastime to be played preferably indoors and by any number of players. The game took some of its characteristics from <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a> and <!--del_lnk--> handball. Another indoor sport, <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>, was catching on in the area, having been invented just ten miles (sixteen kilometres) away in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Springfield, Massachusetts only four years before. Mintonette (as volleyball was then known) was designed to be an indoor sport less rough than basketball for older members of the <!--del_lnk--> YMCA, while still requiring a bit of athletic effort.<p>The first rules, written down by William G. Morgan, called for a net 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 metres) high; a 25 × 50 foot (7.6 × 15.2 metre) court; and any number of players. A match was composed of 9 innings with 3 serves for each team in each inning; and no limit to the number of ball contacts for each team before sending the ball to the opponents’ court. In case of a serving error, a second try was allowed while a ball hitting the net was to be considered a foul (with loss of the point or a side-out) — except in the case of the first-try serve. To protect the fingers of the ladies, they were allowed to catch the ball and then throw it back into play.<p>After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its first exhibition match in 1896 played at the Springfield YMCA, the game quickly became known as <i>volleyball</i> (originally spelled as two words <i>volley ball</i>). Volleyball rules were slightly modified by the Springfield YMCA and spread around the country to other YMCA locations.<p>An international federation, the <!--del_lnk--> Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), was founded in 1947, and the first World Championships were held in 1949 for men and 1952 for women. Volleyball was added to the program of the <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a> in 1964, and has been part ever since. <!--del_lnk--> Beach volleyball became a FIVB-endorsed variation in 1986 and was added to the Olympic program at the <!--del_lnk--> 1996 Summer Olympics.<p>It was not until 1900 that a ball was made specifically for the new game, and the rules were not how we know them today. It took until 1916 for the skill and power of the set and spike to be introduced, and four years later a "three hits" rule and back row hitting guidelines were established. In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points. In 1919, American Expeditionary Forces distributed 16,000 volleyballs to their troops and allies: this provided a stimulus for the growth of volleyball outside the United States.<p>The first country outside the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> to adopt volleyball was <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> in 1900. The sport is now popular in <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, all of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> (where especially <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> are major forces since the late Eighties), <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, other countries including <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> and the rest of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, as well as the United States. The FIVB estimates that 1 in 6 people in the world participate in or observe indoor volleyball, beach volleyball, or <i>backyard</i> (recreational) volleyball.<p><a id="Rules" name="Rules"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Rules</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14347.png.htm" title="Volleyball court"><img alt="Volleyball court" height="440" longdesc="/wiki/Image:VolleyballCourt.png" src="../../images/143/14347.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Volleyball court</div>
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<p><a id="Equipment" name="Equipment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Equipment</span></h3>
<p>The game is played on volleyball courts 18 metres long and 9 metres wide, divided into two 9 x 9 metre courts by a one-metre wide net placed so that the top of the net is 2.43 metres above the centre of the court for men's competition, and 2.24 metres for women's competition (these heights are varied for veterans and junior competitions). There is a line 3 metres from and parallel to the net in each team court which is considered the "attack line". This "3 metre" line divides the court into "back row" and "front row" areas. These are in turn divided into 3 areas each: these are numbered as follows, starting from area "1", which is the position of the serving player:<table align="none" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
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<td>4</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>2</td>
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<td>5</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>1</td>
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<p>After a team gains the serve (also known as siding out), its members must rotate in a clockwise direction, with the player previously in area "2" moving to area "1" and so on, with the player from area "1" moving to area "6" (see also the <!--del_lnk--> Errors and Faults section).<p>The team courts are surrounded by an area called the free zone which is a minimum of 3 metres wide and which the players may enter and play within after the service of the ball. All lines denoting the boundaries of the team court and the attack zone are drawn or painted within the dimensions of the area and are therefore a part of the court or zone. If a ball comes in contact with the line, the ball is considered to be "in". An antenna is placed on each side of the net perpendicular to the sideline and is a vertical extension of the side boundary of the court. A ball passing over the net must pass completely between the antennae (or their theoretical extensions to the ceiling) without contacting them.<p>The volleyball is made of leather or synthetic leather and inflated with compressed air. It is round and 65-67 cm in circumference.<p><a id="Game_play" name="Game_play"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Game play</span></h3>
<p>Each team consists of six players, three located in front of the attack line and three behind.<p>To get play started, a team is chosen to serve by <!--del_lnk--> coin toss. A player from the serving team (the <i>server</i>) throws the ball into the air and attempts to hit the ball so it passes over the net on a course such that it will land in the opposing team's court (the <i>serve</i>). The opposing team must use a combination of no more than three contacts with the volleyball to return the ball to the opponent's side of the net. These contacts usually consist first of the <i>bump</i> or <i>pass</i> so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards the player designated as the <i>setter</i>; second of the <i>set</i> (an over-hand pass using wrists to push finger-tips at the ball) by the setter so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards one or more players designated as the <i>attacker</i> and third by the <i>attacker</i> who <i>spikes</i> (jumping, raising one arm above the head and hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's court) to return the ball over the net. The team with possession of the ball that is trying to attack the ball as described is said to be on <i>offense</i>.<p>The team on <i>defense</i> attempts to prevent the attacker from directing the ball into their court by having players at the net jump and reach above the top (and if possible, across the plane) of the net in order to <i>block</i> the attacked ball. If the ball is hit around, above, or through the block, the defensive players arranged in the rest of the court attempt to control the ball with a <i>dig</i> (a fore-arm pass of a hard-driven ball). After a successful dig, the team transitions to offense.<p>The game continues in this manner until the ball touches the court within the boundaries or until an error is made.<p><a id="Errors_and_faults" name="Errors_and_faults"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Errors and faults</span></h3>
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<li>The ball lands out of the court, in the same court as the team that touched it last, under the net to the opposing team's court, or the ball touches the net "antennas". The ball also may not pass over or outside the antennas even if it lands in the opponents' court<sup>1</sup>.<li>The ball is touched more than three times before being returned to the other team's court<sup>2</sup>.<li>The same player touches the ball twice in succession<sup>3</sup>.<li>A player "lifts" or "carries" the ball (the ball remains in contact with the player's body for too long).<li>A player touches the net with any part of his or her body or clothing while making a play on the ball (with the exception of the hair).<li>The players of one team do not manage to touch the ball before the ball lands in their half of the court.<li>A back-row player spikes the ball while it is completely above the top of the net, unless he or she jumped from behind the attack line (the player is however allowed to land in front of the attack line).<li>A back-row player attempts to block an opposing team's attack by reaching above the top of the net.<li>The <i>libero</i>, a defensive specialist who can only play in the back row, makes an "attacking hit", defined as any shot struck while the ball is entirely above the top of the net.<li>A player completes an attack hit from higher than the top of the net when the ball is coming from an overhand finger pass (set) by a libero in the front zone.<li>A player is not in the correct position at the moment of serve, or serves out of turn. This type of foul is related to the position currently occupied by the players (see the table in the <!--del_lnk--> Equipment section). When ball is served, players can place themselves freely on the field (e.g. a "back-row" player can be close to the net) so long as they obey the following rules: The area "1" player must be behind the area "2" player and to the right of the area "6" player. The area "6" player must be behind area "3" player, to the left of area "1" player and to the right of area "5". The area "5" player must be behind the area "4" player and to the left of the area "6" player. Symmetric rules must be respected by the front-row players (those in areas "2", "3" and "4").<li>When hitting, a player makes contact with the ball in the space above the opponent's court (in blocking an attack hit, this is allowed).<li>A player touches the opponent's court with any part of his or her body except the feet or hands<sup>4</sup>.<li>When serving, a player steps on the court or the endline before making contact with the ball.<li>A player takes more than 8 seconds to serve.</ul>
<ul>
<li>At the moment of serve, one or more players jump, raise their arms or stand together at the net in an attempt to block the sight of the ball from the opponent (<i>screening</i>)<sup>5</sup>.</ul>
<p>Notes: <sup>1</sup> If the ball passes outside the antennas on the first contact for the team, e.g. as the result of a bad pass or dig, a player is allowed to go after the ball as long as he or she does not touch the opponent's court and the ball travels back to his or her team's court also outside the antennas.<p><sup>2</sup> Except if a player <i>blocks</i> (touches a ball sent over the net by the opposing team, while reaching above the top of the net) a ball that stays in the blocker's side of the net. In such an instance the blocker may play the ball another time without violating the rule against playing the ball twice in succession. If the ball is touched during a block, that contact is not considered one of the team's three contacts.<p><sup>3</sup> At the first hit of the team, the ball may contact various parts of the body consecutively provided that the contacts occur during one action. Also, when a player touches the ball on a block, he or she may make another play on the ball.<p><sup>4</sup> Penetration under the net with hands or feet is allowed only if a portion of the penetrating hands or feet remains in contact with or directly above the player's court or centre line.<p><sup>5</sup> Screening is only a fault if the players stand directly next to each other in a way that clearly impedes vision, and the serve is a low line drive over their heads. (This is a judgment call by the referee. Teams are generally given a warning before being sanctioned for screening.)<p><a id="Scoring" name="Scoring"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Scoring</span></h3>
<p>When the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or an error is made, the team that did not make the error is awarded a point, whether they served the ball or not. The team that won the point is awarded the right to serve for the next point. If the team that won the point served the previous point, the same player serves again. If the team that won the point did not serve the previous point, the players of the team rotate their position on the court in a clockwise manner. The game continues, with the first team to score 25 points (and be two points ahead) awarded the set. Matches are best-of-five sets and the fifth set (if necessary) is usually played to 15 points. (Scoring differs between leagues, tournaments, and levels; high schools sometimes play best-of-three to 30; in the <!--del_lnk--> NCAA games are played best-of-five to 30.)<p>Before 1999, points could be scored only when a team had the serve (<i>side-out scoring</i>) and all sets went up to only 15 points. The FIVB changed the rules in 1999 (with the changes being compulsory in 2000) to use the current scoring system (formerly known as <i>rally point system</i>), primarily to make the length of the match more predictable and to make the game more spectator- and television-friendly.<p><a id="The_Libero" name="The_Libero"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Libero</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1998 the <!--del_lnk--> libero player was introduced internationally, the term meaning <i>free</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Italian; the NCAA introduced the libero in <!--del_lnk--> 2002. The libero is a player specialized in defensive skills: the libero must wear a contrasting jersey colour from his or her teammates and cannot block or attack the ball when it is entirely above net height. When the ball is not in play, the libero can replace any back-row player, without prior notice to the officials. This replacement does not count against the substitution limit each team is allowed per set, although the libero may be replaced only by the player whom they replaced.<p>The libero may function as a setter only under certain restrictions. If she/he makes an overhand set, she/he must be standing behind (and not stepping on) the 3-metre line; otherwise, the ball cannot be attacked above the net in front of the 3-metre line. An underhand pass is allowed from any part of the court.<p>Furthermore, a libero is not allowed to serve, according to international rules, with the exception of the NCAA women's volleyball games, where a <!--del_lnk--> 2004 rule change allows the libero to serve, but only in a specific rotation. That means, the the libero can only serve for one person, not all the people that he/she goes in for.<p><a id="Other_recent_rule_changes" name="Other_recent_rule_changes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other recent rule changes</span></h3>
<p>Other rule changes enacted in <!--del_lnk--> 2000 include the introduction of the <i>let serve</i> which allows play to continue even if a served ball touches the net as long as it continues into the opponents' court. Also, the service area was expanded to allow players to serve from anywhere behind the end line but still within the theoretical extension of the sidelines. Other changes were made to lighten up calls on faults for carries and double-touches, such as allowing multiple contacts by a single player ("double-hits") on a team's first contact. From <!--del_lnk--> 2006 there are plans for trying new rule changes, such as having a second serve option when failing the first (as in <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a>) or a second alternative libero in the team.<p><a id="Skills" name="Skills"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Skills</span></h2>
<p>Competitive teams are supposed to master six basic skills: serve, pass, set, attack, block and dig. Each of these skills comprises a number of specific techniques that have been introduced along the years and are now considered standard practice in high-level volleyball.<p><a id="Serve" name="Serve"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Serve</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14348.jpg.htm" title="Setting up for an overhand serve."><img alt="Setting up for an overhand serve." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volleyball_serve.jpg" src="../../images/143/14348.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14348.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Setting up for an overhand serve.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14349.jpg.htm" title="A man making a jump serve."><img alt="A man making a jump serve." height="315" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volleyball_jump_serve.jpg" src="../../images/143/14349.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14349.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A man making a jump serve.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14350.jpg.htm" title="A woman making an underhand pass or bump."><img alt="A woman making an underhand pass or bump." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volleyball_reception.jpg" src="../../images/143/14350.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14350.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A woman making an underhand pass or bump.</div>
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<p>A player stands behind the baseline and serves the ball, in an attempt to drive it into the opponent's court. His or her main objective is to make it land inside the court; it is also desirable to set the ball's direction, speed and acceleration so that it becomes difficult for the receiver to handle it properly. A serve is called an "ace" when the ball lands directly onto the court or travels outside the court after being touched by an opponent.<p>In contemporary volleyball, many types of serves are employed:<ul>
<li>Underhand and Overhand Serve: refers to whether the player strikes the ball from below, at waist level, or first tosses the ball in the air and then hits it above shoulder level. Underhand serve is considered very easy to receive and is rarely employed in high-level competitions, and is used if a player is disabled or as a strategy.<li>Sky Ball Serve: a specific type of underhand serve, where the ball is hit so high it comes down almost in a straight line. This serve was invented and employed almost exclusively by the Brazilian team in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1980s and is now considered outdated.<li>Line and Cross-Court Serve: refers to whether the balls flies in a straight trajectory parallel to the side lines, or crosses through the court in an angle.<li>Spin Serve: an overhand serve where the ball gains topspin through wrist snapping.<li>Floater: an overhand serve where the ball is hit with no spin so that its path becomes unpredictable. This type of serve can be administered while jumping or standing. This is akin to a knuckleball in baseball.<li>Jump Serve: an overhand serve where the ball is first tossed high in the air, then the player makes a timed approach and jumps to make contact with the ball. There is usually much topspin imparted on the ball. This is the most popular serve amongst college and professional teams.<li>Round-House Serve: the player stands with one shoulder facing the net, tosses the ball high and hits it with a fast circular movement of the arm. The ball is hit with the palm of the hand, creating a bounce off spin.</ul>
<p><a id="Pass" name="Pass"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pass</span></h3>
<p>Also called reception, the pass is the attempt by a team to properly handle the opponent's serve or "free ball". Proper handling includes not only preventing the ball from touching the court, but also making it reach the position where the setter is standing quickly and precisely.<p>The skill of passing involves fundamentally two specific techniques: underarm pass, or bump (“<!--del_lnk--> bagher” in European terminology), where the ball touches the inside part of the joined forearms or platform, at waist line; and overhand pass, where it is handled with the fingertips above the head and is common of setters.<p><a id="Set" name="Set"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Set</span></h3>
<p>The set is usually the second contact that a team makes with the ball. The main goal of setting is to put the ball in the air in such a way that it can be driven by an attack into the opponent's court. The setter coordinates the offensive movements of a team, and is the player who ultimately decides which player will actually attack the ball.<p>As with passing, one may distinguish between an overhand and a bump set. Since the former allows for more control over the speed and direction of the ball, the bump is used only when the ball is so low it cannot be properly handled with fingertips, or in beach volleyball where rules regulating overhand setting are more stringent. In the case of a set, one also speaks of a front or back set, meaning whether the ball is passed in the direction the setter is facing or behind the setter. There is also a jump set that is used when the ball is too close to the net. In this case the setter usually jumps off his or her right foot straight up to avoid going into the net. The setter usually stands about ⅔ of the way from the left to the right of the net and faces the left (the larger portion of net that he or she can see).<p>Sometimes a setter refrains from raising the ball for a teammate to perform an attack and tries to play it directly onto the opponent's court. This movement is called a "dump". The most common dumps are to 'throw' the ball behind the setter or in front of the setter to zones 2 and 4. More experienced setters toss the ball into the deep corners or spike the ball on the second hit.<p><a id="Attack" name="Attack"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Attack</span></h3>
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<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14351.jpg.htm" title="An attack in progress"><img alt="An attack in progress" height="221" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volleyball_spiker.jpg" src="../../images/143/14351.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14351.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An attack in progress</div>
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<p>The attack (or spike, the slang term) is usually the third contact a team makes with the ball. The object of attacking is to handle the ball so that it lands on the opponent's court and cannot be defended. A player makes a series of steps (the "approach"), jumps, and swings at the ball.<p>Ideally the contact with the ball is made at the apex of the hitter's jump. At the moment of contact, the hitter's arm is fully extended above his or her head and slightly forward, making the highest possible contact while maintaining the ability to deliver a powerful hit. The hitter uses arm swing, wrist snap, and a rapid forward contraction of the entire body to drive the ball. A 'bounce' is a slang term for a very hard/loud spike that follows an almost straight trajectory steeply downward into the opponent's court and bounces very high into the air.<p>Contemporary volleyball comprises a number of attacking techniques:<ul>
<li>Backcourt attack: an attack performed by a back row player. The player must jump from behind the 3-metre line before making contact with the ball, but may land in front of the 3-metre line.<li>Line and Cross-court Shot: refers to whether the ball flies in a straight trajectory parallel to the side lines, or crosses through the court in an angle. A cross-court shot with a very pronounced angle, resulting in the ball landing near the 3-metre line, is called a cut shot.<li>Dip/Dink/Tip/Cheat: the player does not try to make a hit, but touches the ball lightly, so that it lands on an area of the opponent's court that is not being covered by the defense.<li>Tool/Wipe/Block-abuse: the player does not try to make a hard spike, but hits the ball so that it touches the opponent's block and then bounces off-court.<li>Off-speed hit: the player does not hit the ball hard, reducing its acceleration and thus confusing the opponent's defense.<li>Quick hit/"One": an attack (usually by the middle blocker) where the approach and swing begin before the setter contacts the ball. The set (called a "quick set") is placed only slightly above the net and the ball is struck by the hitter almost immediately after leaving the setter's hands.<li>Slide: a variation of the quick hit that uses a low back set. The middle hitter steps around the setter and hits from behind him or her.<li>Double quick hit/"Stack"/"Tandem": a variation of quick hit where two hitters, one in front and one behind the setter or both in front of the setter, jump to perform a quick hit at the same time. It can be used to deceive opposite blockers and free a fourth hitter attacking from backcourt, maybe without block at all.</ul>
<p><a id="Block" name="Block"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Block</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14352.jpg.htm" title="A triple block"><img alt="A triple block" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volleyball9_block.jpg" src="../../images/143/14352.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14352.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A triple block</div>
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<p>Blocking refers to the actions taken by players standing at the net to stop or alter an opponent's attack.<p>A block that is aimed at completely stopping an attack, thus making the ball remain in the opponent's court, is called offensive. A well-executed offensive block is performed by jumping and reaching to penetrate with one's arms and hands over the net and into the opponent's area. The jump should be timed so as to intercept the ball's trajectory prior to it crossing over the net. Palms are held deflected downward about 45-60 degrees toward the interior of the opponents court. A "roof" is a spectacular offensive block that redirects the power and speed of the attack straight down to the attacker's floor, as if the attacker hit the ball into the underside of a peaked house roof.<p>You can also use a "swing block" in which the blocker wants to stay very close to the net (like in a regular block) and will use his/or arms to "swing" and block the ball. With all blocking, timing is very important. If you don't start at the right time, the block will not work. You want to start your blocking approach when the hitter begins to start their hitting approach.<p>By contrast, it is called a defensive, or "soft" block if the goal is to control and deflect the hard-driven ball up so that it slows down and becomes more easy to be defended. A well-executed soft-block is performed by jumping and placing one's hands above the net with no penetration into the opponent's court and with the palms up and fingers pointing backward.<p>Blocking is also classified according to the number of players involved. Thus, one may speak of single (or solo), double, or triple block.<p>Successful blocking does not always result in a "roof" and many times does not even touch the ball. While it’s obvious that a block was a success when the attacker is roofed, a block that consistently forces the attacker away from his or her 'power' or preferred attack into a more easily controlled shot by the defense is also a highly successful block.<p>At the same time, the block position influences the positions where other defenders place themselves while opponent hitters are spiking.<p><a id="Dig" name="Dig"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dig</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14353.jpg.htm" title="Woman going for a dig."><img alt="Woman going for a dig." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Volleyball_dig.jpg" src="../../images/143/14353.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14353.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Woman going for a dig.</div>
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<p>Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground. In many aspects, this skill is similar to passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to distinguish between defensive actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms.<p>Some specific techniques are more common in digging than in passing. A player may sometimes perform a "dive", i.e., throw his or her body in the air with a forward movement in an attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest. When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost touching the court, this is called a "pancake".<p>Sometimes a player may also be forced to drop his or her body quickly to the floor in order to save the ball. In this situation, the player makes use of a specific rolling technique to minimize the chances of injuries.<p><a id="Coaching" name="Coaching"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Coaching</span></h2>
<p><a id="Basic_principles" name="Basic_principles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Basic principles</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Coaching for volleyball can be classified under two main categories: match coaching and developmental coaching. The objective of match coaching is to win a match by managing a team's strategy. Developmental coaching emphasizes player development through the re-enforcement of basic skills during exercises known as "drills". Drills promote repetition and refinement of volleyball movements, particularly in footwork patterns, body positioning relative to others, and ball contact. A <!--del_lnk--> coach will construct drills that simulate match situations thereby encouraging speed of movement, anticipation, timing, and team-work. At the various stages of a player's career, a coach will tailor drills to meet the strategic requirements of the team.<p><a id="Strategy" name="Strategy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Strategy</span></h2>
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<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14354.jpg.htm" title="An image from an international match between Italy and Russia in 2005. A Russian player on the left has just served, with three men of his team next to the net moving to their assigned block positions from the starting ones. Two others, in the back-row positions, are preparing for defense. Italy, on the right, has three men in a line, each preparing to pass if the ball reaches him. The setter is waiting for their pass while the middle hitter with no. 10 will jump for a quick hit if the pass is good enough. Alessandro Fei (no. 14) has no passing duties and is preparing for a back-row hit on the right side of the field. Note the two liberos with different color dress. Middle hitters/blockers are commonly substituted by liberos in their back-row positions."><img alt="An image from an international match between Italy and Russia in 2005. A Russian player on the left has just served, with three men of his team next to the net moving to their assigned block positions from the starting ones. Two others, in the back-row positions, are preparing for defense. Italy, on the right, has three men in a line, each preparing to pass if the ball reaches him. The setter is waiting for their pass while the middle hitter with no. 10 will jump for a quick hit if the pass is good enough. Alessandro Fei (no. 14) has no passing duties and is preparing for a back-row hit on the right side of the field. Note the two liberos with different color dress. Middle hitters/blockers are commonly substituted by liberos in their back-row positions." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Europei_di_pallavolo_2005_-_Italia-Russia.jpg" src="../../images/143/14354.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14354.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An image from an international match between Italy and Russia in 2005. A Russian player on the left has just served, with three men of his team next to the net moving to their assigned block positions from the starting ones. Two others, in the back-row positions, are preparing for defense. Italy, on the right, has three men in a line, each preparing to pass if the ball reaches him. The setter is waiting for their pass while the middle hitter with no. 10 will jump for a quick hit if the pass is good enough. <!--del_lnk--> Alessandro Fei (no. 14) has no passing duties and is preparing for a back-row hit on the right side of the field. Note the two liberos with different colour dress. Middle hitters/blockers are commonly substituted by liberos in their back-row positions.</div>
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<p><a id="Player_specialization" name="Player_specialization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Player specialization</span></h3>
<p>Players do not usually master all six skills, but rather focus on one or more of them in connection with the tactics employed by each team. The most common specialization comprises three positions: attacker/blocker (also differentiated in "outside" and "middle"), setter and <!--del_lnk--> liberos (defensive specialist).<p>Generally, taller players with the ability to jump high are utilized as attackers/blockers, where they attempt to block or spike opponents' initial hits and return the ball at high speed on steep trajectories so that the ball lands before the other team has time to react.<ul>
<li><b>Setters</b> have the task for orchestrating the offense of the team. They aim for second touch and their main responsibility is to place the ball in the air where the attackers can hit the ball into the opponents' court in the easiest way possible. They have to be able to operate with the hitters with variety and break up the enemy's block. Setters need to have swift and skillful appraisal and tactical accuracy, and must be quick at moving around the court.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Liberos</b> are defensive specialists, who are responsible for receiving the attack or serve (the <i>dig</i>) and are usually the players on the court with the quickest reaction time and best passing skills. Liberos do not necessarily need to be tall, as they never play at the net, allowing shorter players with strong passing skills to excel. A player designated as a libero for a match may not play other roles during that match.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Middle blockers</b> or <b>Middle hitters</b> are players that can perform very fast attacks that usually take place near the setter. They are specialized in blocking, since they must attempt to stop equally fast plays from their opponents and then quickly set up a double block at the sides of the court. In general they are the tallest players, but are often less skillful defensive players.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Outside hitters</b>, also known as <i>power hitters</i>, attack from near the antennas. Since most sets to the outside are high, the outside hitter may take a longer approach, sometimes even starting from outside the court sideline. An outside hitter generally relies on a powerful swing to score, but some offensive plays may call for an angled approach and/or quick attacks to confound the defense. Outside hitters must also master passing, since they generally help the libero in receiving the opponent's serve. A <b>strong-side hitter</b> is an outside hitter that specializes in attacking from the front-left position. This hitting position is advantageous for a <!--del_lnk--> right-handed hitter, because the set will come from the right, and can therefore be delivered efficiently to the hitting arm. Conversely, the attacker in the front-right position is the <b>weak-side hitter</b>. Since the set is coming from his left, a right-handed hitter in the weak-side position will have to swing across his body to attack. Thus, <!--del_lnk--> left-handedness can be a desirable quality in a weak-side hitter.</ul>
<p><a id="Formations" name="Formations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Formations</span></h3>
<p>The three standard volleyball formations are known as "4-2", "6-2" and "5-1", which refers to the number of hitters and setters respectively. 4-2 is a basic formation used only in beginners' play, while 5-1 is by far the most common formation in high-level play.<p><a name="4-2"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">4-2</span></h4>
<p>The 4-2 formation has four hitters and two setters. The setters usually set from the middle front position. (In the rare competitive 4-2, the setters more often set from the right front position.) The team will therefore have two front-row attackers at all times.<p>The setters line up opposite each other in the rotation. The typical lineup has two outside hitters. By aligning like positions opposite themselves in the rotation, there will always be one of each position in the front and back rows. After service, the players in the front row move into their assigned positions, so that the setter is always in middle front. Alternatively, the setter moves into the right front and has both a middle and an outside attacker; the disadvantage here lies in the lack of an offside hitter, allowing one of the other team's blockers to "cheat in" on a middle block.<p>The clear disadvantage to this offensive formation is that there are only two attackers, leaving a team with fewer offensive weapons.<p>Another aspect is to see the setter as an attacking force, albeit a weakened force, because when the setter is in the front court they are able to 'tip' or 'dump', so when the ball is close to the net on the second touch, the setter may opt to hit the ball over with one hand. This means that the blocker who would otherwise not have to block the setter is engaged and may allow one of the hitters to have an easier attack.<p><a name="6-2"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">6-2</span></h4>
<p>In the 6-2 formation, a player always comes forward from the back row to set. The three front row players are all in attacking positions. Thus, all six players act as hitters at one time or another, while two can act as setters. So the 6-2 formation is actually a 4-2 system, but the back-row setter penetrates to set.<p>The 6-2 lineup thus requires two setters, who line up opposite to each other in the rotation. In addition to the setters, a typical lineup will have two middle hitters and two outside hitters. By aligning like positions opposite themselves in the rotation, there will always be one of each position in the front and back rows. After service, the players in the front row move into their assigned positions.<p>The advantage of the 6-2 is that there are always three front-row hitters available, maximizing the offensive possibilities. However, not only does the 6-2 require a team to possess two people capable of performing the highly specialized role of setter, it also requires both of those players to be effective offensive hitters when not in the setter position. At the international level, only the Cuban National Women's Team employs this kind of formation. It is also used in Women's <!--del_lnk--> NCAA play, partially due to the variant rules used which allow 15 substitutions per set (as opposed to the 6 allowed in the standard rules).<p><a name="5-1"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">5-1</span></h4>
<p>The 5-1 formation has only one who assumes setting responsibilities regardless of his or her position in the rotation. The team will therefore have three front-row attackers when the setter is in the back row, and only two when the setter is in the front row, for a total of five.<p>The player opposite the setter in a 5-1 rotation is called the <i>opposite hitter</i>. In general, opposite hitters do not pass; they stand behind their teammates when the opponent is serving. The opposite hitter may be used as a third attack option (back-row attack) when the setter is in the front row: this is the normal option used to increase the attack capabilities of modern volleyball teams. Normally the opposite hitter is the most technical skilled hitter of the team. Back-row attacks generally come from the back-right position (position 1), but are increasingly performed from back-centre in high-level play.<p>The big advantage of this system is that the setter always has 3 hitters to vary sets with. If the setter does this well, the opponent's middle blocker may not have enough time to block with the outside hitter, increasing the chance for the attacking team to score.<p>There is another advantage: when the setter is a front-row player, he or she is allowed to jump and "dump" the ball onto the opponent's side. This too can confuse the opponent's blocking players: the setter can jump and dump or can set to one of the hitters. A good setter knows this and thus won't only jump to dump or to set for a quick hit, but as well to confuse the opponent.<p>The 5-1 offense is actually a mix of 6-2 and 4-2: when the setter is in the front row, the offense looks like a 4-2; when the setter is in the back row, the offense looks like a 6-2.<p><a id="Variations" name="Variations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Variations</span></h2>
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<p>There are many variations on the basic rules of volleyball. By far the most popular of these is <!--del_lnk--> beach volleyball, which is played on sand with two people per team, and rivals the main sport in popularity.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volleyball"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Volt</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Electricity_and_Electronics.htm">Electricity and Electronics</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/52/5287.jpg.htm" title="Josephson junction array chip developed by NIST as a standard volt."><img alt="Josephson junction array chip developed by NIST as a standard volt." class="thumbimage" height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NISTvoltChip.jpg" src="../../images/52/5287.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/52/5287.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Josephson junction array chip developed by <!--del_lnk--> NIST as a standard volt.</div>
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<p>The <b>volt</b> (symbol: V) is the <!--del_lnk--> SI <!--del_lnk--> derived unit of electric <!--del_lnk--> potential difference or <!--del_lnk--> electromotive force . It is named in honour of the <!--del_lnk--> Italian <!--del_lnk--> physicist <!--del_lnk--> Alessandro Volta (1745–1827), who invented the <!--del_lnk--> voltaic pile, the first modern chemical <!--del_lnk--> battery.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Definition" name="Definition"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Definition</span></h2>
<p>The volt is defined as the <!--del_lnk--> potential difference across a conductor when a <!--del_lnk--> current of one <!--del_lnk--> ampere dissipates one <!--del_lnk--> watt of <!--del_lnk--> power. Hence, it is the base SI representation <!--del_lnk--> m<sup>2</sup> · <!--del_lnk--> kg · <!--del_lnk--> s<sup>-3</sup> · <!--del_lnk--> A<sup>-1</sup>, which can be equally represented as one <!--del_lnk--> joule of <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> per <!--del_lnk--> coulomb of charge, J/C.<dl>
<dd><img alt="\mbox{V} = \dfrac{\mbox{W}}{\mbox{A}} = \dfrac{\mbox{J}}{\mbox{C}} = \dfrac{\mbox{m}^2 \cdot \mbox{kg}}{\mbox{s}^{3} \cdot \mbox{A}}" class="tex" src="../../images/52/5289.png" /></dl>
<p><a id="Josephson_junction_definition" name="Josephson_junction_definition"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Josephson junction definition</span></h4>
<p>Since 1990 the volt is maintained internationally for practical measurement using the <!--del_lnk--> Josephson effect, where a conventional value is used for the <!--del_lnk--> Josephson constant, fixed by the 18th <!--del_lnk--> General Conference on Weights and Measures as<dl>
<dd><b>K<sub>{J-90}</sub></b> = 0.4835979 GHz/µV.</dl>
<p><a id="Hydraulic_analogy" name="Hydraulic_analogy"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Hydraulic analogy</span></h2>
<p>In the <i><!--del_lnk--> hydraulic analogy</i> sometimes used to explain electric circuits by comparing them to water-filled pipes, <!--del_lnk--> voltage is likened to water pressure - it determines how fast the electrons will travel through the circuit. Current (in amperes), in the same analogy, is a measure of the volume of water that flows past a given point, the rate of which is determined by the voltage, and the total output measured in watts. The equation that brings all three components together is: volts × amperes = watts<p><a id="Common_voltages" name="Common_voltages"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Common voltages</span></h2>
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<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/50/5037.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A multimeter can be used to measure the voltage between two points</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/52/5291.jpg.htm" title="1.5 V C-cell batteries"><img alt="1.5 V C-cell batteries" class="thumbimage" height="142" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BateriaR14.jpg" src="../../images/52/5291.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/52/5291.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1.5 V C-cell batteries</div>
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<p>Nominal voltages of familiar sources:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nerve cell <a href="../../wp/a/Action_potential.htm" title="Action potential">action potential</a>: around 30 mV<li>Single-cell, rechargeable <!--del_lnk--> NiMH or <!--del_lnk--> NiCd battery: 1.2 V<li><!--del_lnk--> Mercury battery 1.355 V<li>Single-cell, non-rechargeable <!--del_lnk--> alkaline battery (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> AAA, AA, C and D cells): 1.5 V<li><!--del_lnk--> Lithium polymer rechargeable battery: 3.75 V<li><!--del_lnk--> Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) power supply: 5 V<li><!--del_lnk--> PP3 battery: 9 V<li><a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">Automobile</a> electrical system: "12 V", about 11.8 V discharged, 12.8 V charged, and 13.8-14.4 V while charging (vehicle running).<li>Household <!--del_lnk--> mains electricity: 240 V RMS in Australia, 230 V RMS in Europe, Asia and Africa, 120 V RMS in North America, 100 V RMS in Japan (see <!--del_lnk--> List of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rapid transit <!--del_lnk--> third rail: 600 to 700 V (see <!--del_lnk--> List of current systems for electric rail traction)<li>High speed train overhead power lines: 25 kV RMS at 50 Hz, but see <!--del_lnk--> List of current systems for electric rail traction for exceptions.<li>High voltage <!--del_lnk--> electric power transmission lines: 110 kV RMS and up (1150 kV RMS is the record as of 2005)<li><!--del_lnk--> Lightning: Varies greatly, often around 100 MV.</ul>
<p>Note: Where 'RMS' (<!--del_lnk--> root mean square) is stated above, the peak voltage is <img alt="\sqrt{2}" class="tex" src="../../images/340/34011.png" /> times greater than the RMS voltage for a <!--del_lnk--> sinusoidal signal.<p><a id="History_of_the_volt" name="History_of_the_volt"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History of the volt</span></h2>
<p>In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by <!--del_lnk--> Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Volta developed the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Voltaic pile, a forerunner of the <!--del_lnk--> battery, which produced a steady electric <!--del_lnk--> current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was <a href="../../wp/z/Zinc.htm" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a>. In the 1880s, the <!--del_lnk--> International Electrical Congress, now the <!--del_lnk--> International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), approved the volt for electromotive force. The volt was defined as the potential difference across a conductor when a current of one <!--del_lnk--> ampere dissipates one <!--del_lnk--> watt of power.<p>Prior to the development of the Josephson junction voltage standard, the volt was maintained in national laboratories using specially constructed batteries called <b><!--del_lnk--> standard cells</b>. The United States used a design called the <!--del_lnk--> Weston cell from 1905 to 1972.<table style="border: solid 1px #AAAAAA; background: #F3F3F3">
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<td><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="57" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SI_Brochure_Cover.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="40" /></td>
<td>This <!--del_lnk--> SI unit is named after <!--del_lnk--> Alessandro Volta. As for all SI units whose names are derived from the proper name of a person, the first letter of its <!--del_lnk--> symbol is <!--del_lnk--> uppercase (<b>V</b>). But when an SI unit is spelled out, it should always be written in <!--del_lnk--> lowercase (<b>volt</b>), unless it begins a sentence or is the name "degree <!--del_lnk--> Celsius". <div style="text-align:right;">— Based on <i><!--del_lnk--> The International System of Units</i>, section 5.2.</div>
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<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Voltaire</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Writers_and_critics.htm">Writers and critics</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><big>Voltaire</big></th>
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<div style="line-height:1.25em;">Voltaire at 24 by <!--del_lnk--> Nicolas de Largillière.</div>
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<th align="right">Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 21 November <!--del_lnk--> 1694<br /><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
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<th style="text-align:right;">Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 30 May <!--del_lnk--> 1778<br /><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
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<th style="text-align:right;">Occupation</th>
<td>Writer and philosopher</td>
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<td>François Arouet and Marie Marguerite d'Aumart</td>
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<p><b>François-Marie Arouet</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 21 November <!--del_lnk--> 1694 – <!--del_lnk--> 30 May <!--del_lnk--> 1778), better known by the <!--del_lnk--> pen name <b>Voltaire</b>, was a <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> <!--del_lnk--> writer, <!--del_lnk--> essayist, <!--del_lnk--> deist and <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a>.<p>Voltaire was known for his sharp <!--del_lnk--> wit, philosophical writings, and defence of <!--del_lnk--> civil liberties, including <!--del_lnk--> freedom of religion and the right to a <!--del_lnk--> fair trial. He was an outspoken supporter of social reform despite strict <!--del_lnk--> censorship laws in France and harsh penalties for those who broke them. A satirical <!--del_lnk--> polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize Church <!--del_lnk--> dogma and the French institutions of his day. Voltaire is considered one of the most influential figures of his time.<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_years" name="Early_years"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early years</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14357.jpg.htm" title="Bust of Voltaire by the artist Antoine Houdon, 1781."><img alt="Bust of Voltaire by the artist Antoine Houdon, 1781." height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bust_of_Voltaire_2%2C_Houdon..jpg" src="../../images/143/14357.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>François-Marie Arouet de Voltaire was born in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1694, the son of François Arouet, a <!--del_lnk--> notary who was a minor treasury official, and his wife, Marie Marguerite d'Aumart, from a noble family of the <!--del_lnk--> Poitou. Voltaire was educated by Jesuits at the <!--del_lnk--> Collège Louis-le-Grand (1704-11), where he learned Latin and Greek; later in life he became fluent in Italian, Spanish and English. From 1711 to 1713 he studied law. Before devoting himself entirely to writing, Voltaire worked as a secretary to the French ambassador in Holland. Most of Voltaire's early life revolved around Paris until his exile. From the beginning Voltaire had trouble with the authorities for his energetic attacks on the government and the Catholic Church. These activities were to result in numerous imprisonments and exiles. In his early twenties he spent eleven months in the Bastille for writing satirical verses about the aristocracy.<p>After graduating, Voltaire set out on a career in literature. His father, however, intended his son to be educated in the law. Voltaire, pretending to work in Paris as assistant to a lawyer, spent much of his time writing satirical poetry. When his father found him out, he again sent Voltaire to study law, this time in the provinces. Nevertheless, he continued to write, producing essays and historical studies not always noted for their accuracy. Voltaire's wit made him popular among some of the aristocratic families. One of his writings, about <!--del_lnk--> Louis XV's regent, <!--del_lnk--> Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, led to his being imprisoned in the <!--del_lnk--> Bastille. While there, he wrote his debut play, <i><!--del_lnk--> Oedipe</i>, and adopted the name Voltaire. <i>Oedipe's</i> success began Voltaire's influence and brought him into the French Enlightenment.<p><a id="Exile_to_England" name="Exile_to_England"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Exile to England</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire's repartee continued to bring him trouble, however. After he offended a young nobleman, the Chevalier de Rohan, the Rohan family had a <i><!--del_lnk--> lettre de cachet</i> issued, a secret warrant that allowed for the punishment of people who had committed no crimes or who possibly posed a risk to the royal family, and used it to <!--del_lnk--> exile Voltaire without a trial. The incident marked the beginning of Voltaire's attempt to improve the French judiciary system.<p>Voltaire's exile to England greatly influenced him through ideas and experiences. The young man was impressed by England's constitutional <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a>, as well as the country's support of the freedoms of speech and religion. He was influenced by several people, including such writers as <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>. In his younger years, he saw Shakespeare as an example French writers should look to, though later Voltaire saw himself as the superior writer. Many of his later works were influenced by this stay. After three years in exile, Voltaire returned to Paris and published his ideas in a fictional document about the English government entitled the <i><!--del_lnk--> Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais</i> (Philosophical letters on the English). Because he regarded England's constitutional monarchy as more developed and more respectful of human rights (particularly religious tolerance) than its French counterpart, these letters met great controversy in France, to the point where copies of the document were burnt and Voltaire was forced to leave Paris.<p><a id="The_Ch.C3.A2teau_de_Cirey" name="The_Ch.C3.A2teau_de_Cirey"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Château de Cirey</span></h3>
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<p>Voltaire then set out to the Château de Cirey, located on the borders of <!--del_lnk--> Champagne, France and <!--del_lnk--> Lorraine. The building was renovated with his money, and here he began a relationship with the Marquise du Châtelet, <!--del_lnk--> Gabrielle Émilie le Tonnelier de Breteuil. The Chateau de Cirey was owned by the Marquise's husband, Marquis Florent-Claude du Chatelet, who sometimes visited his wife and her lover at the chateau. Their relationship, which lasted for fifteen years, led to much intellectual development. Voltaire and the Marquise collected over 21,000 books, an enormous number for their time. Together, Voltaire and the Marquise also studied these books and performed experiments. Both worked on experimenting with the "<!--del_lnk--> natural sciences," the term used in that epoch for physics, in his laboratory. Voltaire performed many experiments including one that attempted to determine the properties of fire.<p>The 1911 <a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> comments that <i>"If the English visit may be regarded as having finished Voltaire's education, the <!--del_lnk--> Cirey residence was the first stage of his literary manhood."</i> Having learned from his previous brushes with the authorities, Voltaire began his future habit of keeping out of personal harm's way, and denying any awkward responsibility. He continued to write, publishing plays such as <i>Mérope</i> and some short stories. Again, a main source of inspiration for Voltaire were the years he spent exiled in England. During his time there, Voltaire had been strongly influenced by the works of Sir <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, a leading philosopher and scientist of the epoch. Voltaire strongly believed in Newton's theories, especially concerning <!--del_lnk--> optics (Newton’s discovery that white light is composed of all the colors in the <!--del_lnk--> spectrum led to many experiments by him and the Marquise), and gravity (the story of Newton and the apple falling from the tree is mentioned in his <i>Essai sur la poésie épique</i>, or <i>Essay on Epic Poetry</i>). Although both Voltaire and the Marquise were also curious about the philosophies of <a href="../../wp/g/Gottfried_Leibniz.htm" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, a contemporary and rival of Newton, the pair remained "Newtonians" and based their theories on Newton’s works and ideas. Though it has been stated that the Marquise may have been more "Leibnizian", which may have caused tension between the two, this is probably an exaggeration; the Marquise even wrote "je newtonise," which, translated, means "I am 'newtoning'". Voltaire wrote a book on Newton's philosophies: the <i>Eléments de la philosophie de Newton</i> (The Elements of Newton's Philosophies). <i>The Elements</i> was probably written with the Marquise, and describes the other branches of Newton's ideas that fascinated him: it spoke of optics and the theory of attraction (gravity).<p>Voltaire and the Marquise also studied history - particularly the people who had contributed to civilization up to that point. Voltaire had worked with history since his time in England; his second essay in English had the title <i>Essay upon the Civil Wars in France</i>. When he returned to France, he wrote a biographical essay of King <!--del_lnk--> Charles XII. This essay was the beginning of Voltaire's rejection of <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a>; he wrote that human life is not destined or controlled by greater beings. The essay won him the position of historian in the king's court. Voltaire and the Marquise also worked with philosophy, particularly with <!--del_lnk--> metaphysics, the branch of philosophy dealing with the distant, and what cannot be directly proven: why and what life is, whether or not there is a <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>, and so on. Voltaire and the Marquise analyzed the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>, trying to find its validity in the world. Voltaire renounced religion; he believed in the <!--del_lnk--> separation of church and state and in religious freedom, ideas he formed after his stay in England. Voltaire even claimed that "One hundred years from my day there will not be a Bible in the earth except one that is looked upon by an antiquarian curiosity seeker."<p>After the death of the Marquise, Voltaire moved to <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> to join <a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II_of_Prussia.htm" title="Frederick II of Prussia">Frederick the Great</a>, a close friend and admirer of his. The king had repeatedly invited him to his palace, and now gave him a salary of 20,000 francs a year. Though life went well at first, he began to encounter difficulties. Faced with a lawsuit and an argument with the president of the Berlin Academy of science, Voltaire wrote the <i><!--del_lnk--> Diatribe du docteur Akakia</i> (Diatribe of Doctor Akakia) which derided the president. This greatly angered Frederick, who had all copies of the document burned and arrested Voltaire at an inn where he was staying along his journey home. Voltaire headed toward Paris, but Louis XV banned him from the city, so instead he turned to <a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, where he bought a large estate. Though he was received openly at first, the law in Geneva which banned theatrical performances and the publication of <i>La pucelle d'Orléans</i> against his will led to Voltaire's writing of <i><!--del_lnk--> Candide, ou l'Optimisme</i> (Candide, or Optimism) in 1759 and his eventual departure. <i>Candide</i>, a satire on the philosophy of Leibniz, remains the work for which Voltaire is perhaps best known.<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
<p>Voltaire was a prolific writer, and produced works in almost every <a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">literary</a> form, authoring plays, <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poem">poetry</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novels</a>, <!--del_lnk--> essays, historical and scientific works, over 20,000 letters and over two thousand books and <!--del_lnk--> pamphlets. In addition to his novels listed below, some of his most significant works include these:<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Oedipe</i> (1718)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Zaire</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1732)<li><i>Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais</i> (1733), revised as <i><!--del_lnk--> Letters on the English</i> (circa 1778)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Le Mondain</i> (1736)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sept Discours en Vers sur l'Homme</i> (1738)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Micromégas</i> (1752)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Dictionnaire philosophique</i> (1764)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Épître à l'Auteur du Livre des Trois Imposteurs</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Letter to the author of The Three Impostors</i>) (1770)</ul>
<p><a id="Novels_and_Novellas" name="Novels_and_Novellas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Novels and Novellas</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Zadig</i> (1747)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Micromégas</i> (1752)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Candide</i> (1759)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> L'Ingénu</i> (1767)</ul>
<p><a id="Plays" name="Plays"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Plays</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire wrote between fifty and sixty plays, including a few unfinished ones. Among them are these:<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Oedipe</i> (1718)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Eriphile</i> (1732)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mahomet</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mérope</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Nanine</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Zaïre</i> (1732)</ul>
<p><a id="Historical" name="Historical"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Historical</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i>History of Charles XII, King of Sweden</i> (1731)<li><i>The Age of Louis XIV</i> (1752)<li><i>The Age of Louis XV</i> (1746 - 1752)<li><i>Annals of the Empire - Charlemagne, A.D. 742 - Henry VII 1313</i>, Vol. I (1754)<li><i>Annals of the Empire - Louis of Bavaria, 1315 to Ferdinand II 1631</i> Vol. II (1754)<li><i>History of the Russian Empire Under Peter the Great</i> (Vol. I 1759; Vol. II 1763)</ul>
<p><a id="Poetry" name="Poetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Poetry</span></h3>
<p>From an early age, Voltaire displayed a talent for writing verse, and his first published work was poetry. He wrote two long poems, the <i>Henriade</i>, and the <i>Pucelle</i>, besides many other smaller pieces.<p>The <i>Henriade</i> was written in imitation of <a href="../../wp/v/Virgil.htm" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, using the <!--del_lnk--> Alexandrine couplet reformed and rendered monotonous for dramatic purposes. Voltaire lacked both enthusiasm for and understanding of the subject, which both negatively impacted the poem's quality. The <i>Pucelle</i>, on the other hand, is a burlesque work attacking religion and history. Voltaire's minor poems are generally considered superior to either of these two works.<p><a id="Prose_and_romances" name="Prose_and_romances"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Prose and romances</span></h3>
<p>Many of Voltaire's prose works and romances, usually composed as pamphlets, were written as polemics. <i><!--del_lnk--> Candide</i> attacks religious and philosophical <!--del_lnk--> optimism, <i>L'Homme aux quarante ecus</i> certain social and political ways of the time, <i>Zadig</i> and others the received forms of moral and metaphysical orthodoxy, and some were written to deride the Bible. In these works, Voltaire's ironic style without exaggeration is apparent, particularly the extreme restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment. Voltaire never dwells too long on a point, stays to laugh at what he has said, elucidates or comments on his own jokes, guffaws over them or exaggerates their form. <i>Candide</i> in particular is the best example of his style.<p>Voltaire also has, in common with <!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Swift, the distinction of paving the way for <!--del_lnk--> science fiction's philosophical irony, particularly in his <i>Micromegas</i>.<p><a id="Voltaire.27s_Deism" name="Voltaire.27s_Deism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Voltaire's Deism</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire, like many key figures of the <!--del_lnk--> European Enlightenment, was a <!--del_lnk--> Deist. He did not believe that faith was needed to believe in God. He wrote, "What is faith? Is it to believe that which is evident? No. It is perfectly evident to my mind that there exists a necessary, eternal, supreme, and intelligent being. This is no matter of faith, but of reason." <!--del_lnk--> <p>Because he believed in God based on reason and not on any of the religious books of any of the various revealed religions, Voltaire rejected the teachings of Christianity.<p><a id="Views_on_Christianity" name="Views_on_Christianity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Views on Christianity</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire opposed <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> beliefs fiercely but not consistently. On one hand, he claimed that the <!--del_lnk--> Gospels were fabricated and <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> did not exist - that they were produced by those who wanted to create God in their own image and were full of discrepancies. On the other hand, he claimed that this very same community preserved the texts without making any change to adjust those discrepancies.<p>Voltaire is reputed to have proclaimed about the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>, "In 100 years this book will be forgotten and eliminated...", although there is no direct evidence that he made such a statement. In his later years (1759) Voltaire purchased an estate called "Ferney" on the French-Swiss border. As the property stradled the border, Voltaire joked that when the French Catholics were against him, he lived on the Swiss (Protestant) half, and vice versa. There is an apocryphal story that this house was purchased by the Geneva Bible Society and used for printing Bibles, but this appears to be due to a misunderstanding of the 1849 annual report of the American Bible Society <!--del_lnk--> . Voltaire's chateau is now owned and administered by the French Ministry of Culture.<p><a id="Views_on_race" name="Views_on_race"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Views on race</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire expressed his views on race, mostly in his work <i><!--del_lnk--> Essai sur les mœurs</i>, holding that <!--del_lnk--> black people, whom he called "animals", were a peculiar species of human because of what he perceived as great differences from other humans, both physically and mentally. He also wrote of the culture of <!--del_lnk--> indigenous peoples. Voltaire expressed much the same views in his personal correspondence. Voltaire's viewpoint on <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a> reveals <!--del_lnk--> anti-Semitism on his part.<p><a id="Philosophy" name="Philosophy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Philosophy</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire's largest philosophical work is the <i><!--del_lnk--> Dictionnaire philosophique</i>, comprising articles contributed by him to the <!--del_lnk--> Encyclopédie and of several minor pieces. It directed criticism against French political institutions, Voltaire's personal enemies, the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a> and the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, showing the character, literary and personal, of Voltaire.<p><a id="Views_on_New_France" name="Views_on_New_France"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Views on New France</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire was a critic of France's colonial policy in North America, dismissing the vast territory of <!--del_lnk--> New France as "<!--del_lnk--> a few acres of snow" (<i>"quelques arpents de neige"</i>) that produced little more than furs and required constant - and expensive - military protection from the mother country against Great Britain's <!--del_lnk--> 13 Colonies to the south.<p><a id="Correspondence" name="Correspondence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Correspondence</span></h3>
<p>Voltaire also engaged in an enormous amount of private correspondence during his life, totalling over 21,000 letters. His personality shows through in the letters that he wrote: his energy and versatility, his unhesitating flattery when he chose to flatter, his ruthless sarcasm, his unscrupulous business faculty and his resolve to double and twist in any fashion so as to escape his enemies.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<p>Voltaire perceived the French <!--del_lnk--> bourgeoisie to be too small and ineffective, the <!--del_lnk--> aristocracy to be parasitic and corrupt, the commoners as ignorant and superstitious, and the <!--del_lnk--> church as a static force useful only as a counterbalance since its "religious tax" or the <!--del_lnk--> tithe helped to create a strong backing for revolutionaries.<p>Voltaire distrusted <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, which he saw as propagating the idiocy of the masses. To Voltaire, only an enlightened <!--del_lnk--> monarch or an <!--del_lnk--> Enlightened absolutist, advised by <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> like himself, could bring about change as it was in the king's rational interest to improve the power and wealth of his subjects and kingdom. Voltaire is quoted as saying that he "would rather obey one lion, than 200 rats of [his own] species." Voltaire essentially believed monarchy to be the key to progress and change.<p>He supported "bringing order" through military means in his letters to <a href="../../wp/c/Catherine_II_of_Russia.htm" title="Catherine II of Russia">Catherine II of Russia</a> and Frederick II of Prussia where he strongly praised the <!--del_lnk--> Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was, however, deeply opposed to the use of war and violence as means for the resolution of controversies, as he repeatedly and forcefully stated in many of his works, including the "Philosophical Dictionary," where he described war as a "hellish enterprise" and those who resort to it "ridiculous murderers."<p>He is best known today for his novel, <i>Candide, ou l'Optimisme</i> (Candide, or Optimism, 1759), which satirized the philosophy of Leibniz. <i>Candide</i> was also subject to censorship and Voltaire jokingly claimed that the actual author was a certain "Dr DeMad" in a letter, where he reaffirmed the main polemical stances of the text. <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Voltaire is also known for many memorable aphorisms, such as: "<i>Si Dieu n'existait pas, il faudrait l'inventer</i>" ("If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him"), contained in a verse epistle from 1768, addressed to the anonymous author of a controversial work, <i>The Three Impostors</i>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, not to be confused with the philosopher <a href="../../wp/j/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.htm" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, sent a copy of his "Ode to Posterity" to Voltaire. Voltaire read it through and said, "I do not think this poem will reach its destination."<p>Voltaire is remembered and honored in France as a courageous polemicist who indefatigably fought for <a href="../../wp/c/Civil_rights.htm" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> — the <!--del_lnk--> right to a fair trial and freedom of religion — and who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of the <i><!--del_lnk--> ancien régime</i>. The <i>ancien régime</i> involved an unfair balance of power and taxes between the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobles), and everyone else (the commoners and middle class, who were burdened with most of the taxes).<p><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Carlyle argued that while he was unsurpassed in literary form, not even the most elaborate of Voltaire's works was of much value for matter and that he never uttered an original idea of his own.<p>Voltaire did not let his ideals interfere with the acquisition of his fortune. He was a millionaire by the time he was forty after cultivating the friendship of the Paris brothers who had a contract to supply the French army with food and munitions and being invited to participate with them in this extremely profitable enterprise. According to a review in the March 7, 2005 issue of <i>The New Yorker</i> of Voltaire's Garden, a mathematician friend of his realized in 1728 that the French government had authorized a lottery in which the prize was much greater than the collective cost of the tickets. He and Voltaire formed a syndicate, collected all the money, and became moneylenders to the great houses of Europe. Voltaire complained that lotteries exploited the poor.<p>The town of <!--del_lnk--> Ferney, France, where Voltaire lived out the last 20 years of his life (though he died in Paris), is now named Ferney-Voltaire. His <i>château</i> is now a museum (<i>L'Auberge de l'Europe</i>). Voltaire's library is preserved intact in the <!--del_lnk--> Russian National Library, <!--del_lnk--> St Petersburg.<p><a id="The_pen_name_.22Voltaire.22" name="The_pen_name_.22Voltaire.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The pen name "Voltaire"</span></h2>
<p>The name "Voltaire," which he adopted in 1718 not only as a pen name but also in daily use, is an <!--del_lnk--> anagram of the latinized spelling of his surname "Arovet" and the first letters of the sobriquet "le jeune" ("the younger"): AROVET Le Ieune. The name also echoes in reversed order the syllables of a familial château in the <!--del_lnk--> Poitou region: "Airvault". The adoption of this name after his incarceration at the Bastille is seen by many to mark a formal separation on the part of Voltaire from his family and his past.<p>Richard Holmes in "Voltaire's Grin" also believes that the name "Voltaire" arose from the transposition of letters. But he adds that a writer such as Voltaire would have intended the name to carry its connotations of speed and daring. These come from associated words such as: "voltige" (acrobatics on a trapeze or horse), "volte-face" (spinning about to face your enemies), and "volatile" (originally any winged creature).<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire"</div>
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<h2>Working with SOS Children</h2>
<p>There are a number of ways of working with SOS Children, so please do contact us if you feel you can help. Unfortunately, paid opportunities do not come up very frequently, but perhaps you might be able to spare some of your time to volunteer?</p><h3>Job opportunities</h3>
<p>At present we do not have any vacancies in the main office in Cambridge, although we are recruiting for volunteer Regional Coordinators (see below).</p><h3>Regional Coordinators</h3>
<p>We have a number of vacancies for Regional Coordinators to help strengthen the charity’s regional presence. For more information about the position, please <a href="../../wp/r/Regional_Coordinators.htm">click here</a>.</p><h3>Volunteering overseas</h3>
<p>In general we do not have opportunities for people to work overseas on our projects, as we try to employ staff in-country to make use of local knowledge and resources. In rare cases, voluntary placements for people with specialist skills (e.g. medical, accounting, IT) and who are available for a long period (minimum six months) may be possible. Please contact us for more information.</p><h3>Volunteering in the UK</h3>
<p>Although there are no SOS Children's Villages in the UK, and therefore no opportunities to work with children, volunteering your time is still very useful to us. We currently have a number of volunteers helping us in the Cambridge office, as well as remotely elsewhere in the country.</p><p>Depending on your skills, time available and location, you may be able to help us with proof-reading or editing of documents, acting as a local supporter or helping with web design. Please contact us if you're interesting in volunteering with us.</p><h3>Contact us</h3>
<p>If you are interested in volunteering for SOS Children or have skills or knowledge you think may be of use, please don't hesitate to contact us: <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a>.</p>
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<h2>Volunteering to help SOS Children</h2><p><strong>18/02/2006</strong></p>
<p>People often respond to hearing about our charity's work by offering to volunteer for us. It is a natural reaction to want to help the children in need that we care for. At the same time, most people recognise that actual long term childcare for vulnerable children in the third world is better done by properly trained and supported local staff who are able to help the child grow in security. </p><p>For this reason although our world-wide operation is substantial we do not take vast numbers of short-term volunteers abroad. </p><p>However, we do welcome volunteers in the UK. Both people who offer to help us with administration or fundraising in our office in Cambridge as well as around the UK.</p><p><strong>Regional Volunteer Co-ordinators</strong><br />We are looking to recruit individuals who can raise awareness of our work in their area and facilitate community fundraising for our work with orphaned and abandoned children. </p><p><strong>Encourage more support</strong><br />Do you have contacts with schools, companies and community groups? Would you be willing to approach these contacts? Are you happy to make new contacts for SOS Children to encourage more support for the charity? </p><p><strong>A great success</strong><br />The first WOW in 2005 was a great success and we want to make 2006 even better with the help of Regional Volunteer Co-ordinators. We are planning a host of events for 2006 including WOW Balloon Races, Cinema previews, raffles and many more to make WOW fantastic. </p><p><strong>A regional face</strong><br />We need enthusiastic and motivated individuals who have about 8-10 hours to spare a week. If you are confident in front of groups of people and could be a regional ‘face’ of the charity, please call Bec on 01223 365589 or email <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a></p><p>At any one time we have about ten volunteers on our books and most come in for about a half day a week: whether they help us with filing and sending out information to sponsors, or by maintaining a supply of leaflets and a poster in a waiting room, or even helping with proof-reading and improving documents sent to us by people for whom English is not their mother tongue. If you would like to help in this way, please just email us and we will send you our brief form to fill in to help us help you find something valuable you can do for the world's orphans. </p><p><strong>Current overseas opportunities</strong><br />We currently have one year teaching opportunities for volunteers in Jordan and China. If you have medical qualifications and a year to spare, then contact us about one of our 54 medical centres.</p><p>Please contact Caroline Baker on 01223 365589 or <a href="mailto:[email protected]">[email protected]</a> for more details. </p><p>SOS Children is a working name for the charity SOS Children's Villages UK. Charity Commission registered Charity number 1069204</p>
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<p><b>Voting</b> is a method of <!--del_lnk--> decision making wherein a group such as a <!--del_lnk--> meeting or an <!--del_lnk--> electorate attempts to gauge its opinion—usually as a final step following discussions or debates. Alternatives to voting include <!--del_lnk--> consensus decision making (which works to avoid polarization and the marginalization of <!--del_lnk--> dissent) and <!--del_lnk--> betting (as in an <!--del_lnk--> anticipatory democracy).<p>
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</script><a id="Reasons_for_voting" name="Reasons_for_voting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reasons for voting</span></h2>
<p>In a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, <b>voting</b> commonly implies <a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" title="Election">election</a>, i.e. a way for an <!--del_lnk--> electorate to select among candidates for office. In <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">politics</a> <i>voting</i> is the method by which the <!--del_lnk--> electorate of a democracy appoints representatives in its <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a>.<p>A <b>vote</b>, or a <b>ballot</b>, is an individual's act of voting, by which he or she express support or preference for a certain <!--del_lnk--> motion (e.g. a proposed resolution), a certain candidate, or a certain selection of candidates. A <!--del_lnk--> secret ballot, the standard way to protect voters' <!--del_lnk--> political privacy, generally takes place at a <!--del_lnk--> polling station. (Compare <!--del_lnk--> postal ballot). The act of voting in most countries is voluntary, however some countries, such as <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, have <!--del_lnk--> compulsory voting systems.<p>Though voting is usually recognized as one of the main characteristics of <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, a country's having an election featuring the populace casting votes does not necessarily mean the country is democratic. Many authoritarian governments have "elections" but the candidates are pre-chosen and approved by elites, there is no competition, voter qualifications are restrictive, and voting is often a sham.<p>Some people think that whenever votes are recorded in a medium which is invisible to humans, electors lose any possibility to verify how their votes are collected and tallied up to produce the final result, thus they need to have an absolute faith in the accuracy, honesty and security of the whole electoral apparatus. This is said to be particularly true for electronic elections because, for people who didn’t program them, computers act just like black boxes and their operations can truly be verified only by knowing the input and comparing the expected output with the actual output <!--del_lnk--> , but under a secret ballot system, there is no known input, nor is there any expected output with which to compare electoral results <!--del_lnk--> . On the other hand, this is a problem to some degree with every form of a secret ballot; it is impossible for an individual voter to personally follow the custody or his or her vote once it is placed into the ballot box.<p><a id="Types_of_votes" name="Types_of_votes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of votes</span></h2>
<p>Different <!--del_lnk--> voting systems use different types of vote. Suppose that the options in some election are <i>Alice</i>, <i>Bob</i>, <i>Charlie</i>, <i>Daniel</i>, and <i>Emily</i>.<p>In a voting system that uses a <i>single vote</i>, the voter can select one of the five that they most approve of. <!--del_lnk--> First past the post uses single votes. So, a voter might vote for Charlie. This precludes him voting for anyone else.<p>In a voting system that uses a <i>multiple vote</i>, the voter can vote for any subset of the alternatives. So, a voter might vote for Alice, Bob, and Charlie, rejecting Daniel and Emily. <!--del_lnk--> Approval voting uses such multiple votes.<p>In a voting system that uses a <i>ranked vote</i>, the voter has to rank the alternatives in order of preference. For example, they might vote for Bob in first place, then Emily, then Alice, then Daniel, and finally Charlie. Many voting systems use ranked votes. See <!--del_lnk--> preference voting.<p>In a voting system that uses a <i>scored vote</i> (or <i>range vote</i>), the voter gives each alternative a number between one and ten (the upper and lower bounds may vary). See <!--del_lnk--> range voting.<p><a id="Fair_voting" name="Fair_voting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fair voting</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Arrow lists five characteristics of a fair <!--del_lnk--> voting system. However, <!--del_lnk--> Arrow's impossibility theorem shows that it is impossible for any voting system to have all 5 characteristics at the same time.<p>Casting a vote expresses an implied willingness to participate in a common process with some shared outcome. Those who feel unable to express their limits or boundaries of tolerance in a voting system may be more likely to resist or fight or fail to support decisions made through it (more of an issue with <!--del_lnk--> parties or policies). Those who feel unable to express their real preferences may lack all enthusiasm for the choices or for the eventually chosen representative or <!--del_lnk--> leader. Any vote balances both kinds of considerations.<p>One common issue, especially in first-past-the-post systems, is that of the <!--del_lnk--> protest vote: one might "waste one's vote" on a minor party to send a signal of strong preference for a candidate or party that cannot win, or of intolerance for the "more mainstream" options. However it is difficult to tell from the vote alone whether one is positively inclined to the minor party or negatively inclined to the major party. Russia offers its electors a "<!--del_lnk--> None of the Above" option, so that protest votes can be properly tallied. Other jurisdictions may record the incidence of (apparently deliberately) <!--del_lnk--> spoiled ballot papers.<p>Also, it is often not clear whether the voter really understands how his or her vote is counted in the voting system, especially with the more complex types. This often leads to issues with the results. <!--del_lnk--> Ballot design and the use of <!--del_lnk--> voting machines have particular importance, given this issue. Optimally participants in a vote should perceive the results, especially of a political vote, as <!--del_lnk--> fair. If fairness appears lacking, resistance to the results may lead at best to confusion, at worst to <!--del_lnk--> violence and even <!--del_lnk--> civil war, in the case of political rivals.<p>In an effort to make balloting cheaper and more transparent, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> introduced <!--del_lnk--> electronic voting in all levels of elections, gradually since <!--del_lnk--> 1994. By <!--del_lnk--> 2002 general elections, all voting in Brazil was cast on electronic system, with paper ballots being used only in last case emergencies (such as black-outs). <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> followed in <!--del_lnk--> 14 September <!--del_lnk--> 2003, for a gubernatorial election. This pilot test involved 500,000 voters distributed among 20 constituencies in the eastern Argentine <!--del_lnk--> province of <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vowel</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Linguistics.htm">Linguistics</a></h3>
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<th style="background-color: #ccf; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Manners of articulation</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Obstruent</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Click</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Plosive</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Ejective</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Implosive</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Affricate</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Fricative</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Sibilant</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Sonorant</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Nasal</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Flaps/Tap</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Trill</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><!--del_lnk--> Approximant</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Liquid</td>
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<td style="padding-left: 1em;"><strong class="selflink">Vowel</strong></td>
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<td style="padding-left: 2em;"><!--del_lnk--> Semivowel</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Lateral</td>
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<td style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 115%; border-top: 1px solid #ccc; padding-top: 0.5em;">This page contains <!--del_lnk--> phonetic information in <!--del_lnk--> IPA, which may not display correctly in some browsers. <!--del_lnk--> [Help]</td>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> phonetics, a <b>vowel</b> is a <a href="../../wp/s/Sound.htm" title="Sound">sound</a> in spoken <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> that is characterized by an open configuration of the <!--del_lnk--> vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure above the <!--del_lnk--> glottis. This contrasts with <!--del_lnk--> consonants, which are characterized by a constriction or closure at one or more points along the vocal tract. A vowel is also understood to be syllabic: an equivalent open but non-syllabic sound is called a <!--del_lnk--> semivowel.<p>In all languages, vowels form the <!--del_lnk--> nucleus or peak of <!--del_lnk--> syllables, whereas <!--del_lnk--> consonants form the <!--del_lnk--> onset and (in languages which have them) <!--del_lnk--> coda. However, some languages also allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable, such as the syllabic <i>l</i> in the <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> word <i>table</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈteɪ.bl̩]</span> (the stroke under the <i>l</i> indicates that it is syllabic; the dot separates syllables), or the <i>r</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> Serbian word <i>vrba</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[vr̩.ba]</span> "willow".<p>The word <i>vowel</i> comes from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>vocalis</i>, meaning "speaking", because in most languages words and thus speech are not possible without vowels.<p>
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</script><a id="Articulation" name="Articulation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Articulation</span></h2>
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<div style="text-align: center; background-color: #ccccff; margin: 5px 5px 5px 5px;"><b><strong class="selflink">Vowels</strong></b></div>
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<td style="width:70px; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Edit - <!--del_lnk--> 2×</td>
<td style="width:60px;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Front</b></td>
<td style="width:60px;"><b><!--del_lnk--> N.-front</b></td>
<td style="width:60px;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Central</b></td>
<td style="width:60px;"><b><!--del_lnk--> N.-back</b></td>
<td style="width:60px;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Back</b></td>
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<td style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Close</b></td>
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<div style="position:relative;width:300px;height:210px;"><a class="image" href="../../images/128/12863.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blank_vowel_trapezoid.png" src="../../images/128/12863.png" width="300" /></a><div style="background:transparent; position:absolute; top:0px; left:0px;">
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<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:5%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> i • <!--del_lnk--> y</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:45%; width:2.33em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɨ • <!--del_lnk--> ʉ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:82%; width:3em; top:2%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɯ • <!--del_lnk--> u</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:29%; width:2.33em; top:16%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɪ • <!--del_lnk--> ʏ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position: absolute; left: 69%; width: 1.5em; top: 16%; height: 1.33em; font-size: 120%; background: white;">• <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ʊ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:16%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> e • <!--del_lnk--> ø</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:50%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɘ • <!--del_lnk--> ɵ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:83%; width:2.66em; top:30%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɤ • <!--del_lnk--> o</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:57%; width:1em; top:44%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ə</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:31%; width:2.66em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɛ • <!--del_lnk--> œ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:57%; width:2.33em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɜ • <!--del_lnk--> ɞ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:84%; width:2.33em; top:58%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ʌ • <!--del_lnk--> ɔ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:37%; width:1.33em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> æ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:64%; width:1em; top:73%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɐ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:44%; width:2.66em; top:86%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> a • <!--del_lnk--> ɶ</span></div>
<div class="nounderlines" style="position:absolute; left:83%; width:2.66em; top:86%; height:1.33em; font-size:120%; background:white;"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA"><!--del_lnk--> ɑ • <!--del_lnk--> ɒ</span></div>
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<td style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Near-close</b></td>
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<td style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Close-mid</b></td>
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<td style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Mid</b></td>
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<td style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Open-mid</b></td>
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<td style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Near-open</b></td>
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<td style="height:30px; font-size:smaller; text-align:right;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Open</b></td>
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<div style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em;"><i>Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right<br /> represents a <!--del_lnk--> rounded vowel.</i></div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12870.jpg.htm" title="X-rays of Daniel Jones' [i, u, a, ɑ]."><img alt="X-rays of Daniel Jones' [i, u, a, ɑ]." height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cardinal_vowels-Jones_x-ray.jpg" src="../../images/128/12870.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12870.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> X-rays of Daniel Jones' [i, u, a, ɑ].</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> articulatory features that distinguish different vowels in a language are said to determine the vowel's <i>quality</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Jones developed the <!--del_lnk--> cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of the common features <i>height</i> (vertical dimension), <i>backness</i> (horizontal dimension) and <i>roundedness</i> (lip position). These three parameters are indicated in the schematic IPA vowel diagram on the right. There are however still more possible features of vowel quality, such as the velum position (nasality), type of vocal fold vibration (phonation), and tongue root position.<p><a id="Height" name="Height"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Height</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Height refers to the vertical position of the tongue relative to either the roof of the mouth or the aperture of the <!--del_lnk--> jaw. In high vowels, such as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span>, the tongue is positioned high in the mouth, whereas in low vowels, such as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[a]</span>, the tongue is positioned low in the mouth. Sometimes the terms <i>open</i> and <i>close</i> are used as synonyms for <i>low</i> and <i>high</i> for describing vowels. The <!--del_lnk--> International Phonetic Alphabet identifies seven different <!--del_lnk--> vowel heights, although no known language distinguishes all seven:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> close vowel (high vowel)<li><!--del_lnk--> near-close vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> close-mid vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> mid vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> open-mid vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> near-open vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> open vowel (low vowel)</ul>
<p>It may be that some varieties of <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> have five contrasting vowel heights independently of length or other parameters. The <!--del_lnk--> Bavarian dialect of <!--del_lnk--> Amstetten has thirteen long vowels, reported to distinguish four heights (close, close-mid, mid, and near-open) each among the front unrounded, front rounded, and back rounded vowels, plus an open central vowel: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/i e ɛ̝ æ̝/, /y ø œ̝ ɶ̝/, /u o ɔ̝ ɒ̝/, /a/</span>. Otherwise, the usual limit on the number of vowel heights is four.<p>The parameter of vowel height appears to be the primary feature of vowels cross-linguistically in that all languages use height contrastively. No other parameter, such as front-back or rounded-unrounded (see below), is used in all languages. Some languages use <!--del_lnk--> only height to distinguish vowels.<p><a id="Backness" name="Backness"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Backness</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Backness refers to the horizontal tongue position during the articulation of a vowel relative to the back of the mouth. In front vowels, such as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span>, the tongue is positioned forward in the mouth, whereas in back vowels, such as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span>, the tongue is positioned towards the back of the mouth. The <!--del_lnk--> International Phonetic Alphabet identifies five different degrees of vowel backness, although no known language distinguishes all five:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> front vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> near-front vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> central vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> near-back vowel<li><!--del_lnk--> back vowel</ul>
<p>The highest number of contrastive degrees of backness is 3.<p><a id="Roundedness" name="Roundedness"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roundedness</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Roundedness refers to whether the lips are rounded or not. In most languages, roundedness is a reinforcing feature of mid to high back vowels, and not distinctive. Usually the higher a back vowel, the more intense the rounding. However, some languages treat roundedness and backness separately, such as French and German (with front rounded vowels), most <!--del_lnk--> Uralic languages (<!--del_lnk--> Estonian has a rounding contrast for <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/o/</span> and front vowels), <!--del_lnk--> Turkic languages (with an unrounded <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/u/</span>), Vietnamese (with back unrounded vowels), and <!--del_lnk--> Korean (with a contrast in both front and back vowels).<p>Nonetheless, even in languages such as German and Vietnamese, there is usually some phonetic correlation between rounding and backness: front rounded vowels tend to be less front than front unrounded vowels, and back unrounded vowels tend to be less back than back rounded vowels. That is, the placement of unrounded vowels to the left of rounded vowels on the IPA vowel chart is reflective of their typical position.<p>Different kinds of <!--del_lnk--> labialization are also possible. The <!--del_lnk--> Japanese <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/u/</span>, for example, is not rounded like English <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/u/</span>, where the lips are <i>protruded</i> (or <i>pursed</i>), but neither are the lips spread to the sides as they are for unrounded vowels. Rather, they are <i>compressed</i> in both directions, leaving a slot between the lips for the air to escape. (See <!--del_lnk--> Vowel roundedness for illustrations.) <!--del_lnk--> Swedish and <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian are two of the few languages where this feature is contrastive, having both <!--del_lnk--> protruded-lip and <!--del_lnk--> compressed-lip high front vowels. In many treatments, both are considered a type of rounding, and are often called <i>endolabial rounding</i> (pursed, where the insides of the lips approach each other) and <i>exolabial rounding</i> (compressed, where the margins of the lips approach each other). However, some phoneticians do not believe that these are subsets of a single phenomenon of rounding, and prefer instead the three independent terms <i>rounded</i>, <i>compressed</i>, and <i>spread</i> (for unrounded).<p><a id="Nasalization" name="Nasalization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nasalization</span></h3>
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</dl>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Nasalization refers to whether some of the air escapes through the nose. In nasal vowels, the <!--del_lnk--> velum is lowered, and some air travels through the nasal cavity as well as the mouth. An <!--del_lnk--> oral vowel is a vowel in which all air escapes through the mouth. <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Polish and <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> contrast nasal and oral vowels.<p><a id="Phonation" name="Phonation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Phonation</span></h3>
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</dl>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Voicing describes whether the <!--del_lnk--> vocal cords are vibrating during the articulation of a vowel. Most languages only have voiced vowels, but several Native American languages, such as <!--del_lnk--> Cheyenne and <!--del_lnk--> Totonac, contrast voiced and devoiced vowels. Vowels are devoiced in whispered speech. In <!--del_lnk--> Japanese and <!--del_lnk--> Quebec French, vowels that are between voiceless consonants are often devoiced.<p>Modal voice, <!--del_lnk--> creaky voice, and <!--del_lnk--> breathy voice (murmured vowels) are <!--del_lnk--> phonation types that are used contrastively in some languages. Often, these co-occur with <!--del_lnk--> tone or stress distinctions; in the <!--del_lnk--> Mon language, vowels pronounced in the high tone are also produced with creaky voice. In cases like this, it can be unclear whether it is the tone, the voicing type, or the pairing of the two that is being used for phonemic contrast. This combination of phonetic cues (i.e. phonation, tone, stress) is known as <i>register</i> or <i>register complex</i>.<p><a id="Tongue_root_retraction" name="Tongue_root_retraction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tongue root retraction</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Advanced tongue root (ATR) is a feature common across much of Africa. The contrast between advanced and <!--del_lnk--> retracted tongue root resembles the tense/lax contrast acoustically, but they are articulated differently. ATR vowels involve noticeable tension in the vocal tract.<p><a id="Secondary_narrowings_in_the_vocal_tract" name="Secondary_narrowings_in_the_vocal_tract"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Secondary narrowings in the vocal tract</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Pharyngealized vowels occur in some languages; <!--del_lnk--> Sedang uses this contrast, as do the <!--del_lnk--> Tungusic languages. Pharyngealisation is similar in articulation to retracted tongue root, but is <!--del_lnk--> acoustically distinct.<p>A stronger degree of pharyngealisation occurs in the <!--del_lnk--> Northeast Caucasian languages and the <!--del_lnk--> Khoisan languages. These might be called <b>epiglottalized</b>, since the primary constriction is at the tip of the epiglottis.<p>The greatest degree of pharyngealisation is found in the <b><!--del_lnk--> strident vowels</b> of the Khoisan languages, where the <!--del_lnk--> larynx is raised, and the pharynx constricted, so that either the epiglottis or the <!--del_lnk--> arytenoid cartilages vibrate instead of the vocal chords.<p>Note that the terms <i>pharyngealized</i>, <i>epiglottalized</i>, <i>strident</i>, and <i>sphincteric</i> are sometimes used interchangeably.<p><a id="Rhotic_vowels" name="Rhotic_vowels"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Rhotic vowels</span></h4>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Rhotic vowels are the "R-colored vowels" of English and a few other languages.<p><a id="Tenseness.2Fchecked_vowels_vs._free_vowels" name="Tenseness.2Fchecked_vowels_vs._free_vowels"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tenseness/checked vowels vs. free vowels</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Tenseness is used to describe the opposition of <i>tense vowels</i> as in <i>leap</i>, <i>suit</i> vs. <i>lax vowels</i> as in <i>lip</i>, <i>soot</i>. This opposition has traditionally been thought to be a result of greater muscular tension, though phonetic experiments have repeatedly failed to show this.<p>Unlike the other features of vowel quality, tenseness is only applicable to the few languages that have this opposition (mainly <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages, e.g. <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>), whereas the vowels of the other languages (e.g. <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>) cannot be described with respect to tenseness in any meaningful way. In discourse about the English language, "tense and lax" are often used interchangeably with "long and short", respectively, because the features are concomitant in the common varieties of English. This cannot be applied to all English dialects or other languages.<p>In most <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages, lax vowels can only occur in closed <!--del_lnk--> syllables. Therefore, they are also known as <!--del_lnk--> checked vowels, whereas the tense vowels are called <!--del_lnk--> free vowels since they can occur in any kind of syllable.<p><a id="Acoustics" name="Acoustics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Acoustics</span></h2>
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<dd><i>Related article: <!--del_lnk--> Phonetics.</i></dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12872.png.htm" title="Spectrogram of vowels [i, u, ɑ]. [ɑ] is a low vowel, so its F1 value is higher than that of [i] and [u], which are high vowels. [i] is a front vowel, so its F2 is substantially higher than that of [u] and [ɑ], which are back vowels."><img alt="Spectrogram of vowels [i, u, ɑ]. [ɑ] is a low vowel, so its F1 value is higher than that of [i] and [u], which are high vowels. [i] is a front vowel, so its F2 is substantially higher than that of [u] and [ɑ], which are back vowels." height="298" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spectrogram_-iua-.png" src="../../images/128/12872.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12872.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Spectrogram of vowels <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i, u, ɑ]</span>. <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑ]</span> is a low vowel, so its F1 value is higher than that of <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span>, which are high vowels. <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span> is a front vowel, so its F2 is substantially higher than that of <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑ]</span>, which are back vowels.</div>
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<p>The acoustics of vowels are fairly well understood. The different vowel qualities are realized in acoustic analyses of vowels by the relative values of the <!--del_lnk--> formants, acoustic <!--del_lnk--> resonances of the vocal tract which show up as dark bands on a <!--del_lnk--> spectrogram. The vocal tract acts as a resonant cavity, and the position of the jaw, lips, and tongue affect the parameters of the resonant cavity, resulting in different formant values. The acoustics of vowels can be visualized using spectrograms, which display the acoustic energy at each frequency, and how this changes with time.<p>The first formant, abbreviated "F1", corresponds to vowel openness (vowel height). <!--del_lnk--> Open vowels have high F1 frequencies while <!--del_lnk--> close vowels have low F1 frequencies, as can be seen at right: The <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span> have similar low first formants, whereas <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑ]</span> has a higher formant.<p>The second formant, F2, corresponds to vowel frontness. <!--del_lnk--> Back vowels have low F2 frequencies while <!--del_lnk--> front vowels have high F2 frequencies. This is very clear at right, where the front vowel <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span> has a much higher F2 frequency than the other two vowels. However, in open vowels the high F1 frequency forces a rise in the F2 frequency as well, so a better measure of frontness is the <i>difference</i> between the first and second formants. For this reason, vowels are usually plotted as F1 vs. F2 – F1. (This dimension is usually called 'backness' rather than 'frontness', but the term 'backness' can be counterintuitive when discussing formants.)<p><!--del_lnk--> R-colored vowels are characterized by lowered F3 values.<p>Rounding is generally realized by a complex relationship between F2 and F3 that tends to reinforce vowel backness. One effect of this is that back vowels are most commonly rounded while front vowels are most commonly unrounded; another is that rounded vowels tend to plot to the right of unrounded vowels in vowel charts. That is, there is a reason for plotting vowel pairs the way they are.<p><a id="Prosody_and_intonation" name="Prosody_and_intonation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prosody and intonation</span></h2>
<p>The features of vowel <!--del_lnk--> prosody are often described independently from vowel quality. In non-linear phonetics, they are located on parallel layers. The features of vowel prosody are usually considered not to apply to the vowel itself, but to the <!--del_lnk--> syllable, as some languages do not contrast vowel length separately from syllable length.<p><!--del_lnk--> Intonation encompasses the changes in pitch, intensity, and speed of an <!--del_lnk--> utterance over time. In <!--del_lnk--> tonal languages, in most cases the tone of a syllable is carried by the vowel, meaning that the relative pitch or the pitch contour that marks the tone is superimposed on the vowel. If a syllable has a high tone, for example, the pitch of the vowel will be high. If the syllable has a falling tone, then the pitch of the vowel will fall from high to low over the course of uttering the vowel.<p><!--del_lnk--> Length or quantity refers to the abstracted duration of the vowel. In some analyses this feature is described as a feature of the vowel quality, not of the prosody. <!--del_lnk--> Japanese, <!--del_lnk--> Finnish, <!--del_lnk--> Hungarian, <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> have a two-way phonemic contrast between <!--del_lnk--> short and long vowels. The <!--del_lnk--> Mixe language has a three-way contrast among short, half-long, and long vowels, and this has been reported for a few other languages, though not always as a phonemic distinction. Long vowels are written in the <!--del_lnk--> IPA with a triangular colon, which has two equilateral triangles pointing at each other in place of dots (<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[iː]</span>). The IPA symbol for half-long vowels is the top half of this (<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[iˑ]</span>). Longer vowels are sometimes claimed, but these are always divided between two syllables.<p>It should be noted that the length of the vowel is a grammatical abstraction, and there may be more phonologically distinctive lengths. For example, in Finnish, there are five different physical lengths, because stress is marked with length on both grammatically long and short vowels. However, Finnish stress is not lexical and is always on the first two <!--del_lnk--> moras, thus this variation serves to separate words from each other.<p>In non-tonal languages, like English, intonation encompasses <!--del_lnk--> lexical stress. A stressed syllable will typically be pronounced with a higher pitch, intensity, and length than unstressed syllables. For example in the word <i>intensity</i>, the vowel represented by the letter 'e' is stressed, so it is longer and pronounced with a higher pitch and intensity than the other vowels.<p><a id="Pronunciation_in_English" name="Pronunciation_in_English"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pronunciation in English</span></h2>
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<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td><b>Close Unrounded vowels:</b></td>
<td><b>Close Rounded vowels:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>The Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span> is pronounced as in <i>b<b>ee</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP, <!--del_lnk--> GA, <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
<td>Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[y]</span>: does not occur in English.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Central <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɨ]</span>: <i>ros<b>e</b>s</i> (in some dialects).</td>
<td>Central <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʉ]</span>: <i>b<b>oo</b>t</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɯ]</span> does not occur in English.</td>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span>: <i>b<b>oo</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP, <!--del_lnk--> GA).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Near-close Unrounded vowels:</b></td>
<td><b>Near-close Rounded vowels:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Near-front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɪ]</span>: <i>b<b>i</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP, <!--del_lnk--> GA, <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
<td>Near-front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʏ]</span> does not occur in English.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>Near-back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʊ]</span>: <i>h<b>oo</b>k</i>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Schwa vowel:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Schwa <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ə]</span>: <i><b>a</b>bout</i>, <i>syn<b>o</b>nym</i>, <i>Ros<b>a</b></i>.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Close-mid Unrounded vowels:</b></td>
<td><b>Close-mid Rounded vowels:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span>: <i>pl<b>a</b>y</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP), <i>b<b>ai</b>t</i> (<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_English.htm" title="Canadian English">CaE</a>), <i>b<b>e</b>d</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
<td>Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ø]</span> does not occur in English.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Central <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɘ]</span>: <i>n<b>u</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> SAE).</td>
<td>Central <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɵ]</span> does not occur in English.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɤ]</span>: <i>h<b>o</b>pe</i> (<!--del_lnk--> YE).</td>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[o]</span>: <i>b<b>a</b>ll</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE), <i>b<b>oa</b>t</i> (<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_English.htm" title="Canadian English">CaE</a>).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Open-mid Unrounded vowels:</b></td>
<td><b>Open-mid Rounded vowels:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ]</span>: <i>b<b>e</b>d</i> (<!--del_lnk--> GA), <i>f<b>a</b>t</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
<td>Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[œ]</span> does not occur in English.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Central <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɜ]</span>: <i>f<b>ur</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP, <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE), <i>p<b>er</b>fect</i> (<!--del_lnk--> GA).</td>
<td>Central <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɞ]</span> does not occur in English.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʌ]</span>: <i>n<b>u</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> GA, <a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" title="American English">east AmE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> SE, <!--del_lnk--> BA).</td>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɔ]</span>: <i>b<b>a</b>ll</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP), <i>h<b>o</b>t</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Near-open Unrounded vowels:</b></td>
<td><b>Near-open Rounded vowels:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[æ]</span>: <i>f<b>a</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP, <!--del_lnk--> GA, <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>Central <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɐ]</span>: <i>c<b>u</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP, <a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" title="American English">AE</a>).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Open Unrounded vowels:</b></td>
<td><b>Open Rounded vowels:</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[a]</span>: <i>l<b>i</b>e</i>, <i>h<b>o</b>w</i> (<!--del_lnk--> GA, <!--del_lnk--> RP), <i>c<b>u</b>t</i>, <i>c<b>ar</b>t</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE), <p><i>b<b>a</b>t</i> (<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_English.htm" title="Canadian English">CaE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NE, <!--del_lnk--> SE), <i>st<b>o</b>ck</i> (<!--del_lnk--> NCVS), <i>st<b>ar</b></i>, <i>f<b>a</b>ther</i> (<!--del_lnk--> BA).</td>
<td valign="top">Front <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɶ]</span> does not occur in English.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɑ]</span>: <i>sp<b>a</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP, <!--del_lnk--> GA), <i>b<b>a</b>ll</i> (<a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_English.htm" title="Canadian English">CaE</a>), <i>b<b>u</b>y</i> (<a href="../../wp/a/Australian_English.htm" title="Australian English">AuE</a>, <!--del_lnk--> NZE).</td>
<td>Back <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɒ]</span>: <i>h<b>o</b>t</i> (<!--del_lnk--> RP).</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Monophthongs.2C_diphthongs.2C_triphthongs" name="Monophthongs.2C_diphthongs.2C_triphthongs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Monophthongs, diphthongs, triphthongs</span></h2>
<p>A vowel sound whose quality doesn't change over the duration of the vowel is called a <!--del_lnk--> monophthong. Monophthongs are sometimes called "pure" or "stable" vowels. A vowel sound that glides from one quality to another is called a <!--del_lnk--> diphthong, and a vowel sound that glides between three qualities is a <!--del_lnk--> triphthong.<p>All languages have monophthongs and many languages have diphthongs, but triphthongs or vowel sounds with even more target qualities are relatively rare cross-linguistically. English has all three types: the vowel sound in <i>hit</i> is a monophthong <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɪ]</span>, the vowel sound in <i>boy</i> is in most dialects a diphthong <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɔɪ]</span>, and the vowel sounds of, <i>flower</i> (<a href="../../wp/b/British_English.htm" title="British English">BrE</a> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[aʊə]</span> <a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" title="American English">AmE</a> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[aʊɚ]</span>) form a triphthong (disyllabic in the latter cases), although the particular qualities vary by dialect.<p>The longest sensible word with most consecutive vowels is Finnish <i>riiuuyöaieuutinen</i> (courting night intention news [certainly yellow press stuff!]), syllabicated rii-uu-yö-ai-e-uu-ti-nen.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> phonology, diphthongs and triphthongs are distinguished from sequences of monophthongs by whether the vowel sound may be analyzed into different <!--del_lnk--> phonemes or not. For example, the vowel sounds in a two-syllable pronunciation of the word <i>flower</i> (<a href="../../wp/b/British_English.htm" title="British English">BrE</a> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[flaʊə]</span> <a href="../../wp/a/American_English.htm" title="American English">AmE</a> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[flaʊɚ]</span>) phonetically form a disyllabic triphthong, but are phonologically a sequence of a diphthong (represented by the letters <ow>) and a monophthong (represented by the letters <er>). Some linguists use the terms <i>diphthong</i> and <i>triphthong</i> only in this phonemic sense.<p><a id="Vowels_in_languages" name="Vowels_in_languages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vowels in languages</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> semantic significance of vowels varies widely depending on the language. In some languages, particularly <!--del_lnk--> Semitic languages, vowels mostly serve to denote <!--del_lnk--> inflections. This is similar to English <i>man</i> vs. <i>men</i>. In fact, the alphabets used to write the Semitic languages, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew alphabet and the <!--del_lnk--> Arabic alphabet, do not ordinarily mark all the vowels. These alphabets are technically called <!--del_lnk--> abjads. Although it is possible to construct simple English sentences that can be understood without written vowels (<span title="Can you read this?">cn y rd ths?</span>), extended passages of English lacking written vowels are difficult if not impossible to completely understand (consider dd, which could be any of <i>add, aided, dad, dada, dead, deed, did, died, dodo, dud, dude, eddie, iodide,</i> or <i>odd</i>).<p>In most languages, vowels are an unchangeable part of the words, as in English <i>man</i> vs. <i>moon</i> which are not different inflectional forms of the same word, but different words. Vowels are especially important to the structures of words in languages that have very few consonants (like <!--del_lnk--> Polynesian languages such as <!--del_lnk--> Maori and <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian), and in languages whose inventories of vowels are larger than their inventories of consonants.<p><a id="Vowel_systems" name="Vowel_systems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vowel systems</span></h3>
<p>Most languages have 3–7 vowels, the following 5-vowel system being the most common:<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="10" width="100px">
<tr>
<td align="left" width="50%"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/i/</span></td>
<td align="right" width="50%"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/u/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/e/</span></td>
<td align="left"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/o/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/a/</span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This configuration is often thought to be particularly stable because it makes efficient use of the vowel space, in that slight variations in one vowel are not confused for another vowel. <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and Modern <!--del_lnk--> Greek, for example, have this vowel system; <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> had a similar system with the addition of (unwritten) vowel length; it is for this reason that the Latin alphabet has five vowel letters.<p>All known languages have at least two vowels: <!--del_lnk--> Abxaz, <!--del_lnk--> Ubykh, <!--del_lnk--> Margi, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Arrernte, and perhaps some of the <!--del_lnk--> Ndu languages contrast only two vowels: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ɨ/</span> in the case of Margi, and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/a/</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ə/</span> for the others, with significant <!--del_lnk--> allophony. There have been proposals to reduce the three-vowel inventory of <!--del_lnk--> Kabardian to two, one, or even zero vowels (in which case all phonetic vowels would be <!--del_lnk--> epenthetic), but most linguists do not believe such analyses are workable.<p>Three-vowel systems have been noted in a large number of languages. These include,<ul>
<li><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/a, i, u/</span> <!--del_lnk--> Quechua, many <!--del_lnk--> Australian languages, <!--del_lnk--> Standard Arabic),<li><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/i, a, o/</span> (<!--del_lnk--> Pirahã),<li><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ɨ, ə, aː/</span> (<!--del_lnk--> Kabardian),<li><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/i, e, a/</span> (<!--del_lnk--> Wichita).</ul>
<p>A fair number of Native American languages, such as <a href="../../wp/n/Nahuatl_language.htm" title="Nahuatl language">Nahuatl</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Navajo, have vowel systems that lack <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/u/</span>, but there is no known language that lacks some form of <i>a</i>. At the other end of the spectrum, languages with more than twelve vowels are uncommon, although some widely-spoken languages have large vowel inventories, particularly <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages. For example, <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> has 14–20 vowels (including diphthongs) depending on dialect, and <!--del_lnk--> Swedish has 17 distinct vowel qualities in the height-backness-roundedness spectrum, although these also involve a length contrast, and the long vowels have diphthongized allophones. Some Norwegian dialects (in the municipalities <!--del_lnk--> Tynset and <!--del_lnk--> Alvdal in <!--del_lnk--> Hedmark county) have 14 standard vowels (and in addition comes length contrast and diphtongs, which give a total of 28 distinct vowel qualities). The oldest form of <!--del_lnk--> Norse (before 1200) had nine vowels (a, e, i, o, u, y, æ, ø and ǫ), and all these could either be short orals, long orals or long nasals. This gave a total of 27 distinct monophtongs - and in addition was three diphtongs (au, ei and ey). French has 16 vowel qualities, including nasals, and the previously-mentioned <!--del_lnk--> Sedang has 24 distinct monophthongs, which it achieves by contrasting <!--del_lnk--> phonation on seven vowel qualities. <!--del_lnk--> Ju/’hoan uses phonation and nasalization with five vowel qualities to achieve approximately 40 vowels, most of which may in addition occur both long and short.<p><a id="Written_vowels" name="Written_vowels"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Written vowels</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The name "Vowel" is often used for the symbols used for representing vowel sounds in a language's <!--del_lnk--> writing system, particularly if the language uses an <a href="../../wp/a/Alphabet.htm" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a>. In the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, the vowel letters are <i>A</i>, <i>E</i>, <i>I</i>, <i>O</i>, <i>U</i>, and <i>Y</i>; in addition, extensions of the Latin alphabet have independent vowel letters such as <i>Ä</i>, <i>Ö</i>, <i>Ü</i>, <i>Å</i>, <i>Æ</i>, and <i>Ø</i>. The phonetic values vary by language, and some languages use <i>I</i> and <i>Y</i> for the consonant [j], e.g. initial <i>I</i> in Romanian and initial <i>Y</i> in English. Some languages using the Latin alphabet may use other letters to represent vowel sounds: for example, in <!--del_lnk--> Welsh, the letter <i>W</i> stands for <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ʊ]</span>, while in <!--del_lnk--> Creek the letter <i>V</i> stands for <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ə]</span>.<p>There is not necessarily a direct one-to-one correspondence between the vowel sounds of a language and the vowel letters. Many languages that use a form of the Latin alphabet have more vowel sounds than can be represented by the standard set of five vowel letters. In the case of English, the five primary vowel letters can represent a variety of vowel sounds.<p>Notice "conventional" vowel letters functioning in actual vocabulary, as they take their role in representing unique sounds in each word: "a" ask, broad, along, any, apex, aisle, war, beauty, aeon, all, learn; "e" have, pretty, gone, the, egg, where, height, beau, sleuth, he, sergeant, house, noise, her; "i" plain, in, friend, nail, I, suit, ski, oil, shirt; "o" women, log, ton, leopard, go, who, people, book, cow, boy, worm; "u" laugh, busy, cough, bug, busy, guy, your, tube, auto, put, out, fur; "y" gym, says, day, by, any, boy, syrup, yellow. For this reason, new pedagogy requires "spelling-out-sounds" instead of "sounding-out-letters". More research on this topic is posted at WordsAhead.org.<p>Other languages cope with the limitation in the number of Latin vowel letters in similar ways. Many languages, like English, make extensive use of combinations of vowel letters to represent various sounds. Other languages use vowel letters with modifications, e.g. <i>Ä</i> in Finnish, or add <!--del_lnk--> diacritical marks to vowels, such as accents or <!--del_lnk--> umlauts, to represent the variety of possible vowel sounds. Some languages have also constructed additional vowel letters by modifying the standard Latin vowels in other ways, such as <i>æ</i> or <i>ø</i> that are found in some of the <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavian languages. The <!--del_lnk--> International Phonetic Alphabet has a set of 28 symbols to represent the range of basic vowel qualities, and a further set of diacritics to denote variations from the basic vowel.<p><a id="Written_vowels_in_writing_systems" name="Written_vowels_in_writing_systems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Written vowels in writing systems</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Arabic: long vowels: <b>ا و ي</b>; short vowels: <b>ِ ُ َ</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Armenian: <b>ա ե է ը ի ո օ ու իւ էօ</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Bulgarian: non-<!--del_lnk--> iotated ('hard'): <b>А О У Ъ</b>; iotated ('soft'): <b>Я Ю И Е</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Czech: <b>a e i o u y</b>, long with an <!--del_lnk--> acute <b>á é í ó ú ý</b> or a <!--del_lnk--> ring <b>ů</b>, softening <b>ě</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Danish, Norwegian, and <!--del_lnk--> Swedish: back ('hard'): <b>a o u å</b>; front ('soft'): <b>e i y æ/ä ø/ö</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Devanagari: Independent vowels: <b>अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ऐ ओ औ</b>; Dependent vowels: <b>ा ि ी ु ू े ै ो ौ</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Estonian and <!--del_lnk--> Võro: <b>a e i o u ü ä ö õ (y)</b>; half-long and over-long vowels doubled<li><!--del_lnk--> Finnish: back: <b>a o u</b>; neutral: <b>i e</b>; front: <b>ä ö y</b>; long vowels doubled (<i>aamu, uuma</i>, etc.)<li><!--del_lnk--> Guaraní: oral: <b>a e i o u y</b>; nasal: <b>ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ỹ</b><li><!--del_lnk--> German: <b>a ä e i o ö u ü</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Korean: <b>ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Hebrew: <b>ֱ ֲ ֳ ְ ֻ ֹ ִ ֵ ֶ ַ ָ</b> (see <!--del_lnk--> Niqqud)<li><!--del_lnk--> Japanese: normal: <b>あいうえお</b>; grammatical: <b>へを</b><li><a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a>: <b>a e i o u y</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Polish: <b>a ą e ę i o ó u y</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Russian: non-<!--del_lnk--> iotated ('hard'): <b>А О У Ы Э</b>; iotated ('soft'): <b>Я Ё Ю И Е</b><li><!--del_lnk--> Skolt Sami: <b>u o õ å a, i e â ä</b> (normal); long vowels doubled (<i>lääij, <span class="Unicode">nââ'ǩǩted</span></i>, etc.).<li><!--del_lnk--> Turkish: <b>a ı o u</b> ('thick'), <b>e i ö ü</b> ('thin')</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Vietnamese: <b>a ă â e ê i o ô ơ u ư y</b>, plus tonal marks (e.g. <b>ầ</b>, <b>ứ</b>, ...).</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Voynich manuscript</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.General_Literature.htm">General Literature</a></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28397.png.htm" title="The Voynich manuscript is written in an unknown script."><img alt="The Voynich manuscript is written in an unknown script." height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Voynich.png" src="../../images/283/28397.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28397.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Voynich manuscript is written in an unknown <!--del_lnk--> script.</div>
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<p>The <b>Voynich manuscript</b> is a mysterious <!--del_lnk--> illustrated <a href="../../wp/b/Book.htm" title="Book">book</a> with incomprehensible contents. It is thought to have been written approximately 400 years ago by an unknown author in an unidentified <!--del_lnk--> script and unintelligible <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a>.<p>Over its recorded existence, the Voynich manuscript has been the object of intense study by many professional and amateur <!--del_lnk--> cryptographers, including some top <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <!--del_lnk--> codebreakers of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> fame (all of whom failed to decipher a single word). This string of failures has turned the Voynich manuscript into a famous subject of <!--del_lnk--> historical cryptology, but it has also given weight to the <!--del_lnk--> theory that the book is simply an elaborate <!--del_lnk--> hoax — a meaningless sequence of arbitrary <!--del_lnk--> symbols.<p>The book is named after the <!--del_lnk--> Polish-American book-dealer <!--del_lnk--> Wilfrid M. Voynich, who acquired it in <!--del_lnk--> 1912. As of <!--del_lnk--> 2005, the Voynich manuscript is item MS 408 in the <!--del_lnk--> Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library of <!--del_lnk--> Yale University. The first <!--del_lnk--> facsimile edition was published in 2005.<p>
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</script><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<p>By current estimates, the book originally had 272 pages in 17 <!--del_lnk--> quires of 16 pages each. About 240 <!--del_lnk--> vellum pages remain today, and gaps in the page numbering (which seems to be later than the text) indicate that several pages were already missing by the time that Voynich acquired it. A <!--del_lnk--> quill pen was used for the text and figure outlines, and colored paint was applied (somewhat crudely) to the figures, possibly at a later date.<p><a id="Illustrations" name="Illustrations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Illustrations</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> illustrations of the <!--del_lnk--> manuscript shed little light on its contents, but imply that the book consists of six "sections", with different styles and subject matter. Except for the last section, which contains only text, almost every page contains at least one <!--del_lnk--> illustration. The sections, and their conventional names, are:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28398.jpg.htm" title="The "herbal" section of the manuscript contains illustrations of plants."><img alt="The "herbal" section of the manuscript contains illustrations of plants." height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:F34r.jpg" src="../../images/283/28398.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28398.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The "herbal" section of the manuscript contains illustrations of plants.</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><i><b>Herbal</b></i> — each page displays one <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plant</a> (sometimes two), and a few paragraphs of text—a format typical of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> <!--del_lnk--> herbals of the time. Some parts of these drawings are larger and cleaner copies of sketches seen in the <i>pharmaceutical</i> section (below).</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><b>Astronomical</b></i> — contains circular <!--del_lnk--> diagrams, some of them with <!--del_lnk--> suns, <!--del_lnk--> moons, and <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Stars">stars</a>, suggestive of <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> or <a href="../../wp/a/Astrology.htm" title="Astrology">astrology</a>. One series of 12 diagrams depicts conventional symbols for the <!--del_lnk--> zodiacal <!--del_lnk--> constellations (two fish for <!--del_lnk--> Pisces, a bull for <!--del_lnk--> Taurus, a soldier with <!--del_lnk--> crossbow for <!--del_lnk--> Sagittarius, etc.). Each symbol is surrounded by exactly 30 miniature female figures, most of them naked, each holding a labeled star. The last two pages of this section (<!--del_lnk--> Aquarius and <!--del_lnk--> Capricornus, roughly <!--del_lnk--> January and <!--del_lnk--> February) were lost, while <!--del_lnk--> Aries and Taurus are split into four paired diagrams with 15 stars each. Some of these diagrams are on fold-out pages.</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><b>Biological</b></i> — a dense continuous text interspersed with figures, mostly showing small nude women bathing in pools or tubs connected by an elaborate network of pipes, some of them clearly shaped like body <!--del_lnk--> organs. Some of the women wear crowns.</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><b>Cosmological</b></i> — more circular diagrams, but of an obscure nature. This section also has fold-outs; one of them spans six pages and contains some sort of <!--del_lnk--> map or diagram, with nine "islands" connected by "<!--del_lnk--> causeways", castles, and possibly a <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcano</a>.</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><b>Pharmaceutical</b></i> — many labeled drawings of isolated plant parts (<!--del_lnk--> roots, <!--del_lnk--> leaves, etc.); objects resembling <!--del_lnk--> apothecary jars drawn along the margins; and a few text paragraphs.</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><b>Recipes</b></i> — many short paragraphs, each marked with a flower-like (or star-like) "bullet".</ul>
<p><a id="The_text" name="The_text"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The text</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28399.jpg.htm" title="The "biological" section of the manuscript has dense text and illustrations showing nude women bathing."><img alt="The "biological" section of the manuscript has dense text and illustrations showing nude women bathing." height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:F75r.jpg" src="../../images/283/28399.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/283/28399.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The "biological" section of the manuscript has dense text and illustrations showing nude women bathing.</div>
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<p>The text was clearly written from left to right, with a slightly ragged right margin. Longer sections are broken into paragraphs, sometimes with "<!--del_lnk--> bullets" on the left margin. There is no obvious <!--del_lnk--> punctuation. The <i>ductus</i> (the speed, care, and <!--del_lnk--> cursiveness with which the letters are written) flows smoothly, as if the <!--del_lnk--> scribe understood what he was writing when it was written; the manuscript does not give the impression that each character had to be calculated before being put on the page.<p>The text consists of over 170,000 discrete <!--del_lnk--> glyphs, usually separated from each other by thin gaps. Most of the glyphs are written with one or two simple pen strokes. While there is some dispute as to whether certain glyphs are distinct or not, an <a href="../../wp/a/Alphabet.htm" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> with 20-30 glyphs would account for virtually all of the text; the exceptions are a few dozen "weird" characters that occur only once or twice each.<p>Wider gaps divide the text into about 35,000 "words" of varying length. These seem to follow <!--del_lnk--> phonetic or <!--del_lnk--> orthographic laws of some sort; <i>e.g.</i> certain characters must appear in each word (like the <a href="../../wp/v/Vowel.htm" title="Vowels">vowels</a> in English), some characters never follow others, some may be doubled but others may not.<p><a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">Statistical analysis</a> of the text reveals patterns similar to natural languages. For instance, the word frequencies follow <!--del_lnk--> Zipf's law, and the <!--del_lnk--> word entropy (about 10 bits per word) is similar to that of <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> or <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> texts. Some words occur only in certain sections, or in only a few pages; others occur throughout the manuscript. There are very few repetitions among the thousand or so "labels" attached to the illustrations. In the <i>herbal</i> section, the first word on each page occurs only on that page, and may be the name of the <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plant</a>.<p>On the other hand, the Voynich manuscript's "language" is quite unlike <!--del_lnk--> European languages in several aspects. For example, there are practically no words with more than ten "letters", yet there are also few one- or two-letter words. The distribution of letters within the word is also rather peculiar: some characters only occur at the beginning of a word, some only at the end, and some always in the middle section – an arrangement found in <!--del_lnk--> semitic languages, but not in the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Greek or <!--del_lnk--> Cyrillic alphabets. (It should be noted, though, that the Greek <!--del_lnk--> sigma or the now-<!--del_lnk--> archaic Latin <!--del_lnk--> long s have a different form when it appears at the end of words; similarly, English capitalized letters, which usually appear only at the beginning of words, may vary dramatically from their lower-case version.)<p>The text seems to be more repetitious than typical European languages; there are instances where the same common word appears up to three times in a row. Words that differ only by one letter also repeat with unusual frequency.<p>There are only a few words in the manuscript written in a seemingly Latin script. In the last page, there are four lines of writing which are written in (rather distorted) Latin letters, except for two words in the main script. The lettering resembles European <a href="../../wp/a/Alphabet.htm" title="Alphabet">alphabets</a> of the <!--del_lnk--> 15th Century, but the words do not seem to make sense in any language. Also, a series of diagrams in the "astronomical" section has the names of ten of the <!--del_lnk--> months (from <!--del_lnk--> March to <!--del_lnk--> December) written in Latin script, with spelling suggestive of the <!--del_lnk--> medieval languages of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> or the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian Peninsula. However, it is not known whether these bits of Latin script were part of the original text, or were added at a later time.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28400.jpg.htm" title="The illustrations in the "biological" section are linked by a network of pipes."><img alt="The illustrations in the "biological" section are linked by a network of pipes." height="276" longdesc="/wiki/Image:F78r.jpg" src="../../images/284/28400.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28400.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The illustrations in the "biological" section are linked by a network of pipes.</div>
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<p>The history of the manuscript is still full of gaps, especially in its earliest part. Since the manuscript's alphabet does not resemble any known script, and the text is still undeciphered, the only useful evidence as to the book's age and origin are the illustrations — especially the dress and hairstyles of the human figures, and a couple of castles that are seen in the diagrams. They are all characteristically European, and based on that evidence most experts assign the book to dates between 1450 and 1520. This estimate is supported by other secondary clues.<p>The earliest confirmed owner of the manuscript was a certain Georg Baresch, an obscure <a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" title="Alchemy">alchemist</a> who lived in <a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a> in the early 17th century. Baresch apparently was just as puzzled as we are today about this "<!--del_lnk--> Sphynx" that had been "taking up space uselessly in his library" for many years. On learning that <a href="../../wp/a/Athanasius_Kircher.htm" title="Athanasius Kircher">Athanasius Kircher</a>, a <!--del_lnk--> Jesuit scholar from the <!--del_lnk--> Collegio Romano, had published a <!--del_lnk--> Coptic (<!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian) dictionary and "deciphered" the <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian hieroglyphs, he sent a sample copy of the script to Kircher in <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> (twice), asking for clues. His 1639 letter to Kircher, which was recently located by <!--del_lnk--> Rene Zandbergen, is the earliest mention of the manuscript that has been found so far.<p>It is not known whether Kircher answered the request, but apparently he was interested enough to try to acquire the book, which Baresch apparently refused to yield. Upon Baresch's death the manuscript passed to his friend <!--del_lnk--> Jan Marek Marci (Johannes Marcus Marci), then rector of <!--del_lnk--> Charles University in Prague; who promptly sent the book to Kircher, his longtime friend and correspondent. Marci's cover letter (1666) is still attached to the manuscript.<p>There are no records of the book for the next 200 years, but in all likelihood it was kept, with the rest of Kircher's correspondence, in the library of the <!--del_lnk--> Collegio Romano (now the <!--del_lnk--> Pontifical Gregorian University). It probably remained there until the troops of <!--del_lnk--> Victor Emmanuel II of Italy captured the city in 1870 and annexed the <!--del_lnk--> Papal States. The new Italian government decided to confiscate many properties of the Church, including the library of the Collegio. According to investigations by <!--del_lnk--> Xavier Ceccaldi and others, just before this happened many books of the University's library were hastily transferred to the personal libraries of its faculty, which were exempt from confiscation. Kircher's correspondence was among those books—and so apparently was the Voynich manuscript, as it still bears the <!--del_lnk--> ex libris of <!--del_lnk--> Petrus Beckx, head of the Jesuit order and the University's Rector at the time.<p>Beckx's "private" library was moved to the <!--del_lnk--> Villa Mondragone, Frascati, a large country palace near <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> that had been bought by the <!--del_lnk--> Society of Jesus in 1866 and housed the headquarters of the Jesuits' <!--del_lnk--> Collegio Ghisleri.<p>Around 1912 the Collegio Romano was apparently short of money and decided to sell (very discreetly) some of its holdings. Wilfrid Voynich acquired 30 manuscripts, among them the manuscript that now bears his name. In 1930, after his death, the manuscript was inherited by his widow <!--del_lnk--> Ethel Lilian Voynich (known as the author of the novel <i><!--del_lnk--> The Gadfly</i>). She died in 1960 and left the manuscript to her close friend, Miss <!--del_lnk--> Anne Nill. In 1961, Anne Nill sold the book to another antique book dealer Hans P. Kraus. Unable to find a buyer, Kraus donated the manuscript to Yale University in 1969.<p><a id="Theories_about_authorship" name="Theories_about_authorship"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Theories about authorship</span></h2>
<p>Many names have been proposed as possible authors of the Voynich manuscript. Following are only the most popular ones.<p><a id="Roger_Bacon" name="Roger_Bacon"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roger Bacon</span></h3>
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<p>Marci's 1665 cover letter to Kircher says that, according to his late friend <!--del_lnk--> Raphael Mnishovsky, the book had once been bought by Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Rudolf II of <!--del_lnk--> Bohemia (1552–1612) for 600 <!--del_lnk--> ducats — around <!--del_lnk--> $30,800 <!--del_lnk--> as of 2005. According to the letter, Rudolf (or perhaps Raphael) believed the author to be the <!--del_lnk--> Franciscan friar and <!--del_lnk--> polymath <!--del_lnk--> Roger Bacon (1214–1294).<p>Even though Marci said that he was "suspending his judgment" about this claim, it was taken quite seriously by Voynich, who did his best to confirm it. His conviction strongly influenced most decipherment attempts for the next 80 years. However, scholars who have looked at the Voynich manuscript and are familiar with Bacon's works have flatly denied that possibility. One should note also that Raphael died in 1644, and the deal must have occurred before Rudolf's abdication in 1611—at least 55 years before Marci's letter.<p><a id="John_Dee" name="John_Dee"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">John Dee</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28402.jpg.htm" title="John Dee"><img alt="John Dee" height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:John_Dee_Ashmolean.jpg" src="../../images/284/28402.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The assumption that Roger Bacon was the author led Voynich to conclude that the person who sold the Voynich manuscript to Rudolf could only be <a href="../../wp/j/John_Dee.htm" title="John Dee">John Dee</a>, a mathematician and astrologer at the court of <!--del_lnk--> Queen Elizabeth I, known to have owned a large collection of Bacon's manuscripts. This theory is also conveyed by Voynich manuscript scholar <!--del_lnk--> Gordon Rugg. Dee and his <i><!--del_lnk--> scrier</i> (<!--del_lnk--> mediumic assistant) <!--del_lnk--> Edward Kelley lived in Bohemia for several years where they had hoped to sell their services to the Emperor. However, Dee's meticulously kept diaries do not mention that sale, and make it seem quite unlikely. Anyway, if the Voynich manuscript author is not Bacon, the connection to Dee may just disappear. On the other hand, Dee himself may have written it and spread the rumour that it was originally a work of Bacon's in the hopes of later selling it.<p><a id="Edward_Kelley" name="Edward_Kelley"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Edward Kelley</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28403.jpg.htm" title="Edward Kelley"><img alt="Edward Kelley" height="256" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EdwKelley.jpg" src="../../images/284/28403.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28403.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Edward Kelley</div>
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<p>Dee's companion in Prague, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Kelley, was a self-styled alchemist who claimed to be able to turn <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> into <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a> by means of a secret powder which he had dug out of a <!--del_lnk--> Bishop's tomb in <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. As Dee's <i>scrier</i>, he claimed to be able to invoke <!--del_lnk--> angels through a crystal ball, and had long conversations with them—which Dee dutifully noted down. The angel's language was called <!--del_lnk--> Enochian, after <!--del_lnk--> Enoch, the Biblical father of <!--del_lnk--> Methuselah; according to legend, he had been taken on a tour of Heaven by angels, and later written a <!--del_lnk--> book about what he saw there. Several people (see below) have suggested that, just as Kelley invented Enochian to dupe Dee, he could have fabricated the Voynich manuscript to swindle the Emperor (who was already paying Kelley for his supposed alchemical expertise). However, if Roger Bacon is not the author of the Voynich manuscript, Kelley's connection to the manuscript is just as vacuous as Dee's.<p><a id="Wilfrid_Voynich" name="Wilfrid_Voynich"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wilfrid Voynich</span></h3>
<p>Voynich was often suspected of having fabricated the Voynich manuscript himself. As an antique book dealer, he probably had the necessary knowledge and means; and a "lost book" by Roger Bacon would have been worth a fortune. However, by expert dating of the manuscript, and the recent discovery of Baresch's letter to Kircher, that possibility has been eliminated.<p><a id="Jacobus_Sinapius" name="Jacobus_Sinapius"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jacobus Sinapius</span></h3>
<p>A <!--del_lnk--> photostatic reproduction of the first page of the Voynich manuscript, taken by Voynich sometime before 1921, showed some faint writing that had been erased. With the help of chemicals, the text could be read as the name 'Jacobj `a Tepenece'. This is taken to be Jakub Horcicky of Tepenec, who was also known by his Latin name: <!--del_lnk--> Jacobus Sinapius. He was a specialist in <!--del_lnk--> herbal medicine, <!--del_lnk--> Rudolph II's personal physician, and curator of his botanical gardens. Voynich, and many other people after him, concluded from this "signature" that Jacobus owned the Voynich manuscript before Baresch, and saw in that a confirmation of Raphael's story. Others have suggested that Jacobus himself could be the author.<p>However, that writing does not match Jacobus's signature, as found in a document recently located by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Hurich. So it is still possible that the writing on page <i>f1r</i> was added by a later owner or librarian, and is only this person's guess as to the book's author. (In the Jesuit history books that were available to Kircher, Jesuit-educated Jacobus is the only alchemist or doctor from Rudolf's court who deserves a full-page entry, while, for example, <a href="../../wp/t/Tycho_Brahe.htm" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> is barely mentioned.) Moreover, the chemicals applied by Voynich have so degraded the vellum that hardly a trace of the signature can be seen today; thus there is also the suspicion that the signature was fabricated by Voynich in order to strengthen the Roger Bacon theory.<p><a id="Jan_Marci" name="Jan_Marci"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jan Marci</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Jan Marci met Kircher when he led a delegation from Charles University to Rome in 1638; and over the next 27 years, the two scholars exchanged many letters on a variety of scientific subjects. Marci's trip was part of a continuing struggle by the <!--del_lnk--> secularist side of the University to maintain their independence from the Jesuits, who ran the rival <!--del_lnk--> Clementinum college in Prague. In spite of those efforts, the two universities were merged in 1654, under Jesuit control. It has therefore been speculated that political animosity against the Jesuits led Marci to fabricate Baresch's letters, and later the Voynich manuscript, in an attempt to expose and discredit their "star" Kircher.<p>Marci's personality and knowledge appear to have been adequate for this task; and Kircher, a "Dr Know-It-All" who is today remembered more by his egregious mistakes than by his genuine accomplishments, was an easy target. Indeed, Baresch's letter bears some resemblance to a hoax that orientalist <!--del_lnk--> Andreas Mueller once played on Kircher. Mueller concocted an unintelligible manuscript and sent it to Kircher with a note explaining that it had come from Egypt. He asked Kircher for a translation, and Kircher, reportedly, produced one at once.<p>It is worth noting that the only proofs of Georg Baresch's existence are three letters sent to Kircher: one by Baresch (1639), and two by Marci (about a year later). It is also curious that the correspondence between Marci and Kircher ends in 1665, precisely with the Voynich manuscript "cover letter". However, Marci's secret grudge against the Jesuits is pure conjecture: a faithful Catholic, he himself had studied to become a Jesuit, and shortly before his death in 1667 he was granted honorary membership in their Order.<p><a id="Raphael_Mnishovsky" name="Raphael_Mnishovsky"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Raphael Mnishovsky</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Raphael Mnishovsky, the friend of Marci who was the reputed source of Bacon's story, was himself a <!--del_lnk--> cryptographer (among many other things), and apparently invented a <!--del_lnk--> cipher which he claimed was uncrackable (ca. 1618). This has led to the theory that he produced the Voynich manuscript as a practical demonstration of his cipher—and made poor Baresch his unwitting "guinea pig". After Kircher published his book on Coptic, Raphael (so the theory goes) may have thought that stumping him would be a much better trophy than stumping Baresch, and convinced the alchemist to ask the Jesuit's help. He would have invented the Roger Bacon story to motivate Baresch. Indeed, the disclaimer in the Voynich manuscript cover letter could mean that Marci suspected a lie. However, there is no definite evidence for this theory.<p><a id="Anthony_Ascham" name="Anthony_Ascham"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anthony Ascham</span></h3>
<p>Dr Leonell Strong, a cancer research scientist and amateur cryptographer, tried to decipher the Voynich manuscript. Strong said that the solution to the Voynich manuscript was a "peculiar double system of arithmetical progressions of a multiple alphabet". Strong claimed that the plaintext revealed the Voynich manuscript to be written by the 16th century English author <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Ascham, whose works include <i>A Little Herbal</i>, published in 1550. Although the Voynich manuscript does contain sections resembling a herbal, the main argument against this theory is that it is unknown where Anthony would have obtained such literary and cryptographic knowledge.<p><a id="Multiple_authors" name="Multiple_authors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Multiple authors</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Prescott Currier, a <!--del_lnk--> US Navy cryptographer who worked with the manuscript in the 1970s, observed that the pages of the "herbal" section could be separated into two sets, <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, with distinctive statistical properties and apparently different handwritings. He concluded that the Voynich manuscript was the work of two or more <!--del_lnk--> authors who used different <!--del_lnk--> dialects or <!--del_lnk--> spelling conventions, but who shared the same script. However, recent studies have questioned this conclusion. A handwriting expert who examined the book saw only one hand in the whole manuscript. Also, when all sections are examined, one sees a more gradual transition, with herbal <i>A</i> and herbal <i>B</i> at opposite ends. Thus, Prescott's observations could simply be the result of the herbal sections being written in two widely separated time periods.<p><a id="Theories_about_contents_and_purpose" name="Theories_about_contents_and_purpose"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Theories about contents and purpose</span></h2>
<p>The overall impression given by the surviving leaves of the manuscript suggests that it was meant to serve as a <!--del_lnk--> pharmacopoeia or to address topics in medieval or early modern <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. However, the puzzling details of illustrations have fueled many theories about the book's origins, the contents of its text, and the purpose for which it was intended. Here are only a few of them:<p><a id="Herbal" name="Herbal"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Herbal</span></h3>
<p>The first section of the book is almost certainly an <!--del_lnk--> herbal, but attempts to identify the plants, either with actual specimens or with the stylized drawings of contemporary herbals, have largely failed. Only a couple of plants (including a <!--del_lnk--> wild pansy and the <!--del_lnk--> maidenhair fern) can be identified with some certainty. Those "herbal" pictures that match "pharmacological" sketches appear to be "clean copies" of these, except that missing parts were completed with improbable-looking details. In fact, many of the plants seem to be composite: the roots of one species have been fastened to the leaves of another, with flowers from a third.<p><a id="Sunflowers" name="Sunflowers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sunflowers</span></h3>
<p>Brumbaugh believed that one illustration depicted a New World <!--del_lnk--> sunflower, which would help date the manuscript and open up intriguing possibilities for its origin. However, the resemblance is slight, especially when compared to the original wild species; and, since the scale of the drawing is not known, the plant could be many other members of the <!--del_lnk--> same family — which includes the common <!--del_lnk--> daisy, <!--del_lnk--> chamomile, and many other species from all over the world.<p><a id="Alchemy" name="Alchemy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alchemy</span></h3>
<p>The basins and tubes in the "biological" section may seem to indicate a connection to <a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>, which would also be relevant if the book contained instructions on the preparation of medical compounds. However, alchemical books of the period share a common pictorial language, where processes and materials are represented by specific images (eagle, toad, man in tomb, couple in bed, etc.) or standard textual symbols (circle with cross, etc.); and none of these could be convincingly identified in the Voynich manuscript.<p><a id="Alchemical_herbal" name="Alchemical_herbal"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alchemical herbal</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Sergio Toresella, an expert on ancient herbals, pointed out that the Voynich manuscript could be an <i><!--del_lnk--> alchemical herbal</i>—which actually had nothing to do with alchemy, but was a bogus herbal with invented pictures, that a <!--del_lnk--> quack doctor would carry around just to impress his clients. Apparently there was a small <!--del_lnk--> cottage industry of such books somewhere in northern Italy, just at the right epoch. However, those books are quite different from the Voynich manuscript in style and format; and they were all written in plain language.<p><a id="Astrological_herbal" name="Astrological_herbal"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Astrological herbal</span></h3>
<p>Astrological considerations frequently played a prominent role in herb gathering, blood-letting and other medical procedures common during the likeliest dates of the manuscript (see, for instance, <!--del_lnk--> Nicholas Culpeper's books). However, apart from the obvious Zodiac symbols, and one diagram possibly showing the classical planets, no one has been able to interpret the illustrations within known astrological traditions (European or otherwise).<p><a id="Microscopes_and_telescopes" name="Microscopes_and_telescopes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Microscopes and telescopes</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28404.jpg.htm" title="This three-page foldout from the manuscript includes a chart that appears astronomical."><img alt="This three-page foldout from the manuscript includes a chart that appears astronomical." height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:68r.jpg" src="../../images/284/28404.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28404.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This three-page foldout from the manuscript includes a chart that appears astronomical.</div>
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<p>A circular drawing in the "astronomical" section depicts an irregularly shaped object with four curved arms, which some have interpreted as a picture of a <a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a> that could only be obtained with a <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. Other drawings were interpreted as <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> seen through a <a href="../../wp/m/Microscope.htm" title="Microscope">microscope</a>. This would suggest an early modern, rather than a medieval, date for the manuscript's origin. However, the resemblance is rather questionable: on close inspection, the central part of the "galaxy" looks rather like a pool of water. Some of the images also look quite like sea urchins.<p><a id="Theories_about_the_language" name="Theories_about_the_language"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Theories about the language</span></h2>
<p>Many theories have been advanced as to the nature of the Voynich manuscript "language". Here is a partial list:<p><a id="Letter-based_cipher" name="Letter-based_cipher"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Letter-based cipher</span></h3>
<p>According to this theory, the Voynich manuscript contains a meaningful text in some European language, that was intentionally rendered obscure by mapping it to the Voynich manuscript "alphabet" through a <!--del_lnk--> cipher of some sort—an <a href="../../wp/a/Algorithm.htm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> that operated on individual letters.<p>This has been the working hypothesis for most decipherment attempts in the twentieth century, including an informal team of <!--del_lnk--> NSA <!--del_lnk--> cryptographers led by <!--del_lnk--> William F. Friedman in the early 1950s. Simple <!--del_lnk--> substitution ciphers can be excluded, because they are very easy to crack; so decipherment efforts have generally focused on <!--del_lnk--> polyalphabetic ciphers, invented by <!--del_lnk--> Alberti in the 1460s. This class includes the popular <!--del_lnk--> Vigenere cipher, which could have been strengthened by the use of nulls and/or equivalent symbols, letter rearrangement, false word breaks, etc. Some people assumed that vowels had been deleted before encryption. There have been several claims of decipherment along these lines, but none has been widely accepted — chiefly because the proposed decipherment algorithms depended on so many guesses by the user that they could extract a meaningful text from any random string of symbols.<p>The main argument for this theory is that the use of a weird alphabet by a European author can hardly be explained except as an attempt to hide information. Indeed, Roger Bacon knew about ciphers, and the estimated date for the manuscript roughly coincides with the birth of <a href="../../wp/c/Cryptography.htm" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> as a systematic discipline. Against this theory is the observation that a polyalphabetic cipher would normally destroy the "natural" statistical features that are seen in the Voynich manuscript, such as <!--del_lnk--> Zipf's law. Also, although polyalphabetic ciphers were invented about 1467, variants only became popular in the sixteenth century, somewhat too late for the estimated date of the Voynich manuscript.<p><a id="Codebook_cipher" name="Codebook_cipher"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Codebook cipher</span></h3>
<p>According to this theory, the Voynich manuscript "words" would actually be <!--del_lnk--> codes to be looked up in a <i>dictionary</i> or <!--del_lnk--> codebook. The main evidence for this theory is that the internal structure and length distribution of those words are similar to those of <!--del_lnk--> Roman numerals—which, at the time, would be a natural choice for the codes. However, book-based ciphers are viable only for short messages, because they are very cumbersome to write and to read.<p><a id="Visual_cipher" name="Visual_cipher"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Visual cipher</span></h3>
<p>James Finn proposed in his book <i>Pandora's Hope</i> (2004) that the Voynich manuscript is in fact visually encoded <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>. Once the Voynich letters have been correctly transcribed, using the <!--del_lnk--> European Voynich Alphabet (EVA) as a guide, many of the Voynich words can be seen as Hebrew words that repeat with different distortions to confuse the reader. For example, the word AIN from the manuscript is the Hebrew word for "eye", and it also appears in different distorted versions as "aiin" or "aiiin", to make it appear as though the words are different when in fact they are the same word. Other methods of visual encryption are used as well. The main argument for this view is that it would explain the lack of success that most other researchers have had in decoding the manuscript, because they are based on more mathematical approaches to the decryption. The main argument against it is that such a qualitative encoding places a heavy burden on the talents of the individual decoder, given the multiplicity of possible alternate visual interpretations of the same text. It would be hard to separate how much interpretation is of the genuine text, and how much simply reflects the bias of the original interpreter.<p><a id="Micrography" name="Micrography"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Micrography</span></h3>
<p>Following its 1912 rediscovery, one of the earliest efforts to unlock the book's secrets (and, indeed, the first of many premature claims of decipherment) was made in 1921 by William Newbold of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Pennsylvania. His singular hypothesis held that the visible text is meaningless itself, but that each apparent "letter" is in fact constructed of a series of tiny markings only discernible under <!--del_lnk--> magnification. These markings, based on <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <!--del_lnk--> shorthand, were supposed to form a second level of script that held the real content of the writing. Using this knowledge, Newbold claimed to have worked out entire paragraphs proving the authorship of Bacon and recording his use of a compound microscope four hundred years before <!--del_lnk--> Leeuwenhoek. However, John Manly of the <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Chicago.htm" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> pointed out serious flaws in this theory. Each shorthand character was assumed to have multiple interpretations, with no reliable way to determine which was intended for any given case. Newbold's method also required rearranging letters at will until intelligible <!--del_lnk--> Latin was produced. These factors alone ensure the system enough flexibility that nearly anything at all could be "read" in the <!--del_lnk--> microscopic markings, which in any case are themselves illusory. Although there is a tradition of <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <!--del_lnk--> micrography, it is nowhere near as compact or complex as the shapes Newbold made out. Upon close study, these turn out to be mere artifacts of the way ink cracks as it dries on rough vellum, and an example of <!--del_lnk--> pareidolia. Thanks to Manly's thorough refutation, the micrography theory is today disregarded.<p><a id="Steganography" name="Steganography"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Steganography</span></h3>
<p>This theory holds that the text of the Voynich manuscript is mostly meaningless, but contains meaningful information hidden in inconspicuous details—e.g. the second letter of every word, or the number of letters in each line. This technique, called <!--del_lnk--> steganography, is very old, and was described by <!--del_lnk--> Johannes Trithemius in 1499. Some people suggested that the plain text was to be extracted by a <!--del_lnk--> Cardan grille of some sort. This theory is hard to prove or disprove, since <!--del_lnk--> stegotexts can be arbitrarily hard to crack. An argument against it is that using a cipher-looking cover text defeats the main purpose of steganography, which is to hide the very <i>existence</i> of the secret message.<p>Some people have suggested that the meaningful text could be encoded in the length or shape of certain pen strokes. There are indeed examples of steganography from about that time that use letter shape (<!--del_lnk--> italic vs. upright) to hide information. However, when examined at high magnification, the Voynich manuscript pen strokes seem quite natural, and substantially affected by the uneven surface of the vellum.<p><a id="Exotic_natural_language" name="Exotic_natural_language"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Exotic natural language</span></h3>
<p>The linguist <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Guy once suggested that the Voynich manuscript text could be some exotic natural language, written <!--del_lnk--> in the plain with an invented alphabet. The word structure is indeed similar to that of many language families of East and Central Asia, mainly <!--del_lnk--> Sino-Tibetan (<a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Tibetan, and <!--del_lnk--> Burmese), <!--del_lnk--> Austroasiatic (<!--del_lnk--> Vietnamese, <!--del_lnk--> Khmer, etc.) and possibly <!--del_lnk--> Tai (<!--del_lnk--> Thai, <!--del_lnk--> Lao, etc.). In many of these languages, the "<!--del_lnk--> words" have only one <!--del_lnk--> syllable; and syllables have a rather rich structure, including <!--del_lnk--> tonal patterns.<p>This theory has some historical plausibility. While those languages generally had native scripts, these were notoriously difficult for Western visitors; which motivated the invention of several <!--del_lnk--> phonetic scripts, mostly with <!--del_lnk--> Latin letters but sometimes with invented alphabets. Although the known examples are much later than the Voynich manuscript, history records hundreds of explorers and missionaries who could have done it—even before <a href="../../wp/m/Marco_Polo.htm" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s thirteenth century voyage, but especially after <a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> discovered the sea route to the Orient in 1499. The Voynich manuscript author could also be a native from East Asia living in Europe, or educated at a European mission.<p>The main argument for this theory is that it is consistent with all statistical properties of the Voynich manuscript text which have been tested so far, including doubled and tripled words (which have been found to occur in Chinese and Vietnamese texts at roughly the same frequency as in the Voynich manuscript). It also explains the apparent lack of numerals and Western syntactic features (such as <!--del_lnk--> articles and <!--del_lnk--> copulas), and the general inscrutability of the illustrations. Another possible hint are two large red symbols on the first page, which have been compared to a Chinese-style book title, upside down and badly copied. Also, the apparent division of the year into 360 degrees (rather than 365 days), in groups of 15 and starting with Pisces, are features of the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese agricultural calendar (<i>jie q`i</i>). The main argument against the theory is the fact that no one (including scholars at the <!--del_lnk--> Academy of Sciences in <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>) could find any clear examples of Asian symbolism or Asian science in the illustrations.<p>In late 2003, <!--del_lnk--> Zbigniew Banasik of Poland proposed that the manuscript is plaintext written in the <!--del_lnk--> Manchu language and gave an incomplete translation of the first page of the manuscript <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Polyglot_tongue" name="Polyglot_tongue"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Polyglot tongue</span></h3>
<p>In his book <i>Solution of the Voynich Manuscript: A liturgical Manual for the Endura Rite of the Cathari Heresy, the Cult of Isis</i> (1987), <!--del_lnk--> Leo Levitov declared the manuscript a <!--del_lnk--> plaintext transcription of a "polyglot oral tongue". This he defined as "a literary language which would be understandable to people who did not understand Latin and to whom this language could be read." His proposed decryption has three Voynich letters making a syllable, to produce a series of syllables that form a mixture of medieval <!--del_lnk--> Flemish with many borrowed <!--del_lnk--> Old French and <!--del_lnk--> Old High German words.<p>According to Levitov, the rite of Endura was none other than the assisted suicide ritual for people already believed to be near death, famously associated with the <!--del_lnk--> Cathar faith (although the reality of this ritual is also in question). He explains that the chimerical plants are not meant to represent any species of flora, but are secret symbols of the faith. The women in the basins with elaborate plumbing represent the suicide ritual itself, which he believed involved venesection: the cutting of a vein to allow the blood to drain into a warm bath. The constellations with no celestial analogue are representative of the stars in Isis' mantle.<p>This theory is questioned on several grounds. First, the Cathar faith is widely understood to have been a Christian <!--del_lnk--> gnosticism, and not in any way associated with <a href="../../wp/i/Isis.htm" title="Isis">Isis</a>. Second, this theory places the book's origins in the twelfth or thirteenth century, which is considerably older than even the adherents to the Roger Bacon theory believe. Third, the Endura ritual involved fasting, not venesection. Levitov offered no evidence beyond his translation for this theory.<p><a id="Constructed_language" name="Constructed_language"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Constructed language</span></h3>
<p>The peculiar internal structure of Voynich manuscript "words" has led William F. Friedman and <!--del_lnk--> John Tiltman to arrive independently at the conjecture that the text could be a <!--del_lnk--> constructed language in the plain—specifically, a <i>philosophical</i> one. In languages of this class, the vocabulary is organized according to a <!--del_lnk--> category system, so that the general meaning of a word can be deduced from its sequence of letters. For example, in the modern constructed language <!--del_lnk--> Ro, <i>bofo-</i> is the category of colors, and any word beginning with those letters would name a colour: so <i>red</i> is <i>bofoc</i>, and <i>yellow</i> is <i>bofof</i>. (This is an extreme version of the <!--del_lnk--> book classification scheme used by many libraries — in which, say, <i>P</i> stands for <i>language and literature</i>, <i>PA</i> for <!--del_lnk--> Greek and <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <i>PC</i> for <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages, etc.)<p>This concept is quite old, as attested by <!--del_lnk--> John Wilkins's <i><!--del_lnk--> Philosophical Language</i> (1668), but still postdates the generally accepted origin of the VM by two centuries. In most known examples, categories are subdivided by adding <!--del_lnk--> suffixes; as a consequence, a text in a particular subject would have many words with similar prefixes — for example, all plant names would begin with the similar letters, and likewise for all diseases, etc. This feature could then explain the repetitious nature of the Voynich text. However, no one has been able yet to assign a plausible meaning to any prefix or suffix in the Voynich manuscript.<p><a id="Hoax" name="Hoax"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hoax</span></h3>
<p>The bizarre features of the Voynich manuscript text (such as the doubled and tripled words), the suspicious contents of its illustrations (such as the chimeric plants), its lack of historical reference and persistent resistance to deciphering have led many people to conclude that the manuscript may be a <!--del_lnk--> hoax.<p>In 2003, computer scientist <!--del_lnk--> Gordon Rugg showed that text with characteristics similar to the Voynich manuscript could have been produced using a table of word prefixes, stems, and suffixes, which would have been selected and combined by means of a perforated paper overlay. The latter device, known as a <!--del_lnk--> Cardan grille, was invented around 1550 as an encryption tool, slightly after but contemporary to the estimated creation of the Voynich manuscript. Some maintain that since the pseudo-texts generated in Gordon Rugg's experiments do not have the precise words and frequencies as the Voynich manuscript, its resemblance to "Voynichese" is superficial.<p>The argument for authenticity is generally that the manuscript is simply too sophisticated to be a simple hoax. As mentioned, many serious linguists and historians have found much of the manuscript to be very complex and thought-provoking. Hoaxes, especially from this era, tend to be sloppy and crude. If the manuscript is a hoax, it is still a very elaborate one, and the question of why it was created remains just as unclear. Language scholars have noted that the manuscript shares certain word statistics (<!--del_lnk--> Zipf's law) with natural languages that random text generally lacks. On the other hand, some research indicates that random text demonstrates such features as well.<!--del_lnk--> As even <!--del_lnk--> Rugg admits, the ability to hoax Voynich with early techniques does not necessarily imply that Voynich itself is a hoax. Neither is it impossible, even if unlikely, for random text to share some statistical similarity to natural languages. So neither position can be considered wholly dispositive.<p><a id="Glossolalia" name="Glossolalia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Glossolalia</span></h3>
<p>In their book, Kennedy and Churchill hint to the possibility that the Voynich manuscript may be a case of <!--del_lnk--> glossolalia, <!--del_lnk--> channeling or <!--del_lnk--> outsider art.<p>If this is true, then the author felt compelled to write large amounts of text in a manner which somehow resembles <!--del_lnk--> stream of consciousness, either due to "voices" heard, or due to his own urge. While in glossolalia this often takes place in an invented language (usually made up of fragments of the author's own language), invented scripts for this purpose are rare. Kennedy and Churchill use <!--del_lnk--> Hildegard von Bingens' works to point out similarities between the illustrations she drew when she was suffering from severe bouts of <!--del_lnk--> migraine, and show parallels to the illustrations in the manuscript, namely the "streams of stars" found throughout, and the repetitive nature of the "nymphs" in the balneological section.<p>The theory is virtually impossible to prove or disprove, short of deciphering the text; Kennedy and Churchill are themselves not convinced of the hypothesis, but consider it plausible. One of the drawbacks of this theory is that it fails to explain the deliberate structure of the manuscript and the carefully crafted astrological and botanical sections.<p><a id="Influence_on_popular_culture" name="Influence_on_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Influence on popular culture</span></h2>
<p>A number of items in popular culture appear to have been influenced, at least in part, by the Voynich manuscript.<ul>
<li>The dangerous <!--del_lnk--> grimoire called the <i><!--del_lnk--> Necronomicon</i> appears in <!--del_lnk--> H. P. Lovecraft's <!--del_lnk--> Cthulhu Mythos <!--del_lnk--> fantasy. While Lovecraft likely created the <i>Necronomicon</i> without knowledge of the Voynich manuscript, <!--del_lnk--> Colin Wilson published a short story in 1969 called "The Return of the Lloigor", in Arkham House's <i>Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos</i>, wherein a character discovers that the Voynich manuscript is an incomplete copy of the grimoire. Since then, the fictional <i>Necronomicon</i> has been repeatedly identified with this real mystery by other authors.<li>The Voynich manuscript is central to the plot of <!--del_lnk--> Brad Strickland’s <i>The Wrath of the Grinning Ghost</i>, part of the Johnny Dixon series begun by author <!--del_lnk--> John Bellairs. A manuscript markedly similar to the Voynich is also central in Bellairs' novel <i>The Face In the Frost</i>, where it can only be deciphered by means of obsessive concentration. (The novel also features a character named for Roger Bacon.)<li>The <i><!--del_lnk--> Codex Seraphinianus</i> is a modern work of art created in the style of the Voynich manuscript.<li>The contemporary composer <!--del_lnk--> Hanspeter Kyburz wrote an orchestra piece based on the Voynich manuscript, thus reading it as a musical score.<li>The plot of <i>Il Romanzo di Nostradamus</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Valerio Evangelisti features the Voynich manuscript as a work of black magic, against which the famous French astrologer <a href="../../wp/n/Nostradamus.htm" title="Nostradamus">Nostradamus</a> will fight all his life.<li>In the <!--del_lnk--> computer game <i><!--del_lnk--> Broken Sword: The Sleeping Dragon</i>, the Voynich manuscript is the centre of a plot involving "Neo-<!--del_lnk--> Templars". The manuscript predicts catastrophes that will happen in the near future, such as <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">floods</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>.<li>In the <i><!--del_lnk--> PlayStation 2</i> <i><!--del_lnk--> RPG</i> <i><!--del_lnk--> Radiata Stories</i>, the Voynich manuscript is one of the books in the Vareth Institute.<li>In the novel <!--del_lnk--> PopCo, the author <!--del_lnk--> Scarlett Thomas introduces basic <a href="../../wp/c/Cryptography.htm" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> through her main character's attempts to decode the Voynich manuscript.<li>The Japanese speedcore musical artist <i><!--del_lnk--> m1dy</i> titled one of his more recent albums "Voynich Tracks".<li>The Émigré Manuscript, which appears in the popular RPG series <i><!--del_lnk--> Shadow Hearts</i> is widely believed by many fans to have been inspired by the Voynich manuscript, due to its bizarre text, mysterious nature, and ties to <!--del_lnk--> Roger Bacon. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Koudelka</i> manga shows some pages from the manuscript and has Roger himself saying that he merely copied it and removed some potentially dangerous parts from the original source.<li>In the science-fiction novels <i><!--del_lnk--> Ilium</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Olympos</i> (the 'Ilium duology') by <!--del_lnk--> Dan Simmons, the voynix are humanoid, biomechanical killing machines sent forward through time by an Islamic Global Caliphate to kill Jews after the Islamic race is wiped out by a virus of their own creation. The Voynich manuscript is mentioned during the explanation of the voynix' origin, although only as an eponym for the killing machines.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voynich_manuscript"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Vulgar Latin</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Languages.htm">Languages</a></h3>
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<dd><span class="dablink"><i>Not to be confused with <!--del_lnk--> Latin profanity.</i></span></dl>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12873.jpg.htm" title="Vulgar Latin, as in this political engraving at Pompeii, was the way that ordinary people of the Roman Empire spoke, which was different from the Classical Latin used by the Roman elite."><img alt="Vulgar Latin, as in this political engraving at Pompeii, was the way that ordinary people of the Roman Empire spoke, which was different from the Classical Latin used by the Roman elite." height="91" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pompeii-graffiti.jpg" src="../../images/128/12873.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Vulgar Latin, as in this political <!--del_lnk--> engraving at <a href="../../wp/p/Pompeii.htm" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, was the way that ordinary people of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> spoke, which was different from the <!--del_lnk--> Classical Latin used by the Roman elite.</div>
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<p><b>Vulgar Latin</b> (in Latin, <i>sermo vulgaris</i>, "common speech") is a blanket term covering the <!--del_lnk--> vernacular dialects of the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin language</a> spoken mostly in the western <!--del_lnk--> provinces of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> until those dialects, diverging still further, evolved into the early <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages — a distinction usually made around the <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">ninth century</a>. It is important to remember that it is an abstract term, and not the name of any particular dialect. The term itself predates the field of sociolinguistics, and was in some ways a precursor to sociolinguistics which studies language variation associated with social variables and which tends not to see language variation as such a strict standard/non-standard dichotomy (e.g. Classical/Vulgar Latin) but rather as a large pool of variations. In light of fields such as sociolinguistics, dialectology, and historical linguistics, Vulgar Latin can be seen as nearly synonymous to "language variation in Latin" (socially, geographically, and chronologically) except that it tries to exclude the speech and especially writings of the upper, more-educated classes. It is because there are so many different types of variation that definitions of Vulgar Latin differ so much.<p>This spoken Latin differed from the <!--del_lnk--> literary language of <!--del_lnk--> classical Latin (i.e., the perceived standard) in its pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Some features of Vulgar Latin did not appear until the late Empire. Other features are likely to have been in place in spoken Latin, in at least its <!--del_lnk--> basilectal forms, much earlier. Most definitions of "vulgar Latin" mean that it is a spoken language, rather than a written language, because literature tends to be more conservative and therefore, less prone to variation. Because no one transcribed phonetically the daily speech of any Latin speakers during the period in question, students of Vulgar Latin must study it through indirect methods.<p>Our knowledge of Vulgar Latin comes from three chief sources. First, the <!--del_lnk--> comparative method can reconstruct the underlying forms from the attested Romance languages, and note where they differ from classical Latin. Second, various <!--del_lnk--> prescriptive grammar texts from the late Latin period condemn linguistic errors that Latin users were likely to commit, providing insight into how Latin speakers used their language. Finally, the <!--del_lnk--> solecisms and non-Classical usages that occasionally are found in late Latin texts also shed light on the spoken language of the writer.<p>
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</script><a id="What_was_Vulgar_Latin.3F" name="What_was_Vulgar_Latin.3F"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">What was Vulgar Latin?</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12874.jpg.htm" title="The Cantar de Mio Cid is the earliest text of reasonable length we have in Mediaeval Spanish, and marks the beginning of this language as distinct from Vulgar Latin"><img alt="The Cantar de Mio Cid is the earliest text of reasonable length we have in Mediaeval Spanish, and marks the beginning of this language as distinct from Vulgar Latin" height="273" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg" src="../../images/128/12874.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12874.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>Cantar de Mio Cid</i> is the earliest text of reasonable length we have in Mediaeval <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, and marks the beginning of this language as distinct from Vulgar Latin</div>
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<p>The name "vulgar" simply means "common"; it is derived from the Latin word <i>vulgaris</i>, meaning "common", or "of the people". "Vulgar Latin" to Latinists has a variety of meanings.<ol>
<li>It means variation within Latin (socially, geographically, and chronologically) that differs from the perceived Classical literary standard. As such, it typically excludes the language of the more educated, upper-classes which, although it does include variation, comes closest to the perceived standard.<li>It means the spoken Latin of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. Classical Latin represents the <!--del_lnk--> literary <!--del_lnk--> register of Latin. It represented a selection from a variety of available spoken forms. The Latin brought by Roman soldiers to <!--del_lnk--> Gaul, <!--del_lnk--> Iberia or <!--del_lnk--> Dacia was not identical to the Latin of <!--del_lnk--> Cicero, and differed from it in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. By this definition, Vulgar Latin was a spoken language and "late" Latin was used for writing, its general style being slightly different from earlier "classic" standards.</ol>
<ol>
<li>It means the hypothetical ancestor of the <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages ("Proto-Romance"). This is a language which cannot be directly known apart from through a few <!--del_lnk--> graffiti inscriptions; it was Latin that had undergone a number of important sound shifts and changes, which can be <!--del_lnk--> reconstructed from the changes that are evident in its descendants, the Romance vernaculars.<li>In an even more restrictive sense, the name Vulgar Latin is sometimes given to the hypothetical proto-Romance of the Western Romance languages: the vernaculars found north and west of the <!--del_lnk--> La Spezia-Rimini Line, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian peninsula; and the poorly attested Romance speech of northwestern Africa. According to this hypothesis, southeastern <!--del_lnk--> Italian, <!--del_lnk--> Romanian, and <!--del_lnk--> Dalmatian developed separately.<li>"Vulgar Latin" is sometimes used to describe the grammatical innovations found in a number of late Latin texts, such as the <!--del_lnk--> fourth century <i>Itinerarium <!--del_lnk--> Egeriae</i>, Egeria's account of her journey to Palestine and Mt. Sinai; or the works of St <!--del_lnk--> Gregory of Tours. Since written documentation of Vulgar Latin forms is scarce; these works are valuable to <!--del_lnk--> philologists mainly because of the occasional presence of variations or errors in spelling that provide some evidence of spoken usage during the period in which they were written.</ol>
<p>Some literary works in a lower <!--del_lnk--> register of language from the Classical Latin period also give a glimpse into the world of Vulgar Latin. The works of <!--del_lnk--> Plautus and <!--del_lnk--> Terence, being <!--del_lnk--> comedies with many characters who were <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slaves</a>, preserve some early basilectal Latin features, as does the recorded speech of the freedmen in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Cena Trimalchionis</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Petronius Arbiter.<p>Vulgar Latin developed differently in the various provinces of the Roman Empire, thus gradually giving rise to modern <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Italian, <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Romanian, <!--del_lnk--> Catalan and <!--del_lnk--> Romansh. Although the official language, in all of these areas, was Latin, Vulgar Latin was what was popularly spoken until the new localized forms diverged sufficiently from Latin to emerge as separate <!--del_lnk--> standard languages. It is important to note that despite the widening gulf between the spoken and written ("late") form of <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>, that throughout the time of the empire and up till the eight century A.D. there was not an unbridgeable gap between them. Joszef Herman states: -<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>It seems certain that in the sixth century, and quite likely into the early parts of the seventh century, people in the main Romanized areas could still largely understand the biblical and liturgical texts and the commentaries (of greater or lesser simplicity) that formed part of the rites and of religious practice, and that even later, throughout the seventh century, saint's lives written in Latin could be read aloud to the congregations with an expectation that they would be understood. We can also deduce however, that in Gaul, from the central part of the eight century onwards, many people, including several of the clerics, were not able to understand even the most straightforward religous texts<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Joszef Herman, <i>Vulgar Latin</i></cite></blockquote>
<p>The third century AD is presumed to be an age in which much vocabulary was changing (e.g., <i>equus</i> → <i>caballus</i> "horse", etc.) and recently, some studies (which still perhaps need more scientific development) have suggested that pronunciations too started to diverge, supposedly even then becoming similar to modern local pronunciations, with the most spectacular (alleged) effect in the area of <!--del_lnk--> Naples. However, these changes could not have been uniform across the Empire's territory, so the greatest differences were perhaps to be found among different forms of Vulgar Latin in different areas (some due to the acquisition of newer "local" roots). However it must be noted that most of this theory is based on reconstruction <i><!--del_lnk--> a posteriori</i> rather than on texts.<p>For several centuries after the <!--del_lnk--> fall of the Western Roman Empire, Vulgar Latin continued to coexist with written Late Latin: for when people who spoke one of the Romance vernaculars set out to write using proper grammar and spelling, what they put down was language that at least paid lip service to the norms of classical Latin. However, at the third <!--del_lnk--> Council of Tours in 813, <!--del_lnk--> priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language in order to be comprehensible — either the <i>rustica lingua romanica</i>, Vulgar Latin now recognisably distinct from the frozen Church Latin; or <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>. This could be a documented moment of the evolution. Within the space of a lifetime after the Council of Tours, in 842, the <!--del_lnk--> Oaths of Strasbourg, recording an agreement between two of <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>'s heirs, were spoken in a Romance language that was obviously not Latin:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12875.jpg.htm" title="Extract of the Oaths"><img alt="Extract of the Oaths" height="152" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sacramenta_Argentariae_%28pars_brevis%29.jpg" src="../../images/128/12875.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12875.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Extract of the Oaths</div>
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<p>Extract of the full text which is at <!--del_lnk--> Oaths of Strasbourg.<dl>
<dd><i>Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dift, in o quid il me altresi fazet, et ab Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit.</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd>For the love of God and for Christendom and our common salvation, from this day onwards, as God will give me the wisdom and power, I shall protect this brother of mine Charles, with aid or anything else, as one ought to protect one's brother, so that he may do the same for me, and I shall never knowingly make any covenant with Lothair that would harm this brother of mine Charles.</dl>
<p>Late Latin, still based in Rome, presumably reflected these acquisitions, recording what was changing in a nearer area — fairly identifiable with Italy. Formal Latin was then "frozen" by the codifications of <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_law.htm" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> on one side (<!--del_lnk--> Justinian) and of the Church on the other side, finally unified by the medieval copyists and since then forever separated from already independent Romance vulgar idioms. The written language continued to exist as <!--del_lnk--> mediaeval Latin. The Romance vernaculars were recognised as separate languages, and began to develop local norms and <!--del_lnk--> orthographies of their own. "Vulgar Latin" ceases to be a useful name for either language.<p>Vulgar Latin is then a collective name for a group of derived dialects with local — not necessarily common — characteristics, that do not make a "language", at least in a classical sense. It could perhaps be described as a sort of "magmatic" undefined matter that slowly locally crystallized into the several early forms of each Romance language, that consequently find their ultimate proper ancestry in formal Latin. Vulgar Latin was therefore an intermediate point of the evolution, not a source.<p><a id="Phonology" name="Phonology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Phonology</span></h2>
<p><a id="Vowels" name="Vowels"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vowels</span></h3>
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="1" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode; float: right; margin: 1em;" width="270">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" rowspan="2">Letter</th>
<th colspan="2">Pronunciation</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Classical</th>
<th>Vulgar</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A, a</th>
<td>short A</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[a]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[a]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ā, ā</th>
<td>long A</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[aː]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[a]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>e, e</th>
<td>short E</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ē and ē</th>
<td>long E</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[eː]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>I and i</th>
<td>short I</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ī and ī</th>
<td>long I</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[iː]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>O and o</th>
<td>short O</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[o]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɔ]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ō and ō</th>
<td>long O</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[oː]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[o]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>U and u</th>
<td>short V</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[o]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ū and ū</th>
<td>long V</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[uː]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Y and y</th>
<td>short Y</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[y]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Y and y</th>
<td>long Y</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[yː]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ae and ae</th>
<td>AE</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ai]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Oe and oe</th>
<td>OE</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[oi]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Au and au</th>
<td>AV</td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[au]</span></td>
<td><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[au]</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="4">(see <!--del_lnk--> International Phonetic Alphabet for an explanation of the symbols used);</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>One profound change that affected every Romance language reordered the <a href="../../wp/v/Vowel.htm" title="Vowel">vowel</a> system of classical Latin. Latin had ten distinct vowels: long and short versions of A, E, I, O, V, and three <!--del_lnk--> diphthongs, AE, OE and AV (four according to some, including VI). There were also long and short versions of the Greek borrowing, Y.<p>At some time during the classical Latin period, all the vowels except [a] began to differ by quality as well as by length. The long vowels became more <!--del_lnk--> close, while the short vowels became more <!--del_lnk--> open. So, for example, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/eː/</span> remained <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[eː]</span>, while <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/e/</span> became <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ]</span>; <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/iː/</span> remained <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[iː]</span>, while <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/i/</span> became <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span>; <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/oː/</span> remained <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[oː]</span>, but <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/o/</span> became <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɔ]</span>; and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/uː/</span> remained <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[uː]</span>, but <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/u/</span> became <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[o]</span>. Thus the five-times-two triangular vowel system of Latin became a nine-vowel triangular system, with a close set corresponding to the open set.<p>In effect, Latin went from this:<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="10" width="150px">
<tr>
<td align="left" width="50%">ī i</td>
<td align="right" width="50%">u ū</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right">ē e</td>
<td align="left">o ō</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2">ā a</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>to this:<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="10" width="150px">
<tr>
<td align="left" width="50%"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/iː/ /e/</span></td>
<td align="right" width="50%"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/o/ /uː/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="right"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/eː/ /ɛ/</span></td>
<td align="left"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ɔ/ /oː/</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/a/</span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In Vulgar Latin, next, long <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/eː/</span> and short <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/e/</span> merged, and long <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/oː/</span> and short <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/o/</span> merged in the West, yielding the seven vowel system of proto-Western-Romance. As a result for example, Latin <i>pira</i> ("pear (fruit)", fem. sing.) and <i>vēra</i> ("true", fem. singular), came to rhyme in most of the daughter languages: Italian, French, and Spanish <i>pera</i>, <i>vera</i>; Old French <i>poire</i>, <i>voire</i>. Similarly, in the western Roman Empire, Latin <i>nuce(m)</i> ("nut", acc. sing) and <i>vōce(m)</i> ("voice") become Italian <i>noce, voce</i>, Portuguese <i>noz, voz</i>, and French <i>noix, voix</i>. This change did not occur in Romanian (<i>nucă, voce</i>), or, of course, in Sardinian.<p>Apart from <!--del_lnk--> Sardinian, which preserved the position of the classical Latin vowels (but lost phonemic vowel length), what happened to Vulgar Latin can be summarized as in the table to the right.<p>The diphthongs AE and OE usually became <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span> respectively. OE was always a rare phoneme in Classical Latin; in Old Latin times <i>oinos</i> ("one") regularly became <i>unus</i>. The results of Latin AE were also subject to at least some early changes; French <i>proie</i> ("spoils") presumes <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span> rather than <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ]</span> from classical Latin <i>praeda</i>. Latin AV was under some pressure to change in the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republican period; a number of populist politicians adopted the spelling <i><!--del_lnk--> Clodius</i> for the well known Roman name <i><a href="../../wp/c/Claudius.htm" title="Claudius">Claudius</a></i>, but this change was not universal, and marked as <!--del_lnk--> basilectal well into the early Empire. AV was initially retained, but was eventually reduced in many languages to <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[o]</span> after the original <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[o]</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[oː]</span> experienced further changes. (Portuguese evolved only as far as <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ou]</span> until much more recently; Occitan and Romanian preserve <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[au]</span>.)<p>Thus, the ten-vowel system of Classical Latin (not counting diphthongs and the Greek Y), which relied on <!--del_lnk--> phonemic <!--del_lnk--> vowel length was newly modelled into a system in which vowel length distinctions were suppressed and alterations of vowel quality (<!--del_lnk--> vowel height, more specifically) became phonemic. Because of this change, the stress on accented syllables became much more pronounced in Vulgar Latin than in Classical Latin. This tended to cause unaccented syllables to become less distinct, while working further changes on the sounds of the accented syllables. The result was a system with seven stressed vowel phonemes (six in Romanian, five in Sardinian) and five unstressed vowel phonemes.<p>The results of short O and E proved to be unstable in the daughter languages, and tended to break up into diphthongs. Classical <i>focus</i> (accusative <i>focum</i>), "hearth", became the general word in proto-Romance for "fire" (replacing <i>ignis</i>), but its short 'O' sound became a diphthong — a different diphthong — in many daughter languages:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>: <i>feu</i> (now no longer a diphthong but <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/fø/</span>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Italian: <i>fuoco</i><li><a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i>fuego</i></ul>
<p>In French and Italian, these changes occurred only in open syllables. Spanish, however, diphthongized in all circumstances, resulting in a simple five-vowel system in both stressed and unstressed syllables. In <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, no diphthongization occurred at all (<i>fogo</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">['fogu]</span>). <!--del_lnk--> Romanian shows diphthongization of short E (<i>fier</i> from Latin <i>ferrum</i>) but not of short O (<i>foc</i>). <a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> actually avoided some of the instability of its vowels by retaining the Latin distinction between long and short vowels to a certain extent in its system of closed and open vowels. Long Latin <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> generally became closed vowels in Portuguese (written <i>ê</i> and <i>ô</i> when accented), while the corresponding short vowels became open vowels in Portuguese (<i>é</i> and <i>ó</i> when accented). The pronunciation of these vowels is the same as is indicated in the table of Vulgar Latin vowels to the right. Some vowel instability did occur, however, particularly with unstressed <i>o</i>, which changes to <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span>, and unstressed <i>e</i>, which changes to <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[i]</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɨ]</span>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Catalan, the process was similar to that of Portuguese. The short Latin <i>o</i> turned into an open vowel, while short <i>e</i> eventually turned into a closed <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[e]</span> in Western dialects and a schwa in the Eastern ones. This schwa slowly evolved towards an open <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ɛ]</span>, although in most of the Balearic Islands the schwa is mantained even nowadays. Eastern dialects have some vocalic instability similar to that of Portuguese as well: unstressed <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/e/</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/a/</span> turn into a schwa (in some point of the evolution of the language, this change didn't affect <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/e/</span> in prestressed position, a pronunciation that is still kept alive in part of the Balearics), and, except in most of Majorca, unstressed <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/o/</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/u/</span> merge into <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[u]</span>.<p><a id="Consonants" name="Consonants"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Consonants</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Palatalization of Latin <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/k/</span>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/t/</span>, and often <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/g/</span> was almost universal in vulgar Latin; the only Romance languages it did not affect were <!--del_lnk--> Dalmatian and some varieties of <!--del_lnk--> Sardinian. Thus Latin <i>caelum</i> ('sky', 'heaven'), pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/kaelu(m)/</span> beginning with <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/k/</span>, became Italian <i>cielo</i>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/tʃɛlo/</span>, French <i>ciel</i>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/sjɛl/</span>, Catalan <i>cel</i>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/sɛl/</span>, Spanish <i>cielo</i>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/θjelo/</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/sjelo/</span> (depending on dialect) and Portuguese <i>céu</i>, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/'sɛu/</span>, beginning with <!--del_lnk--> sibilant consonants. The former semivowels written in Latin as V as in <i>vinum</i>, pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/w/</span>, and I as in <i>iocunda</i>, pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/j/</span>, came to be pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/v/</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/dʒ/</span>, respectively. Between vowels, <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/b/</span> and <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/w/</span> or <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/v/</span> often merged into an intermediate sound <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/β/</span>.<p>Note that in the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, the letters U and V, I and J were not distinguished until the early modern period. Upper-case <i>U</i> and <i>J</i> did not exist, while lower-case <i>j</i> and <i>v</i> were only graphic variations of <i>i</i> and <i>u</i>, respectively. These graphic variants were used (mainly at the beginning of words) for esthetic purposes, or to help differentiate <i>i</i> and <i>u</i> from similar-looking letters such as <i>n</i> and <i>m</i>. It was only from the 16th century that the consonant value started to be assigned to <i>j</i> and <i>v</i>, while only the vocalic value remained assigned to <i>i</i> and <i>u</i>, probably based on the fact that the consonant value of I and V occurred more commonly at the beginning of a word. In was only after this phonetic differentiation took place that upper-case <i>U</i> and <i>J</i> were introduced, in order to show the newly introduced phonetic distinction also in upper-case.<p>In the Western Romance area, an <!--del_lnk--> epenthetic vowel was inserted at the beginning of any word that began with <i>s</i> and another consonant: thus Latin <i>spatha</i> ("sword") becomes Portuguese and Spanish <i>espada</i>, Catalan <i>espasa</i>, French <i>épée</i>. Eastern Romance languages preserved <!--del_lnk--> euphony rules by adding the epenthesis in the preceding article when necessary instead, so Italian preserves feminine <i>spada</i> as <i>la spada</i>, but changes the masculine <i>*il spaghetto</i> to <i>lo spaghetto</i>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Gender was remodelled in the daughter languages by the loss of final consonants. In classical Latin, the endings -US and -UM distinguished masculine from neuter nouns in the second <!--del_lnk--> declension; with both -S and -M gone, the neuters merged with the masculines, a process that is complete in Romance. By contrast, some neuter plurals such as <i>gaudia</i>, "joys", were <!--del_lnk--> re-analysed as feminine singulars. The loss of final -M is a process which seems to have begun by the time of the earliest monuments of the Latin language. The <!--del_lnk--> epitaph of <!--del_lnk--> Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, who died around 150 BC, reads TAVRASIA CISAVNA SAMNIO CEPIT, which in classical Latin would be written <i>Taurāsiam, Cisaunam, Samnium cēpit</i> ("He captured Taurasia, Cisauna, and Samnium"). Final -M was, however, consistently written in the literary language, though it is often treated as silent for purposes of <!--del_lnk--> scansion in <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a>.<p><a id="Evidence_of_changes" name="Evidence_of_changes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Evidence of changes</span></h3>
<p>Evidence of these and other changes can be seen in the late <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">third century</a> <!--del_lnk--> Appendix Probi, a collection of glosses <!--del_lnk--> prescribing correct classical Latin forms for certain vulgar forms. These glosses describe:<ul>
<li>a process of <!--del_lnk--> syncope, the loss of unstressed vowels (<small>MASCVLVS NON MASCLVS</small>);<li>the reduction of formerly syllabic /e/ and /i/ to /j/ (<small>VINEA NON VINIA</small>);<li>the levelling of the distinction between /o/ and /u/ (<small>COLVBER NON COLOBER</small>) and /e/ and /i/ (<small>DIMIDIVS NON DEMEDIVS</small>);<li>regularization of irregular forms (<small>GLIS NON GLIRIS</small>);<li>regularization and emphasis of gendered forms (<small>PAVPER MVLIER NON PAVPERA MVLIER</small>);<li>levelling of the distinction between /b/ and /v/ between vowels (<small>BRAVIVM NON BRABIVM</small>);<li>the substitution of diminutives for unmarked words (<small>AVRIS NON ORICLA, NEPTIS NON NEPTICLA</small>)<li>the loss of syllable-final nasals (<small>MENSA NON MESA</small>) or their inappropriate insertion as a form of <!--del_lnk--> hypercorrection (<small>FORMOSVS NON FORMVNSVS</small>).</ul>
<p>Many of the forms castigated in the <i>Appendix Probi</i> proved to be the productive forms in Romance; <i>oricla</i> is the source of French <i>oreille</i>, Catalan <i>orella</i>, Spanish <i>oreja</i>, Italian <i>orecchio</i>, Romanian <i>ureche</i>, Portuguese <i>orelha</i>, "ear", not the classical Latin form.<p><a id="Vocabulary" name="Vocabulary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vocabulary</span></h2>
<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="1" style="font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode, sans-serif; float: right; margin: 10px;" width="270px">
<tr>
<th>Classical Only</th>
<th>Classical & Romance</th>
<th>English</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>brassica</i></td>
<td><i>caulis</i></td>
<td>cabbage</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>cruor</i></td>
<td><i>sanguis</i></td>
<td>blood</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>domus</i></td>
<td><i>casa</i></td>
<td>house</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>emere</i></td>
<td><i>comparare</i></td>
<td>buy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>equus</i></td>
<td><i>caballus</i></td>
<td>horse</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>ferre</i> (perfective stem <i>tul-</i>)</td>
<td><i>portare</i></td>
<td>carry</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>ludere</i></td>
<td><i>jocare</i></td>
<td>play</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>magnus</i></td>
<td><i>grandis</i></td>
<td>big</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>pulcher</i></td>
<td><i>bellus</i></td>
<td>beautiful</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>os</i></td>
<td><i>bucca</i></td>
<td>mouth</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i>sidus</i> (stem <i>sider-</i>)</td>
<td><i>stella</i></td>
<td>star</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Certain words from Classical Latin were dropped from the vocabulary. Classical <i>equus</i>, "<a href="../../wp/h/Horse.htm" title="Horse">horse</a>", was consistently replaced by <i>caballus</i> (but note Romanian <i>iapă</i>, Sardinian <i>èbba</i>, Spanish <i>yegua</i>, Catalan <i>egua</i> and Portuguese <i>égua</i> all meaning "mare" and deriving from Classical <i>equa</i>). Classical <i>aequor</i>, "sea", yielded to <i>mare</i> universally. A very partial listing of words that are exclusively Classical, and those that were productive in Romance, is to be found in the table to the right.<p>Some of these words, dropped in Romance, were borrowed back as learned words from Latin itself. The vocabulary changes affected even the basic <!--del_lnk--> grammatical particles of Latin; there are many that vanish without a trace in Romance, such as <i>an, at, autem, donec, enim, ergo, etiam, haud, igitur, ita, nam, postquam, quidem, quin, quod, quoque, sed, utrum,</i> and <i>vel</i>.<p>On the other hand, since Vulgar Latin and Latin proper were for much of their history different registers of the same language, rather than different languages, some Romance languages preserve Latin words that usually were lost. For example, Italian <i>ogni</i> ("each/every") preserves Latin <i>omnes</i>. Other languages use cognates of <i>totus</i> (accusative <i>totum</i>) for the same meaning; for example <i>tutto</i> in Italian, <i>tudo</i> in Portuguese, <i>todo</i> in Spanish, <i>tot</i> in Catalan, <i>tout</i> in French and <i>tot</i> in Romanian.<p>Frequently, Latin words reborrowed from the "higher" register of the language are found side by side with the evolved form. The (lack of) expected phonetic developments is a clue that one word has been borrowed. In Spanish, for example, Vulgar Latin <i>fungus</i> (accusative <i>fungum</i>), "fungus, mushroom", became Italian <i>fungo</i>, Catalan <i>fong</i>, Portuguese <i>fungo</i> and Spanish <i>hongo</i>, with the F > H that was usual in Spanish (cf. <i>filius</i> > Spanish <i>hijo</i>, "son" or <i>facere</i> > Spanish <i>hacer</i>, "to do"). But <i>hongo</i> shares its semantic space with <i>fungo</i>, which by its lack of the expected sound shift displays that it has been re-borrowed from the higher register of classical Latin.<p>Sometimes, a classical Latin word was kept along side a Vulgar Latin word. In Vulgar Latin, classical <i>caput</i>, "head", yielded to <i>testa</i> (originally "pot", a metaphor common throughout Western Europe — cf. English <i>cup</i> with <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> <i>Kopf</i>) in some forms of western Romance, including French and Italian. But Italian, French and Catalan kept the Latin word under the form <i>capo</i>, <i>chef</i>, and <i>cap</i> which retained many metaphorical meanings of "head", including "boss". The Latin word with the original meaning is preserved in Romanian <i>cap</i>, together with <i>ţeastă</i>, both meaning 'head' in the anatomical sense. Southern Italian dialects likewise preserve <i>capo</i> as the normal word for "head". Spanish and Portuguese have <i>cabeza</i>/<i>cabeça</i>, derived from *<i>capetia</i>, a modified form of <i>caput</i>, while <i>testa</i> was retained in Portuguese as the word for "forehead". Overall, this demonstrates a common pattern observed in many circumstances -- peripheral dialects tend to be more conservative than central dialects.<p>Verbs with prefixed prepositions frequently displaced simple forms. The number of words formed by such <!--del_lnk--> suffixes as <i>-bilis</i>, <i>-arius</i>, <i>-itare</i> and <i>-icare</i> grew apace. These changes occurred frequently to avoid irregular forms or to regularise genders.<p>Insight into the vocabulary changes of late Vulgar Latin in France can be seen in the <i>Reichenau <!--del_lnk--> glosses</i>, written into the margins of a copy of the <!--del_lnk--> Vulgate Bible, which explain <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">fourth-century</a> Vulgate words no longer readily understood in the <!--del_lnk--> eighth century, when the glosses were likely written. These glosses are likely of French origin; some vocabulary items are specifically French.<p>These glosses show vocabulary replacement:<ul>
<li><small>FEMVR</small> > <i>coxa</i> (Portuguese and Old Spanish <i>coxa</i>, French <i>cuisse</i>, Italian <i>coscia</i>, Catalan <i>cuixa</i>, Romanian <i>coapsă</i>, "thigh")<li><small>ARENA</small> > <i>sabulo</i> (Spanish <i>arena</i>, Portuguese <i>areia</i>, French <i>sable</i>, Italian <i>sabbia</i>, "sand")<li><small>CANERE</small> > <i>cantare</i> (Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan <i>cantar</i>, French <i>chanter</i>, Italian <i>cantare</i>, Romanian <i>cânta</i>, "to sing")</ul>
<p>grammatical changes:<ul>
<li><small>OPTIMUS (best) MELIORES (better)</small> > <i>meliores</i> ("optimum" survived in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Italian, and French as <i>óptimo, ó(p)timo, òptim, ottimo</i> and <i>optimal/optimum</i> respectively, which mean the best, whereas <i>mejor</i> and <i>melhor</i> mean better; Portuguese <i>melhores</i>, Spanish <i>mejores</i>, Catalan <i>millors</i>, French <i>meilleurs</i>, Italian <i>migliori</i>, "better [plural]")<li><small>SANIORE</small> > <i>plus sano</i> (French <i>plus sain</i>, Italian <i>più sano</i>, Romanian <i>mai sănătos</i>, Catalan <i>més sa</i>, Spanish <i>más sano</i>, Portuguese <i>mais são</i> "healthier")</ul>
<p>Germanic loan words:<ul>
<li><small>TVRBAS</small> > <i>fulcos</i> (Spanish <i>turbia</i>, Portuguese/Catalan <i>turba</i>, French <i>foule</i>, Italian <i>folla</i>, "mob")<li><small>CEMENTARIIS</small> > <i>mationibus</i> (French <i>maçons</i>, "stonemasons")<li><small>NON PERPERCIT</small> > <i>non sparniavit</i> (French <i>épargner</i>, "to spare")<li><small>GALEA</small> > <i>helme</i> (French <i>heaume</i>, Italian/Portuguese <i>elmo</i>, Catalan <i>elm</i>, Spanish <i>yelmo</i>, "helmet")</ul>
<p>and words whose meaning has changed:<ul>
<li><small>IN ORE</small> > <i>in bucca</i> (Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan <i>boca</i>, French <i>bouche</i>, Italian <i>bocca</i>, "mouth")<li><small>ROSTRVM</small> > <i>beccus</i> (Spanish/Galician <i>rostro</i>, and Portuguese <i>rosto</i> survived to mean "face". French <i>bec</i>, Italian <i>becco</i>, Catalan <i>bec</i>, Spanish <i>pico</i>, Portuguese <i>bico</i>, "beak")<li><small>ISSET</small> > <i>ambulasset</i> (French <i>allait</i>, "he went"; Catalan <i>anar</i>, Italian <i>andare</i>, "to go")<li><small>LIBEROS</small> > <i>infantes</i> (French <i>enfants</i>, "children"; Italian <i>infantile</i>, "childish, infantile")<li><small>MILITES</small> > <i>servientes</i> (French <i>sergents</i>, "soldiers")</ul>
<p><a id="Grammar" name="Grammar"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Grammar</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_Romance_articles" name="The_Romance_articles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Romance articles</span></h3>
<p>It is difficult to place the point in which the <!--del_lnk--> definite article, absent in Latin but present in some form in all of the Romance languages, arose; largely because the highly colloquial speech it arose in seldom was written until the daughter languages had strongly diverged; most surviving texts in early Romance show the articles fully developed.<p>Definite articles formerly were demonstrative <!--del_lnk--> pronouns or <!--del_lnk--> adjectives; compare the fate of the Latin <!--del_lnk--> demonstrative adjective <i>ille, illa, (illud)</i>, in the <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages, becoming French <i>le</i> and <i>la</i>, Catalan and Spanish <i>el</i> and <i>la</i>, and Italian <i>il</i> and <i>la</i>. The Portuguese articles <i>o</i> and <i>a</i> are ultimately from the same source. Sardinian went its own way here also, forming its article from <i>ipsu(m), ipsa</i> (su, sa); some Catalan and Occitan dialects have articles from the same source. While most of the Romance languages put the article before the noun, Romanian has its own way, by putting the article after the noun, eg. <i>lupul</i> ("the wolf") and <i>omul</i> ("the man" — from <i>lupum illum</i> and <i>*hominem illum</i>).<p>This pronoun is used in a number of contexts in some early texts in ways that suggest that the Latin demonstrative was losing its force. The <!--del_lnk--> Vetus Latina Bible contains a passage <i>Est tamen ille dæmon sodalis peccati</i>, ("The devil is a companion of sin"), in a context that suggests that the word meant little more than an article. The need to translate <!--del_lnk--> sacred texts that were originally in <!--del_lnk--> Greek, which has a definite article, may have given Christian Latin an incentive to choose a substitute. <!--del_lnk--> Aetheria uses <i>ipse</i> similarly: <i>per mediam vallem ipsam</i> ("through the middle of the valley"), suggesting that it too was weakening in force.<p>Another indication of the weakening of the demonstratives can be inferred from the fact that at this time, legal and similar texts begin to swarm with <i>prædictus</i>, <i>supradictus</i>, and so forth (all meaning, essentially, "aforesaid"), which seem to mean little more than "this" or "that". Gregory of Tours writes, <i>Erat autem. . . beatissimus Anianus in supradicta ciuitate episcopus</i> ("Blessed Anianus was bishop in that city.") The original Latin demonstrative adjectives were felt no longer to be specific enough. In less formal speech, reconstructed forms suggest that the inherited Latin demonstratives were made more forceful by being compounded with <i>ecce</i> (originally an <!--del_lnk--> interjection: "look!") or *<i>eccu</i>, from Classical <i>eccum</i> ("look at it!"). This is the origin of Old French <i>cil</i> (*<i>ecce ille</i>), <i>cist</i> (*<i>ecce iste</i>) and <i>ici</i> (*<i>ecce hic</i>); Spanish <i>aquel</i> and Portuguese <i>aquele</i> (*<i>eccu ille</i>); Italian <i>questo</i> (*<i>eccu istum</i>), <i>quello</i> (*<i>eccu illum</i>) and obsolescent <i>codesto</i> (*<i>eccu tibi istum</i>); Spanish <i>acá</i> and Portuguese <i>cá</i>, (*<i>eccu hac</i>), Portuguese <i>acolá</i> (*<i>eccu illac</i>) and <i>aquém</i> (*<i>eccu inde</i>); and many other forms.<p>On the other hand, even in the <!--del_lnk--> Oaths of Strasbourg, no demonstrative appears even in places where one would clearly be called for in all the later languages. (<i>Pro Deo amur</i> — "for the love of God".) Using the demonstratives as articles may have still been too slangy for a royal oath in the ninth century. Considerable variation exists in all of the Romance vernaculars as to their actual use: in Romanian, the articles can be suffixed to the noun, as in other members of the <!--del_lnk--> Balkan <i>Sprachbund</i> and the <!--del_lnk--> North Germanic languages.<p>The numeral <i>unus, una</i> (one) supplies the <!--del_lnk--> indefinite article everywhere. This is anticipated in Classical Latin; <!--del_lnk--> Cicero writes <i>cum uno gladiatore nequissimo</i> ("with a quite immoral gladiator"). This suggests that <i>unus</i> was beginning to supplant <i>quidam</i> in the meaning of "a certain" or "some" by the first century BC.<p><a id="Gender:_loss_of_the_neuter" name="Gender:_loss_of_the_neuter"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gender: loss of the neuter</span></h3>
<p>The three <!--del_lnk--> grammatical genders of Classical Latin were replaced by a two-gender system in the Romance languages (though see below). In Latin gender is partly a matter of <!--del_lnk--> agreement, i.e. certain nouns take certain forms of the adjectives and pronouns, and partly a matter of <!--del_lnk--> inflection, i.e. there are different paradigms associated with the masculine/feminine on the one hand and the neuter on the other.<p>The classical Latin neuter was normally absorbed by the masculine both syntactically and morphologically. The syntactical confusion starts already in the <a href="../../wp/p/Pompeii.htm" title="Pompeii">Pompeian</a> graffiti, e.g. <i>cadaver mortuus</i> for <i>cadaver mortuum</i> "dead body" and <i>hoc locum</i> for <i>hunc locum</i> "this place". The morphological confusion shows primarily in the adoption of the nominative ending <i>-us</i> (<i>-Ø</i> after <i>-r</i>) in the <i>o</i>-declension: in Petronius Arbiter, we find <i>balneus</i> for <i>balneum</i> "bath", <i>fatus</i> for <i>fatum</i> "fate", <i>caelus</i> for <i>caelum</i> "heaven", <i>amphiteater</i> for <i>amphitheatrum</i> "amphitheatre" and conversely the nominative <i>thesaurum</i> for <i>thesaurus</i> "treasure".<p>In Modern Romance, the nominative <i>s</i>-ending has been abandoned and all substantives of the <i>o</i>-declension have the ending <small>-UM</small> > <i>-u</i>/<i>-o</i>/<i>-Ø</i>: <small>MURUM</small> > Italian and Spanish <i>muro</i>, Catalan and French <i>mur</i> and <small>CAELUM</small> > Italian, Spanish <i>cielo</i>, French <i>ciel</i>, Catalan <i>cel</i>. Old French still had <i>-s</i> in the nominative and <i>-Ø</i> in the accusative in <i>both</i> original genders (<i>murs</i>, <i>ciels</i>).<p>For some neuter nouns of the third declension, the oblique stem was the productive form in Romance; for others, the nominative/accusative form, identical in Classical Latin, was the form that survived. Evidence suggests that the neuter gender was under pressure well back into the Roman Empire period. French <i>(le) lait</i>, Catalan <i>(la) llet</i>, Spanish <i>(la) leche</i>, Portuguese <i>(o) leite</i>, Italian <i>(il) latte</i>, and Romanian <i>lapte(le)</i> ("milk"), all derive from the non-standard but attested Latin nom./acc. neut. <i>lacte</i> or acc. masc. <i>lactem</i>; the standard nominative and accusative form in classical Latin was <i>lac</i>. Note also that Spanish assigned it to the feminine gender, while French, Portuguese, Italian and Romanian made it masculine. Other neuter forms, however, were preserved in Romance; Catalan and French <i>nom</i>, Portuguese <i>nome</i>, and Italian <i>nome</i> ("name") all preserve the Latin nominative/accusative <i>nomen</i>, rather than the oblique stem form *<i>nominem</i> used in Spanish <i>nombre</i>.<p>Most neuter nouns had plural forms ending in <small>-A</small> or <small>-IA</small>; some of these were reanalysed as feminine singulars, such as <i>gaudium</i>, plural <i>gaudia</i> (<i>joy(s)</i>); the plural form lies at the root of French feminine singular <i>la joie</i>, as well as Catalan and Occitan <i>la joia</i> (Italian <i>la gioia</i> is a borrowing from French); same for <i>lignum</i>, plural <i>ligna</i> (<i>wood stick(s)</i>) that originated Catalan feminine singular <i>la llenya</i>, or Spanish <i>la leña</i>. Some Romance languages still have a special plural form of the old neuters which is treated as a feminine syntactically: e.g. <small>BRACCHIUM : BRACCHIA</small> "arm(s)" > Italian <i>(il) braccio</i> : <i>(le) braccia</i>, Romanian <i>braţ(ul)</i> : <i>braţe(le)</i>. Cf. also <!--del_lnk--> Merovingian Latin <i>ipsa animalia aliquas mortas fuerant</i>.<table align="right" border="0" style="margin: 10px;">
<tr>
<th colspan="5">Typical Italian endings</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td colspan="2">Nouns</td>
<td colspan="2">Adj. & determiners</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>sing.</td>
<td>plur.</td>
<td>sing.</td>
<td>plur.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>m</td>
<td><i>giardin<b>o</b></i></td>
<td><i>giardin<b>i</b></i></td>
<td><i>buon<b>o</b></i></td>
<td><i>buon<b>i</b></i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>f</td>
<td><i>donn<b>a</b></i></td>
<td><i>donn<b>e</b></i></td>
<td><i>buon<b>a</b></i></td>
<td><i>buon<b>e</b></i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>(n</td>
<td><i>uov<b>o</b></i></td>
<td><i>uov<b>a</b></i></td>
<td><i>buon<b>o</b></i></td>
<td><i>buon<b>e</b></i>)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Forms such as Italian <i>l'uovo fresco</i> ("the fresh egg") / <i>le uova fresche</i> ("the fresh eggs") are usually explained away by saying that they are masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural, and that they have an irregular plural in <i>-a</i> (heteroclisis). However, it is also consistent with the facts to say that <i>uovo</i> is simply a regular neuter noun (< <i>ovum</i>, plural <i>ova</i>) and that the characteristic ending for words agreeing with these nouns is <i>o</i> in the singular and <i>e</i> in the plural. Thus, neuter nouns can arguably be said to persist in Italian and Romanian.<p>These formations were especially common when they could be used to avoid irregular forms. In Latin, names of <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">trees</a> were usually feminine gender, but many were declined in the second declension paradigm which was dominated by masculine or neuter nouns. Latin <i>pirus</i> ("<!--del_lnk--> pear tree"), a feminine noun with a masculine looking ending, became masculines in Italian (<i>(il) pero</i>) and Romanian (<i>păr(ul)</i>); in French and Spanish it has been replaced by the masculine derivations <i>(le) poirier</i>, <i>(el) peral</i>, in Portuguese or Catalan by the feminine derivation <i>(a) pereira</i>, <i>(la) perera</i>). <i>Fagus</i> ("<!--del_lnk--> beech"), another feminine noun in masculine dress, is preserved in some dialects as a masculine, e.g. Romanian <i>fag(ul)</i> or Catalan <i>(el) faig</i>; other dialects have replaced it with its adjective forms <i>fageus</i> or <i>fagea</i> ("made of beechwood"), thus Italian <i>(il) faggio</i>, Spanish <i>(el) haya</i>, and Portuguese <i>(a) faia</i>.<p>As usual, irregularities persisted longest in frequently used forms. From the fourth declension <i>manus</i> ("hand"), another feminine noun with a "masculine" ending, Italian and Spanish derived <i>(la) mano</i>, Catalan <i>(la) mà</i>, and Portuguese <i>(a) mão</i>, which preserves its feminine gender even though it remains masculine in appearance.<p>Except for the Italian and Romanian "heteroclitic" nouns, other major Romance languages have no trace of neuter nouns, but all have neuter pronouns. French: <i>celui-ci, celle-ci, ceci</i>; Spanish: <i>éste, ésta, esto</i> (all meaning "this"); Italian: <i>gli, le, ci</i> ("to him", "to her", "to it"); Catalan: <i>ho</i>, <i>açò</i>, <i>això</i>, <i>allò</i> ("it", <i>this</i>, <i>this/that</i>, <i>that over there</i>); Portuguese: <i>todo, toda, tudo</i> ("every" m., "every" f., "everything").<p>Some varieties of <!--del_lnk--> Astur-Leonese maintain endings for the three genders such as follows: <i>bonu, bona, bono</i> ("good").<p>(Note: Spanish has a neuter gender of sorts with the neuter article 'Lo', usually used with nouns denoting abstract categories: "lo bueno", i.e. that or everything which is 'good', from <i>bueno</i>: good; "lo importante", i.e. that or everything 'important'. "Sabes LO TARDE que es?", literally "Do you know 'that which is late' that it is?", or more idiomatically: "Do you know how late it is?" from <i>tarde</i>: late. As far as pronouns, Spanish also has a neuter singular <i>ello</i>, aside from the well cited <i>él, ella</i>.)<p><a id="The_loss_of_the_noun_case_system" name="The_loss_of_the_noun_case_system"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The loss of the noun case system</span></h3>
<table align="right" style="margin: 2px; margin-left: 12px;">
<tr>
<th>Classical Latin</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Nominative:</td>
<td><i>rosa</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Accusative:</td>
<td><i>rosam</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Genitive:</td>
<td><i>rosae</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dative:</td>
<td><i>rosae</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ablative:</td>
<td><i>rosā</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Vulgar Latin</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Nominative:</td>
<td><i>rosa</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Accusative:</td>
<td><i>rosa</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Genitive:</td>
<td><i>rose</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dative:</td>
<td><i>rose</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ablative:</td>
<td><i>rosa</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The sound changes that were occurring in Vulgar Latin made the <!--del_lnk--> noun case system of Classical Latin harder to sustain, and ultimately spelled doom for the system of Latin <!--del_lnk--> declensions. As a result of the untenability of the noun case system after these phonetic changes, vulgar Latin moved from being a markedly <!--del_lnk--> synthetic language to a more <!--del_lnk--> analytic language where word order is a necessary element of syntax. Consider what the loss of final /m/, the loss of phonemic vowel length, and the sound shift from AE /ai/ to E <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ɛ/</span> entailed for a typical first declension noun (<i>see table</i>).<p>The complete elimination of case happened only gradually. <!--del_lnk--> Old French still maintained a <!--del_lnk--> nominative/<!--del_lnk--> oblique distinction (called <i>cas-sujet</i>/<i>cas-régime</i>); this disappeared in the course of the 12th or 13th centuries, depending on the dialect. <!--del_lnk--> Old Occitan also maintained a similar distinction, as did many of the <!--del_lnk--> Rhaeto-Romance languages until only a few hundred years ago. <!--del_lnk--> Romanian still preserves a separate <!--del_lnk--> genitive/<!--del_lnk--> dative case along with vestiges of a <!--del_lnk--> vocative case.<p>The distinction between <!--del_lnk--> singular and <!--del_lnk--> plural was marked in two ways in the Romance languages. North and west of the <!--del_lnk--> La Spezia-Rimini line, which runs through northern <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, the singular was usually distinguished from the plural by means of final -<i>s</i>, which was present in the old <!--del_lnk--> accusative plurals in masculine and feminine nouns of all declensions. South and east of the La Spezia-Rimini Line, the distinction was marked by changes of final vowels, as in contemporary standard Italian and Romanian. This preserves and generalizes distinctions that were marked on the nominative plurals of the first and second declensions.<p><a id="Prepositions_multiply" name="Prepositions_multiply"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Prepositions multiply</span></h3>
<p>Loss of a productive noun case system meant that the <!--del_lnk--> syntax purposes it formerly served now had to be performed by <!--del_lnk--> prepositions and other paraphrases. These particles increased in numbers, and many new ones were formed by compounding old ones. The descendant Romance languages are full of grammatical particles such as Spanish <i>donde</i>, "where", from Latin <i>de</i> + <i>unde</i>, or French <i>dès</i>, "since", from <i>de</i> + <i>ex</i> or <i>dans</i>, "in" from <i>de intus</i>, "from the inside", while the equivalent Spanish and Portuguese <i>desde</i> is <i>de</i> + <i>ex</i> + <i>de</i>. Spanish <i>después</i> and Portuguese <i>depois</i>, "after" represents <i>de</i> + <i>ex</i> + <i>post</i>. Some of these new compounds appear in literary texts during the late empire; French <i>dehors</i>, Spanish <i>de fuera</i> and Portuguese <i>de fora</i> ("outside") all three represent <i>de</i> + <i>foris</i> (Romanian "afara" <i>ad</i> + <i>foris</i>), and we find St <!--del_lnk--> Jerome writing <i>si quis de foris venerit</i> ("if anyone goes outside").<p>Samples:<p>As Latin was losing its case system, prepositions started to move in to fill the void. In colloquial Latin, the preposition <i>ad</i> followed by the accusative was sometimes used as a substitute for the dative case.<ul>
<li><b>Classical Latin:</b><ul>
<li><i>Iacōbus patrī librum dat.</i>—James is giving his father a/the book.</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Vulgar Latin:</b><ul>
<li><i>´Jacọmọs ´lẹvrọ a ´ppatre ´dọnat.</i>—James is giving a/the book to his father.</ul>
</ul>
<p>Just as in the disappearing dative case, colloquial Latin sometimes replaced the disappearing genitive case with the preposition <i>de</i> followed by the ablative.<ul>
<li><b>Classical Latin:</b><ul>
<li><i>Iacōbus mihi librum patris dat.</i>—James is giving me his father's book.</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><b>Vulgar Latin:</b><ul>
<li><i>´Jacọmọs mẹ ´lẹvrọ dẹ ´patre ´dọnat.</i>—James is giving me the book of (belonging to) his father.</ul>
</ul>
<p>or<ul>
<li><b>Vulgar Latin:</b><ul>
<li><i>´Jacọmọs ´lẹvrọ dẹ ´patre a ´mmẹ ´dọnat.</i>—James is giving the book of (belonging to) his father to me.</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Adverbs" name="Adverbs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Adverbs</span></h3>
<p>Classical Latin had a number of different suffixes that made <!--del_lnk--> adverbs from <!--del_lnk--> adjectives: <i>carus</i>, "dear", formed <i>care</i>, "dearly"; <i>acriter</i>, "fiercely", from <i>acer</i>; <i>crebro</i>, "often", from <i>creber</i>. All of these derivational suffixes were lost in Vulgar Latin, where adverbs were invariably formed by a feminine <!--del_lnk--> ablative form modifying <i>mente</i>, which was originally the ablative of <i>mentis</i>, and so meant "with a _____ mind". So <i>velox</i> ("quick") instead of <i>velociter</i> ("quickly") gave <i>veloce mente</i> (originally "with a quick mind", "quick-mindedly") This explains the nigh-invariable rule to form regular adverbs in almost all Romance languages: add the suffix -<i>ment(e)</i> to the feminine form of the adjective. This originally separate word becomes a suffix in Romance. This change was well under way as early as the <!--del_lnk--> first century B.C., and the construction appears several times in <!--del_lnk--> Catullus, most famously in <!--del_lnk--> Catullus 8:<dl>
<dd><i>Nunc iam illa non vult; tu, quoque, impotens, noli</i><dd><i>Nec quae fugit sectare, nec miser vive</i>,<dd><i>Sed obstinata mente perfer, obdura.</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd>("Now she doesn't want you anymore; you, too, should not want her, neither chase her as she flees, nor pine in misery: but carry on obstinately [obstinate-mindedly]: get over it!")</dl>
<p><a id="Verbs" name="Verbs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Verbs</span></h3>
<p>The verb forms were much less affected by the phonetic losses that eroded the noun case systems; indeed, an active verb in <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> (or other modern Romance language) will still strongly resemble its Latin ancestor. One factor that gave the system of verb inflections more staying power was the fact that the strong <!--del_lnk--> stress accent of Vulgar Latin, replacing the light stress accent of Classical Latin, frequently caused different syllables to be stressed in different conjugated forms of a verb. As such, although the word forms continued to evolve phonetically, the distinctions among the conjugated forms did not erode (much).<p>For example, in Latin the words for "I love" and "we love" were, respectively, <i>āmo</i> and <i>amāmus</i>. Because a stressed A gave rise to a diphthong in some environments in Old French, that daughter language had <i>(j')<b>ai</b>me</i> for the former and <i>(nous) <b>a</b>mons</i> for the latter. Though several phonemes have been lost in each case, the different stress patterns helped to preserve distinctions between them, if perhaps at the expense of irregularising the verb. Regularising influences have countered this effect in some cases (the modern French form is <i>nous aimons</i>), but some modern verbs have preserved the irregularity, such as <i>je v<b>ie</b>ns</i> ("I come") versus <i>nous v<b>e</b>nons</i> ("we come").<p>Another set of changes already underway by the first century AD was the loss of certain final consonants. A <!--del_lnk--> graffito at <a href="../../wp/p/Pompeii.htm" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> reads <i>quisque ama valia</i>, which in Classical Latin would read <i>quisquis amat valeat</i> ("may whoever loves be strong/do well"). In the <!--del_lnk--> perfect tense, many languages generalized the <i>-aui</i> ending most frequently found in the first conjugation. This led to an unusual development; phonetically, the ending was treated as the diphthong /au/ rather than containing a semivowel /awi/, and the /w/ sound was in many cases dropped; it did not participate in the sound shift from /w/ to /v/. Thus Latin <i>amaui</i>, <i>amauit</i> ("I loved; he/she loved") in many areas became proto-Romance *<i>amai</i> and *<i>amaut</i>, yielding for example Spanish <i>amé</i>, <i>amó</i>, Portuguese <i>amei</i>, <i>amou</i>. This suggests that in the spoken language, these changes in conjugation preceded the loss of /w/.<p>Another major systemic change was to the <!--del_lnk--> future tense, remodelled in Vulgar Latin with auxiliary verbs. This may have been due to phonetic merger of intervocalic /b/ and /v/, which caused future tense forms such as <i>amabit</i> to become identical to <!--del_lnk--> perfect tense forms such as <i>amauit</i>, introducing unacceptable ambiguity. A new future was originally formed with the auxiliary verb <i>habere</i>, *<i>amare habeo</i>, literally "to love I have". This was contracted into a new future suffix in Western Romance forms which can be seen in the following modern examples of "I will love":<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>: <i><b>j'aimerai</b></i> (<i>je</i> + <i>aimer</i> + <i>ai</i>) < <i>aimer</i> ["to love"] + <i>ai</i> ["I have"].<li><a href="../../wp/p/Portuguese_language.htm" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: <i><b>amarei</b></i> (<i>amar</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>ei</i>) < <i>amar</i> ["to love"] + <i>hei</i> ["I have"]<li><a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Catalan: <i><b>amaré</b></i> (<i>amar</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>e</i>) < <i>amar</i> ["to love"] + <i>he</i> ["I have"].<li><!--del_lnk--> Italian: <i><b>amerò</b></i> (<i>amar</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>o</i>) < <i>amare</i> ["to love"] + <i>ho</i> ["I have"].</ul>
<p>An innovative <!--del_lnk--> conditional (distinct from the <!--del_lnk--> subjunctive) also developed in the same way (infinitive + conjugated form of <i>habere</i>). The fact that the future and conditional endings were originally independent words is still evident in Portuguese, which in these tenses allows <!--del_lnk--> clitic object pronouns to be incorporated as <!--del_lnk--> infixes between the root of the verb and its ending: "I will love" (<i>eu</i>) <i>amarei</i>, but "I will love you" <i>amar-te-ei</i>, from <i>amar</i> + <i>te</i> ["you"] + (<i>eu</i>) <i>hei</i> = <i>amar</i> + <i>te</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>ei</i> = <i>amar-te-ei</i>.<p>Contrary to the millennia-long continuity of much of the active verb system, the <!--del_lnk--> passive voice was utterly lost in Romance, which entailed its replacement with <!--del_lnk--> auxiliary verbs—forms of "to be" plus a passive participle—or impersonal <!--del_lnk--> reflexive forms.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgar_Latin"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Vultures</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14361.jpg.htm" title="Griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus"><img alt="Griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Eagle_beak_sideview_A.jpg" src="../../images/143/14361.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Griffon vulture, <i>Gyps fulvus</i></small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
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<center>Orders</center>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Falconiformes (Fam. <!--del_lnk--> Accipitridae (part))<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ciconiiformes (Fam. <!--del_lnk--> Cathartidae)</td>
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<p><b>Vultures</b> are <!--del_lnk--> scavenging <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a>, feeding mostly on the carcasses of dead <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a>. Vultures are found in every continent except <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and <a href="../../wp/o/Oceania.htm" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>.<p>A particular characteristic of many vultures is a bald <!--del_lnk--> head, devoid of <a href="../../wp/f/Feather.htm" title="Feather">feathers</a>. This is likely because a feathered head would become spattered with <!--del_lnk--> blood and other fluids, and thus be difficult to keep clean. This feature also allows quick cleaning in a nearby river.<p>Vultures fall into two groups. The <!--del_lnk--> Old World vultures found in <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> belong to the family <!--del_lnk--> Accipitridae, which also includes <a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" title="Eagle">eagles</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kite_%2528bird%2529.htm" title="Kite (bird)">kites</a>, <!--del_lnk--> buzzards and <a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" title="Hawk">hawks</a>. They find carcasses exclusively by sight.<p><!--del_lnk--> New World vultures and <!--del_lnk--> condors are not at all closely related to the superficially similar Accipitridae, but belong in the family Cathartidae, which is quite close to the <!--del_lnk--> storks. Several species have a good sense of smell, unusual for <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_of_prey.htm" title="Bird of prey">raptors</a>.<p>The similarities between the two groups are due to <!--del_lnk--> convergent evolution rather than a close relationship.<p>A group of vultures is occasionally called a <i>venue</i>. When circling in the air, a group of vultures is called a <i>kettle</i>.<p>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14362.jpg.htm" title="Some members of both the old and new world vultures have an unfeathered neck and head, shown as radiating heat in this thermographic image."><img alt="Some members of both the old and new world vultures have an unfeathered neck and head, shown as radiating heat in this thermographic image." height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wiki_vulture2.jpg" src="../../images/143/14362.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14362.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Some members of both the old and new world vultures have an unfeathered neck and head, shown as radiating heat in this thermographic image.</div>
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<p>Vulture seldom attack a healthy living animal, but may kill the wounded or sick. Vast numbers have been seen upon battlefields. They gorge themselves when prey is abundant, till their <!--del_lnk--> crop forms a projection, and sit, sleepy or half torpid, to digest their food. They do not carry food to their young in their claws, but disgorge it from the crop. These birds are of great value as scavengers, especially in hot regions.<p><a id="Threat_due_to_diclofenac_poisoning" name="Threat_due_to_diclofenac_poisoning"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Threat due to diclofenac poisoning</span></h2>
<p>The vulture population in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> has declined by up to 95% recently and two or three of the species of vulture in South Asia are nearing extinction. The cause was found to be due to the practice of giving working animals the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (<!--del_lnk--> NSAID) <!--del_lnk--> diclofenac, which has a pain killing action. Diclofenac administration keeps animals that are ill or in pain working on the land for longer. Diclofenac accumulates in the animals' bodies; when the ill animals die, their carcasses will still contain the diclofenac. Farmers leave the dead animals out in the open, relying on vultures to tidy up. Diclofenac present in carcasses it also eaten by the vultures, but unfortunately vultures are very sensitive to diclofenac and suffer kidney failure and death as a result of diclofenac <!--del_lnk--> poisoning.<p>The decline has led to general hygiene problems in India as carcasses of dead animals now tend to rot, or be eaten by rats or wild dogs, rather than be tidied up by vultures. In addition, there are particular problems for certain human communities, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Parsi, that have <!--del_lnk--> sky burials where the human dead are put on the top of <!--del_lnk--> Towers of Silence where vultures eat and clean the bodies and leave only dry bones.<p><!--del_lnk--> Meloxicam – another NSAID similar to diclofenac – has been found to be harmless to vultures and should prove to be an acceptable alternative. The Government of India has banned diclofenac, but it continues to be sold over a year later.<p><a id="Vultures_in_culture" name="Vultures_in_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vultures in culture</span></h2>
<p><a id="Ancient_Egypt" name="Ancient_Egypt"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ancient Egypt</span></h3>
<p>In Southern Africa, the name for a <!--del_lnk--> Nubian Vulture is synonymous with the term applied to <a href="../../wp/l/Love.htm" title="Love">lovers</a>, because these vultures are always seen in pairs, mother and child remaining closely bonded together. Pairing, bonding, protecting, and loving are essential attributes associated with a vulture. The vulture was thought to be close to the <a href="../../wp/d/Deity.htm" title="Deity">gods</a> who resided in the sky because of its immense size and its ability to soar high up in the sky. The <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptians</a> considered the vulture to be an excellent mother, and its wide wingspan was seen as all-encompassing and providing a protective cover to its infants. The vulture <!--del_lnk--> hieroglyph<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="display:inline;">
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<p>was the uniliteral used for the glottal sound (<i>3</i>) including words such as <i>mother</i>, <i>prosperous</i>, <i>grandmother</i>, and <i>ruler</i>. <a id="Western_culture" name="Western_culture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Western culture</span></h3>
<p>In contrast to many other birds of prey, vultures have often been considered repulsive in Western culture, due to their association with death. <!--del_lnk--> Sensationalistic journalists looking for news about bloody crimes are sometimes called "vultures". Financial investors who look for indebted companies or countries to buy <!--del_lnk--> securities at low prices are known as <!--del_lnk--> vulture funds. <!--del_lnk--> Lawyers who profit off death, such as <!--del_lnk--> inheritance, <!--del_lnk--> wrongful death, or <!--del_lnk--> life insurance lawyers, may also be called "vultures". A prominent <!--del_lnk--> Spider-Man supervillain is known as the <!--del_lnk--> Vulture.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulture"</div>
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<p><b>William Mark Felt Sr.</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> August 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1913) is a retired agent of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> <a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a>, who retired in <!--del_lnk--> 1973 as the Bureau's number two official. After thirty years of denying his involvement with reporters <!--del_lnk--> Woodward and <!--del_lnk--> Bernstein, Felt revealed himself on <!--del_lnk--> 31 May <!--del_lnk--> 2005, to be the <!--del_lnk--> Watergate scandal <!--del_lnk--> whistleblower called "<!--del_lnk--> Deep Throat".<p>Felt worked in several FBI field offices prior to his promotion to the Bureau's <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a> headquarters. During the early investigation of the Watergate scandal (1972–74), Felt was the Bureau's Associate Director, the second-ranking post in the FBI. While Associate Director, Felt provided <i><!--del_lnk--> Washington Post</i> reporter <!--del_lnk--> Bob Woodward with critical leads on the story that eventually saw the resignation of <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a> <!--del_lnk--> Richard M. Nixon in 1974. In 1980, Felt was convicted of violating the civil rights of people thought to be associated with the <!--del_lnk--> Weather Underground by ordering FBI agents to <!--del_lnk--> burgle their homes. He received a fine but was <!--del_lnk--> pardoned by President <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> during his appeal. Felt lives in <!--del_lnk--> Santa Rosa, California. In 2006, he published an update of his 1979 <!--del_lnk--> autobiography, <i>The FBI Pyramid</i>.<p>
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<p>Felt was born in <!--del_lnk--> Twin Falls, Idaho<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltBirth"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>, the son of carpenter and building contractor Mark Earl Felt and his wife, the former Rose Dygert.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltContractorDad"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> After graduating from <!--del_lnk--> Twin Falls High School in 1931, he received a <!--del_lnk--> BA from the <!--del_lnk--> University of Idaho in 1935, and was a member and president of the Gamma Gamma chapter of the <!--del_lnk--> Beta Theta Pi <!--del_lnk--> fraternity. He went to <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> to work in the office of U.S. <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">Senator</a> <!--del_lnk--> James P. Pope (<!--del_lnk--> D-<!--del_lnk--> Idaho). In 1938, Felt married Audrey Robinson of <!--del_lnk--> Gooding, Idaho, whom he had known when they were both students at the University of Idaho. She had come to Washington to work at the <!--del_lnk--> Bureau of Internal Revenue, and they were wed by the chaplain of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a>, the Rev. Sheara Montgomery.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltMarriage"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Felt stayed on with Pope's successor in the Senate, <!--del_lnk--> David Worth Clark (D-Idaho).<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_SenPopeAndClarke"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Felt attended <!--del_lnk--> George Washington University Law School at night, earning his <!--del_lnk--> law degree in 1940, and was admitted to the <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia bar in 1941.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_TheoharrisGeneralBio"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Upon graduation, Felt took a position at the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Trade Commission but did not like the work. For most of the time he had nothing to do, and when he was assigned a case, it was whether a toilet paper brand called "Red Cross" was misleading consumers into thinking it was endorsed by the <!--del_lnk--> American Red Cross. Felt wrote in his memoir:<dl>
<dd>My research, which required days of travel and hundreds of interviews, produced two definite conclusions:<dd>1. Most people <i>did</i> use toilet paper.<dd>2. Most people <i>did not</i> appreciate being asked about it.<dd>That was when I started looking for other employment.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_RedCrossToiletPaper"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>He applied for a job with the FBI in November 1941 and was accepted. His first day at the Bureau was <!--del_lnk--> January 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1942.<p><a id="Early_FBI_years" name="Early_FBI_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early FBI years</span></h2>
<p>FBI Director <!--del_lnk--> J. Edgar Hoover liked to move Bureau agents around so they would have wide experience. Hoover, Felt observed, "wanted every agent to get into any Field office at anytime. Since he had never been transferred and did not have a family, he had no idea of the financial and personal hardship involved."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_HooverNoFamily"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>After completing sixteen weeks of training at the <!--del_lnk--> FBI Academy at <!--del_lnk--> Quantico, Virginia and FBI Headquarters in Washington, Felt was first assigned to <!--del_lnk--> Texas, working in the field offices in <a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" title="Houston, Texas">Houston</a> and <!--del_lnk--> San Antonio, spending three months in each. He then returned to the "Seat of Government", as Hoover called FBI headquarters, and was assigned to the <!--del_lnk--> Espionage Section of the Domestic Intelligence Division, tracking down spies and saboteurs during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, where he worked on the Major Case Desk. His most notable work there was on the "Peasant" case. <!--del_lnk--> Helmut Goldschmidt, operating under the codename "Peasant", was a German agent in custody in England. Under Felt's direction, his German masters were informed "Peasant" had made his way to the United States, and were fed disinformation on Allied plans.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Peasant"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>The Espionage Section was abolished in May 1945 after <!--del_lnk--> V-E Day. After the war, he was again in the field, sent first to <a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle, Washington</a>. After two years of general work, he spent two years as a firearms instructor and was promoted from agent to supervisor. Upon passage of the <!--del_lnk--> Atomic Energy Act and the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, the Seattle office became responsible for completing background checks of workers at the <!--del_lnk--> Hanford <a href="../../wp/p/Plutonium.htm" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> plant near <!--del_lnk--> Richland, Washington. Felt oversaw these checks.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Espionage"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Hoover appointed Felt the third ranking official in the Bureau in 1951. In 1954, Felt returned briefly to Washington as an inspector's aide. Two months later, Felt was sent to <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, Louisiana, as assistant special agent in charge of the field office. When he was transferred to <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</a> fifteen months later, he held the same rank there.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_TransferNewOrleansLosAngeles"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> In 1956, Felt was transferred to <a href="../../wp/s/Salt_Lake_City%252C_Utah.htm" title="Salt Lake City, Utah">Salt Lake City, Utah</a>, and promoted to special agent in charge. The Salt Lake office included <!--del_lnk--> Nevada within its purview, and while there, Felt oversaw some of the Bureau's earliest investigations into <!--del_lnk--> organized crime with the Mob's operations in the casinos of <!--del_lnk--> Reno and <a href="../../wp/l/Las_Vegas%252C_Nevada.htm" title="Las Vegas, Nevada">Las Vegas</a>.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MobNevada"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> (It was Hoover's, and therefore the Bureau's official position at the time, that there was no such thing as the Mob). In February 1958, he went to <a href="../../wp/k/Kansas_City%252C_Missouri.htm" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City, Missouri</a>, in his memoir dubbed "the Siberia of Field Offices",<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_SiberiaOfFieldOffices"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> where he oversaw additional investigations of organized crime.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MobKansas"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12878.jpg.htm" title="J. Edgar Hoover, director of the FBI, photographed in 1961. Hoover appointed Felt the third ranking official in the Bureau in 1971."><img alt="J. Edgar Hoover, director of the FBI, photographed in 1961. Hoover appointed Felt the third ranking official in the Bureau in 1971." height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg" src="../../images/128/12878.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12878.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> J. Edgar Hoover, director of the <a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" title="FBI">FBI</a>, photographed in 1961. Hoover appointed Felt the third ranking official in the Bureau in 1971.</div>
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<p>He returned to Washington in September 1962. As assistant to the Bureau's assistant director in charge of the Training Division, Felt helped oversee the <!--del_lnk--> FBI Academy.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltReturnToDC"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> In November 1964, he became assistant director of the Bureau, as chief inspector of the Bureau and head of the Inspection Division <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltToInspectionDivision"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. This division oversaw compliance with Bureau regulations and conducted internal investigations.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1971, Felt was promoted by Hoover to Deputy Associate Director, assisting Associate Director <!--del_lnk--> Clyde A. Tolson.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltMadeAsstDirector"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Hoover's right-hand man for decades, Tolson was in failing health and no longer able to attend to his duties. Richard Gid Powers wrote that Hoover installed Felt to rein in <!--del_lnk--> William C. Sullivan's domestic spying operations, as Sullivan had been engaged in secret unofficial work for the <!--del_lnk--> White House. In his memoir, Felt quoted Hoover as having said, "I need someone who can control Sullivan. I think you know he has been getting out of hand."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltMemoirControlSullivan"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> In his book, <i>The Bureau</i>, Ronald Kessler said, "Felt managed to please Hoover by being tactful with him and tough on agents."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_KesslerOnFeltTactfulness"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Curt Gentry called Felt "the director's latest fair-haired boy", but who had "no inherent power" in his new post, the real number three being <!--del_lnk--> John P. Mohr.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GentryOnFelt"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="After_Hoover.27s_death" name="After_Hoover.27s_death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">After Hoover's death</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/43/4332.jpg.htm" title="L. Patrick Gray, acting director of the FBI from May 1972 to April 1973. He was indicted with Felt for illegal break-ins."><img alt="L. Patrick Gray, acting director of the FBI from May 1972 to April 1973. He was indicted with Felt for illegal break-ins." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Patrickgrey.jpeg" src="../../images/43/4332.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption"><!--del_lnk--> L. Patrick Gray, acting director of the FBI from May 1972 to April 1973. He was indicted with Felt for illegal break-ins.</div>
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<p>Hoover died in his sleep and was found on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> May 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1972. Tolson was nominally in charge until the next day when Nixon appointed loyalist <!--del_lnk--> L. Patrick Gray III as acting FBI director. Tolson submitted his resignation, dictated by Felt, and Gray accepted it, the acceptance also being dictated by Felt. Felt took Tolson's post as Associate Director, the number-two job in the bureau.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_TolsonResignation"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Felt served as an honorary pallbearer at Hoover's funeral.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_HooverPallbearer"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Immediately upon his death, Hoover's secretary for five decades, <a href="../../wp/h/Helen_Gandy.htm" title="Helen Gandy">Helen Gandy</a>, began destroying his files with the approval of Felt and Gray. She turned over twelve boxes of the "Official/Confidential" files to Felt on <!--del_lnk--> May 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1972. This consisted of 167 files and 17,750 pages, many of them containing derogatory information. Felt stored them in his office, and Gray told the press that afternoon that "there are no dossiers or secret files. There are just general files and I took steps to preserve their integrity." Felt earlier that day had told Gray, "Mr. Gray, the Bureau doesn't have any secret files", and to prove it had taken Gray to Hoover's office. They found Gandy boxing up papers. Felt said Gray "looked casually at an open file drawer and approved her work", though Gray would later deny he looked at anything. Gandy retained Hoover's "Personal File" and destroyed it.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GandyHooversFiles"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> When Felt was called to testify in 1975 by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. House</a> about the destruction of Hoover's papers, he said, "There's no serious problems if we lose some papers. I don't see anything wrong and I still don't." <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltBeforeUSHouseOfRepsOnFileDest"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>In his memoir, Felt expressed mixed feelings about Gray. While noting Gray did work hard, he was critical at how often he was away from FBI Headquarters. Gray lived in <!--del_lnk--> Stonington, Connecticut, and commuted to Washington. He also visited all of the Bureau's field offices except Honolulu. His frequent absences led to the nickname "Three-Day Gray". <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ThreeDayGrayNickname"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> These absences, combined with Gray's hospitalization and recuperation from <!--del_lnk--> November 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1972 to <!--del_lnk--> January 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1973,<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GrayHospitalisation"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> meant that Felt was effectively in charge for much of his final year at the Bureau. Bob Woodward wrote "Gray got to be director of the F.B.I. and Felt did the work."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_WoodwardonGray"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Felt wrote in his memoir:<dl>
<dd>The record amply demonstrates that President Nixon made Pat Gray the Acting Director of the FBI because he wanted a politician in J. Edgar Hoover's position who would convert the Bureau into an adjunct of the White House machine.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltMemoirOnGray"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p><a id="Watergate" name="Watergate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Watergate</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12888.jpg.htm" title="The Watergate Complex in Washington, D.C. Felt saw all the FBI's files on its investigation of the break-in there in 1972."><img alt="The Watergate Complex in Washington, D.C. Felt saw all the FBI's files on its investigation of the break-in there in 1972." height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Watergate_complex.jpg" src="../../images/128/12888.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12888.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Watergate Complex in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> Felt saw all the FBI's files on its investigation of the break-in there in 1972.</div>
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<p>As associate director, Felt saw everything compiled on <!--del_lnk--> Watergate before it went to Gray. The agent in charge, Charles Nuzum, sent his findings to Investigative Division head Robert Gebhardt, who then passed the information on to Felt. From the day of the break-in, <!--del_lnk--> June 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1972, until the FBI investigation was mostly completed in June 1973, Felt was the key control point for FBI information. He had been among the first to learn of the investigation, being informed at 7:00 on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> June 17.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltLearnsAboutWatergate"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> <!--del_lnk--> Ronald Kessler, who had spoken to former Bureau agents, reported that throughout the investigation they "were amazed to see material in Woodward and Bernstein's stories lifted almost verbatim from their reports of interviews a few days or weeks earlier."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_KesslerAmazed"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> <a id="Contact_with_Woodward" name="Contact_with_Woodward"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Contact with Woodward</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Bob Woodward first describes Deep Throat in <i><!--del_lnk--> All the President's Men</i> as "a source in the Executive Branch who had access to information at CRP [the <!--del_lnk--> Committee to Re-elect the President, Nixon's 1972 campaign organization], as well as at the White House." <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_BernsteinSourceInExecutive"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> The book also calls him "an incurable gossip" who was "in a unique position to observe the Executive Branch", a man "whose fight had been worn out in too many battles."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_BernsteinOnFelt"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Woodward had known the source before Watergate and had discussed politics and government with him.<p>Woodward in 2005 wrote that he met Felt at the <!--del_lnk--> White House in 1969 or 1970 when Woodward was an aide to Admiral <!--del_lnk--> Thomas H. Moorer, <!--del_lnk--> Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, delivering papers to the White House Situation Room. In his book <i>The Secret Man</i>, Woodward described Felt as "a tall man with perfectly combed gray hair . . . distinguished looking" with "a studied air of confidence, even what might be called a command presence".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_HowWoodwardMetFelt"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> They stayed in touch and spoke on the telephone several times. When Woodward started working at the <i>Washington Post</i>, he phoned Felt on several occasions to ask for information for articles in the <i>Post</i>. Felt's information, taken on a promise that Woodward would never reveal their origin, was a source for a few stories, notably for an article on <!--del_lnk--> May 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1972, about <!--del_lnk--> Arthur H. Bremer, who shot <!--del_lnk--> George C. Wallace. When the Watergate story broke, Woodward called on his friend. Felt advised Woodward on <!--del_lnk--> June 19 that <!--del_lnk--> E. Howard Hunt was involved; the telephone number of his White House office had been listed in the address book of one of the burglars. Initially, Woodward's source was known at the <i>Post</i> as "My Friend", but was tagged "Deep Throat" by <i>Post</i> editor <!--del_lnk--> Howard Simons, after <!--del_lnk--> the pornographic movie. Woodward has written that idea for the nickname first came to Simons because Felt had been providing the information on a "deep background" basis. Deep background is a journalistic term meaning information provided to a reporter on the condition that the source be neither identified nor quoted directly.<p>When Felt's name was revealed, it was noted that "My Friend" has the same initial letters as "Mark Felt". Woodward has said this was a coincidence, but in looking back at some of his notes, interviews with Felt during the earliest days of the story were marked with "M.F."<p><a id="Code_for_contacting_Woodward" name="Code_for_contacting_Woodward"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Code for contacting Woodward</span></h3>
<p>Woodward claimed that when he wanted to meet Deep Throat, he would move a flowerpot with a red flag on the balcony of his apartment, number 617, at the Webster House at 1718 P Street, Northwest, and when Deep Throat wanted a meeting, he would circle the page number on page twenty of Woodward's copy of <i><!--del_lnk--> The New York Times</i> and draw clock hands to signal the hour.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_DeepThroatSignal"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Adrian Havill questioned these claims in his 1993 biography of Woodward and Bernstein, stating Woodward's balcony faced an interior courtyard and was not visible from the street, but Woodward responded that it has been bricked in since he lived there. Havill also claimed that copies of <i>The Times</i> were not delivered marked by apartment, but Woodward and a former neighbour disputed this claim.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_HavillOnSignalStory"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Woodward has stated<dl>
<dd>How [Felt] could have made a daily observation of my balcony is still a mystery to me. At the time, the back of my building was not enclosed so anyone could have driven in the back alley to observe my balcony. In addition, my balcony and the back of the apartment complex faced onto a courtyard or back area that was shared with a number of other apartment or office buildings in the area. My balcony could have been seen from dozens of apartments or offices.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>There were several embassies in the area. The Iraqi embassy was down the street, and I thought it possible that the FBI had surveillance or listening posts nearby. Could Felt have had the counterintelligence agents regularly report on the status of my flag and flowerpot? That seems unlikely, but not impossible.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_WoodwardSurveillanceSpeculation"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>Days after the break-in, Nixon and <!--del_lnk--> White House chief of staff <!--del_lnk--> H. R. Haldeman talked about putting pressure on the FBI to slow down the investigation. The FBI had been called in by the <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia police because the burglars had been found with <!--del_lnk--> wiretapping equipment, and wiretapping is a crime investigated by the FBI. Haldeman told President Nixon on <!--del_lnk--> June 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1972, "Mark Felt wants to cooperate because he's ambitious."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_HadlemanOnFeltCooperation"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="Haldeman_informed_Nixon_that_Felt_was_leaking_information" name="Haldeman_informed_Nixon_that_Felt_was_leaking_information"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Haldeman informed Nixon that Felt was leaking information</span></h3>
<p>In a taped conversation on <!--del_lnk--> October 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1972, Haldeman told the president that he had sources, which he declined to name, confirming Felt was speaking to the press. "You can't say anything about this because it will screw up our source and there's a real concern. <!--del_lnk--> Mitchell is the only one who knows about this and he feels strongly that we better not do anything because . . . If we move on him, he'll go out and unload everything. He knows everything that's to be known in the FBI. He has access to absolutely everything." <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_HaldemanOnFeltUnloading"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Haldeman also reported that he had spoken to White House counsel <!--del_lnk--> John W. Dean about punishing Felt, but Dean said Felt had committed no crime and could not be prosecuted.<p>When Gray returned from his sick leave in January 1973, he confronted Felt about being the source for Woodward and Bernstein. Gray said he had defended Felt to <!--del_lnk--> Attorney General <!--del_lnk--> Richard G. Kleindienst: "You know, Mark, Dick Kleindienst told me I ought to get rid of you. He says White House staff members are concerned that you are the FBI source of leaks to Woodward and Bernstein"<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GrayRevealsSuspOfFeltLeak"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>, to which Felt replied, "Pat, I haven't leaked anything to anybody."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltDeniesLeaking"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Gray told Felt, "I told Kleindienst that you've worked with me on a very competent manner and I'm convinced that you are completely loyal. I told him I was not going to move you out. Kleindienst told me, 'Pat, I love you for that.'"<p><a id="Felt_denies_he_was_source" name="Felt_denies_he_was_source"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nixon passes over Felt again</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12891.png.htm" title="President Richard Nixon departing the White House on August 9, 1974, shortly before his resignation took effect. Felt's leaks to Woodward spurred the investigations that led to his resignation."><img alt="President Richard Nixon departing the White House on August 9, 1974, shortly before his resignation took effect. Felt's leaks to Woodward spurred the investigations that led to his resignation." height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nixon-depart.png" src="../../images/128/12891.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12891.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> departing the <!--del_lnk--> White House on <!--del_lnk--> August 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1974, shortly before his resignation took effect. Felt's leaks to Woodward spurred the investigations that led to his resignation.</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> February 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, Nixon nominated Gray as Hoover's permanent replacement as director.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GrayNominated"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Until then, Gray had been in limbo as acting director. In another taped conversation on <!--del_lnk--> February 28, Nixon spoke to Dean about Felt acting as an informant, and mentioned that he had never met him. Gray was forced to resign on <!--del_lnk--> April 27, after it was revealed Gray had destroyed a file on the Kennedy family that had been in the White House safe of E. Howard Hunt.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GrayResigns"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Gray told his superiors that Felt should be named as his successor.<p>The day Gray resigned, Kleindienst spoke to Nixon, who urged that Felt be appointed as Gray's replacement, but Nixon instead appointed <!--del_lnk--> William Ruckelshaus. Stanley Kutler reported that Nixon said, "I don't want him. I can't have him. I just talked to Bill Ruckelshaus and Bill is a Mr. Clean and I want a fellow in there that is not part of the old guard and that is not part of that infighting in there."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MrClean"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> On another White House tape, from <!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, Nixon and White House Chief of Staff <!--del_lnk--> Alexander M. Haig spoke of Felt leaking material to <i>The New York Times</i>. Nixon said, "he's a bad guy, you see", and that William Sullivan had told him Felt's ambition was to be director of the Bureau.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltNixonsBadGuy"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Felt called his relationship with Ruckelshaus "stormy".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltOnRuckelshausRelStormy"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> He said in his memoir Ruckelshaus was a "security guard sent to see that the FBI did nothing which would displease Mr. Nixon".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltOnRuckelshausAsSecurityGuard"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Felt retired from the Bureau on <!--del_lnk--> June 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, ending a thirty-one-year career.<p><a id="Tried_for_illegal_break-ins" name="Tried_for_illegal_break-ins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tried for illegal break-ins</span></h2>
<p>In the early 1970s, Felt oversaw a turbulent period in the FBI's history. The FBI was pursuing radicals in the <!--del_lnk--> Weather Underground who had planted bombs at the <!--del_lnk--> Capitol, <!--del_lnk--> the Pentagon, and the <!--del_lnk--> State Department. Felt, along with <!--del_lnk--> Edward S. Miller, authorized FBI agents to break into homes secretly in 1972 and 1973, without a <!--del_lnk--> search warrant, on nine separate occasions. These kinds of FBI burglaries were known as "<!--del_lnk--> black bag jobs". The break-ins occurred at five addresses in New York and New Jersey, at the homes of relatives and acquaintances of Weather Underground members, and did not lead to the capture of any fugitives. The use of "black bag jobs" by the FBI was declared unconstitutional by the <!--del_lnk--> United States Supreme Court in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Plamondon</i> case, 407 U.S. 297 (1972).<p>After revelation by the <!--del_lnk--> Church Committee of the FBI's illegal activities, many agents were investigated. Felt in 1976 publicly stated he had ordered break-ins and that individual agents were merely obeying orders and should not be punished for it. Felt also stated Gray also authorized the break-ins, but Gray denied this. Felt said on the CBS television program <i>Face the Nation</i> he would probably be a "scapegoat" for the Bureau's work.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Scapegoat"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> "I think this is justified and I'd do it again tomorrow", he said on the program. While admitting the break-ins were "extralegal", he justified it as protecting the "greater good". Felt said:<dl>
<dd>To not take action against these people and know of a bombing in advance would simply be to stick your fingers in your ears and protect your eardrums when the explosion went off and then start the investigation.</dl>
<p>The Attorney General in the new Carter administration, <!--del_lnk--> Griffin B. Bell, investigated, and on <!--del_lnk--> April 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1978, a federal grand jury charged Felt, Miller and Gray with conspiracy to violate the constitutional rights of American citizens by searching their homes without warrants, though Gray's case did not go to trial and was dropped by the government on <!--del_lnk--> December 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1980. Felt told Ronald Kessler:<dl>
<dd>I was shocked that I was indicted. You would be too, if you did what you thought was in the best interests of the country and someone on technical grounds indicted you.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltIndictmentShock"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>The indictment charged violations of Title 18, Section 241 of the <!--del_lnk--> United States Code. The indictment charged Felt and the others<dl>
<dd>did unlawfully, willfully, and knowingly combine, conspire, confederate, and agree together and with each other to injure and oppress citizens of the United States who were relatives and acquaintances of the Weatherman fugitives, in the free exercise and enjoyments of certain rights and privileges secured to them by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltIndictmentText"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>Felt, Gray, and Miller were arraigned in Washington on <!--del_lnk--> April 20. Seven hundred current and former FBI agents were outside the courthouse applauding the "Washington Three", as Felt referred to himself and his colleagues in his memoir.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ArraignmentFBIAgentApplause"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Felt and Miller attempted to plea bargain with the government, willing to agree to a misdemeanor guilty plea to conducting searches without warrants—a violation of 18 U.S.C. sec. 2236—but the government rejected the offer in 1979. After eight postponements, the case against Felt and Miller went to trial in the <!--del_lnk--> United States District Court for the District of Columbia on <!--del_lnk--> September 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1980.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_EightPostponements"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> On <!--del_lnk--> October 29, former President <!--del_lnk--> Richard M. Nixon appeared as a rebuttal witness for the defense, and testified that presidents since <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> had authorized the bureau to engage in break-ins while conducting foreign intelligence and counterespionage investigations.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_NixonTestimony"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> It was Nixon's first courtroom appearance since his resignation in 1974. Nixon also contributed money to Felt's legal defense fund, Felt's expenses running over $600,000. Also testifying were former Attorneys General <!--del_lnk--> Herbert Brownell, Jr., <!--del_lnk--> Nicholas deB. Katzenbach, <!--del_lnk--> Ramsey Clark, <!--del_lnk--> John N. Mitchell, and <!--del_lnk--> Richard G. Kleindienst, all of whom said warrantless searches in national security matters were commonplace and not understood to be illegal, but Mitchell and Kleindienst denied they had authorized any of the break-ins at issue in the trial. (The Bureau used a national security justification for the searches because it alleged the Weather Underground was in the employ of <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ObeyingOrders"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>)<p>The jury returned guilty verdicts on <!--del_lnk--> November 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1980. Although the charge carried a maximum sentence of 10 years in prison, Felt was fined $5,000. (Miller was fined $3,500).<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Convictions"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Writing in <i><!--del_lnk--> The New York Times</i> a week after the conviction, <!--del_lnk--> Roy Cohn claimed that Felt and Miller were being used as scapegoats by the <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a> administration and it was an unfair prosecution. Cohn wrote it was the "final dirty trick" and that there had been no "personal motive" to their actions <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Cohn"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. <i>The Times</i> saluted the convictions saying it showed "the case has established that zeal is no excuse for violating the Constitution".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_NYTEditorialOnConvictions"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Felt and Miller appealed the verdict.<p><a id="Pardoned_by_Reagan" name="Pardoned_by_Reagan"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pardoned by Reagan</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12892.jpg.htm" title="President Ronald Reagan, who pardoned Felt and Miller."><img alt="President Ronald Reagan, who pardoned Felt and Miller." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Official_Portrait_of_President_Reagan_1981.jpg" src="../../images/128/12892.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/128/12892.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> President <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, who pardoned Felt and Miller.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In a phone call on <!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, <!--del_lnk--> Edwin Meese encouraged President <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> to issue a pardon, and after further encouragement from law enforcement officials, and former bureau agents, he did so. The pardon was given on <!--del_lnk--> March 26, but was not announced to the public until <!--del_lnk--> April 15. (The delay was partly because Reagan was shot on <!--del_lnk--> March 30.) Reagan wrote:<dl>
<dd>Pursuant to the grant of authority in article II, section 2 of the Constitution of the United States, I have granted full and unconditional pardons to W. Mark Felt and Edward S. Miller.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>During their long careers, Mark Felt and Edward Miller served the Federal Bureau of Investigation and our nation with great distinction. To punish them further — after 3 years of criminal prosecution proceedings — would not serve the ends of justice.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>Their convictions in the U.S. District Court, on appeal at the time I signed the pardons, grew out of their good-faith belief that their actions were necessary to preserve the security interests of our country. The record demonstrates that they acted not with criminal intent, but in the belief that they had grants of authority reaching to the highest levels of government.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>America was at war in 1972, and Messrs. Felt and Miller followed procedures they believed essential to keep the Director of the FBI, the Attorney General, and the President of the United States advised of the activities of hostile foreign powers and their collaborators in this country. They have never denied their actions, but, in fact, came forward to acknowledge them publicly in order to relieve their subordinate agents from criminal actions.</dl>
<dl>
<dd>Four years ago, thousands of draft evaders and others who violated the Selective Service laws were unconditionally pardoned by my predecessor. America was generous to those who refused to serve their country in the Vietnam war. We can be no less generous to two men who acted on high principle to bring an end to the terrorism that was threatening our nation.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_ReaganStatement"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>Nixon sent Felt and Miller bottles of champagne with the note "Justice ultimately prevails".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_NixonChampagneCongrats"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> <i>The New York Times</i> disapproved, saying that America "deserved better than a gratuitous revision of the record by the President".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_NYTDisapprovesPardon"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Felt and Miller said they would seek repayment of their legal fees from the government.<p>The chief prosecutor on the trial, John W. Nields, Jr., said "I would warrant that whoever is responsible for the pardons did not read the record of the trial and did not know the facts of the case." Nields also complained that the White House did not consult with the prosecutors in the case, which was usual practice when a pardon was under consideration.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_PardonReaction"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Felt reacted by saying, "I feel very excited and just so pleased that I can hardly contain myself. I am most grateful to the President. I don't know how I'm ever going to be able to thank him. It's just like having a heavy burden lifted off your back. This case has been dragging on for five years." Miller told a press conference the day of the announcement "I certainly owe the Gipper one." Their attorney, Thomas Kennelly, said "We thank God and we thank President Reagan that these two good men have been vindicated at last." Carter Attorney General <!--del_lnk--> Griffin Bell said he did not object to the pardons as the initial convictions showed that behaviour such as Felt and Miller's was no longer tolerated.<p>Despite their pardons, Felt and Miller won permission from the <!--del_lnk--> United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit to appeal the conviction so as to remove it from their record and to prevent it being used in civil suits by the victims of the break-ins they ordered.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltMillerAppeal"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Ultimately, Felt's law license was returned by the court in 1982, which cited Reagan's pardon. In June 1982, Felt and Miller testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee's security and terrorism subcommittee that the restrictions placed on the FBI by Attorney General <!--del_lnk--> Edward H. Levi were threatening the country's safety.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltMillerDenouncePrivacyAndFOIAActcs"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="Later_years" name="Later_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later years</span></h2>
<p>Felt published his memoir <i>The FBI Pyramid From the Inside</i> in 1979. It was co-written with Hoover biographer <!--del_lnk--> Ralph de Toledano, though the latter's name appears only in the copyright notice. Toledano in 2005 wrote that the volume was "largely written by me since his original manuscript read like <i><!--del_lnk--> The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table</i>." Toledano said:<dl>
<dd>Felt swore to me that he was not Deep Throat, that he had never leaked information to the Woodward-Bernstein team or anyone else. The book was published and bombed.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Toldedano"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p><i>Library Journal</i> wrote in their review that "at one time Felt was assumed to be Watergate's 'Deep Throat'; in this interesting but hardly sensational memoir, he makes it clear that that honor, if honour it be, lies elsewhere."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_LibraryJournalReview"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> The memoir was a strong defense of Hoover and his tenure as Director and condemned the reaction to criticisms of the Bureau made in the 1970s by the <!--del_lnk--> Church Committee and civil libertarians. He also denounced the treatment of Bureau agents as criminals and said the <!--del_lnk--> Freedom of Information Act and <!--del_lnk--> Privacy Act of 1974 only served to interfere with government work and helped criminals. (The flavor of his criticisms is apparent with the very first words of the book: "The Bill of Rights is not a suicide pact", Justice <!--del_lnk--> Robert H. Jackson's comment in his dissent to <i>Terminello v. City of Chicago</i>, 337 U.S. 1 (1949).<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_NotASuicidePact"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>) <i>The New York Times Book Review</i> was highly critical of the book saying Felt "seeks to perpetuate a view of Hoover and the F.B.I. that is no longer seriously peddled even on the backs of cereal boxes" and contains "a disturbing number of factual errors"<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_NYTBR"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>, sentiments echoed by Curt Gentry who said Felt was "the keeper of the Hoover flame".<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_KeeperHooverFlame"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>In 1990, Felt moved to <!--del_lnk--> Santa Rosa, California, from <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, Virginia, his home since the 1970s. In 1992, he bought his present home in Santa Rosa and since then lived with his daughter Joan Felt. He suffered a stroke before 1999, reported Ronald Kessler, and met with Bob Woodward in 1999. Kessler took this as evidence that Felt was "Deep Throat". However, the Santa Rosa <i><!--del_lnk--> Press Democrat</i> said Felt's stroke was in 2001.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_KesslerEvidenceOfDeepThroat"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="Family" name="Family"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Family</span></h3>
<p>Felt and his wife, Audrey, who died in 1984, had two children, Joan and Mark. Joan earned two degrees from <!--del_lnk--> Stanford University and won a <!--del_lnk--> Fulbright Scholarship. According the <i>Vanity Fair</i> article by John D. O'Connor revealing Felt's secret, Joan joined a commune in the 1970s and gave birth to her first son on camera for a documentary called <i>The Birth of Ludi</i>. Joan teaches <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> at <!--del_lnk--> Sonoma State University and <!--del_lnk--> Santa Rosa Junior College, and is a long time member of and local contact for <!--del_lnk--> Adi Da. Joan has three sons, Will Felt (a.k.a. Ludi, born 1974); Robbie Jones (born circa 1979); and Nick Jones (born circa 1981). Nick Jones was a schoolmate of O'Connor's daughter.<p>Felt's son Mark Jr. is a pilot for <!--del_lnk--> American Airlines and a retired <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Air Force lieutenant colonel.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_FeltsChildren"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Felt's grandson, W. Mark Felt II, attended the <!--del_lnk--> University of Florida, graduated with a <!--del_lnk--> Doctor of Medicine degree in 2005, and now practices <!--del_lnk--> emergency medicine in <!--del_lnk--> Orlando, Florida.<p><a id="Deep_Throat_speculation" name="Deep_Throat_speculation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Deep Throat speculation</span></h2>
<p>The identity of Deep Throat was debated for over three decades. Jack Limpert had published evidence as early as 1974 that Felt was the informant.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Limpert"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> On <!--del_lnk--> June 25 of that year, a few weeks after <i>All the President's Men</i> was published, <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Wall_Street_Journal.htm" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i> ran an editorial, "If You Drink Scotch, Smoke, Read, Maybe You're Deep Throat". It began "W. Mark Felt says he isn't now, nor has he ever been Deep Throat." The <i>Journal</i> quoted Felt saying the character was a "composite" and "I'm just not that kind of person." <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_WSJ"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> During a <!--del_lnk--> grand jury investigation in 1976, Felt was called to testify and the prosecutor, Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights Stanley Pottinger, stumbled upon the fact Felt was "Deep Throat", but the secrecy of the proceedings preserved the secrecy of Felt's alter ego from the public. <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GrandJury"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>In 1992, James Mann, who had been a reporter at <i><!--del_lnk--> The Washington Post</i> in 1972 and worked with Woodward, wrote a piece for <i><!--del_lnk--> The Atlantic Monthly</i> saying the source had to have been within the FBI. While he mentioned Felt as a possibility, he said he could not be certain it was him.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MannAtlanticMonthly"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><!--del_lnk--> Alexander P. Butterfield, the White House aide best known for revealing the existence of Nixon's taping system, told <i>The <!--del_lnk--> Hartford Courant</i> in 1995, "I think it was a guy named Mark Felt." <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Butterfield"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> In July 1999, Felt was identified as Deep Throat by The <i><!--del_lnk--> Hartford Courant</i>, citing Chase Culeman-Beckman, a nineteen-year-old from <!--del_lnk--> Port Chester, New York. Culeman-Beckman said Jacob Bernstein, the son of <!--del_lnk--> Carl Bernstein and <!--del_lnk--> Nora Ephron, had told him the name at summer camp in 1988, and that Jacob claimed he had been told by his father. Felt denied the identification to the <i>Courant</i> saying "No, it's not me. I would have done better. I would have been more effective. Deep Throat didn't exactly bring the White House crashing down, did he?" Bernstein said his son didn't know. "Bob and I have been wise enough never to tell our wives, and we've certainly never told our children."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Campmate"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> (Bernstein reiterated on <!--del_lnk--> June 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, on the <i>Today Show</i> that his wife had never known.)<p><!--del_lnk--> Leonard Garment, President Nixon's former law partner who became White House counsel after <!--del_lnk--> John W. Dean's resignation, ruled Felt out as Deep Throat in his 2000 book <i>In Search of Deep Throat</i>. Garment wrote:<dl>
<dd>The Felt theory was a strong one . . . Felt had a personal motive for acting. After the death of <!--del_lnk--> J. Edgar Hoover . . . Felt thought he was a leading candidate to succeed Hoover . . . The characteristics were a good fit. The trouble with Felt's candidacy was that Deep Throat in <i>All the President's Men</i> simply did not sound to me like a career FBI man.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GarmentFeltTheoryStrong"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>Garment said the information leaked to Woodward was inside White House information Felt would not have had access to. "Felt did not fit."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GarmentNotFelt"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> (Once the secret was revealed, it was noted Felt did have access to such information because the Bureau's agents were interviewing high White House officials.)<p>In 2002, the <i><!--del_lnk--> San Francisco Chronicle</i> profiled Felt. Noting his denial in <i>The FBI Pyramid</i>, the paper wrote<dl>
<dd>Curiously, his son — <!--del_lnk--> American Airlines pilot Mark Felt — now says that shouldn't be read as a definitive denial, and that he plans to answer the question once-and-for-all in a second memoir. The excerpt of the working draft obtained by the <i>Chronicle</i> has Felt still denying he's Throat but providing a rationale for why Throat did the right thing.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_SFChronicleFeltsSon"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>In February 2005, reports surfaced that Woodward had prepared Deep Throat's <!--del_lnk--> obituary, because he was near death. This led to some speculation that Deep Throat might have been <!--del_lnk--> William H. Rehnquist, who was a Justice Department official early in the Nixon administration, but was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court by the time of the incident.<p><a id="Deep_Throat_revealed" name="Deep_Throat_revealed"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Deep Throat revealed</span></h2>
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Vanity Fair</i> magazine revealed Felt was Deep Throat on <!--del_lnk--> May 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 when it published an article (eventually appearing in the July issue of the magazine) on its website by <!--del_lnk--> John D. O'Connor, an attorney acting on Felt's behalf, in which Felt said, "I'm the guy they used to call Deep Throat." After the <i>Vanity Fair</i> story broke, <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin C. Bradlee, the key editor of the <i>Washington Post</i> during Watergate, confirmed that Felt was Deep Throat. According to the <i>Vanity Fair</i> article, Felt was persuaded to come out by his family, who wanted to capitalize on the book deals and other lucrative opportunities that Felt would inevitably be offered in order, at least in part, to pay off his grandchildren's education. They also did not want Bob Woodward to get all the attention by revealing Deep Throat's identity after Felt's death.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_VanityFair"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>Public response varied widely. Felt's family called him an "American hero", suggesting that he leaked information for moral or patriotic reasons. <!--del_lnk--> G. Gordon Liddy, who was convicted of burglary in the Watergate scandal, said Felt should have gone to the <!--del_lnk--> grand jury rather than leaking information.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_GGordonLiddy"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Some have contrasted Felt's media treatment with that of other <!--del_lnk--> whistleblowers.<p>Nixon chief counsel <!--del_lnk--> Charles Colson, who served <!--del_lnk--> prison time for his actions in the Nixon White House, said Felt had violated "his oath to keep this nation's secrets"<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_CharlesColston"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>, but a <i>Los Angeles Times</i> editorial argued that this argument was specious, "as if there's no difference between nuclear strategy and rounding up <!--del_lnk--> hush money to silence your hired burglars."<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_LATimesEditorial"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Ralph de Toledano, who co-wrote Felt's 1979 memoir, said Mark Felt Jr. had approached him in 2004 to buy Toledano's half of the copyright. Toledano agreed to sell but was never paid and attempted to rescind the deal, threatening legal action. A few days before the <i>Vanity Fair</i> article was released, Toledano finally received a check.<dl>
<dd>I had been gloriously and illegally deceived, and Deep Throat was, in characteristic style, back in business — which given his history of betrayal, was par for the course.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_Toledano"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></dl>
<p>Speculation about Felt's motives at the time of the scandal has varied widely as well. Some suggested it was revenge for Nixon choosing Gray over Felt to replace Hoover as FBI Director. Others suggest Felt acted out of institutional loyalty to the FBI. Felt may have simply acted out of patriotism.<p><!--del_lnk--> Publishers were interested in signing Felt to a book deal after the revelation. Weeks after the <i><!--del_lnk--> Vanity Fair</i> article was released, PublicAffairs Books, whose <!--del_lnk--> CEO was a <i>Washington Post</i> reporter and editor during the Watergate era, announced that it signed a deal with Felt. The new book was to include material from his 1979 <!--del_lnk--> memoir with an update. The new volume was scheduled for publication in the spring of 2006. Felt sold the movie rights to his story to <!--del_lnk--> Universal Pictures for development by <!--del_lnk--> Tom Hanks's production company, Playtone. The book and movie deals were valued at US $1 million.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_DealWithHanks"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>In the summer of 2005, <!--del_lnk--> Woodward's longtime publisher, <!--del_lnk--> Simon and Schuster, issued Woodward's swiftly written account of his contacts with Felt, <i>The Secret Man: The Story of Watergate's Deep Throat</i> (<!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-7432-8715-0). The book received poor reviews and, despite the media attention that surrounded the <i>Vanity Fair</i> story, sold poorly.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Mark_Felt"</div>
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<p>The <b>WTA Tour Championships</b> is a <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a> tournament played annually at the end of the season for the top-ranked players on the <!--del_lnk--> Women's Tennis Association (WTA) tour.<p>The championships were held for the first time in <!--del_lnk--> 1972 at <!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> (<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>). From 1972-<!--del_lnk--> 1986, the event was held in March. The WTA then decided to adopt a January-to-November playing season, and so the event was switched to being held at the end of each year. Because of this changeover, two championships were held in 1986. From <!--del_lnk--> 1979-<!--del_lnk--> 2000, the event was held at <!--del_lnk--> Madison Square Garden in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>. The event then briefly moved to <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 2001). More recently, it has been held in <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 2002-<!--del_lnk--> 2005). The <!--del_lnk--> 2006 edition was held in <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, the site of the 2007 tournament as well.<p>From 1972-<!--del_lnk--> 1994, the event was known as the <b>Virginia Slims Championships</b>. Since then it has been officially known by the names of other sponsors (it was called the <b>Chase Championships</b> for a few years in the late-1990s), but is more commonly referred to as the "WTA Tour Championships".<p>From <!--del_lnk--> 1984-<!--del_lnk--> 1998, the final of the championships was a best-of-five-set match – making it the only tournament on the women's tour to have a best-of-five-set match at any round of the competition. In <!--del_lnk--> 1999, the final was reverted to being a best-of-three-set match.<p>The WTA Tour Championships are generally considered to be the fifth most prestigious event on the women's tour after the four <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Slam_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="Grand Slam (tennis)">Grand Slam</a> tournaments.<p>
<br />
<p>
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</script><a id="Past_Results" name="Past_Results"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Past Results</span></h2>
<p><a id="Singles" name="Singles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Singles</span></h3>
<table border="2" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; font-size: 95%; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;">
<tr bgcolor="#EFEFEF">
<td>
<center><b>Year</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>Venue</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>Champion</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>Runner-up</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>Score in final</b></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2007</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a></td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Justine Henin-Hardenne</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Amélie Mauresmo</td>
<td>6-4, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Amélie Mauresmo</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Mary Pierce</td>
<td>5-7, 7-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/592.png.htm" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/592.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Maria Sharapova</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Serena Williams</td>
<td>4-6, 6-2, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2003</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Kim Clijsters</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Amélie Mauresmo</td>
<td>6-2, 6-0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2002</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Kim Clijsters</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Serena Williams</td>
<td>7-5, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2001</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Serena Williams</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Davenport</td>
<td>w/o (injury)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/719.png.htm" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg" src="../../images/5/541.png" width="20" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Hingis</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Monica Seles</td>
<td>6-7, 6-4, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Davenport</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/719.png.htm" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg" src="../../images/5/541.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Hingis</td>
<td>6-4, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/719.png.htm" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg" src="../../images/5/541.png" width="20" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Hingis</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Davenport</td>
<td>7-5, 6-4, 4-6, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1997</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Jana Novotná</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Mary Pierce</td>
<td>7-6, 6-2, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Steffi Graf</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/719.png.htm" title="Switzerland"><img alt="Switzerland" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Switzerland.svg" src="../../images/5/541.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Hingis</td>
<td>6-3, 4-6, 6-0, 4-6, 6-0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1995</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Steffi Graf</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Anke Huber</td>
<td>6-1, 2-6, 6-1, 4-6, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Gabriela Sabatini</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Davenport</td>
<td>6-3, 6-2, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Steffi Graf</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Arantxa Sanchez Vicario</td>
<td>6-1, 6-4, 3-6, 6-1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1992</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1302.png.htm" title="SFR Yugoslavia"><img alt="SFR Yugoslavia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg" src="../../images/48/4873.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Monica Seles</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</td>
<td>7-5, 6-3, 6-1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1302.png.htm" title="SFR Yugoslavia"><img alt="SFR Yugoslavia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg" src="../../images/48/4873.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Monica Seles</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</td>
<td>6-4, 3-6, 7-5, 6-0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1302.png.htm" title="SFR Yugoslavia"><img alt="SFR Yugoslavia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_SFR_Yugoslavia.svg" src="../../images/48/4873.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Monica Seles</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Gabriela Sabatini</td>
<td>6-4, 5-7, 3-6, 6-4, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Steffi Graf</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</td>
<td>6-4, 7-5, 2-6, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Gabriela Sabatini</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
<td>7-5, 6-2, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Steffi Graf</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Gabriela Sabatini</td>
<td>4-6, 6-4, 6-0, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986 (2)</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Steffi Graf</td>
<td>7-6, 6-3, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986 (1)</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Hana Mandlíková</td>
<td>6-2, 6-0, 3-6, 6-1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Helena Suková</td>
<td>6-3, 7-5, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1984</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></td>
<td>6-3, 7-5, 6-1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1983</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></td>
<td>6-2, 6-0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1982</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Sylvia Hanika</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</td>
<td>1-6, 6-3, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1981</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Andrea Jaeger</td>
<td>6-3, 7-6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Tracy Austin</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</td>
<td>6-2, 2-6, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1979</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Tracy Austin</td>
<td>6-3, 3-6, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Evonne Goolagong</td>
<td>7-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1977</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Sue Barker</td>
<td>2-6, 6-1, 6-1</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1976</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Evonne Goolagong</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></td>
<td>6-3, 5-7, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1975</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</td>
<td>6-4, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1974</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Evonne Goolagong</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></td>
<td>6-3, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1973</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Nancy Richey</td>
<td>6-3, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1972</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boca Raton</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/c/Chris_Evert.htm" title="Chris Evert">Chris Evert</a></b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Australia"><img alt="Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Kerry Reid</td>
<td>7-5, 6-4</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Doubles_Champions" name="Doubles_Champions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Doubles Champions</span></h3>
<table border="2" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; font-size: 95%; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;">
<tr bgcolor="#EFEFEF">
<td>
<center><b>Year</b></center>
</td>
<td>
<center><b>Champions</b></center>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lisa Raymond / <!--del_lnk--> Samantha Stosur</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lisa Raymond / <!--del_lnk--> Samantha Stosur</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2004</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nadia Petrova / <!--del_lnk--> Meghann Shaughnessy</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2003</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Virginia Ruano Pascual / <!--del_lnk--> Paola Suarez</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2002</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elena Dementieva / <!--del_lnk--> Janette Husarova</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2001</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lisa Raymond / <!--del_lnk--> Rennae Stubbs</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Hingis / <!--del_lnk--> Anna Kournikova</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Hingis / <!--del_lnk--> Anna Kournikova</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Davenport / <!--del_lnk--> Natasha Zvereva</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1997</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Davenport / <!--del_lnk--> Jana Novotná</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Davenport / <!--del_lnk--> Mary Joe Fernandez</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1995</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jana Novotná / <!--del_lnk--> Arantxa Sanchez Vicario</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gigi Fernandez / <!--del_lnk--> Natasha Zvereva</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gigi Fernandez / <!--del_lnk--> Natasha Zvereva</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1992</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Arantxa Sanchez Vicario / <!--del_lnk--> Helena Suková</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Kathy Jordan / <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Smylie</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1988</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986 (2)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986 (1)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hana Mandlíková / <!--del_lnk--> Wendy Turnbull</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1984</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1983</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1982</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1981</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Pam Shriver</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Billie Jean King / <!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1979</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Francoise Durr / <!--del_lnk--> Betty Stove</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td><i>no doubles played</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1977</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Martina Navrátilová / <!--del_lnk--> Betty Stove</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1976</td>
<td><i>no doubles played</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1975</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Margaret Court / <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Wade</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1974</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rosie Casals / <!--del_lnk--> Billie Jean King</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1973</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rosie Casals / <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Court</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1972</td>
<td><i>no doubles played</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>
<br />
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTA_Tour_Championships"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wader</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Waders</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14364.jpg.htm" title="Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla)"><img alt="Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla)" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Calidris-pusilla-001.jpg" src="../../images/143/14364.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Semipalmated Sandpiper (<i>Calidris pusilla</i>)</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aves<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charadriiformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><b>Charadrii</b><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Families</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Scolopacidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Rostratulidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Jacanidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Thinocoridae<li><!--del_lnk--> Pedionomidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Burhinidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Chionididae<li><!--del_lnk--> Pluvianellidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Ibidorhynchidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Recurvirostridae<li><!--del_lnk--> Haematopodidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Charadriidae</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14365.jpg.htm" title="Dunlin (Calidris alpina)."><img alt="Dunlin (Calidris alpina)." height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dunlin126.JPG" src="../../images/143/14365.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14365.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Dunlin (<i>Calidris alpina</i>).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Waders</b>, called <b>Shorebirds</b> in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> (where "wader" is used to refer to long-legged wading <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a> such as <!--del_lnk--> storks and <a href="../../wp/h/Heron.htm" title="Heron">herons</a>), are members of the <!--del_lnk--> order <!--del_lnk--> Charadriiformes, excluding the more marine web-footed <!--del_lnk--> seabird groups. The latter are the <!--del_lnk--> skuas (Stercoraracidae), <a href="../../wp/g/Gull.htm" title="Gull">gulls</a> (Laridae), <a href="../../wp/t/Tern.htm" title="Tern">terns</a> (Sternidae), <!--del_lnk--> skimmers (Rhynchopidae), and <!--del_lnk--> auks (Alcidae). Also, the <!--del_lnk--> pratincoles (Glareolidae) and the <!--del_lnk--> Crab Plover (Dromadidae), which look more similar to waders, are closely related to the seabirds.<p>This leaves about 210 species, most of which are associated with wetland or coastal environments. Many species of Arctic and temperate regions are strongly <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migratory</a>, but tropical birds are often resident, or move only in response to rainfall patterns. Some of the Arctic species, such <!--del_lnk--> Little Stint are amongst the longest distance migrants, spending the non-breeding season in the <!--del_lnk--> southern hemisphere.<p>The majority of species eat small <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> picked out of <!--del_lnk--> mud or exposed soil. Different lengths of bills enable different species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Many waders have sensitive nerve endings at the end of their bills which enable them to detect prey items hidden in mud or soft soil. Some larger species, particularly those adapted to drier habitats will take larger prey including <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> and small <!--del_lnk--> reptiles.<p>Many of the smaller species found in coastal habitats, particularly but not exclusively the <!--del_lnk--> calidrids, are often named as "Sandpipers", but this term does not have a strict meaning, since the Upland Sandpiper is a grassland species.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, waders and many other groups are subsumed into a greatly enlarged <!--del_lnk--> Ciconiiformes order. However, the classification of the Charadriiformes is one of the weakest points of the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, as <!--del_lnk--> DNA-DNA hybridization has turned out to be incapable of properly resolving the interrelationships of the group. Formerly, the waders formed the suborder Charadrii, but this has turned out to be a "<!--del_lnk--> wastebin taxon", uniting no less than four charadriiform lineages in a <!--del_lnk--> paraphyletic assemblage. Following recent studies (Ericson <i>et al.</i>, 2003; Paton <i>et al.</i>, 2003; Thomas <i>et al.</i>, 2004a, b; van Tuinen <i>et al.</i>, 2004; Paton & Baker, 2006), the waders may be more accurately subdivided as follows:<ul>
<li>Suborder <b>Scolopaci</b><ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Scolopacidae: snipe, sandpipers, phalaropes, and allies</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Suborder <b>Thinocori</b><ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Rostratulidae: painted snipe<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Jacanidae: jacanas<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Thinocoridae: seedsnipe<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Pedionomidae: Plains Wanderer</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Suborder <b>Chionidi</b><ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Burhinidae: thick-knees<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Chionididae: sheathbills<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Pluvianellidae: Magellanic Plover</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Suborder <b>Charadrii</b><ul>
<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Ibidorhynchidae: Ibisbill<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Recurvirostridae: avocets<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Haematopodidae: oystercatchers<li>Family <!--del_lnk--> Charadriidae: plovers and lapwings</ul>
</ul>
<p>In keeping more in line with the traditional grouping, the Thinocori could be included in the Scolopaci, and the Chionidi in the Charadrii. However, the increasing knowledge about the early evolutionary history of modern birds suggests that the assumption of Paton <i>et al.</i> (2003) and Thomas <i>et al.</i> (2004b) of 4 distinct "wader" lineages (= suborders) already being present around the <a href="../../wp/c/Cretaceous-Tertiary_extinction_event.htm" title="Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event">C-T boundary</a> is correct.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wader"</div>
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<td style="vertical-align:middle;"><span style="line-height:1.6em;"><b>This article contains <!--del_lnk--> Indic text.</b></span><br /> Without <!--del_lnk--> rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes or other symbols instead of Indic characters; or irregular vowel positioning and a lack of conjuncts.</td>
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<p><b>Waheguru</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Punjabi: <span lang="pa" xml:lang="pa">ਵਾਹਿਗੁਰੂ</span>, <i><span class="Unicode" lang="sa-Latn" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" xml:lang="sa-Latn">vāhigurū</span></i> or <span lang="pa" xml:lang="pa">ਵਾਹਗੁਰੂ</span>, <i><span class="Unicode" lang="sa-Latn" style="white-space:normal; text-decoration: none" title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration" xml:lang="sa-Latn">vāhgurū</span></i>) is a term used by Sikhs to refer to the infinite creator (God). It means "The Wonderful Lord" in the <!--del_lnk--> Punjabi language. Other words used in the Guru Granth Sahib to refer to Lord are: Onkar, <!--del_lnk--> Satguru (true teacher), Satnaam (true name), Akal-Purkh, Rabh, Khuda, Allah, Gosain, <!--del_lnk--> Hari, Raam, Pritam and numerous more. (But they do not call him "Allah" or "Khuda" when speaking.) The most commom usage of the word Waheguru is in the greeting:<dl>
<dd>Waheguru Ji Ka Khalsa (The Khalsa (pure one) belongs to Waheguru).<dd>Waheguru Ji Ki Fateh (Victory belongs to Waheguru)</dl>
<p>Waheguru (and its variant, Wahguru) is used only 16 times in the <!--del_lnk--> Guru Granth Sahib. Of these, Waheguru occurs 9 times on page 1402 and 6 times on page 1403. Wahguru occurs 2 times on page 1403 and 1 time on page 1404.<p><b>WAHEGURU</b> or <b>Vahiguru</b> also spelt and pronounced Vahguru, is the distinctive name of the Supreme Being in the Sikh dispensation, like <!--del_lnk--> Yahweh in <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Allah.htm" title="Allah">Allah</a> in <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>. In Sikh Scripture, the <!--del_lnk--> Guru Granth Sahib, the term does not figure in the compositions of the Gurus, though it occurs therein, both as Vahiguru and Vahguru, in the hymns of Bhatt Gayand, the bard contemporary with <!--del_lnk--> Guru Arjan, Nanak V (1553-1606), and also in the <!--del_lnk--> Varan of <!--del_lnk--> Bhai Gurdas.<p><!--del_lnk--> Guru Gobind Singh, Nanak X (1666-1708), used "Vahiguru" in the invocatory formula ("Ik Onkar Sri Vahiguru ji ki Fateh", besides the traditional "Ik Onkar Satigur Prasadi") at the beginning of some of his compositions as well as in the Sikh salutation ("Vahiguru ji ka Khalsa Vahiguru ji ki Fateh" varied as "Sri Vahiguru ji ki Fateh"). <!--del_lnk--> Bhai Gurdas at one place in his <!--del_lnk--> Varan (I.49) construes "vahiguru" as an acrostic using the first consonants of the names of four divine incarnations of the <!--del_lnk--> Hindu tradition appearing in four successive eons. Some classical Sikh scholars, such as <!--del_lnk--> Bhai Mani Singh, <!--del_lnk--> Bhai Santokh Singh, and <!--del_lnk--> Pandit Tara Singh Narotam, taking this poetic interpretation seriously, have traced the origin of the term in ancient mythology.<p>Modern scholars, however, affirm that the name Vahiguru is owed originally to the Gurus, most likely to the founder of the faith, <!--del_lnk--> Guru Nanak, himself. According to this view, Vahiguru is a compound of two words, one from <!--del_lnk--> Persian and the other from <a href="../../wp/s/Sanskrit.htm" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, joined in a symbiotic relationship to define the indefinable indescribable Ultimate Reality. "Vah" in Persian is an interjection of wonder and admiration, and "guru" (Sanskrit <i>guru</i>: "heavy, weighty, great, venerable; a spiritual parent or preceptor") has been frequently used by Guru Nanak and his successors for "satiguru "(True Guru) or <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Bhai Santokh Singh, in <!--del_lnk--> Sri Gur Nanak Prakash (pp. 1249-51), reporting Guru Nanak’s testament to the Sikhs has thus explicated "Vahiguru": "Vah" is wonder at the Divine might; "gu" is spiritual darkness while "ru" is illumination brought to eliminate this darkness.<p>Cumulatively, the name implies wonder at the Divine Light eliminating spiritual darkness. It might also imply, "Hail the Lord whose name eliminates spiritual darkness." Earlier, <!--del_lnk--> Bhai Mani Singh, <!--del_lnk--> Sikhan di Bhagat Mala, gave a similar explication, also on the authority of <!--del_lnk--> Guru Nanak. Considering the two constituents of "Vahiguru" ("vahi" + "guru") implying the state of wondrous ecstasy and offering of homage to the Lord, the first one was brought distinctly and prominently into the devotional system by Guru Nanak, who has made use of this interjection, as in <!--del_lnk--> Majh ki Var (stanza 24), and <!--del_lnk--> Suhi ki Var, <!--del_lnk--> sloka to <!--del_lnk--> pauri 10.<p>Apart from the use of this interjection, the attitude of wonder and total submission at the sight of Divine Greatness is prominently visible in Guru Nanak as evidenced for example in the hymn in Dhanasari:<p>"gagan mai thalu ravi chandu dipak bane tarika mandal janak moti" (GG, 663);<p>in measure Suhi:<p>"kaun taraji kavanu tula tera kavanu saraphu bulava" (GG, 730);<p>and in Japji:<p>"kete pavan pani vaisantar kete kan mahes, kete barame gharati ghariahi rup rang ke ves" (GG, 7).<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Asa ki Var (GG, 462-75) the opening sloka to pauri 3 is woven round "vismad—vismadu nad vismadu ved", "wondrous is the sound, wondrous the wisdom". Wonder and ecstasy are expressed at the cosmic order and its mystery full of contradictions, yet all comprehended in the Divinely-appointed system. This salok concludes with: "Ever present to our gaze is wonder. At the sight of this mystery are we wonderstruck. Only by supreme good fortune is it unravelled." In the opening salok to pauri 4—"bhai vichi pavanu vahai sadvau", "in (the Lord’s) fear bloweth the wind with its myriad breezes" — is expressed wonder at the cosmic “fear” under which the universe operates in obedience to the Divine Law, the Lord alone being exempt from such fear.<p>In Japji, besides other themes, one that stands out prominent is wonder at the cosmic order, its infinitude and the mystery of its moral élan. As a matter of fact, the theme of Japji may be said to be what occurs in the course of stanza 4: "vadiai vicharu" ("contemplation of Divine infinity"). In stanza 16, for example, is the expression of wonder at the limitlessness of space. Stanzas 17-19, each beginning with asankh (infinite), are uttered in the same mood.<p>In stanza 22— "patala patal lakh agasa agas", "countless the worlds beneath, countless the worlds above" —is a vision of the limitlessness of the universe. So are stanzas 24, 25, 26, 27, 32, 34, 35 and 36. It is in response to this overwhelming vision of Guru Nanak that the unique Name of the Supreme Being, Vahiguru, originated. No other name could have been adequate to express what in his vision he found lying at the heart of the cosmos, compelling a response in the human self attuned to devotion and ecstasy.<p>Guru Amar Das has also employed the term in Gujari ki Var (GG, 514-16) and in Astpadis in Malar (GG. 1277). In the former, it is calculated that the interjection "vahu-vahu" ("Hail, hail the Lord") is used as many as 96 times. The interjection "vahu" ("hail, wondrous is the Lord") occurs in <!--del_lnk--> Guru Ram Das in conjunction with "Satiguru "(compounded from Guru) in sloka 2 in <!--del_lnk--> Sloka Varan te Vadhik (GG, 1421). In Guru Arjan by whose time the formulation Vahiguru appears to have become current and acquired distinctiveness as the Name Divine, the phrase ‘Gur Vahu’ figures in Asa measure (GG, 376). This is only as inverted form of Vahiguru and has the same force and significance. Kavi Santokh Singh in Sri Gur Pratap Suraj Granth (p. 5686) uses the two terms as synonymous: “simrahu vahiguru guru vahi, or contemplate ye Vahiguru, the Lord all hail.”<p>The earliest use of Vahiguru, in this form, is traceable to Varan by Bhai Gurdas and to Gayand’s hymns in the Guru Granth Sahib. In both it may be said to have occurred contemporaneously, for while no date can be assigned to Bhai Gurdas’ Varan, the work may be assumed to have appeared soon after the compilation of the Scripture in 1604, being so much alive with its spirit and phraseology. <!--del_lnk--> Gayand in the course of his lines encomiastic of <!--del_lnk--> Guru Ram Das (GG. 1403) made use of Vahiguru as the supreme Name Divine in recognition of the primacy and appeal it had by then come to acquire in the Sikh tradition. In this Savaiyya numbered 11, the term occurs twice as Vah Guru. Earlier in that numbered 6, it is repeated thrice as Vahiguru in the opening line, expressing fervour of devotion. So also in the concluding line of <!--del_lnk--> Savaiyya 7. In Savaiyya 12, Vahu Vahu (Wonder, personifying the Lord) signifies the Supreme marvel, embracing the infinitude of the universe. In Savaiyya 13, this name is used twice once as Vahiguru in the opening line and Vah Guru in the last line. In the concluding line of Savaiyya 8, Vahiguru is used thrice, concluding with the interjection "Vahi" ("Hail").<p>Some relevant lines from Bhai Gurdas, Varan, may also be reproduced here: vahiguru guru sabadu lai piram piala chupi chabola, putting faith in Vahiguru, the Master’s teaching, the seeker drains in peace and tranquillity the cup of devotion<ul>
<li>(IV. 17); "paunu guru gursabadu hai vahiguru gur sabadu sunaia", ""paun—guru" is the Master’s word wherethrough he imparted the holy name Vahiguru"<li>(VI. 5); "vahiguru salahna guru sabadu alae", "to laud the Lord let me give utterance to the Master’s Word"<li>(IX. 13); "satiguru purakh daial hoi vahiguru sachu mantra sunaia", "the holy Master in his grace imparted to the seeker the sacred incantation Vahiguru"<li>(XI. 3); "nirankaru akasu kari joti Sarup anup dikhaia, bed kateb agochara vahiguru gursabadu sunaia", "the Formless Lord manifesting himself granted sight of His unique effulgent self and imparted to the seeker the Word Vahiguru, that is beyond the ken of Vedas and the Muslim Scriptures"<li>(XII. 17); "vahiguru gurmantra hai japi haumai khoi", "Vahiguru is the Master’s incantation".</ul>
<p>By repeating it egoism is cast out:-<ul>
<li>(XIII. 2); "dharamsal kartarpuru sadh sangati sachkhandu vasaia, vahiguru gur sabadu sunaia", "Guru Nanak in the temple at Kartarpur established the Realm Eternal as the holy congregation, and imparted to it the Divine Word Vahiguru"<li>(XXIV. 1); "sati namu karta purakhu vahiguru vichi ridai samae", "let the seeker lodge in his heart the holy Name, the creator immanent, Vahiguru"<li>(XL. 22). In these verses, "Vahiguru" signifies the supreme name Divine, to which devotion may be offered. It is transcendent and annular of sin and evil, thus combining in itself the ‘attributed’ and the ‘unattributed’ aspects in consonance with the Sikh doctrine voiced in the Scripture. The main point is that by Guru Arjan’s time and after, this name over all others was established as the object of devotion. The term received the final seal in the time of Guru Gobind Singh.</ul>
<p>Vahiguru is for Sikhs the <!--del_lnk--> gurmantra (invocatory formula received from the guru) or nam for repetition (silently or aloud, with or without a <!--del_lnk--> rosary) and meditation upon the Supreme Reality. Bhai Gurdas in his Varan refers to it variously as japu <!--del_lnk--> mantra (invocation for repetition), guru sabadu (the Guru’s Word), sachu mantra (true mantra) and gurmantra. It is also called nam (the Name), and is sometimes compounded as “Satinam-Vahiguru” to be chanted aloud in congregations. Nam japna (repeated utterance of God’s Name, i.e. Vahiguru) is one of the three cardinal moral principles of Sikhism, the other two being kirat karni or honest labour and vand chhakna or sharing one’s victuals with the needy. Since the manifestation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, Vahiguru has been part of the Sikh salutation: "Vahiguru ji ka Khalsa, Vahiguru ji ki Fateh" ("Hail the Khalsa who belongs to the Lord God! Hail the Lord God to whom belongs the victory! !" ). It has since also been the <!--del_lnk--> gurmantra imparted formally at initiation to the novitiate by the leader of the Panj Piare administering the rites.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waheguru"</div>
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<p><b>Wake Island</b> (also known as <b>Wake Atoll</b>) is a <!--del_lnk--> coral atoll having a <!--del_lnk--> coastline of 12 miles (19 kilometers) in the North <a href="../../wp/p/Pacific_Ocean.htm" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, located about two-thirds of the way from <!--del_lnk--> Honolulu (2,300 <!--del_lnk--> statute miles or 3,700 km west) to <a href="../../wp/g/Guam.htm" title="Guam">Guam</a> (1,510 miles or 2,430 km east). It is an <!--del_lnk--> unorganized, <!--del_lnk--> unincorporated territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, part of the <!--del_lnk--> United States Minor Outlying Islands, administered by the <!--del_lnk--> Office of Insular Affairs, <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Department of the Interior. Wake is located to the west of the <!--del_lnk--> International Date Line and is one day ahead of the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">50 states</a>. Access to the island is restricted, and all current activities on the island are managed by the <!--del_lnk--> United States Air Force, the <!--del_lnk--> United States Army, and Chugach McKinley, Inc., a civilian base operations and maintenance services company.<p>Although Wake is officially called an <!--del_lnk--> island in the singular form, it is actually an atoll comprising three islands (Wake, Wilkes, and Peale) surrounding a central <!--del_lnk--> lagoon. Referring to the atoll as an island is the result of a pre-<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> desire by the <!--del_lnk--> United States Navy to distinguish Wake from other atolls, most of which were <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> territory. The largest island (Wake Island) is the centre of activity on the atoll and features a 9,800 foot (3,000 m) runway.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/128/12898.png.htm" title="Wake Island"><img alt="Wake Island" height="316" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WakeIsland.png" src="../../images/128/12898.png" width="314" /></a></span></div>
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<li>Geographic coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 19°17′N 166°36′E</span><li>Area (land): 2.5 mi² (6.5 km²)<li>Coastline: 12.0 mi (19.3 km)<li>Maritime claims <ul>
<li><i>exclusive economic zone:</i> 200 <!--del_lnk--> nm (370.4 km)<li><i>territorial sea:</i> 12 nm (22.2 km)</ul>
<li>Elevation extremes: <ul>
<li><i>lowest point:</i> Pacific Ocean, 0 feet (0 meters)<li><i>highest point:</i> Ducks Point, 20 feet (6 m)</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2>
<p>Wake Island lies in the tropical zone but is subject to periodic temperate storms during the winter. Sea surface temperatures are warm all year long, reaching above 80 <!--del_lnk--> °F in summer and fall. Typhoons occasionally pass over the island.<p><a id="Typhoon_Ioke" name="Typhoon_Ioke"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Typhoon Ioke</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the United States Air Force evacuated all 188 residents as category 5 <!--del_lnk--> Super Typhoon Ioke headed toward Wake. By <!--del_lnk--> August 31, the southwestern eyewall of the storm passed over the island, with winds well over 185 miles per hour (300 km/h)<!--del_lnk--> , driving a <!--del_lnk--> storm surge and waves directly into the lagoon. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Pre-European_discovery" name="Pre-European_discovery"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pre-European discovery</span></h3>
<p>Some scant <!--del_lnk--> indigenous Marshallese <!--del_lnk--> oral tradition suggests that prior to European <!--del_lnk--> exploration, nearby <a href="../../wp/m/Marshall_Islands.htm" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islanders</a> traveled to what is now Wake Island, which the travelers called <i>Enen-kio</i> after a small orange <!--del_lnk--> shrub-<a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flower</a> said to have been found on the atoll. In ancient Marshallese <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a>, <!--del_lnk--> rituals surrounding the <!--del_lnk--> tatooing of <!--del_lnk--> tribal chiefs, called <i><!--del_lnk--> Iroijlaplap,</i> were done using certain fresh human bones, which required a <!--del_lnk--> human sacrifice. A man could save himself from being sacrificed if he obtained a wing bone from a certain very large <!--del_lnk--> seabird said to have existed on <i>Enen-kio</i>. Small groups would therefore brave traveling to the atoll in hope of obtaining and returning with this bone, thus saving the life of the potential human sacrifice.<!--del_lnk--> <p>Based upon this oral tradition<!--del_lnk--> along with concepts of first-usage lands rights claims commonly held in <!--del_lnk--> Micronesian <!--del_lnk--> cultures as <!--del_lnk--> legitimate for settling <!--del_lnk--> indigenous land disputes<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> , a small <!--del_lnk--> separatist group of Marshall Island descendents who call themselves the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of EnenKio lay claim to Wake Island. The Marshall Islands and U.S. governments, who also have competing claims over the island, vigorously deny the claim.<!--del_lnk--> No evidence suggests there was ever a permanent <!--del_lnk--> settlement of Marshall Islanders on Wake Island.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="European_discovery_and_exploration" name="European_discovery_and_exploration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">European discovery and exploration</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1568, <!--del_lnk--> Álvaro de Mendaña de Neyra, a Spanish explorer with two ships, <i>Los Reyes</i> and <i>Todos Santos</i>, discovered "a low barren island, judged to be eight <!--del_lnk--> leagues in circumference," to which he gave the name of "San Francisco." The island was eventually named for Captain <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Wake, master of the <!--del_lnk--> British trading <!--del_lnk--> schooner, <i>Prince William Henry</i>, who visited in 1796.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1840, the <!--del_lnk--> United States Exploring Expedition commanded by <!--del_lnk--> Commodore <!--del_lnk--> Charles Wilkes of the U.S. Navy, landed on and surveyed Wake. Wilkes described the atoll as "a low coral one, of triangular form and eight feet above the surface. It has a large lagoon in the centre, which was well filled with <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> of a variety of <!--del_lnk--> species among these were some fine <!--del_lnk--> mullet." He also noted that Wake had no fresh water and that it was covered with <!--del_lnk--> shrubs, "the most abundant of which was the <i>tournefortia</i>." The expedition's <!--del_lnk--> naturalist, <!--del_lnk--> Titian Peale, collected many new <!--del_lnk--> specimens, including an <!--del_lnk--> egg from a <!--del_lnk--> short-tailed albatross and various <!--del_lnk--> marine life specimens.<p><a id="Wreck_of_the_Libelle" name="Wreck_of_the_Libelle"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wreck of the <i>Libelle</i></span></h3>
<p>Wake Island first received international attention with the <!--del_lnk--> wreck of the <i>Libelle</i>. On the night of <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1866, the <!--del_lnk--> barque <i>Libelle</i> of <!--del_lnk--> Bremen, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, struck the eastern <!--del_lnk--> reef of Wake Island during a <!--del_lnk--> gale. The ship was under the command of Captain Tobias and en route from <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco to <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>. Among its passengers were <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">opera</a> singer Anna Bishop, her husband Martin Schultz (a <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a> diamond merchant), and three other members of an English <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">opera</a> troupe.<p>After 21 days, the 30 stranded passengers and crew set sail in a <!--del_lnk--> longboat and a <!--del_lnk--> gig for the Spanish island of <a href="../../wp/g/Guam.htm" title="Guam">Guam</a>. The longboat, containing the opera troupe, Mr. Schultz and other passengers, arrived on Guam <!--del_lnk--> April 8. The gig, commanded by the <i>Libelle’s</i> captain, was lost at sea. While stranded on Wake Island, Captain Tobias had buried valuable cargo including 1,000 flasks (34,500 kg) of <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528element%2529.htm" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, coins and precious stones worth approximately <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>150,000, and at least five ships conducted <!--del_lnk--> salvage operations in their recovery. The plight of the <i>Libelle</i>, its passengers and cargo was reported by many newspapers.<p><a id="American_possession" name="American_possession"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">American possession</span></h3>
<p>Wake Island was annexed by the United States on <!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1899. In 1935, <!--del_lnk--> Pan American Airways constructed a small village, nicknamed "<!--del_lnk--> PAAville", to service flights on its U.S.-<a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> route. The village was the first human settlement on the island and relied upon the U.S. mainland for its food and water supplies; it remained in operation up to the day of the first Japanese air raid.<p><a id="Military_buildup" name="Military_buildup"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Military buildup</span></h3>
<p>In January 1941, the <!--del_lnk--> United States Navy constructed a military base on the atoll. On <!--del_lnk--> August 19, the first permanent military garrison, elements of the <!--del_lnk--> 1st Marine Defense Battalion, totaling 449 officers and men, were stationed on the island, commanded by <!--del_lnk--> Commander <!--del_lnk--> Winfield Scott Cunningham. Others on the island were 68 U.S. Naval personnel and about 1,221 civilian workers.<p>They were armed with six used 5 inch (127 mm) <!--del_lnk--> cannons, removed from a <!--del_lnk--> scrapped <!--del_lnk--> cruiser; twelve 3 inch (76.2 mm) M3 <!--del_lnk--> anti-aircraft guns (with only a single working anti-aircraft <!--del_lnk--> sight among them); eighteen <!--del_lnk--> Browning M2 heavy machine guns; and thirty heavy, medium, and light, water or air-cooled <!--del_lnk--> machine guns in various conditions but all operational.<p><a id="World_War_II" name="World_War_II"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">World War II</span></h3>
<p><a id="Battle_of_Wake_Island" name="Battle_of_Wake_Island"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Battle of Wake Island</span></h4>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1941, the same day as the <a href="../../wp/a/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor.htm" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Attack on Pearl Harbour</a> (Wake being on the opposite side of the International Date Line), sixteen <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> medium bombers flown from bases on the Marshall Islands attacked Wake Island, destroying eight of the twelve <!--del_lnk--> F4F Wildcat fighter aircraft belonging to Marine Corps fighter squadron <!--del_lnk--> VMF-211 on the ground. All of the Marine garrison's defensive emplacements were left intact by the raid, which primarily targeted the naval aircraft.<p>The garrison—supplemented by civilian volunteers—repelled several Japanese landing attempts. After the initial Japanese amphibious assault was beaten back with heavy losses, the American commander was asked by his superiors if he needed anything; the commander was reported (erroneously) as having quipped "Send us more Japs!"<p>Despite this defiant spirit, the garrison was eventually overwhelmed by the determined and numerically superior Japanese invasion force. American casualties were fifty-two military personnel killed, along with approximately seventy civilians. Japanese losses exceeded 700 killed, with some estimates ranging as high as 900; in addition, the Japanese lost four destroyers and twenty aircraft.<p>In the aftermath of the battle, some of the captured civilian laborers were pressed into service by the Japanese and tasked with improving the island's defenses. After a successful American air raid on <!--del_lnk--> October 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1943, the Japanese garrison commander Rear Admiral <!--del_lnk--> Shigematsu Sakaibara ordered the execution of the ninety-eight prisoners on the pretext that they were <!--del_lnk--> spies. One prisoner escaped the mass execution, but was later personally beheaded by Sakaibara. After the war, Sakaibaira was tried for war crimes, found guilty, and executed; his subordinate was sentenced to life in prison.<p>Captain <!--del_lnk--> Henry T. Elrod, one of the pilots from VMF-211, was awarded the United States <a href="../../wp/m/Medal_of_Honor.htm" title="Medal of Honor">Medal of Honour</a> posthumously for shooting down two Japanese <!--del_lnk--> Zero fighters, and many of his comrades were also highly decorated for their roles in the fighting. The <!--del_lnk--> Wake Island Device was created for American veterans of the battle.<p><a id="Japanese_occupation_and_surrender" name="Japanese_occupation_and_surrender"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Japanese occupation and surrender</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12900.jpg.htm" title="The surrender of the Japanese garrison on Wake island - September 4, 1945. Shigematsu Sakaibara is the Japanese officer in the right-foreground"><img alt="The surrender of the Japanese garrison on Wake island - September 4, 1945. Shigematsu Sakaibara is the Japanese officer in the right-foreground" height="313" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wake_island_1945_surrender.jpg" src="../../images/129/12900.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12900.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The surrender of the Japanese garrison on Wake island - <!--del_lnk--> September 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1945. <!--del_lnk--> Shigematsu Sakaibara is the Japanese officer in the right-foreground</div>
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<p>The Japanese-occupied island was bombed several times by American air forces; one of these raids was the first mission for future <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">United States President</a> <!--del_lnk--> George H.W. Bush.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1945, the remaining Japanese garrison surrendered to a detachment of the <!--del_lnk--> United States Marine Corps. In a brief ceremony, the handover of Wake was officially conducted.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12901.jpg.htm" title="US Civilian POWs Memorial"><img alt="US Civilian POWs Memorial" height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wake_island_WWII_Civilian_memorial.JPG" src="../../images/129/12901.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12901.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> US Civilian POWs Memorial</div>
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<p><a id="Postwar" name="Postwar"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Postwar</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1950, the island served as a one-day meeting site between <!--del_lnk--> General Douglas MacArthur and President <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, meeting to discuss strategy for the <!--del_lnk--> Korean War hostilities that had broken out four months earlier.<p>Since 1974, the island's airstrip has been used by the U.S. military and some commercial cargo planes, as well as for emergency landings. There are over 700 landings a year on the island. There are also two offshore anchorages for large ships. On <!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1985, the World War II-related resources on Peale, Wilkes, and Wake Islands were designated a <!--del_lnk--> National Historic Landmark (and thereby also listed on the <!--del_lnk--> National Register of Historic Places).<p>The United States military personnel have left, and there are no indigenous inhabitants. Wake, with an undelineated maritime boundary with them, is claimed by the Marshall Islands, and some civilian personnel ("contractor inhabitants") remain. <!--del_lnk--> As of August 2006, an estimated 200 contractor personnel were present. The island remains a strategic location in the North Pacific Ocean and serves as an emergency landing location for transpacific flights. Some World War II facilities and wreckage remain on the islands.<p>Subsequently the island was used for strategic defense and operations during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. It was administered by the United States Army <!--del_lnk--> Space and Missile Defense Command (formerly known as the <i>United States Army Space and Strategic Defense Command</i>).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12915.jpg.htm" title="Wake Island's Main Lagoon"><img alt="Wake Island's Main Lagoon" height="230" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wake_Island_Lagoon_Paradise_by_Matthew_Piatkowski.jpg" src="../../images/129/12915.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12915.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wake Island's Main Lagoon</div>
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<p>Since 1974, from Wake Island, military rockets were launched at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">19°17′24″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">166°37′05″E</span></span>. These rockets are launched for the test of anti-missile systems and for atmospheric re-entry tests.<p>From late April until the middle of August 1975, Wake Island was used as a refugee camp for more than 8,000 <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnamese</a> refugees who fled their homeland after the fall of <a href="../../wp/h/Ho_Chi_Minh_City.htm" title="Saigon">Saigon</a> that ended the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.<p>The territorial claim <!--del_lnk--> by the Republic of the Marshall Islands on Wake Atoll leaves a certain amount of ambiguity regarding the actual or hypothetical role of the U.S. military, responsible under agreement for the defence of Marshallese territory, in the event of any strategic crisis or hostilities involving Wake. However, the atoll was formally annexed by the U.S. in the 19th century and is still administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior.<p><a id="Flora_and_fauna" name="Flora_and_fauna"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flora and fauna</span></h2>
<p>The flightless <!--del_lnk--> Wake Island Rail was the island's only known native landbird. It became extinct when the Japanese garrison, cut off from resupply in 1944-45, turned to hunting and fishing to avoid starvation.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wake_Island"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wales</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<caption style="margin-left: inherit; padding-bottom: 0.5em; line-height: 1.1em;"><big><b>Wales</b></big> (<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>)<br /><big><b>Cymru</b></big> (<!--del_lnk--> Welsh) </caption>
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<td style="border: 0; vertical-align: middle;"><span style="border: 1px solid #bbbbbb; display: table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/27/2763.png.htm" title="Flag of Wales"><img alt="Flag of Wales" height="72" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Wales_2.svg" src="../../images/143/14366.png" width="120" /></a></span></td>
<td style="border: 0; vertical-align: middle;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Coat of arms of Wales" height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wales_COA.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="70" /></td>
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<td style="border: 0;text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Flag of Wales</td>
<td style="border: 0;text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Unofficial coat of arms</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <span lang="cy" xml:lang="cy"><i><!--del_lnk--> Cymru am byth</i></span><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> Welsh for "Wales forever")</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <!--del_lnk--> Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau</td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14368.png.htm" title="Location of Wales"><img alt="Location of Wales" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationWales.PNG" src="../../images/143/14368.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Capital</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top"><a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 51°29′N 3°11′W</span></small></td>
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<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Largest city</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top"><a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a></td>
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<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Official language(s)</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top"><!--del_lnk--> Welsh, <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
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<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top;"><a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">Constitutional monarchy</a></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top"> - <a href="../../wp/b/British_monarchy.htm" title="British monarchy">Queen</a></td>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top"><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top"> - <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a></td>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top"><a href="../../wp/t/Tony_Blair.htm" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a> <!--del_lnk--> MP</td>
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<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top"> - <!--del_lnk--> First Minister</td>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top"><!--del_lnk--> Rhodri Morgan <!--del_lnk--> AM</td>
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<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b>Unification</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top;"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align: top"> - by <!--del_lnk--> Gruffudd ap Llywelyn</td>
<td>1056 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0;"> </td>
</tr>
<tr style="padding: 0 1em 0 0; text-align:left;">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 20,779 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 3<sup>rd</sup> in UK)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="padding: 0 1em 0 0; text-align:left;">
<td> </td>
<td>8,022 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0 0; text-align:left;"> - 2005<sup>4</sup> est.</td>
<td>2,958,600 <sup>1</sup> (<!--del_lnk--> 3<sup>rd</sup> in UK)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top;"> - 2001 census</td>
<td>2,903,085</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top;"> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top;">140/km² (2<sup>nd</sup> in UK)<br /> 361/sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> GDP</b> (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align: top">2002 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr style="padding: 0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top;">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$48 billion</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top;"> - Per capita</td>
<td>$23,741</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top;"><a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">Pound sterling</a> (<code><!--del_lnk--> GBP</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top">GMT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC0)</td>
</tr>
<tr style="padding: 0 1em 0 0; text-align:left; vertical-align: top;">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td>BST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> .uk<sup>3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><code>+44</code></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Patron Saint</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top;"><!--del_lnk--> St David (Dewi Sant) </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top"><small><sup>1</sup>Office for National Statistics - <!--del_lnk--> UK population grows to more than 60 million<br /></small><p><small><sup>2</sup>Figures for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a><br /><sup>3</sup><!--del_lnk--> ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 is <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">GB</a>, but <!--del_lnk--> .gb is unused<br /></small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Wales</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Welsh: <span lang="cy" xml:lang="cy"><i>Cymru</i></span>; pronounced <!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ˈkəmrɨ/</span>, approximately "COME-ree") is one of the four <!--del_lnk--> constituent nations of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Wales is located in the south-west of <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and is bordered by the <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> counties of <!--del_lnk--> Cheshire, <!--del_lnk--> Shropshire, <!--del_lnk--> Herefordshire, and <!--del_lnk--> Gloucestershire to the east, the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Channel to the south, <!--del_lnk--> St George's Channel to the south-west, and the <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_Sea.htm" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a> to the west and north, and also by the estuary of the <!--del_lnk--> River Dee (<i>Afon Dyfrdwy</i>) in the north-east.<p>The term Principality of Wales (<i>Tywysogaeth Cymru</i>) is the formal name, but it is rarely used in everyday business, and is an unpopular term among some. Wales has never been a <!--del_lnk--> sovereign state with precisely the same borders as now. However, in the eleventh century <!--del_lnk--> Gruffudd ap Llywelyn gained control of a territory with much the same boundaries as modern Wales and, from about 1057 till Gruffudd's death in 1063, all Wales could be said to have one King, his sovereignty recognised by England. This has never been repeated in the nation's history and, by the time of the Anglo-Norman conquest of West Wales in <!--del_lnk--> 1282, Wales had reverted to being a collection of independent kingdoms. Nevertheless, tradition has it that in 1404 <!--del_lnk--> Owain Glyndŵr was crowned Prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France, Spain and Scotland., and he certainly held parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns, including <!--del_lnk--> Machynlleth.<p><a href="../../wp/w/Welsh_law.htm" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a> was not replaced in all cases by <!--del_lnk--> English law until the <a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542</a>. It was not until 1955 that the Queen declared the capital of Wales to be <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>, although the Prince of Wales - argued by Welsh Nationalists to be an English pretender to the title - was invested at <!--del_lnk--> Caernarfon.<p>In 1999, the <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly for Wales was formed, with powers to amend primary legislation from the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>. In 2006 these powers were widened through a second Government of Wales Act.<p>
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</script><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The English name for Wales <!--del_lnk--> originates from the <!--del_lnk--> Germanic word <i><!--del_lnk--> Walha</i>, meaning "stranger" or "foreigner", probably derived from the name <!--del_lnk--> Volcae. As the Celts of Gaul were Romanized, the word changed its meaning to "<!--del_lnk--> Romanic people", as is still apparent in the name of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Walloons</i> of Belgium, <!--del_lnk--> Wallachia in Romania, as well as the "-wall" of <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall. The Welsh themselves called themselves <i>Cymry</i>, "compatriots", and named their country <i>Cymru</i>, which is thought to have meant "Land of the Compatriots" in <!--del_lnk--> Old Welsh; this has reference to their awareness that they were the original countrymen of Wales, and indeed Britain by virtue of their ancestors the <i>Brythoniaid</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Brythons), and also in order to distinguish themselves from the foreign invaders of Britain, the <i>Saeson</i> (English). There is also a mediaeval legend found in the <!--del_lnk--> Historia Regum Britanniae of <i>Sieffre o Fynwy</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey of Monmouth) that derives it from the name <!--del_lnk--> Camber, son of <!--del_lnk--> Brutus and, according to the legend, the eponymous King of Cymru (<!--del_lnk--> Cambria in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>); this however was largely the fruit of Geoffrey's vivid imagination. <!--del_lnk--> Cumberland and <!--del_lnk--> Cumbria in the north of England derive their names from the same Old Welsh word.<p><i>See also</i>: <!--del_lnk--> History of the term Vlach<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Colonisation" name="Colonisation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colonisation</span></h3>
<p>Humans first inhabited what is now Wales at the end of the last <!--del_lnk--> Ice Age. The first documented history was during the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> occupation of Britain. At that time the area of modern Wales was divided into many tribes, of which the <!--del_lnk--> Silures in the south-east and the <!--del_lnk--> Ordovices in the central and north-west areas were the largest and most powerful. The Romans established a string of forts across what is now southern Wales, as far west as <!--del_lnk--> Carmarthen (<i>Caerfyrddin</i>; <!--del_lnk--> Latin: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>Maridunum</i></span>), and mined gold at <!--del_lnk--> Dolaucothi in Carmarthenshire. There is evidence that they progressed even farther west. They also built the legionary fortress at <!--del_lnk--> Caerleon (<!--del_lnk--> Latin: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>Isca Silurum</i></span>), whose magnificent <!--del_lnk--> amphitheatre is the best preserved in Britain. The Romans were also busy in northern Wales, and the mediaeval Welsh tale <i>Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig</i> claims that <!--del_lnk--> Magnus Maximus (<i>Macsen Wledig</i>), one of the last western Roman emperors, married Elen or Helen, the daughter of a Welsh chieftain from <!--del_lnk--> Segontium, present-day <!--del_lnk--> Caernarfon. It was in the <a href="../../wp/4/4th_century.htm" title="4th century">4th century</a> during the Roman occupation that <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> was introduced to Wales.<p>After the collapse of <!--del_lnk--> the Roman Empire in Britain in 410, the native <!--del_lnk--> Romano-Britons became divided into numerous petty kingdoms. Although the low-lying kingdoms of the south and east of Britain were soon overrun, attempts by the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon tribes to invade the upland kingdoms in the western parts of Britain failed due to the fierce resistance of their people and the mountainous terrain. This tenacious survival by the Romano-Britons and their descendants in the western kingdoms was to become the foundation of what we now know as Wales. However, their ability to fight back on equal terms and perhaps liberate those parts of the country from which they had been driven was gradually sapped by the loss of the rich lowlands and cities of the south and east.<dl>
<dd><i>Some, therefore, of the miserable remnant, being taken in the mountains, were murdered in great numbers; others, constrained by famine, came and yielded themselves to be slaves for ever to their foes, running the risk of being instantly slain, which truly was the greatest favour that could be offered them: some others passed beyond the seas with loud lamentations instead of the voice of exhortation.</i> - <!--del_lnk--> Gildas Sapiens, c.540</dl>
<p>By the eighth century the eastern borders with the Anglo Saxons had broadly been set. An Anglo-Saxon king, <!--del_lnk--> Offa of Mercia, is credited with having constructed a great earth wall, or dyke, along the border with his kingdom, to mark off a large part of the Welsh speaking <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Powys which he had just conquered. Parts of <!--del_lnk--> Offa's Dyke (<i>Clawdd Offa</i>) can still be seen today and <i>croesi Clawdd Offa</i> ("crossing Offa's Dyke") is still a common expression in Wales for visiting England.<p><a id="Medieval" name="Medieval"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Medieval</span></h3>
<p>The southern and eastern lands lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as <i>Lloegyr</i> (Modern Welsh <i>Lloegr</i>), which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally, and which came to refer to England as a whole. The barbarian tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called <i>Saeson</i>, meaning "Saxons". The Anglo-Saxons, in turn, labelled the Romano-British as <!--del_lnk--> Walha, meaning 'foreigner' or 'stranger'. The Welsh continued to call themselves <i>Brythoniaid</i> (Brythons or Britons) well into <!--del_lnk--> the Middle Ages, though the first use of <i>Cymru</i> and <i>y Cymry</i> is found as early as 633 in the <!--del_lnk--> Gododdin of <!--del_lnk--> Aneirin. In <!--del_lnk--> Armes Prydain, written in about 930, the words <i>Cymry</i> and <i>Cymro</i> are used as often as 15 times. It was not until about the 12th century however, that <i>Cymry</i> began to overtake <i>Brythoniaid</i> in their writings.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14369.jpg.htm" title="Dolwyddelan Castle, built by Llywelyn ab Iorwerth in the early 13th century to defend Gwynedd from the English."><img alt="Dolwyddelan Castle, built by Llywelyn ab Iorwerth in the early 13th century to defend Gwynedd from the English." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dolwyddelan_Castle2.jpg" src="../../images/143/14369.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14369.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Dolwyddelan Castle, built by <!--del_lnk--> Llywelyn ab Iorwerth in the early 13th century to defend Gwynedd from the English.</div>
</div>
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<p>Following the <!--del_lnk--> Norman conquest of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> in 1066, the independence of the Welsh kingdoms was gradually eroded, in spite of the efforts of Welsh princes such as <!--del_lnk--> Owain Gwynedd and <!--del_lnk--> Llywelyn ab Iorwerth (<i>Llywelyn Fawr</i>; Llywelyn the Great). <!--del_lnk--> William the Conquerer sought to subdue the Welsh by the establishment of Anglo-Norman lordships on the <!--del_lnk--> borders of Wales, and these <!--del_lnk--> Marcher Lords retained considerable independence until the reign of Henry VIII. In 1282, with the death in battle of <!--del_lnk--> Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Wales's last independent leader, Welsh territory west of the Marches came under the rule of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_I_of_England.htm" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a>. To help maintain his power, he constructed a series of great stone <!--del_lnk--> castles. <!--del_lnk--> Beaumaris, <!--del_lnk--> Caernarfon, and <!--del_lnk--> Conwy were built to overshadow the Welsh royal home and headquarters <!--del_lnk--> Aber Garth Celyn, Gwynedd. The next few centuries were often tumultuous, with a series of minor revolts culminating in the rebellion of <!--del_lnk--> Owain Glyndŵr. <a id="Annexation" name="Annexation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Annexation</span></h3>
<p>Wales was legally annexed by the <a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542">Laws in Wales Act 1535</a>, in the reign of <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> of England, who was himself partly of Welsh ancestry. The <!--del_lnk--> Wales and Berwick Act 1746 provided that all laws that applied to England would automatically apply to Wales (and <!--del_lnk--> Berwick, a town located on the Anglo-Scottish border) unless the law explicitly stated otherwise.<p>In the early 19th century parts of Wales became heavily industrialised. In the north slate quarrying became the major employer. Ironworks were set up in the valleys running south from the <!--del_lnk--> Brecon Beacons particularly around the <!--del_lnk--> new town of <!--del_lnk--> Merthyr Tydfil, with iron production later spreading westwards to the hinterlands of <!--del_lnk--> Neath and <!--del_lnk--> Swansea where <!--del_lnk--> anthracite coal was already being mined. From the 1840s coal mining spread to the <!--del_lnk--> Aberdare and <!--del_lnk--> Rhondda valleys. This led to a rapid increase in the population of these areas. In 1801 just over 587,000 people lived in Wales; by 1901, this had increased to over 2,012,000. The most significant rises in population occurred in industrial counties - Denbigh, Flint, Monmouth and Glamorgan. The century witnessed a transition from a society that was predominantly rural (around 80% lived outside urban settlements in 1800) to a largely urbanised, industrial society (in 1911, only 20% lived in non-urban areas).<p><a id="Nationalist_revival" name="Nationalist_revival"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nationalist revival</span></h3>
<p>In the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="Twentieth century">twentieth century</a>, Wales saw a revival in its national status. An independence movement was led by <!--del_lnk--> Plaid Cymru, seeking greater autonomy from the rest of the UK. In 1955, the term <!--del_lnk--> England and Wales became common for describing the area to which English law applied, and <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> was proclaimed as capital. In 1962 the <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Language Society (<i>Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg</i>) was formed in response to fears that the language might soon die out. Nationalism grew, particularly following the flooding of the Tryweryn valley in 1965, drowning the village of <!--del_lnk--> Capel Celyn to create a reservoir supplying water to <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>. In 1966 the Carmarthen Parliamentary seat was won by Plaid Cymru at a by-election, their first Parliamentary seat. A terror campaign was waged for a short period by the <!--del_lnk--> Free Wales Army and <!--del_lnk--> Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru (MAC - Welsh Defence Movement). In the years leading up to the investiture of <!--del_lnk--> Prince Charles as <!--del_lnk--> Prince of Wales in 1969, these groups were responsible for a number of bomb blasts destroying water pipes and tax and other offices. In 1967, the <!--del_lnk--> Wales and Berwick Act 1746 was repealed for Wales, and a legal definition of Wales, and of the boundary with England was stated.<p>A referendum on the creation of an assembly for Wales in 1979 (see <!--del_lnk--> Wales referendum, 1979) led to a large majority for the "no" vote. However, in 1997 a referendum on the issue was secured, although by a very narrow majority. The <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly for Wales (<i>Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru</i>) was set up in 1999 (as a consequence of the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Wales Act 1998) and possesses the power to determine how the central government budget for Wales is spent and administered.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14370.jpg.htm" title="Rhodri Morgan, the First Minister of Wales."><img alt="Rhodri Morgan, the First Minister of Wales." height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rhodri_Morgan.jpg" src="../../images/143/14370.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14370.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Rhodri Morgan, the <!--del_lnk--> First Minister of Wales.</div>
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</div>
<p>The head of state in Wales, a constituent part of the United Kingdom, is the <!--del_lnk--> British monarch, currently <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a> (since 1952). Executive power is derived by the Queen, and exercised by the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a> at <!--del_lnk--> Westminster, with some powers devolved to the <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly for Wales in <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>. The United Kingdom Parliament retains responsibility for passing <!--del_lnk--> primary legislation in Wales. The National Assembly has regulatory authority over laws passed that are applicable to Wales, and has limited power to vary these by <!--del_lnk--> secondary legislation The National Assembly is not a sovereign authority, and the UK Parliament could, in theory, overrule or even abolish it at any time. However, its powers are set to increase as the Government of Wales Act 2006 will allow it to speed up the passage of 'Assembly Measures'.<p>The National Assembly was first established in 1998 under the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Wales Act. There are 60 members of the Assembly, known as "Assembly Members (AM)". Forty of the AMs are elected under the <!--del_lnk--> First Past the Post system, with the other 20 elected via the <!--del_lnk--> Additional Member System via regional lists in 5 different regions. The largest party elects the <!--del_lnk--> First Minister of Wales, who acts as the head of government. The <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Assembly Government is the <!--del_lnk--> executive arm, and the Assembly has delegated most of its powers to the Assembly Government. The new Assembly Building designed by <!--del_lnk--> Richard Rogers was opened by <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Queen Elizabeth II">The Queen</a> on St. David's Day (March 1st) 2006.<p>The current First Minister of Wales is <!--del_lnk--> Rhodri Morgan (since 2000), of the <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Labour party who form a minority government. The largest opposition party is <!--del_lnk--> Plaid Cymru ("Party of Wales"), who favour Welsh independence in Europe. Other parties include the <!--del_lnk--> Conservative Party, the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrats (who formed part of a coalition government with Labour in the first Assembly), and <!--del_lnk--> Forward Wales. Current political debate in Wales is about whether the National Assembly should be given more powers, such as the power to pass primary legislation, as the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Parliament can in Scotland.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">British House of Commons</a>, Wales is represented by 40 <!--del_lnk--> MPs (out of a total of 646) in <!--del_lnk--> the Welsh constituencies. A <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State for Wales sits in the UK cabinet and is responsible for representing matters that pertain to Wales. The <!--del_lnk--> Wales Office is a department of the United Kingdom government, responsible for Wales. The current Secretary of State for Wales is <!--del_lnk--> Peter Hain.<p><a id="Law" name="Law"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Law</span></h2>
<p>Wales shares the same legal system as England, within the legal distinction of <!--del_lnk--> England and Wales. England "legally" annexed Wales under the <a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542">Laws in Wales Act 1535</a>, in the reign of <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">King Henry VIII</a>. Prior to that <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Law had survived <i>de facto</i> after the conquest up to the fifteenth century in areas remote from direct English control. The <!--del_lnk--> Wales and Berwick Act 1746 provided that all laws that applied to England would automatically apply to Wales (and Berwick, a town located on the Anglo-Scottish border) unless the law explicitly stated otherwise. This act, with regard to Wales, was repealed in 1967.<p>As such, <!--del_lnk--> English law is the law of Wales. English law is regarded as a <!--del_lnk--> common law system, with no major <!--del_lnk--> codification of the law, and legal <!--del_lnk--> precedents are binding as opposed to persuasive. The <!--del_lnk--> court system is headed by the <a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> which is the highest court of appeal in the land for criminal and civil cases (although this is due to be replaced by a <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court of the United Kingdom). The Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales is the highest <!--del_lnk--> court of first instance as well as an <!--del_lnk--> appellate court. The three divisions are the <!--del_lnk--> Court of Appeal; the <!--del_lnk--> High Court of Justice and the <!--del_lnk--> Crown Court. Minor cases are heard by the <!--del_lnk--> Magistrates' Courts or the <!--del_lnk--> County Court.<p>However with the large degree of autonomy caused by the creation of the Welsh Assembly, there is a degree of independence in terms of law-making. Following the Government of Wales Act 2006, which transferred some primary legislation powers to the National Assembly for Wales (although the final authority on such legislation must be passed by the Westminster Parliament), the ancient and historic Wales and Chester court circuit was disbanded and a separate Welsh court circuit was created to allow for any 'Welsh laws' passed by the National Assembly.<p>
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<p><a id="Subdivisions" name="Subdivisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Subdivisions</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14372.jpg.htm" title="Clock tower of Cardiff City Hall"><img alt="Clock tower of Cardiff City Hall" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cardiff_tower.jpg" src="../../images/143/14372.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14372.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Clock tower of <!--del_lnk--> Cardiff City Hall</div>
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<dl>
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<p>For the purposes of local government, Wales was divided into 22 <!--del_lnk--> council areas in 1996. These are unitary authorities responsible for the provision of all local government services, including education, social work, environment and roads services. Below these in some areas there are <!--del_lnk--> community councils — that cover specific areas within a council area.<p>The Queen appoints a <!--del_lnk--> Lord Lieutenant to represent her in the eight <!--del_lnk--> Preserved counties of Wales — which are combinations of council areas. The 13 <!--del_lnk--> traditional counties of Wales are also used as geographical areas.<p><a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City status in the United Kingdom</a> is determined by <!--del_lnk--> Letters patent. There are five cities in Wales:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bangor<li><a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> (Caerdydd)<li><!--del_lnk--> Newport (Casnewydd)<li><!--del_lnk--> St David's (Tyddewi)<li><!--del_lnk--> Swansea (Abertawe)</ul>
<p>(<!--del_lnk--> St. Asaph historically had <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city status</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica refers to it as a city, but it is no longer considered as such. Applications for restoration of city status in the <!--del_lnk--> 2000 and <!--del_lnk--> 2002 competitions were unsuccessful).<table class="toccolours" style="margin: 1em auto;width:90%;clear:both;text-align:center;">
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<th style="background:#ccccff" width="100%"><!--del_lnk--> Principal areas of <strong class="selflink">Wales</strong></th>
<td width="40px"><a class="image" href="../../images/27/2763.png.htm" title="Flag of Wales"><img alt="Flag of Wales" height="24" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Wales_2.svg" src="../../images/27/2763.png" width="40" /></a></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="font-size:90%;"><i>Subdivisions created by the <!--del_lnk--> Local Government (Wales) Act 1994</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Anglesey | <!--del_lnk--> Blaenau Gwent | <!--del_lnk--> Bridgend | <!--del_lnk--> Caerphilly | <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> | <!--del_lnk--> Carmarthenshire | <!--del_lnk--> Ceredigion | <!--del_lnk--> Conwy | <!--del_lnk--> Denbighshire | <!--del_lnk--> Flintshire | <!--del_lnk--> Gwynedd | <!--del_lnk--> Merthyr Tydfil | <!--del_lnk--> Monmouthshire | <!--del_lnk--> Neath Port Talbot | <!--del_lnk--> Newport | <!--del_lnk--> Pembrokeshire | <!--del_lnk--> Powys | <!--del_lnk--> Rhondda Cynon Taff | <!--del_lnk--> Swansea | <!--del_lnk--> Torfaen | <!--del_lnk--> Vale of Glamorgan | <!--del_lnk--> Wrexham</td>
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<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14373.gif.htm" title="Map of Wales"><img alt="Map of Wales" height="291" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map_of_Wales.GIF" src="../../images/143/14373.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14373.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Wales</div>
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<p>Wales is located on a <!--del_lnk--> peninsula in central-west <!--del_lnk--> Britain. The entire area of Wales is about 20,779 km² (8,023 square miles). It is about 274 km (170 miles) <!--del_lnk--> north-<!--del_lnk--> south and 97 km (60 miles) <!--del_lnk--> east-<!--del_lnk--> west. Wales borders by England to the east and by sea in the other three directions: the Welsh Channel to the south, St George's Channel to the west, and the <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_Sea.htm" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a> to the north. Together, Wales has over 1,200km (750 miles) of coastline. There are several <!--del_lnk--> islands off the Welsh mainland, the largest being <!--del_lnk--> Ynys Môn (Anglesey) in the north west.<p>The main population and industrial areas are in <!--del_lnk--> South Wales, consisting of the cities of <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> (<i>Caerdydd</i>), <!--del_lnk--> Swansea (<i>Abertawe</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> Newport (<i>Casnewydd</i>) and surrounding areas.<p>Much of Wales's beautiful and diverse landscape is <!--del_lnk--> mountainous, particularly in the north and central regions. The mountains were shaped during the last <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" title="Ice age">ice age</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Devensian glaciation. The highest mountains in Wales are in <a href="../../wp/s/Snowdonia.htm" title="Snowdonia">Snowdonia</a> (<i>Eryri</i>), and include <!--del_lnk--> Snowdon (<i>Yr Wyddfa</i>), which, at 1085 m (3,560 ft) is the highest peak in Wales. The 14 (or possibly 15) Welsh mountains over 3,000 feet (914 m) high are known collectively as the <b>Welsh 3,000s</b>. The <!--del_lnk--> Brecon Beacons (<i>Bannau Brycheiniog</i>) are in the south and are joined by the <!--del_lnk--> Cambrian Mountains in mid-Wales, the latter name being given to the earliest geological period of the <!--del_lnk--> Paleozoic era, the <a href="../../wp/c/Cambrian.htm" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>.<p>In the mid-nineteenth century, two prominent geologists, <!--del_lnk--> Roderick Murchison and <!--del_lnk--> Adam Sedgwick used their studies of the geology of Wales to establish certain principles of <!--del_lnk--> stratigraphy and <!--del_lnk--> palaeontology. After much dispute, the next two periods of the Paleozoic era, the <a href="../../wp/o/Ordovician.htm" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Silurian.htm" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, were named after ancient Celtic tribes from this area.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14374.jpg.htm" title="The summit of Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), Snowdonia (Eryri), highest mountain in Wales"><img alt="The summit of Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), Snowdonia (Eryri), highest mountain in Wales" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Snowdon_from_Llyn_Llydaw.jpg" src="../../images/143/14374.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14374.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The summit of <!--del_lnk--> Snowdon (<i>Yr Wyddfa</i>), <a href="../../wp/s/Snowdonia.htm" title="Snowdonia">Snowdonia</a> (<i>Eryri</i>), highest <!--del_lnk--> mountain in Wales</div>
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<p>Along with its Celtic cousins in <!--del_lnk--> Devon and <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall in the <!--del_lnk--> West Country, the South Wales/West Wales coastline has more miles of <!--del_lnk--> Heritage Coast than anywhere else. The coastline of the <!--del_lnk--> Vale of Glamorgan, <!--del_lnk--> Gower Peninsula, <!--del_lnk--> Pembrokeshire and <!--del_lnk--> Ceredigion is particularly wild and impressive. Gower, Pembrokeshire and Cardigan Bay all have clean blue water, white-sand beaches and impressive marine life.<p>The modern border between Wales and England is highly arbitrary; it was largely defined in the 16th century, based on mediaeval feudal boundaries. It has apparently never been confirmed by referendum or reviewed by any Boundary Commission. The boundary line (which very roughly follows <!--del_lnk--> Offa's Dyke up to 40 miles (64 km) of the northern coast) separates <!--del_lnk--> Knighton from its railway station, virtually cuts off <!--del_lnk--> Church Stoke from the rest of Wales, and slices straight through the village of <!--del_lnk--> Llanymynech (where a pub actually straddles the line).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Seven Wonders of Wales is a traditional list of seven geographic and cultural <!--del_lnk--> landmarks in Wales: Snowdon (the highest mountain), the Gresford bells (the peal of <!--del_lnk--> bells in the mediaeval church of All Saints at <!--del_lnk--> Gresford), the <!--del_lnk--> Llangollen bridge (built in 1347 over the <!--del_lnk--> River Dee, <i>Afon Dyfrdwy</i>), <!--del_lnk--> St Winefride's Well (a <!--del_lnk--> pilgrimage site at <!--del_lnk--> Holywell, <i>Treffynnon</i>) in <!--del_lnk--> Flintshire) the Wrexham (<i>Wrecsam</i>) steeple (16th century tower of St. Giles Church in <!--del_lnk--> Wrexham), the Overton yew trees (ancient <!--del_lnk--> yew trees in the churchyard of St Mary's at <!--del_lnk--> Overton-on-Dee) and <!--del_lnk--> Pistyll Rhaeadr (Wales's tallest <!--del_lnk--> waterfall, at 240 ft or 75 m). The wonders are part of the traditional rhyme:<dl>
<dd><i>Pistyll Rhaeadr and Wrexham steeple,</i><dd><i>Snowdon's mountain without its people,</i><dd><i>Overton yew trees, St Winefride wells,</i><dd><i>Llangollen bridge and Gresford bells.</i></dl>
<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p><b>Highest maximum temperature</b>: 35.2°C (95.4°F) at <!--del_lnk--> Hawarden Bridge, <!--del_lnk--> Flintshire on <!--del_lnk--> 2 August 1990.<p><b>Lowest minimum temperature</b>: -23.3°C (-10°F) at <!--del_lnk--> Rhayader, <!--del_lnk--> Radnorshire on <!--del_lnk--> 21 January 1940. <!--del_lnk--> <p><i>See also</i>: <!--del_lnk--> List of towns in Wales<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Parts of Wales have been heavily industrialised since the eighteenth century. <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">Coal</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a>, and <a href="../../wp/g/Gold.htm" title="Gold">gold</a> have been mined in Wales, and slate has been quarried. Ironworks and tin-plate works, along with the coal mines, attracted large numbers of immigrants during the nineteenth century, particularly to the valleys north of Cardiff. Due to poor-quality <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a>, much of Wales is unsuitable for crop-growing, and livestock farming has traditionally been the focus of agriculture. The Welsh landscape (protected by three National Parks), as well as the unique culture of Wales, attract large numbers of tourists, who play an especially vital role in the economy of rural areas.<p>Light engineering is still an important activity in the main population areas of the South and extreme North-East, but the economy, as elsewhere in the UK, is now focused on the <!--del_lnk--> service sector.<p>The <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> economy is a growing base for many companies and as a result it has been increasingly used for new businesses, and many new employment opportunities have been created as a result. The new St David's 2 project in the city centre, the Sports Village construction in <!--del_lnk--> Cardiff Bay along with the creation of a new stadium for <!--del_lnk--> Cardiff City FC will boost employment by nearly 10,000 according to early projections and will prove a massive boost to the regional economy.<p>The St David's 2 project will include the expansion of the city centre to include a new 6 story city centre library, a new multi-storey car park for the Marriot hotel, 9 new large stores which will include Wales' first John Lewis and many other small stores.<p>The Cardiff Bay 'Sports Village' will be the base for a new casino, Snow Dome, retail park and the ice rink for the <!--del_lnk--> Cardiff Devils ice-hockey team.<p>Many other cities are also conducting major projects of regeneration, such as the <!--del_lnk--> SA1 Waterfront project in <!--del_lnk--> Swansea and in <!--del_lnk--> Newport a major regeneration project will vastly improve transport throughout the city, the building of a new retail centre and 6000 homes.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<p>The population of Wales in the 2001 census was 2,903,085, which has risen to 2,958,876 according to 2005 estimates. This would make Wales the 132nd largest <!--del_lnk--> country by population if it were a sovereign state.<p>According to the 2001 census, 96% of the population was <!--del_lnk--> White <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a>, and 2.1% non-white (mainly of <!--del_lnk--> Asian origin).<!--del_lnk--> Most non-white groups were concentrated in <a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Newport and <!--del_lnk--> Swansea.<p>In the 2001 Labour Force Survey, 72% of adults in Wales considered their national identity as wholly Welsh and another 7% considered themselves to be partly Welsh (Welsh and British were the most common combination). <!--del_lnk--> <p>In 2001 a quarter of the Welsh population were born outside Wales, mainly in England; about 3% were born outside the UK. The proportion of people who were born in Wales differs across the country, with the highest percentages in the <!--del_lnk--> South Wales Valleys, and the lowest in Mid Wales and parts of the north-east. In both <!--del_lnk--> Blaenau Gwent and <!--del_lnk--> Merthyr Tydfil 92% were Welsh-born, compared to only 51% in <!--del_lnk--> Flintshire and 56% in <!--del_lnk--> Powys.<!--del_lnk--> One of the reasons for this is that the locations of the most convenient hospitals are over the border in England. In the case of <!--del_lnk--> Flintshire, <!--del_lnk--> The Countess of Chester Hospital is only 13 miles (21 km) from <!--del_lnk--> Mold, the prime town of the county. The Welsh option would be <!--del_lnk--> Bodelwyddan Hospital in <!--del_lnk--> Denbighshire which would be a 25 mile (40 km) trip.<p><b>Main cities/towns and their populations (2005 estimates)</b><p><a href="../../wp/c/Cardiff.htm" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a> - 320,524<p><!--del_lnk--> Swansea - 270,463<p><!--del_lnk--> Newport - 145,769<p><!--del_lnk--> Merthyr Tydfil - 54,700<p><!--del_lnk--> Barry - 50,661<p><!--del_lnk--> Port Talbot - 49,654<p><!--del_lnk--> Cwmbran - 47,254<p><!--del_lnk--> Wrexham - 44,723<p>
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<p><a id="Languages" name="Languages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Languages</span></h3>
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<p>The official languages in Wales are <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Welsh. English is spoken by almost all people in Wales and is the <i>de facto</i> main language (see <!--del_lnk--> Welsh English). However, Wales is officially <!--del_lnk--> bilingual, with 20.5% of the population able to speak Welsh and a larger proportion having some knowledge of the Welsh language according to the 2001 census, although few (if any) residents of Wales other than small children are monolingual in Welsh these days. The <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Language Act 1993 and the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Wales Act 1998 provide that the Welsh and English languages should be treated on a basis of equality. Public bodies are required to prepare and implement a Welsh Language Scheme. Thus the Welsh Assembly, local councils, police forces, fire services and the health sector use Welsh as an official language, issuing official literature and publicity in Welsh versions (e.g. letters to parents from schools, library information, and council information). All road signs in Wales should be in English and Welsh, including both versions of place names where names or versions exist in both languages e.g. Caerdydd and "Cardiff".<p>During the 20th Century a number of small communities of speakers of languages other than English or Welsh, such as <!--del_lnk--> Bengali or <!--del_lnk--> Cantonese, have established themselves in Wales as a result of immigration. This phenomenon is almost exclusive to urban Wales. The Italian Government funds the teaching of <!--del_lnk--> Italian to Welsh residents of Italian ancestry. These other languages however have no official status, although public services may produce information leaflets in minority ethnic languages where there is a specific need, as happens elsewhere in the United Kingdom.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h3>
<p>The largest religion in Wales is <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, with 72% of the population describing themselves as Christian in the 2001 census. The <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian Church of Wales is the largest denomination and was born out of the <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Methodist revival in the eighteenth century and seceded from the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> in 1811. The <!--del_lnk--> Church in Wales is the next largest denomination, and forms part of the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Communion</a>. It too was part of the Church of England, and was disestablished by the British Government under the <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Church Act 1914 (the act did not take effect until 1920). The <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> makes up the next largest denomination at 3% of the population. Non-Christian religions are small in Wales, making up approximately 1.5% of the population. 18% of people declare no religion.<p>The patron saint of Wales is <!--del_lnk--> Saint David, with <!--del_lnk--> St David's Day celebrated annually on <!--del_lnk--> March 1.<p>Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Wales, with over 30,000 reported in the 2001 census, there are also many Hindus and Sikhs mainly in South Wales' cities of Newport, Cardiff and Swansea.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Food" name="Food"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Food</span></h3>
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<p>About 80% of the land surface of Wales is given over to agricultural use. Very little of this is <a href="../../wp/a/Arable_land.htm" title="Arable land">arable land</a>, though–the vast majority consists of permanent grass or rough grazing for herd animals. Although both <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">beef</a> and <!--del_lnk--> dairy cattle are raised widely, especially in Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, Wales is more well-known for its <!--del_lnk--> sheep farming, and thus lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Welsh cooking.<p>Some traditional dishes include <!--del_lnk--> laverbread (made from <!--del_lnk--> seaweed), <!--del_lnk--> bara brith (fruit bread), <!--del_lnk--> cawl cennin (leek stew), <!--del_lnk--> Welsh cakes, <!--del_lnk--> Welsh rarebit (cheese on toast), and Welsh <!--del_lnk--> lamb. <!--del_lnk--> Cockles are sometimes served with breakfast. <!--del_lnk--> <p>In 2005 the Welsh National Culinary Teams returned from the Culinary World Cup in Luxembourg with eight gold, 15 silver and seven bronze medals; plus an overall top 7 place in the world.<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h3>
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<p>The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the <i><!--del_lnk--> National Eisteddfod</i>. This takes place annually in a different town or city. The <i>Llangollen <!--del_lnk--> International Eisteddfod</i> echos the National Eisteddfod but provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform.<p>Wales is often referred to as "the land of song", being particularly famous for <!--del_lnk--> harpists, <!--del_lnk--> male voice choirs, and solo artists including Sir <!--del_lnk--> Geraint Evans, Dame Gwynneth Jones, <!--del_lnk--> Dame Anne Evans, <!--del_lnk--> Ivor Novello, Madam <!--del_lnk--> Adelina Patti, <!--del_lnk--> John Cale, <!--del_lnk--> Tom Jones, <!--del_lnk--> Charlotte Church, <!--del_lnk--> Bonnie Tyler, <!--del_lnk--> Bryn Terfel, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Hopkin, <!--del_lnk--> Katherine Jenkins, <!--del_lnk--> Shirley Bassey and <!--del_lnk--> Aled Jones.<p>The popular <!--del_lnk--> New Wave/<!--del_lnk--> synthpop group <!--del_lnk--> Scritti Politti was a vehicle for singer/songwriter and <!--del_lnk--> Cardiff native <!--del_lnk--> Green Gartside.<p><!--del_lnk--> Indie bands like <!--del_lnk--> Catatonia, <!--del_lnk--> Stereophonics, The <!--del_lnk--> Manic Street Preachers, <!--del_lnk--> Feeder, <!--del_lnk--> Super Furry Animals, and <!--del_lnk--> Gorkys Zygotic Mynci, in the 1990s, and later <!--del_lnk--> Goldie Lookin' Chain, <!--del_lnk--> McLusky, <!--del_lnk--> Lostprophets, <!--del_lnk--> Funeral for a Friend, <!--del_lnk--> The Automatic and <!--del_lnk--> Bullet for my Valentine were preceded by <!--del_lnk--> Man in the 1970s. Many of these popular singers and musicians have yet to pass the test of longevity.<p>There are also numerous smaller bands that are yet to enter the mainstream.<p>The Welsh traditional and <a href="../../wp/f/Folk_music.htm" title="Folk music">folk music</a> scene, long overshadowed by its <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> cousins, is in resurgence with performers and bands such as <!--del_lnk--> Crasdant, <!--del_lnk--> Carreg Lafar, Fernhill, <!--del_lnk--> Siân James, <!--del_lnk--> Robin Huw Bowen, <!--del_lnk--> Llio Rhydderch, <!--del_lnk--> KilBride and <!--del_lnk--> The Hennessys.<p>The 'Sîn Roc Gymraeg' (Welsh language Rock Scene) in Wales is thriving, with acts ranging from rock to hip-hop which routinely attracts immense crowds and audiences. The Welsh-language Rock Scene presently is stated as 'the best yet,' with more bands, and more audiences than the 'Sin Roc Gymraeg' has ever seen in its existence. Dolgellau, in the heart of Snowdonia has held the annual Sesiwn Fawr (mighty session) festival since 1992. From humble beginnings the festival has grown to be Wales' largest Welsh-Language Music Festivals.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> BBC National Orchestra of Wales performs in Wales and internationally. The world-renowned <!--del_lnk--> Welsh National Opera now has a permanent home at the <!--del_lnk--> Wales Millennium Centre in <!--del_lnk--> Cardiff Bay.<p><a id="Sport" name="Sport"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h3>
<p>The most popular sports in Wales are <!--del_lnk--> Rugby union and <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a>. As in New Zealand, Rugby is a core part of the national identity.<p><!--del_lnk--> The Welsh national rugby union team takes part in the annual <!--del_lnk--> Six Nations Championship, and the <a href="../../wp/r/Rugby_World_Cup.htm" title="Rugby World Cup">Rugby World Cup</a>. Welsh teams also play in the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic League (rugby union) alongside teams from Ireland and Scotland, the <!--del_lnk--> EDF Energy Cup and the European <!--del_lnk--> Heineken Cup.<p>Wales has its own <!--del_lnk--> football league since 1992, but for historical reasons, the 3 major Welsh clubs play in the <!--del_lnk--> English Football League and another three minor clubs in its feeder leagues. The <!--del_lnk--> Welsh national team like Scotland plays independently for international competition.<p><!--del_lnk--> Rugby league is now developing in Wales. Since 2003, there has been a national league and in 2006, semi-professional league comes back to the principality with the advent of the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic Crusaders.<p>The Isle of <!--del_lnk--> Anglesey/Ynys Môn is a member island of the <!--del_lnk--> International Island Games Association. The next Island Games will be held in 2007 on Rhodes (Greece). In the 2005 Games, held on the Shetland Islands, the Isle of Anglesey/Ynys Môn came 11th on the medal table with 4 gold, 2 silver and 2 bronze medals.<p>Wales has produced some great world class <!--del_lnk--> snooker players such as <!--del_lnk--> Terry Griffiths <!--del_lnk--> Mark Williams and <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Stevens and amateur participation in the sport is very high. The rugged terrain of the country also gives plenty of opportunities for rally driving and Wales currently hosts the finale of the <!--del_lnk--> World Rally Championship. <!--del_lnk--> Glamorgan compete in county cricket competitions and the <!--del_lnk--> Cardiff Devils were once a strong force in British <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" title="Ice hockey">ice hockey</a>. There is also some success in boxing. <!--del_lnk--> Joe Calzaghe the half-Welsh, half-Italian boxer is current World Super-Middleweight Champion and Swansea born <!--del_lnk--> Enzo Maccarinelli the current <!--del_lnk--> WBO, <!--del_lnk--> WBC and <!--del_lnk--> WBU World Cruiserweight Champion. Wales has also produced a number of athletes who have made a mark on the world stage, including the 110m hurdler Colin Jackson who is a former world record holder and the winner of numerous Olympic, World and European medals.<p>Wales are the current World Golf Champions.<p>Although it isn't very well known, Wales have had two drivers compete in the <a href="../../wp/f/Formula_One.htm" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> championship, <!--del_lnk--> Alan Rees being the first at the <!--del_lnk--> 1967 British Grand Prix, finishing in ninth position, four laps behind the winner, <!--del_lnk--> Jim Clark. <!--del_lnk--> Tom Pryce was the most notable of the two drivers, as he finished on the podium twice and for the <!--del_lnk--> 1975 British Grand Prix, qualified in <!--del_lnk--> pole position. Pryce's career was cut short after he collided with volunteer marshal, <!--del_lnk--> Jansen Van Vuuren, killing both instantly. As well as Formula One, Wales have had some notability in the <!--del_lnk--> World Rally Championship, producing two championship winning Co-Drivers, those being Nicky Grist, who helped <!--del_lnk--> Colin McRae to victory in 1996 and <!--del_lnk--> Phil Mills who helped <!--del_lnk--> Petter Solberg win the 2003 title.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">National symbols</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14376.png.htm" title="The Flag of Saint David (Baner Dewi Sant)"><img alt="The Flag of Saint David (Baner Dewi Sant)" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Saint_David.svg" src="../../images/143/14376.png" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14376.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Flag of Saint David (<i>Baner Dewi Sant</i>)</div>
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<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Flag of Wales (Y Ddraig Goch) incorporates the <!--del_lnk--> red <!--del_lnk--> dragon of Prince Cadwalader along with the <!--del_lnk--> Tudor colours of green and white. It was used by Henry VII at the <!--del_lnk--> battle of Bosworth in 1485 after which it was carried in state to St. Paul's Cathedral. The red dragon was then included in the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognised as the Welsh national flag in 1959. Since the British <a href="../../wp/u/Union_Flag.htm" title="Union Flag">Union Flag</a> does not have any Welsh representation, the Flag of Wales has become very popular.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Dragon, part of the national flag design, is also a popular Welsh symbol. The oldest recorded use of the dragon to symbolise Wales is from the <!--del_lnk--> Historia Brittonum, written around 820, but it is popularly supposed to have been the battle standard of <a href="../../wp/k/King_Arthur.htm" title="King Arthur">King Arthur</a> and other ancient Celtic leaders. This myth is likely to have originated from <!--del_lnk--> Merlin's vision of a Red (Wales) and White (England) dragon battling, with the Red dragon being victorious. Following the annexation of Wales by England, the dragon was used as a supporter in the English monarch's coat of arms.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> leek is also a national emblem of Wales. According to legend, <!--del_lnk--> Saint David ordered his Welsh soldiers to identify themselves by wearing the vegetable on their helmets in an ancient battle against the Saxons that took place in a leek field.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> daffodil is the <!--del_lnk--> national flower of Wales, and is worn on <!--del_lnk--> St David's Day each <!--del_lnk--> March 1.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Flag of Saint David is sometimes used as an alternative to the national flag, and is flown on <!--del_lnk--> St David's Day.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Coat of Arms of the Principality of Wales is used by <!--del_lnk--> Charles, Prince of Wales in his personal standard.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Prince of Wales's feathers, the heraldic badge of the <!--del_lnk--> Prince of Wales is sometimes adapted by Welsh bodies for use in Wales. The symbolism is explained on the article for <!--del_lnk--> Edward, the Black Prince, who was the first Prince of Wales to bear the emblem; see also <!--del_lnk--> John, king of Bohemia. The <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Rugby Union uses such a design for its own badge.</ul>
<p><a id="Photos_of_Wales" name="Photos_of_Wales"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Photos of Wales</span></h2>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Tredegar House, <!--del_lnk--> Newport</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/143/14378.jpg.htm" title="Image:HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/143/14378.jpg" width="93" /></a></div>
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<p>Hall of the Mountain Kings, <!--del_lnk--> Ogof Craig a Ffynnon, a <a href="../../wp/c/Cave.htm" title="Cave">cave</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Brecon Beacons</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 36px 0;"><a href="../../images/143/14379.jpg.htm" title="Image:Uwlsdb.jpg"><img alt="" height="73" src="../../images/143/14379.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Wales, Lampeter, the oldest higher education institution in Wales</div>
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<p>The Castle and Old College building, <a href="../../wp/a/Aberystwyth.htm" title="Aberystwyth">Aberystwyth</a></div>
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<p><a id="Notable_Welsh_people" name="Notable_Welsh_people"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wall Street</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Business_Studies.Business.htm">Business</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22741.jpg.htm" title="Elaborate marble facade of NYSE as seen from Broad and Wall Streets"><img alt="Elaborate marble facade of NYSE as seen from Broad and Wall Streets" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Photos_NewYork1_032.jpg" src="../../images/227/22741.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22741.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Elaborate marble facade of <!--del_lnk--> NYSE as seen from Broad and Wall Streets</div>
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<p><b>Wall Street</b> is a narrow <!--del_lnk--> street in lower <!--del_lnk--> Manhattan in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>, running east from <!--del_lnk--> Broadway downhill to the <!--del_lnk--> East River. Considered to be the historical heart of the <!--del_lnk--> Financial District, it was the first permanent home of the <!--del_lnk--> New York Stock Exchange.<p>The phrase "Wall Street" is also used as a <!--del_lnk--> metonym to refer to <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> financial markets and financial institutions as a whole. Most <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a> financial firms are no longer headquartered on Wall Street, but elsewhere in <!--del_lnk--> lower or <!--del_lnk--> midtown Manhattan, <!--del_lnk--> Fairfield County, Connecticut, or <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey. <!--del_lnk--> JPMorgan Chase, the last major holdout, sold its headquarters tower at <!--del_lnk--> 60 Wall Street to <!--del_lnk--> Deutsche Bank in November 2001.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22742.jpg.htm" title="View in Wall Street from Corner of Broadway, 1867. The building on the left was the U.S. Customs House at the time but is today the Federal Hall National Memorial."><img alt="View in Wall Street from Corner of Broadway, 1867. The building on the left was the U.S. Customs House at the time but is today the Federal Hall National Memorial." height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wall_street_1867.jpg" src="../../images/227/22742.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22742.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View in Wall Street from Corner of Broadway, <!--del_lnk--> 1867. The building on the left was the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Customs House at the time but is today the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Hall National Memorial.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> name of the street derives from the fact that during the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a>, it formed the northern boundary of the <!--del_lnk--> New Amsterdam settlement. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1640s basic picket and plank fences denoted plots and residences in the colony. Later, on behalf of the <!--del_lnk--> West India Company, <!--del_lnk--> Peter Stuyvesant, in part using African slaves, led the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> in the construction of a stronger stockade. By the time war had developed with the English, a strengthened 12 foot wall of timber and earth was created by <!--del_lnk--> 1653 fortified by <!--del_lnk--> palisades. The wall was created, and strengthened over time, as a defense against attack from various Indian tribes, <!--del_lnk--> New England colonists, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a>. In 1685 surveyors laid out Wall Street along the lines of the original stockade. The wall was dismantled by the British in <!--del_lnk--> 1699.<p>In the late <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a>, there was a <!--del_lnk--> buttonwood tree at the foot of Wall Street under which <!--del_lnk--> traders and <!--del_lnk--> speculators would gather to trade informally. In 1792, the traders formalized their association with the <!--del_lnk--> Buttonwood Agreement. This was the origin of the <!--del_lnk--> New York Stock Exchange.<p>In 1889, the original stock report, <i>Customers' Afternoon Letter</i>, became the <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Wall_Street_Journal.htm" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a></i>, named in reference to the actual street, it is now an influential international daily business <a href="../../wp/n/Newspaper.htm" title="Newspaper">newspaper</a> published in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York, New York">New York City</a>. For many years, it had the widest <!--del_lnk--> circulation of any newspaper in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, although it is currently second to <i><!--del_lnk--> USA Today</i>. It is owned by <!--del_lnk--> Dow Jones & Company.<p><a id="Decline_and_revitalization" name="Decline_and_revitalization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Decline and revitalization</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Manhattan <!--del_lnk--> Financial District is one of the largest business districts in the United States, and second in New York City only to <!--del_lnk--> Midtown. In the late <!--del_lnk--> 19th and early <!--del_lnk--> 20th centuries, the corporate culture of New York was a primary centre for the construction of skyscrapers (rivaled only by <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>). The Financial District, even today, actually makes up a distinct skyline of its own, separate from but not soaring to quite the same heights as its <!--del_lnk--> midtown counterpart a few miles to the north.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22743.jpg.htm" title="September 16, 1920: a bomb exploded in front of the headquarters of J.P. Morgan Inc. at 23 Wall Street, killing 40 and injuring 300 people."><img alt="September 16, 1920: a bomb exploded in front of the headquarters of J.P. Morgan Inc. at 23 Wall Street, killing 40 and injuring 300 people." height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg" src="../../images/227/22743.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22743.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> September 16, 1920: <!--del_lnk--> a bomb exploded in front of the headquarters of <!--del_lnk--> J.P. Morgan Inc. at 23 Wall Street, killing 40 and injuring 300 people.</div>
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<p>Built in 1914, 23 Wall Street was known as the "<!--del_lnk--> House of Morgan" and for decades the bank's headquarters was the most important address in American finance. At noon, on <!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1920, a bomb exploded in front of the bank, killing 40 and injuring 400. Shortly before the bomb went off a warning note was placed in a mailbox at the corner of Cedar Street and Broadway. The warning read: <i>Remember we will not tolerate any longer. Free the political prisoners or it will be sure death for all of you. American Anarchists Fighters.</i> While theories abound about who was behind the <!--del_lnk--> Wall Street bombing and why they did it, after twenty years investigating the matter, the <a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" title="FBI">FBI</a> rendered the file inactive in 1940 without ever finding the perpetrators.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:253px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22744.jpg.htm" title="A solemn crowd gathers outside the NYSE after the crash."><img alt="A solemn crowd gathers outside the NYSE after the crash." height="349" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Crowd_outside_nyse.jpg" src="../../images/227/22744.jpg" width="251" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22744.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A solemn crowd gathers outside the <!--del_lnk--> NYSE after the crash.</div>
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<p>1929 brought the "<!--del_lnk--> Great Crash" of the stock market, ushering in the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression. During this era, new development of the Financial District had stagnated. The construction of the <!--del_lnk--> World Trade Centre was one of the few major projects undertaken during the last three quarters of the 20th Century and, financially, it was never terribly successful. Some point to the fact that it was actually a government-funded project, constructed by the <!--del_lnk--> Port Authority of <!--del_lnk--> New York and <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey with the intention of spurring economic development in downtown. All the tools necessary to international trade were to be housed in the complex. However, at the beginning much of the space remained vacant.<p>Nonetheless, some large and powerful firms did purchase space in the World Trade Center. Further, it attracted other powerful businesses to the immediate neighborhood. In some ways, it could be argued that the World Trade Center changed the nexus of the Financial District from Wall Street to the Trade Center complex. When the World Trade Centre was destroyed in the <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>, it left somewhat of an architectural void as new developments since the 1970s had played off the complex aesthetically. The attacks, however, contributed to the loss of business on Wall Street, due to temporary-to-permanent relocation to New Jersey and further decentralization with establishments transferred to cities like Chicago and Boston.<p>Wall Street itself and the Financial District as a whole are crowded with highrises by any standard of measure. Further, the loss of the World Trade Center has actually spurred development in the Financial District on a scale that hasn't been seen in decades. This is in part due to tax incentives provided by the federal, state and local governments to encourage development. A new World Trade Centre complex, centered on <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Liebeskind's <!--del_lnk--> Memory Foundations plan, is in the early stages of development and one building has already been replaced. The centerpiece to this plan is the 1,776-foot tall <!--del_lnk--> Freedom Tower. New residential buildings are already sprouting up, and buildings that were previously office space are being converted to residential units, also benefiting from the tax incentives. Better access to the Financial District is planned in the form of a new commuter rail station and a new downtown transportation centre centered on <!--del_lnk--> Fulton Street.<p><a id="Wall_Street_today" name="Wall_Street_today"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wall Street today</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22745.jpg.htm" title="View up Wall Street from Pearl Street"><img alt="View up Wall Street from Pearl Street" height="262" longdesc="/wiki/Image:View_of_Wall_Street.jpg" src="../../images/227/22745.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22745.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View up Wall Street from Pearl Street</div>
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<p>To say that a <a href="../../wp/c/Corporation.htm" title="Corporation">corporation</a> is a "Wall Street company" today does not necessarily mean that the company is physically located on Wall Street. It more likely means that the firm deals with <!--del_lnk--> financial services; such a firm could be headquartered in many places across the globe. Today, much of Wall Street's workforce tends to be made up of professionals working in the fields of law or finance who work for medium- to large-sized corporations. Many of the nearby businesses are local companies and chain stores that cater to the tastes of professionals and to the needs of the workforce. Most people who work in the Financial District commute in from suburbs in <!--del_lnk--> Long Island, <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey, and the northern <!--del_lnk--> Hudson Valley.<p>Wall Street's culture is often criticized as being rigid. This is a decades-old stereotype stemming from the Wall Street's establishment's protection of their interests, and the link to the <!--del_lnk--> WASP <!--del_lnk--> establishment. More recent criticism has centered on structural problems and lack of a desire to change well-established habits. Wall Street's establishment resists government oversight and regulation. At the same time, New York City has a reputation as a very bureaucratic city, which makes entry into the neighbourhood difficult or even impossible for middle class entrepreneurs. Finally, the New York Stock Exchange itself remains the last great holdout where trading is done entirely on the floor rather than electronically. There is, ironically, no longer really any need for Wall Street the institution to be located on Wall Street the street, except perhaps for prestige. Stocks could easily be traded almost anywhere.<p>Since the founding of the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Reserve <!--del_lnk--> banking system, the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Reserve Bank of New York in the Financial District has been the point where <!--del_lnk--> monetary policy in the United States is implemented (although it's decided in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> by the Federal Reserve Bank's Board of Governors). As such, New York State is today unique in that it's the only state that constitutes its own district of the Federal Reserve Banking system. This is perhaps partly owed to population distribution in the United States of the time, however. Until the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s, New York was the most populated state in the U.S.; it now ranks third, behind <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Texas. The NY Federal Reserve's president is the only regional Bank president with a permanent vote and is traditionally selected as its vice chairman. The bank has a gold vault 80 feet (25 m) beneath the street. This depository is the largest in the world, larger even than <!--del_lnk--> Fort Knox.<p><a id="Buildings" name="Buildings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Buildings</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22746.jpg.htm" title="Federal Hall, Wall Street."><img alt="Federal Hall, Wall Street." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Federal_Hall_NYC1.jpg" src="../../images/227/22746.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22746.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Federal Hall, Wall Street.</div>
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<p>Wall Street's architecture is generally rooted in the <!--del_lnk--> Gilded Age, though there are also some <!--del_lnk--> art deco influences in the neighbourhood. Landmark buildings on Wall Street include <!--del_lnk--> Federal Hall, and the <!--del_lnk--> New York Stock Exchange at the corner of <!--del_lnk--> Broad Street.<p><a id="Personalities" name="Personalities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Personalities</span></h2>
<p>Over the years, certain persons associated with Wall Street have become famous, even legendary. Although their reputation is usually limited to members of the <!--del_lnk--> stock brokerage/<!--del_lnk--> banking community, several have gained national and international fame. Some earned their fame for their investment strategies, financing, reporting, legal or regulatory skills, while others are remembered for their greed. One of the most iconic representations of the market prosperity is the <i><!--del_lnk--> Charging Bull</i> sculpture, by <!--del_lnk--> Arturo Di Modica. Representing the <!--del_lnk--> bull market economy, the sculpture was originally placed in front of the <!--del_lnk--> New York Stock Exchange, and subsequently moved to its current location in <!--del_lnk--> Bowling Green.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Cultural_influence" name="Cultural_influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural influence</span></h2>
<p><a id="Wall_Street_vs._Main_Street" name="Wall_Street_vs._Main_Street"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wall Street vs. Main Street</span></h3>
<p>As a figure of speech contrasted to "<!--del_lnk--> Main Street," the term "Wall Street" can refer to big business interests against those of small business and the working or middle class. It is sometimes used more specifically to refer to research analysts, shareholders, and/or financial institutions such as investment banks. The idea of "Main Street" conjures images up small town and <!--del_lnk--> suburban single-family homes and <!--del_lnk--> small businesses. While the phrase "Wall Street" is commonly used interchangeably with the phrase "<!--del_lnk--> Corporate America", it is also sometimes used in contrast to distinguish between the interests, culture, and lifestyles of investment banks and those of <!--del_lnk--> Fortune 500 industrial or service corporations.<p><a id="Perceptions" name="Perceptions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Perceptions</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22747.png.htm" title="Trinity church from Wall Street."><img alt="Trinity church from Wall Street." height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Trinitychurch.png" src="../../images/227/22747.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22747.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Trinity church from Wall Street.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Gilded Age architecture and culture of the time gave rise to many modern stereotypes about corporate culture that exist to this day, at least in the United States. Some of these stereotypes can perhaps be said to have existed well beyond their time. Mentioning Wall Street of years past conjures up images of <!--del_lnk--> White Anglo-Saxon Protestant businessmen seated around mahogany <!--del_lnk--> boardroom tables <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco_smoking.htm" title="Tobacco smoking">smoking</a> <!--del_lnk--> cigars and discussing their holdings and making backroom deals. To <a href="../../wp/t/Trade_union.htm" title="Trade union">labor unions</a>, small businesses all over the country and the world, and even to the <!--del_lnk--> middle class, Wall Street culturally could easily serve as a symbol of aloofness to the concerns of every day people.<p>The older skyscrapers often were built with elaborate facades; such elaborate aesthetics haven't been common in corporate architecture for decades. The <!--del_lnk--> World Trade Centre, built in the 1970s, was very plain and <!--del_lnk--> utilitarian in comparison (the <!--del_lnk--> Twin Towers were often criticized as looking like two big boxes, despite their impressive height).<p>
<br /> Wall Street, more than anything, represents financial and economic power. To Americans, Wall Street can sometimes represent elitism and power politics and cut-throat capitalism, but it also stirs feelings of pride about the market economy. Wall Street, despite the inevitable corruption, became the symbol of a country and economic system that many Americans see as having developed not through colonialism and plunder, but through trade, capitalism, and innovation.<p><a id="In_literature_and_popular_culture" name="In_literature_and_popular_culture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In literature and popular culture</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Herman Melville's classic short story <i><!--del_lnk--> Bartleby the Scrivener</i> is subtitled <i>A Story of Wall Street</i> and provides an excellent portrayal of a kind and wealthy lawyer's struggle to reason with that which is unreasonable as he is pushed beyond his comfort zone to "feel" something real for humanity.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> William Faulkner's <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> The Sound and the Fury</i>, Jason Compson hits on other perceptions of Wall Street: after finding some of his stocks are doing poorly, he blames the <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jews">Jews</a>.<p>Wall Street was the subject of a 1970s pop song, <i>"Wall Street Shuffle"</i> by <!--del_lnk--> 10cc.<p>The film <i><!--del_lnk--> Wall Street</i> exemplifies many popular conceptions of Wall Street, being a tale of shady corporate dealings and insider trading.<p>In <i><!--del_lnk--> Godzilla</i> , <!--del_lnk--> Godzilla walks down Wall Street after stomping through <!--del_lnk--> Fulton Fish Market.<p>In the <i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Trek.htm" title="Star Trek">Star Trek</a></i> universe, the <!--del_lnk--> Ferengi, an ultra-capitalist race of <!--del_lnk--> extraterrestrials, regularly make religious pilgrimages to Wall Street (as it exists in that universe), since they value similar traits in other species.<p><a id="Similar_institutions" name="Similar_institutions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Similar institutions</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22748.jpg.htm" title="Wall Street Sign"><img alt="Wall Street Sign" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wall_Street.JPG" src="../../images/227/22748.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22748.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wall Street Sign</div>
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<p>The financial clout of Wall Street is most rivaled only by:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>'s "<!--del_lnk--> Square Mile," the financial heart of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a><li><a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>'s financial institutions</ul>
<p>Smaller international rivals include:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/m/Mumbai.htm" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, Dalal Street<li><a href="../../wp/f/Frankfurt.htm" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, nicknamed "Mainhattan" (for Manhattan on the river Main) because it is the centre of the German Economy and has many <!--del_lnk--> highrise buildings<li><!--del_lnk--> Sand Hill Road in <!--del_lnk--> Menlo Park, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>, is the heart of the <!--del_lnk--> venture capital industry.<li><!--del_lnk--> Makati City (the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>' financial centre)<li><!--del_lnk--> Avenida Paulista, <a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>, the economic <!--del_lnk--> hub of South America<li><!--del_lnk--> I.I Chundrigar Road, <!--del_lnk--> Dhaka - Known as "The Wall Street of <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>"</ul>
<p>In North America, the nearest rivals are:<ul>
<li>commodity exchange markets in <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Illinois, USA, most notably the <!--del_lnk--> Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the CME is listed on the <!--del_lnk--> New York Stock Exchange)<li>Historically, the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Stock Exchange in <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco was the major exchange on the <!--del_lnk--> West Coast, although it has been replaced entirely by electronic trading<li><!--del_lnk--> Bay Street in <a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ontario, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> (Canada's financial heart)</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wallaby</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Wallabies</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14382.jpg.htm" title="Red-necked Wallaby"><img alt="Red-necked Wallaby" height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red-necked-Wallaby.jpg" src="../../images/143/14382.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Red-necked Wallaby</small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Infraclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Marsupialia<br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Diprotodontia<br />
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<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Macropodiformes<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Macropodidae<br /><small>in part</small></td>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14383.jpg.htm" title="Ancient aboriginal rock painting of a wallaby in Kakadu National Park in Northern Australia."><img alt="Ancient aboriginal rock painting of a wallaby in Kakadu National Park in Northern Australia." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rock-painting-wallaby.jpg" src="../../images/143/14383.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14383.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ancient <!--del_lnk--> aboriginal <!--del_lnk--> rock painting of a wallaby in <!--del_lnk--> Kakadu National Park in Northern Australia.</div>
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<p>A <b>wallaby</b> (sometimes spelled <b>wallabee</b> or <b>whallabee</b>, though these are generally considered misspellings) is any of about thirty species of <!--del_lnk--> macropod (Family Macropodidae). Essentially, a wallaby is any macropod that isn't large enough to be considered a <a href="../../wp/k/Kangaroo.htm" title="Kangaroo">kangaroo</a> and has not been given some other name. There is no fixed dividing line. In general, a wallaby is smaller and has a stockier build than a kangaroo; a <!--del_lnk--> wallaroo is any of a few species somewhat intermediate in size between a wallaby and a kangaroo. Very small forest-dwelling wallabies are known as <!--del_lnk--> pademelons (genus <i>Thylogale</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> dorcopsises (genera <i><!--del_lnk--> Dorcopsis</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Dorcopsulus</i>). The name <i>wallaby</i> comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Eora Aboriginal tribe who were the original inhabitants of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> area. Young wallabies are known as "<!--del_lnk--> joeys", like many other <!--del_lnk--> marsupials.<p>Wallabies are widely distributed across <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, particularly in more remote, heavily timbered, or rugged areas, less so on the great semi-arid plains that are better suited to the larger, leaner, and more fleet-footed kangaroos. A small colony of <!--del_lnk--> introduced wallabies can also be found near <!--del_lnk--> Waimate in southern <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<p>Wallabies are not a distinct biological group. Nevertheless they fall into several broad categories. Typical wallabies of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Macropus</i> genus, like the <!--del_lnk--> Agile Wallaby (<i>Macropus agilis</i>), and the <!--del_lnk--> Red-necked Wallaby (<i>Macropus rufogriseus</i>) are most closely related to the kangaroos and wallaroos and, size aside, look very similar. These are the ones most frequently seen, particularly in the southern states.<p><!--del_lnk--> Rock wallabies (genus <i>Petrogale</i>), rather like the <a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" title="Goat">goats</a> of the northern hemisphere, specialise in rugged terrain and have modified feet designed to grip rock with skin friction rather than dig into soil with large claws. There are at least fifteen species and the relationship between several of them is poorly understood. Several are endangered. Captive rock wallaby breeding programs like the one at <!--del_lnk--> Healesville Sanctuary have had some success and a small number have recently been released into the wild.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Banded Hare-Wallaby (<i>Lagostrophus fasciatus</i>) is thought to be the last remaining member of the once-numerous subfamily Sthenurinae, and although once common across southern Australia, is now restricted to two islands off the Western Australian coast which are free of introduced predators. It is not as closely related to the other <!--del_lnk--> hare wallabies (genus <i>Lagorchestes</i>) as the hare wallabies are to the other wallabies.<p><!--del_lnk--> New Guinea, which was until fairly recent geological times part of mainland Australia, has at least five species of wallaby.<p>Additionally, a small wild population of wallabies is known to exist in <!--del_lnk--> Hawai'i, in the upper regions of Kalihi Valley of the island of <!--del_lnk--> Oahu.<!--del_lnk--> This colony arose from an escape of zoo specimens of <!--del_lnk--> Brush-tailed Rock Wallaby (<i>Petrogale penicillata</i>) in 1916.<p>A number of wallaby breeding colonies in other parts of the world have been established at times in the past, but only one proved viable. The two principal populations were those of the island of <!--del_lnk--> Inchconnachan in <!--del_lnk--> Loch Lomond, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and in the <a href="../../wp/p/Peak_District.htm" title="Peak District">Peak District</a> of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. The Peak District population was established in around 1940 by five escapees from a local zoo and lasted until at least 1993. At its peak the population reached a peak of around fifty individuals. The Loch Lomond population was deliberately established in 1975 and unmanaged has achieved a viable population of around 28. Restricted to the island of Inchconnachan there are occasional escapes to the mainland when the loch freezes over. Other populations in the United Kingdom that for some periods bred successfully included one near Teighmouth, <!--del_lnk--> Devon, another in the <!--del_lnk--> Ashdown Forest, <!--del_lnk--> East Sussex and one on the island of Bute and Lundy.<p>
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</script><a id="Species" name="Species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14384.jpg.htm" title="A mother wallaby with a young one in the Tasmanian summer rain."><img alt="A mother wallaby with a young one in the Tasmanian summer rain." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wallabies-mother-and-son.jpg" src="../../images/143/14384.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14384.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A mother wallaby with a young one in the <!--del_lnk--> Tasmanian summer rain.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14385.jpg.htm" title="A mother wallaby with her child by side of the road in the Cradle Mountain area. The young one is, probably, too big to fit in the pouch completely now."><img alt="A mother wallaby with her child by side of the road in the Cradle Mountain area. The young one is, probably, too big to fit in the pouch completely now." height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wallabies-mother-and-child-under-the-road-sign.jpg" src="../../images/143/14385.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14385.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A mother wallaby with her child by side of the road in the <!--del_lnk--> Cradle Mountain area. The young one is, probably, too big to fit in the pouch completely now.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14386.jpg.htm" title="A wallaby at Gondwana Rainforest Sanctuary."><img alt="A wallaby at Gondwana Rainforest Sanctuary." height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wallaby-at-Gondwana.jpg" src="../../images/143/14386.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14386.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A wallaby at <!--del_lnk--> Gondwana Rainforest Sanctuary.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14387.jpg.htm" title="Two wallabies (one grey, one white) at home in England."><img alt="Two wallabies (one grey, one white) at home in England." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PICT0005-1-.jpg" src="../../images/143/14387.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14387.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Two wallabies (one grey, one white) at home in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.</div>
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<p>As mentioned above, the term <i>wallaby</i> is ill-defined and can mean just about any macropod of moderate size. In consequence, the listing below is arbitrary and taken from the complete list of <!--del_lnk--> macropods.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Banded Hare-wallaby, <i>Lagostrophus fasciatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Brown Dorcopsis, <i>Dorcopsis muelleri</i><li><!--del_lnk--> White-striped Dorcopsis, <i>Dorcopsis hageni</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Black Dorcopsis, <i>Dorcopsis atrata</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Gray Dorcopsis, <i>Dorcopsis luctuosa</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Small Dorcopsis, <i>Dorcopsulus vanheurni</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Macleay's Dorcopsis, <i>Dorcopsulus macleayi</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Lake Mackay Hare-wallaby, <i>Lagorchestes asomatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Spectacled Hare-wallaby, <i>Lagorchestes conspicillatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Rufous Hare-wallaby, <i>Lagorchestes hirsutus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Eastern Hare-wallaby, <i>Lagorchestes leporides</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Agile Wallaby, <i>Macropus agilis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Black-striped Wallaby, <i>Macropus dorsalis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Tammar Wallaby, <i>Macropus eugenii</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Toolache Wallaby, <i>Macropus greyii</i> (extinct)<li><!--del_lnk--> Western Brush Wallaby, <i>Macropus irma</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Parma Wallaby: <i>Macropus parma</i> (rediscovered, thought extinct for 100 years)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pretty-faced Wallaby: <i>Macropus parryi</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Red-necked Wallaby: <i>Macropus rufogriseus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Bridled Nail-tail Wallaby, <i>Onychogalea fraenata</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Crescent Nail-tail Wallaby, <i>Onychogalea lunata</i> (extinct)<li><!--del_lnk--> Northern Nail-tail Wallaby, <i>Onychogalea unguifera</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Short-eared Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale brachyotis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Monjon, <i>Petrogale burbidgei</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Nabarlek, <i>Petrogale concinna</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Proserpine Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale persephone</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Rothschild's Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale rothschildi</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Yellow-footed Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale xanthopus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Allied Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale assimilis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Cape York Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale coenensis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Godman's Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale godmani</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Herbert's Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale herberti</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Unadorned Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale inornata</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Black-flanked Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale lateralis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Mareeba Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale mareeba</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Brush-tailed Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale penicillata</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Purple-necked Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale purpureicollis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Mt. Claro Rock-wallaby, <i>Petrogale sharmani</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Tasmanian Pademelon, <i>Thylogale billardierii</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Brown's Pademelon, <i>Thylogale browni</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Dusky Pademelon, <i>Thylogale brunii</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Calaby's Pademelon, <i>Thylogale calabyi</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Mountain Pademelon, <i>Thylogale lanatus</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Red-legged Pademelon, <i>Thylogale stigmatica</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Red-necked Pademelon, <i>Thylogale thetis</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Swamp Wallaby or Black Wallaby, <i>Wallabia bicolor</i></ul>
<p><a id="Fictional_Wallabies" name="Fictional_Wallabies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fictional Wallabies</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Rocko from <!--del_lnk--> Rocko's Modern Life.</ul>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Australia's national <!--del_lnk--> rugby union team is known as <!--del_lnk--> The Wallabies and uses a green wallaby on a yellow background as its logo.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallaby"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wallis and Futuna</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Oceania_Australasia.htm">Geography of Oceania (Australasia)</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
<tr>
<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>Territoire des îles Wallis et Futuna</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
<tr>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14392.png.htm" title="Flag of Wallis and Futuna"><img alt="Flag of Wallis and Futuna" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Wallis_and_Futuna.svg" src="../../images/143/14388.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14389.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Wallis and Futuna"><img alt="Coat of arms of Wallis and Futuna" height="106" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wallis_and_Futuna_coa.png" src="../../images/143/14389.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: n/a</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> La Marseillaise</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14390.png.htm" title="Location of Wallis and Futuna"><img alt="Location of Wallis and Futuna" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationWallisAndFutuna.png" src="../../images/143/14390.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mata-Utu<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 13°20′S 176°20′W</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> <font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>Uvean, <!--del_lnk--> Futunan</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><small><!--del_lnk--> Overseas territory of France</small></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jacques Chirac</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Administrateur supérieur</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Xavier de Furst</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - President of the Territorial Assembly</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Patalione Kanimoa</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Kings<br /><small>(traditionally three)</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Tomasi Kulimoetoke II,<br /> king of <!--del_lnk--> Uvea since 1959<br /><!--del_lnk--> Soane Patita Maituku,<br /> king of <!--del_lnk--> Tu´a (Alo) since 2002<br /><!--del_lnk--> Visesio Moeliku,<br /> king of <!--del_lnk--> Sigave since 2004</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Non-sovereign</th>
<td>(overseas territory) </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 264 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 211th)<br /> 102 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - July 2005 estimate</td>
<td>15,480 (<!--del_lnk--> 219th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2003 census</td>
<td>14,944</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>77/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 112th)<br /> 199/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2004 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$60 million (<!--del_lnk--> <small>not ranked</small>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$ 3,800 (<!--del_lnk--> <small>not ranked</small>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2003)</th>
<td>n/a (<small>unranked</small>) (<!--del_lnk--> <small>unranked</small>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CFP franc (<code><!--del_lnk--> XPF</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+12)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .wf</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+681</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Wallis and Futuna</b>, officially the <b>Territory of Wallis and Futuna Islands</b> (<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>: <i>Wallis et Futuna</i> or <i>Territoire des îles Wallis et Futuna</i>), is composed of two separate groups with three main <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> <!--del_lnk--> tropical <!--del_lnk--> islands, which are separated 260 km:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Wallis Islands (Uvea), in the north <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Wallis Island (Uvea)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Hoorn Islands (Futuna Islands), in the south <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Futuna<li><!--del_lnk--> Alofi</ul>
</ul>
<p>They are located in the <!--del_lnk--> South Pacific between <a href="../../wp/f/Fiji.htm" title="Fiji">Fiji</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Samoa.htm" title="Samoa">Samoa</a>. Since 2003 Wallis and Futuna has been a <!--del_lnk--> French overseas collectivity (<i><!--del_lnk--> collectivité d'outre-mer</i>, or <i>COM</i>). Between <!--del_lnk--> 1961 and <!--del_lnk--> 2003, it had the status of a French overseas territory (<i><!--del_lnk--> territoire d'outre-mer</i>, or <i>TOM</i>).<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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//]]>
</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Although they were discovered by the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> and the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">British</a> in the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th</a> and <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th</a> centuries, it was the French who were the first Europeans to settle in the territory, with the arrival of French <!--del_lnk--> missionaries in <!--del_lnk--> 1837, who converted the population to <!--del_lnk--> Catholicism. Wallis is named after the <!--del_lnk--> Cornish explorer <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Wallis.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1842, they asked for the protection of France after the rebellion of a part of the local population. On <!--del_lnk--> April 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1887, the queen of <!--del_lnk--> Uvea (on the island of Wallis) signed a treaty officially establishing a French <!--del_lnk--> protectorate. The kings of <!--del_lnk--> Sigave and <!--del_lnk--> Tu´a (Alo) on the islands of Futuna and Alofi also signed a treaty establishing French protectorate on <!--del_lnk--> February 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1888. The islands were put under the authority of the <!--del_lnk--> French colony of <a href="../../wp/n/New_Caledonia.htm" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1917, the three traditional chiefdoms were annexed to France and turned into the Colony of Wallis and Futuna, still under the authority of the Colony of <a href="../../wp/n/New_Caledonia.htm" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1959, the inhabitants of the islands voted to become a French overseas territory, effective in <!--del_lnk--> 1961, thus ending their subordination to New Caledonia.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>The territory is divided into three traditional chiefdoms (<i><!--del_lnk--> royaumes coutumiers</i>): <!--del_lnk--> Uvea, on the island of Wallis, <!--del_lnk--> Sigave, on the western part of the island of Futuna, and <!--del_lnk--> Tu´a (Alo), on the island of Alofi and on the eastern part of the island of Futuna:<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Chiefdom</th>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">Capital</a></th>
<th>Area<br /> (km<sup>2</sup>)</th>
<th>Population<br /><!--del_lnk--> Census 2003</th>
<th>Villages</th>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #eeeeee;">
<td align="center" colspan="5"><b><!--del_lnk--> Wallis Islands</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> `Uvea (Wallis)<sup>(1)</sup></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Matā<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>utu</td>
<td align="right">77.5</td>
<td align="right">10071</td>
<td align="right">23</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #eeeeee;">
<td align="center" colspan="5"><b><!--del_lnk--> Hoorn Islands</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sigave (Singave)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Leava</td>
<td align="right">30.0</td>
<td align="right">1880</td>
<td align="right">6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tu`a (Alo)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mala'e</td>
<td align="right">85.0</td>
<td align="right">2993</td>
<td align="right">9</td>
</tr>
<tr style="background: #dddddd;">
<td>Wallis and Futuna</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Matā<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>utu</td>
<td align="right">192.5</td>
<td align="right">14944</td>
<td align="right">38</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><sup>(1)</sup> further subdivided into three districts: <!--del_lnk--> Hanake, <!--del_lnk--> Hihifo, and <!--del_lnk--> Mua.<p>The capital of the territory is <!--del_lnk--> Matā<font face="Lucida Sans Unicode">ʻ</font>utu on the island of Wallis, the most populated island. As a territory of France, it is governed under the <!--del_lnk--> French constitution of <!--del_lnk--> September 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1958, uses the <!--del_lnk--> French legal system, and suffrage is universal for those over 18 years of age. The French president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the high administrator is appointed by the French president on the advice of the <!--del_lnk--> French Ministry of the Interior; the presidents of the Territorial Government and the Territorial Assembly are elected by the members of the assembly.<p>The head of state is President <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Chirac of France as represented by High Administrator <!--del_lnk--> Xavier de Furst (since <!--del_lnk--> January 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2005). The head of government is President of the Territorial Assembly <!--del_lnk--> Patalione Kanimoa (since <!--del_lnk--> January 2001. The Council of the Territory consists of three kings (kings of the three traditional chiefdoms) and three members appointed by the high administrator on the advice of the Territorial Assembly.<p>The legislative branch consists of the unicameral Territorial Assembly or <i><!--del_lnk--> Assemblée territoriale</i> of 20 seats; the members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. Wallis and Futuna elects one senator to the <!--del_lnk--> French Senate and one deputy to the <!--del_lnk--> French National Assembly.<p>Justice is generally administered under <!--del_lnk--> French law by a tribunal of first instance in Mata-Utu, but the three traditional chiefdoms administer justice according to <!--del_lnk--> customary law (only for non-criminal cases). The court of appeal is in <!--del_lnk--> Nouméa, New Caledonia.<p>The territory participates in the <!--del_lnk--> Franc Zone, and <!--del_lnk--> Secretariat of the Pacific Community.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:312px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14391.png.htm" title="Orthographic projection centred over Wallis and Futuna Islands"><img alt="Orthographic projection centred over Wallis and Futuna Islands" height="309" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Orthographic_projection_centred_over_Wallis_and_Futuna_Islands.png" src="../../images/143/14391.png" width="310" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14391.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Orthographic projection centred over Wallis and Futuna Islands</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Wallis and Futuna is located about two-thirds of the way from <!--del_lnk--> Hawaii to <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 13°18′S 176°12′W</span>.<p>The territory includes the island of Wallis (the most populated), the island of Futuna, the uninhabited island of Alofi (the population of Alofi was reportedly eaten by the <!--del_lnk--> cannibal people of Futuna in one single raid in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>), and 20 uninhabited islets, totaling 274 square kilometres (106 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi) with 129 kilometres (80 <!--del_lnk--> mi) of coastline. The highest point in the territory is <!--del_lnk--> Mont Singavi (on the island of Futuna) at 765 metres (2,510 <!--del_lnk--> ft).<p>The islands have a hot, rainy season from November to April and a cool, dry season from May to October. The rains accumulate 2,500 to 3,000 millimeters (98–118 <!--del_lnk--> in) each year. The average humidity is 80% and the temperature 26.6°C (79.9°<!--del_lnk--> F).<p>Only five percent of the islands' land area is <a href="../../wp/a/Arable_land.htm" title="Arable land">arable land</a>; permanent crops cover another 20%. <!--del_lnk--> Deforestation (only small portions of the original forests remain), largely as a result of the continued use of wood as the main fuel source, is a serious problem; as a consequence of cutting down the forests, the mountainous terrain of Futuna is particularly prone to <!--del_lnk--> erosion. There are no permanent settlements on Alofi because of the lack of natural fresh water resources.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>The territory's economy is limited to traditional subsistence agriculture, with about 80% of the labor force earning its livelihood from agriculture (<a href="../../wp/c/Coconut.htm" title="Coconut">coconuts</a> and vegetables), livestock (mostly pigs), and fishing. About 4% of the population is employed in government. Revenues come from French Government subsidies, licensing of fishing rights to <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, import taxes, and remittances from expatriate workers in New Caledonia.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> gross domestic product had in <!--del_lnk--> 1995 a <!--del_lnk--> purchasing power parity of about $28.7 million total, about $2,000 per capita. The territory takes in about $20 million per year in revenues against about $17 million in expenditures.<p>Industries include <!--del_lnk--> copra, handicrafts, fishing, and lumber. Agricultural products include <!--del_lnk--> breadfruit, <!--del_lnk--> yams, <!--del_lnk--> taro, <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">bananas</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Pig.htm" title="Pig">pigs</a>, and <a href="../../wp/d/Domestic_goat.htm" title="Goat">goats</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> 1995, about $370,000 worth of commodities (<!--del_lnk--> copra, <!--del_lnk--> breadfruit, <!--del_lnk--> yams, <!--del_lnk--> taro roots, handicrafts) were exported, and about $13.5 million worth of commodities (foodstuffs, manufactured goods, transportation equipment, fuel, clothing) were imported, primarily from <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.<p>The territory uses the <!--del_lnk--> CFP Franc, along with the French territories of New Caledonia and <a href="../../wp/f/French_Polynesia.htm" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a>; the <!--del_lnk--> CFP franc (XPF) is fixed vs. the <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">euro</a>, at the rate of 1,000 XPF = 8.38 euro.<p>Banking: In 1991, BNP Nouvelle Calédonie established a subsidiary, Banque de Wallis et Futuna, in the territory. Two years earlier Banque Indosuez had closed its branch at Mata-Utu, leaving the territory without any bank.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>The total population of the territory at the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 census was 14,944 (67.4% on the island of Wallis, 32.6% on the island of Futuna), the vast majority of <!--del_lnk--> Polynesian ethnicity, with a small minority of French descent. More than 16,000 Wallisians and Futunians live as expatriates in <a href="../../wp/n/New_Caledonia.htm" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a>, which is more than the total population of Wallis and Futuna. The overwhelming majority of the people in Wallis and Futuna are <!--del_lnk--> Catholic. They speak both <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Wallisian or <!--del_lnk--> Futunian, the indigenous <!--del_lnk--> Polynesian languages. However, French is only spoken by 10% of the population as a first language. Half the total population (both men and women) age 15 and over can read and write.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<p>The culture of those islands is typically Polynesian. Most notably, the <!--del_lnk--> Music of Wallis and Futuna has a rich tradition.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Kailao, often thought of as a <a href="../../wp/t/Tonga.htm" title="Tonga">Tongan</a> war dance was imported to <a href="../../wp/t/Tonga.htm" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> from 'Uvea.<p><a id="Transportation_and_communications" name="Transportation_and_communications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation and communications</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1994, the territory had 1,125 telephones in use, had one AM radio station, and two television broadcast stations.<p>The island of Wallis has about 100 kilometers (62 mi) of highway, 16 paved, while the island of Futuna has only 20 kilometers (12.5 mi), none of it paved. The territory has two main ports and harbors, <!--del_lnk--> Leava (on the island of Futuna), and Mata-Utu, that support its <!--del_lnk--> merchant marine fleet consisting of three ships totaling 92,060 GRT or 45,881 DWT: two passenger ships and a petroleum tanker. There are two airports, one with a paved runway about 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) long, one with a 1,000-meter (3,300 ft) unpaved strip.<p>The only commercial flights that go to Wallis are operated by the New Caledonia based <!--del_lnk--> Aircalin. There is an Aircalin office in Mata-Utu on Wallis. There are no commercial boat operators.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallis_and_Futuna"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Walrus</b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14393.jpg.htm" title="The Pacific Walrus"><img alt="The Pacific Walrus" height="156" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Walrus.jpg" src="../../images/143/14393.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>The Pacific Walrus</small></div>
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
</th>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2255.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_LC.svg" src="../../images/22/2255.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least concern (LR/lc)</div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carnivora<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Caniformia<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Superfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pinnipedia<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Odobenidae</b><br /><small>Allen, 1880</small></td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Odobenus</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Brisson, 1762</small></td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>O. rosmarus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Odobenus rosmarus</b></i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758)</small></td>
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<center>Subspecies</center>
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<p><i>O. rosmarus rosmarus</i><br /><i>O. rosmarus divergens</i></td>
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<p><b>Walruses</b> (from <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i>wal</i> meaning "shore", and <i>r(e)us</i> meaning "giant") are large semi-aquatic <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> that live in the cold <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">Arctic</a> seas of the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Hemisphere. Two subspecies exist: the Atlantic, <i>Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus</i>, and the Pacific, <i>Odobenus rosmarus divergens</i>. The Pacific walrus is slightly larger, with males weighing up to 1,800 kg (4,000 lb), but Atlantic males top out at 1,600 kg (3,500 lb). The walrus should not be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> elephant seal, another large <!--del_lnk--> pinniped.<p>Walruses are members of the <!--del_lnk--> order <!--del_lnk--> Carnivora and <!--del_lnk--> suborder (or alternatively <a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Superfamily">superfamily</a>) <!--del_lnk--> Pinnipedia. They are the only members in the <!--del_lnk--> family <b>Odobenidae</b>. The compound <i><b>Odobenus</b></i> comes from <i>odous</i> (Greek for "tooth") and <i>baino</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek for "walk"), based on observations of walruses using their tusks to pull themselves out of the water. <i>Divergens</i> in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> means "turning apart", referring to the tusks.<p>
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</script><a id="Life_cycle" name="Life_cycle"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life cycle</span></h2>
<p>Walruses spend about half their time in the water and half their time on beaches or ice floes, where they gather in large herds. They may spend several days at a time either on land or in the sea. Diving to depths of 90 m (300 ft), they sometimes stay under for as long as a half hour. In the sea they sometimes catch fish, but generally graze along the sea bottom for clams which they suck from the shell. Abrasion patterns of the tusks show that the tusks are dragged through the sediment but are not used to dig up prey. Walruses can also spit jets of water to look for clams. Clams and mollusks form a large part of their diet. Large male walruses have been observed to attack seals if they cannot find any other food source.<p>Walruses mate in the water and give birth on land or ice floes. Breeding season is in mid-winter. The males show off in the water for the females who view them from pack ice. Males compete with each other aggressively for this display-space; the winners in these fights breed with large numbers of females. Older male walruses frequently bear large scars from these bloody but rarely fatal battles. After fertilization the egg remains dormant for several months, then a gestation period of 11 months follows. When a calf is born, it is over 1 m (3 ft) long and able to swim. Birth takes place on the pack ice; the calf nurses for about 2 years and spends 3 to 5 years with its mother. Females mature at about 6 years, males at 9 or 10. A walrus lives about 50 years.<p>Walruses have only three natural enemies: humans, <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">orca</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> polar bear. Polar bears hunt walruses by rushing at them, trying to get the herd to flee, then picking off calves or other stragglers. Walruses have been known to kill polar bears. The walruses use their long tusks (elongated <!--del_lnk--> canines) for fighting and for display.<p><a id="Population" name="Population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population</span></h2>
<p><a id="Pacific" name="Pacific"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pacific</span></h3>
<p>About 200,000 Pacific walruses exist. Pacific walruses spend the summer north of the <!--del_lnk--> Bering Strait in the <!--del_lnk--> Chukchi Sea along the north shore of eastern <!--del_lnk--> Siberia, around <!--del_lnk--> Wrangel Island, in the <!--del_lnk--> Beaufort Sea along the north shore of <!--del_lnk--> Alaska, and in the waters between those locations.<p>Smaller numbers of males summer in the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of Anadyr on the south shore of the <!--del_lnk--> Chukchi Peninsula of Siberia and in Bristol Bay off the south shore of southern Alaska west of the <!--del_lnk--> Alaska Peninsula.<p>In the spring and fall they congregate in the Bering Strait, adjacent to the west shores of Alaska, and in the Gulf of Anadyr. They winter to the south in the Bering Sea along the eastern shore of Siberia south to the northern part of the <!--del_lnk--> Kamchatka Peninsula, and along the southern shore of Alaska.<p><!--del_lnk--> Alaska Natives slaughter about 3,000 walruses annually. Humans use ivory from the tusks for carving. The natives call the <!--del_lnk--> penis bone of male an <i><!--del_lnk--> oosik</i> and use it in making knives. Federal laws in both the USA and in Canada protect walruses and set quotas on the yearly harvest. Only under rare circumstances may non-native hunters gain permission to kill a walrus legally. The law prohibits the export of raw tusks from Alaska, but walrus-ivory products may come on the market if first sculpted into <!--del_lnk--> scrimshaw by a native craftsman. Commercial auction sites such as <!--del_lnk--> eBay make a large selection of "pre-ban" walrus ivory available.<p><a id="Atlantic" name="Atlantic"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Atlantic</span></h3>
<p>About 15,000 Atlantic walruses exist: they live in the Canadian Arctic, in the waters of <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, of <a href="../../wp/s/Svalbard.htm" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a> and of the western portion of the Russian Arctic. The Atlantic walrus once enjoyed a range that extended south to <!--del_lnk--> Cape Cod and occurred in large numbers in the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf of St. Lawrence.<p><a id="The_walrus_in_popular_culture" name="The_walrus_in_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The walrus in popular culture</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Western culture, fiction often depicts the species—with its plump body, bushy mustache, and peacefully sleepy expression—as a happy, lovable and friendly animal, and its appearance may be interpreted as somewhat comical.<p><a id="In_literature_and_music" name="In_literature_and_music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In literature and music</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Farley Mowat's book <i><!--del_lnk--> Sea of Slaughter</i> has a large section dedicated to the effects of hunting on eastern Canada's walrus population.<li><!--del_lnk--> Lewis Carroll's famous <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poem">poem</a> "<!--del_lnk--> The Walrus and the Carpenter" inspired the 1967 song "<!--del_lnk--> I Am the Walrus" by <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>. In the song <!--del_lnk--> John Lennon is "the Walrus". However, in order to deliberately confuse his fans, Lennon sings in the later song "<!--del_lnk--> Glass Onion" that "the Walrus was Paul". In the solo song "God," Lennon sings "I was the Walrus, but now, I'm John."<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Walrus</i> is a Canadian news magazine.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Salman Rushdie's children's book <i><!--del_lnk--> Haroun and the Sea of Stories</i>, The Walrus is the name of the imposing Grand Controller of Gup.<li><i>Walrus</i> is also the name of Captain Flint's ship in <!--del_lnk--> Robert Louis Stevenson's <i><a href="../../wp/t/Treasure_Island.htm" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a></i>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Sam Allardyce, the manager of English football team <!--del_lnk--> Bolton Wanderers is often nicknamed Walrus, due to his uncanny physical resemblance to the creature.</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Savoonga, Alaska calls itself the "Walrus Capital of the World".<li>Walruses are among the only mammals in the world that do not process liquid waste via a <!--del_lnk--> bladder organ. Once digested, liquid waste is absorbed through the lining of the <!--del_lnk--> small intestine and secreted through the <!--del_lnk--> skin.<li>A male walrus's penis is completely internal, however it has one of the largest <!--del_lnk--> bacula (penis bones) of the animal kingdom.</ul>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Cartoons.htm">Cartoons</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Producers_directors_and_media_figures.htm">Producers, directors and media figures</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><big>Walt Disney</big></th>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/129/12916.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Walt_disney_portrait.jpg" src="../../images/129/12916.jpg" width="178" /></a></span></div>
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<div style="line-height:1.25em;">Walt Disney</div>
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<th align="right">Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1901<br /><a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Illinois, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a></td>
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<th style="text-align:right;">Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1966<br /><a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a></td>
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<th style="text-align:right;">Occupation</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Film producer, Co-founder of <!--del_lnk--> The Walt Disney Company</td>
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<th style="text-align:right;">Spouse</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lillian Disney</td>
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<p><b>Walter Elias Disney</b> (<!--del_lnk--> December 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1901 – <!--del_lnk--> December 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1966), was an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> film producer, <!--del_lnk--> director, <!--del_lnk--> screenwriter, <!--del_lnk--> voice actor, <!--del_lnk--> animator, <!--del_lnk--> entrepreneur, <!--del_lnk--> visionary, and <!--del_lnk--> philanthropist. He was the son of <!--del_lnk--> Flora and <!--del_lnk--> Elias Disney, and had three brothers and one sister. As the co-founder (with his brother <!--del_lnk--> Roy O. Disney) of Walt Disney Productions, Walt became one of the best-known <!--del_lnk--> motion picture producers in the world. The corporation he co-founded, now known as <!--del_lnk--> The Walt Disney Company, today has annual revenues of approximately U.S. $30 billion.<p>Walt Disney is particularly noted for being a film producer, and a popular showman, as well as an innovator in <a href="../../wp/a/Animation.htm" title="Animation">animation</a> and <!--del_lnk--> theme park design. He was nominated for 48 <!--del_lnk--> Academy awards and 7 <!--del_lnk--> Emmys, holding the record for most Oscar nominations. He also had two daughters, Diane and Sharon; Sharon was adopted. He and his staff created a number of the world's most famous productions, including the one many consider Disney's <!--del_lnk--> alter ego, <!--del_lnk--> Mickey Mouse. He is also well-known as the namesake of the <!--del_lnk--> Disneyland and <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney World Resort theme parks in the United States.<p>Walt Disney died of <a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a> on <!--del_lnk--> December 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1966, a few years prior to the opening of his <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney World dream project in <!--del_lnk--> Orlando, Florida.<p>
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</script><a name="1901-1937:_The_beginnings"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">1901-1937: The beginnings</span></h2>
<p><a id="Childhood" name="Childhood"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Childhood</span></h3>
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<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12918.jpg.htm" title="Disney as an ambulance driver during the war."><img alt="Disney as an ambulance driver during the war." height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Walt01.jpg" src="../../images/129/12918.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12918.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Disney as an ambulance driver during the war.</div>
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<p>Walt Disney's ancestors had emigrated from <!--del_lnk--> Gowran, <!--del_lnk--> County Kilkenny in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. His father <!--del_lnk--> Elias Disney had moved to the United States after his parents failed at farming in Canada. As a child Elias moved with his family all around the United States, as his father chased various business ventures. He also worked as a mailman in <!--del_lnk--> Kissimmee (Orlando), Florida, future home of Walt Disney World. Elias moved to <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> in the late 1800s soon after his marriage to Flora Call. Walt was born in Chicago.<p>In April, 1906 Elias grew disenchanted with the violence in Chicago and moved his family to <!--del_lnk--> Marceline, Missouri where his brother owned property. There he bought a house and 45 acres of farmland. While in Marceline, Disney developed his love for drawing. One of their neighbors, a retired doctor named "Doc" Sherwood, paid him to draw pictures of Sherwood's horse, Rupert. He also developed his love for trains in Marceline, which owed its existence to the <!--del_lnk--> Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway which ran through town. Walt would put his ear to the tracks in anticipation of the coming train. Then he would look for his uncle, engineer Michael Martin, running the train.<p>The Disneys remained in Marceline for four years, moving to <!--del_lnk--> Kansas City in 1910. There Walt and his sister Ruth attended the Benton Grammar School where he met Walter Pfeiffer. The Pfeiffers were theatre aficionados and introduced Walt to the world of vaudeville and motion pictures. Soon Walt was spending more time at the Pfeiffers than at home. <p><a id="Chicago" name="Chicago"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Chicago</span></h3>
<p>In 1917, Elias purchased an interest in the O-Zell jelly factory in <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> and moved his family back there. In the fall, Disney began his freshman year at <!--del_lnk--> McKinley High School there and began taking night courses at the <!--del_lnk--> Chicago Art Institute. Disney was the cartoonist for the school newspaper. His cartoons were very patriotic, focusing on <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Disney dropped out of high school at 16 so he could join the <!--del_lnk--> Army, but the army didn't take him because he was too young.<p>Instead, Walt and one of his friends decided to join the Red Cross. They were supposed to be 17 years old to join but, against his father's will, his mother forged Walt's birth certificate saying he was born in 1900 instead of 1901. The Red Cross sent him to France for a year. During that year, he drove an ambulance covered from top to bottom with his imaginative Disney characters.<p>He moved to Kansas City to begin his artistic career. His brother Roy worked at a bank in the area and got a job for him through a friend at the Pesmen-Rubin Art Studio. At Pesmen-Rubin, Disney made ads for newspapers, magazines, and movie theaters. It was also there that he met a shy cartoonist named <!--del_lnk--> Ubbe Iwwerks. The two respected each other's work so much, they became fast friends and decided to start their own art business.<p>Disney and Iwerks (who now shortened his name to Ub Iwerks) formed a company called "Iwerks-Disney Commercial Artists" in January 1920 (it was originally called Disney-Iwerks, but the two thought they would be confused with a shop that made eyeglasses). Unfortunately, few clients were willing to hire the inexperienced duo. Iwerks left temporarily to earn money at Kansas City Film Ad Company. Disney followed suit after the business venture was taken over by his New York financial backers Winkler and Mintz.<p><a id="Hollywood" name="Hollywood"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Hollywood</span></h3>
<p>When Disney arrived in <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles, he had $40 in his pocket and an unfinished cartoon in his suitcase. Interestingly, he first wanted to break away from animation, thinking he could not compete with the studios in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>. Disney said that his first ambition was to be a film director. He went to every studio in town looking for directing work; they all promptly turned him down.<p>Because of the lack of success in live-action film, Disney turned back to animation. His first Hollywood cartoon studio was a garage in his uncle Robert's house. Disney sent an unfinished print to New York distributor <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Winkler, who promptly wrote back to him. She wanted a distribution deal with Disney for more live-action/animated shorts based upon <i>Alice's Wonderland</i>.<p>Disney looked up his brother Roy, who was recovering from <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> in a <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles veteran's hospital. Disney pleaded with his brother to help him with his fledgling studio, saying that he could not keep his finances straight without him. Roy agreed and left the hospital with his brother. He never went back and never had a recurrence of tuberculosis. <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Davis (the live-action star of <i>Alice’s Wonderland</i>) and her family were relocated at Disney's request from Kansas City to <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood, as were Iwerks and his family. This was the beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Disney Brothers' Studio. It was located on Hyperion Avenue in <!--del_lnk--> the Silver Lake district, where the studio would remain until 1939.<p>In 1925, Disney hired a young woman named <!--del_lnk--> Lillian Bounds to ink and paint celluloid. He was immediately taken with her. She began to pull double duty as secretary a few months later. Disney then began to take her out on dates, their first being the <!--del_lnk--> Broadway show, <i><!--del_lnk--> No, No, Nanette</i>. He would also take her out on drives in the hills of <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a>. On one drive, he asked her if he should buy a new car or a ring for her finger. They were married on <!--del_lnk--> July 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1925. She later jokingly commented that he was disappointed that she did not tell him to buy the car. They honeymooned at <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Rainier.htm" title="Mount Rainier">Mount Rainier</a>.<p><a id="Alice_Comedies" name="Alice_Comedies"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Alice Comedies</span></h4>
<p>The new series, "<!--del_lnk--> Alice Comedies," was reasonably successful, and featured both <!--del_lnk--> Dawn O'Day and <!--del_lnk--> Margie Gay as Alice after Virginia Davis’ parents pulled her out of the series because of a pay cut. Lois Hardwick also briefly assumed the role. By the time the series ended in 1927, the focus was more on the animated characters, in particular a cat named Julius who recalled <a href="../../wp/f/Felix_the_Cat.htm" title="Felix the Cat">Felix the Cat</a>, rather than the live-action Alice.<p><a id="Oswald_the_Lucky_Rabbit" name="Oswald_the_Lucky_Rabbit"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Oswald the Lucky Rabbit</span></h4>
<p>By 1927, <!--del_lnk--> Charles B. Mintz had married Margaret Winkler and assumed control of her business, and ordered a new all-animated series to be put into production for distribution through <!--del_lnk--> Universal Pictures. The new series, "<!--del_lnk--> Oswald the Lucky Rabbit", was an almost instant success, and the Oswald character, first drawn and created by Iwerks, became a popular property. The Disney studio expanded, and Walt hired back Harman, Ising, Maxwell, and Freleng from Kansas City.<p>In February of 1928, Disney went to <!--del_lnk--> New York to negotiate a higher fee per short from Mintz. Disney was shocked when Mintz announced that not only did he want to reduce the fee he paid Disney per short, but that he had most of his main animators, including Harman, Ising, Maxwell, and Freleng (notably excepting Iwerks) under contract and would start his own studio if Disney did not accept the reduced production budgets. Universal, not Disney, owned the Oswald trademark, and could make the films without Disney.<p>Disney declined Mintz's offer and lost most of his animation staff. The defectors became the nucleus of the <!--del_lnk--> Winkler Studio, run by Mintz and his brother-in-law <!--del_lnk--> George Winkler. When that studio went under after Universal assigned production of the Oswald shorts to an in-house division run by <!--del_lnk--> Walter Lantz, Mintz focused his attentions on the studio making the "<a href="../../wp/k/Krazy_Kat.htm" title="Krazy Kat">Krazy Kat</a>" shorts, which later became <!--del_lnk--> Screen Gems, and Harman, Ising, Maxwell, and Freleng marketed an Oswald-like character named <!--del_lnk--> Bosko to <!--del_lnk--> Leon Schlesinger and <!--del_lnk--> Warner Bros., and began work on the first entries in the <i><a href="../../wp/l/Looney_Tunes.htm" title="Looney Tunes">Looney Tunes</a></i> series.<p>It took Disney's company 78 years to get back the rights to the Oswald character. In a move that sent sports broadcaster <!--del_lnk--> Al Michaels to <!--del_lnk--> NBC Sports for their Sunday night <!--del_lnk--> NFL coverage, the <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney Company reacquired the rights to Oswald the Lucky Rabbit from <!--del_lnk--> NBC Universal in 2006.<p><a id="Mickey_Mouse" name="Mickey_Mouse"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Mickey Mouse</span></h4>
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<p>After having lost the rights to Oswald, Disney had to develop a new "star". Most Disney biographies state that Disney came up with a mouse character on his trip back from New York. It is debated whether it was he, or Iwerks who actually designed the mouse (which basically looked like Oswald, but with round instead of long ears). The first films were animated by Iwerks, his name was prominently featured on the title cards. The mouse was originally named "Mortimer", but later christened "<!--del_lnk--> Mickey Mouse" by Lillian Disney.<p>Mickey's first animated short produced was <i><!--del_lnk--> Plane Crazy</i>, which was, like all of Disney's previous works, a <a href="../../wp/s/Silent_film.htm" title="Silent film">silent film</a>. After failing to find distributor interest in <i><!--del_lnk--> Plane Crazy</i> or its follow-up, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Gallopin' Gaucho</i>, Disney created a Mickey cartoon with <!--del_lnk--> sound called <i><!--del_lnk--> Steamboat Willie</i>. A businessman named <!--del_lnk--> Pat Powers provided Disney with both distribution and <!--del_lnk--> Cinephone, a sound-<!--del_lnk--> synchronization process. <i>Steamboat Willie</i> became a success, and <i>Plane Crazy</i>, <i>The Galloping Gaucho</i>, and all future Mickey cartoons were released with soundtracks. Disney himself provided the vocal effects for the earliest cartoons and performed as the <!--del_lnk--> voice of Mickey Mouse until 1946. Disney believed Mickey would make it far into television.<p><a id="Silly_Symphonies" name="Silly_Symphonies"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Silly Symphonies</span></h4>
<p>Joining the Mickey Mouse series in 1929 were a series of musical shorts called <i><!--del_lnk--> Silly Symphonies</i>. The first of these was entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> The Skeleton Dance</i> and was entirely drawn and animated by Iwerks, who was also responsible for drawing the majority of cartoons released by Disney in 1928 and 1929. Although both series were successful, the Disney studio was not seeing its rightful share of profits from Pat Powers, and in 1930 Disney signed a new distribution deal with <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Pictures.<p>Iwerks was growing tired of the temperamental Disney, especially as he was doing the majority of the work, and so was lured by Powers into opening his own studio with an exclusive contract. Disney desperately searched for someone who could replace Iwerks, as he was not able to draw as well or as quickly; Iwerks was reported to have drawn up to 700 drawings a day for the first Mickey shorts.<p>Meanwhile, Iwerks launched his successful <i><!--del_lnk--> Flip the Frog</i> series with the first sound cartoon in colour, "Fiddlesticks," filmed in two-strip Technicolor. Iwerks also created two other series of cartoons, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Willie Whopper</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Comicolor</i> cartoon series. Iwerks closed his <!--del_lnk--> studio in 1936 to work on various projects dealing with animation technology. Iwerks would return to Disney in 1940 and, in the studio's research and development department, would go on to pioneer a number of film processes and specialized animation technologies.<p>Eventually, Disney was able to find a number of people to replace Iwerks. By 1932, Mickey Mouse had become quite a popular cartoon character. The <!--del_lnk--> Van Beuren cartoon studio attempted to cash in on this success by creating a specific process, making these the first commercial films presented in this new process. The first colour <i>Symphony</i> was <i><!--del_lnk--> Flowers and Trees</i>, which won the first <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons in 1932.<p>Mickey Mouse also known as Steamboat Willie was stolen from Buster Keaton's Steamboat Bill.<p><a id="First_Academy_Award" name="First_Academy_Award"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">First Academy Award</span></h3>
<p>In 1932, Disney received a special <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for the creation of Mickey Mouse, whose series was moved into colour in 1935 and soon launched <!--del_lnk--> spinoff series for supporting characters such as <a href="../../wp/d/Donald_Duck.htm" title="Donald Duck">Donald Duck</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Goofy, and <!--del_lnk--> Pluto.<p><a id="The_family_grows" name="The_family_grows"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The family grows</span></h3>
<p>As Mickey's co-creator and producer, Disney was almost as famous as his mouse cartoon character, but remained a largely private individual. His greatest hope was to be a father to many children. However, the Disneys' first attempts at pregnancy ended in miscarriage. This, coupled with pressures at the studio, led to Disney having "a hell of a breakdown", as he called it. His doctors said that he had to get away for a while, so he and his wife went on a <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean cruise and then traveled to <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a><p>When Lilly Disney became pregnant again, Disney told his sister in a letter that he did not care what gender the child was, just as long as they were not disappointed again. Lilly finally gave birth to a daughter, <!--del_lnk--> Diane Marie Disney, on <!--del_lnk--> December 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1933. Disney was excited to finally have a child. A few years later the Disneys adopted a second daughter, <!--del_lnk--> Sharon Mae Disney, born on <!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1934.<p><a name="1937-1941:_The_Golden_Age_of_Animation"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">1937-1941: The Golden Age of Animation</span></h2>
<p><a name=".22Disney.27s_Folly.22:_Snow_White_and_the_Seven_Dwarfs"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">"Disney's Folly": <i>Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</i></span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12920.jpg.htm" title="Disney introduces his popular creations: Mickey, Minnie Mouse and Pluto to Hansel and Gretel (Dorothy Rodin and Virginia Murray)."><img alt="Disney introduces his popular creations: Mickey, Minnie Mouse and Pluto to Hansel and Gretel (Dorothy Rodin and Virginia Murray)." height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Walt_Disney22.jpg" src="../../images/129/12920.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12920.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Disney introduces his popular creations: Mickey, Minnie Mouse and Pluto to <!--del_lnk--> Hansel and Gretel (<!--del_lnk--> Dorothy Rodin and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Murray).</div>
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<p>Although his studio produced the two most successful cartoon series in the industry, the returns were still dissatisfying to Disney, and he began plans for a full-length feature in 1934. When the rest of the film industry learned of Disney's plans to produce an <i>animated</i> feature-length version of <!--del_lnk--> Snow White, they dubbed the project "Disney's Folly" and were certain that the project would destroy the Disney studio. Both Lillian and Roy tried to talk Disney out of the project, but he continued plans for the feature. He employed <!--del_lnk--> Chouinard Art Institute professor Don Graham to start a training operation for the studio staff, and used the <i>Silly Symphonies</i> as a platform for experiments in realistic human animation, distinctive character animation, special effects, and the use of specialized processes and apparatus such as the <!--del_lnk--> multiplane camera.<p>All of this development and training was used to elevate the quality of the studio so that it would be able to give the feature the quality Disney desired. <i><!--del_lnk--> Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</i>, as the feature was named, was in full production from 1935 until mid-1937, when the studio ran out of money. To acquire the funding to complete <i>Snow White</i>, Disney had to show a rough cut of the motion picture to loan officers at the <!--del_lnk--> Bank of America, who gave the studio the money to finish the picture. The finished film premiered at the Carthay Circle Theatre on <!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1937; at the conclusion of the film the audience gave <i>Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</i> a standing ovation. <i>Snow White</i>, the first animated feature in English and Technicolor, was released in February 1938 under a new distribution deal with <!--del_lnk--> RKO Radio Pictures. The film became the most successful motion picture of 1938 and earned over $8 million (today $98 million) in its original theatrical release, all the more amazing because children were only charged a dime to see it. The success of <i>Snow White</i> (for which Disney received one full-size, and seven miniature Oscar statuettes) allowed Disney to build a new campus for the <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney Studios in <!--del_lnk--> Burbank, which opened for business on <!--del_lnk--> December 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1939. The feature animation staff, having just completed <i><!--del_lnk--> Pinocchio</i>, continued work on <i><!--del_lnk--> Fantasia</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Bambi</i>, while the shorts staff continued work on the Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto cartoon series, ending the <i>Silly Symphonies</i> at this time.<p><a id="Wartime_Woes" name="Wartime_Woes"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Wartime Woes</span></h3>
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Pinocchio</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Fantasia</i> followed <i><!--del_lnk--> Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs</i> into movie theatres in 1940, but both were financial disappointments. The inexpensive <i><!--del_lnk--> Dumbo</i> was planned as an income generator, but during production of the new film, most of the animation staff <!--del_lnk--> went on strike, permanently straining the relationship between Disney and his artists.<p>Shortly after <i><!--del_lnk--> Dumbo</i> was released in October 1941 and became a successful moneymaker, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> entered <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Army contracted for most of the Disney studio's facilities and had the staff create training and instructional films for the military, as well as home-front morale-boosting shorts such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Der Fuehrer's Face</i> and the feature film <i><!--del_lnk--> Victory Through Air Power</i> in 1943. The military films did not generate income, however, and the feature film <i><!--del_lnk--> Bambi</i> underperformed when it was released in April 1942. Disney successfully re-issued <i>Snow White</i> in 1944, establishing a 7-year re-release tradition for Disney features. (The pattern was not always strictly followed - Disney's version of <!--del_lnk--> Jules Verne's <i><!--del_lnk--> 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea</i> was first re-released in 1963, nine years after its first run in movie theatres, and Disney's financially disappointing and critically drubbed version of <i><!--del_lnk--> Babes in Toyland</i>, went straight to television after its theatrical run, and never re-appeared in movie theatres.)<p>The Disney studios also created inexpensive package films, containing collections of cartoon shorts, and issued them to theaters during this period. The most notable and successful of these were <i><!--del_lnk--> Saludos Amigos</i> (1942), its sequel <i><!--del_lnk--> The Three Caballeros</i> (1945), <i><!--del_lnk--> Song of the South</i> (the first Disney film to feature dramatic actors) (1946), <i><!--del_lnk--> Fun and Fancy Free</i> (1947), and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad</i> (1949). The latter had only two sections: the first based on <i><!--del_lnk--> The Legend of Sleepy Hollow</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Washington Irving, and the second based on <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wind in the Willows</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Grahame.<p>By the late 1940s, the studio had recovered enough to continue production on the full-length features <i><!--del_lnk--> Alice in Wonderland</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Peter Pan</i>, which had been shelved during the war years, and began work on <i><!--del_lnk--> Cinderella</i>. The studio also began a series of live-action nature films, entitled <i>True-Life Adventures</i>, in 1948 with <i>On Seal Island</i>.<p><a id="Testimony_before_Congress" name="Testimony_before_Congress"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Testimony before Congress</span></h3>
<p>After the 1941 strike of Disney Studio employees, Walt Disney deeply distrusted organized labor. In 1947, during the early years of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>,<!--del_lnk--> he testified before the <!--del_lnk--> House Un-American Activities Committee, where he branded <!--del_lnk--> Herbert Sorrell, <!--del_lnk--> David Hilberman and <!--del_lnk--> William Pomerance, former animators and <a href="../../wp/t/Trade_union.htm" title="Trade union">labor union</a> organizers, as <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communist">Communist</a> agitators. (All three men denied the allegations.) Disney implicated the <!--del_lnk--> Screen Actors Guild as a Communist front, and charged that the 1941 strike was part of an organized Communist effort to gain influence in Hollywood.<p><a name="1955-1966:_Theme_Parks_and_beyond"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">1955-1966: Theme Parks and beyond</span></h2>
<p><a id="Carolwood_Pacific_Railroad" name="Carolwood_Pacific_Railroad"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Carolwood Pacific Railroad</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17822.jpg.htm" title="The Lilly Belle on display at Disneyland Main Station in 1993. The caboose's woodwork was done entirely by Walt himself."><img alt="The Lilly Belle on display at Disneyland Main Station in 1993. The caboose's woodwork was done entirely by Walt himself." height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LillybelleDland.jpg" src="../../images/178/17822.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/178/17822.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Lilly Belle on display at Disneyland Main Station in 1993. The caboose's woodwork was done entirely by Walt himself.</div>
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<p>During 1949, Disney and his family moved to a new home on a large piece of property in the <!--del_lnk--> Holmby Hills district of <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>. With the help of his friends <!--del_lnk--> Ward and Betty Kimball, owners of their own <!--del_lnk--> backyard railroad, Disney developed the blueprints and immediately set to work creating a miniature <!--del_lnk--> live steam railroad for his backyard. The name of the railroad, <!--del_lnk--> Carolwood Pacific Railroad, originated from the address of his home that was located on Carolwood Drive. The railroad's half-mile long layout included a 46-foot-long trestle, loops, overpasses, gradients, an elevated dirt berm, and a 90-foot tunnel underneath Mrs. Disney's flowerbed. He named the miniature working steam locomotive built by <!--del_lnk--> Roger E. Broggie of the <!--del_lnk--> Disney Studios <i>Lilly Belle</i> in his wife's honour. He had his attorney draw up right-of-way papers giving the railroad a permanent, legal easement through the garden areas, which his wife dutifully signed; however, there is no evidence the documents were ever recorded as a restriction on the property's title.<p><a id="Planning_Disneyland" name="Planning_Disneyland"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Planning Disneyland</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="The "Partners" statue at Disneyland in Anaheim, featuring Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Waltdisneystatue-disneyland.jpg" src="../../images/20/2081.jpg" width="250" /><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></div> The "Partners" statue at <!--del_lnk--> Disneyland in Anaheim, featuring Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse.</div>
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<p>On a business trip to <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> in the late-1940s, Disney drew sketches of his ideas for an <!--del_lnk--> amusement park where he envisioned his employees spending time with their children. He got his idea for a children's theme park after visiting <!--del_lnk--> Children's Fairyland in <!--del_lnk--> Oakland, California. This plan was originally for a lot south of the Studio, just across the street. However, the city of <!--del_lnk--> Burbank declined building permission. The original ideas developed into a concept for a larger enterprise that was to become <!--del_lnk--> Disneyland. Disney spent five years of his life developing Disneyland and created a new subsidiary of his company, called <!--del_lnk--> WED Enterprises, to carry out the planning and production of the park. A small group of Disney studio employees joined the Disneyland development project as engineers and planners, and were dubbed <!--del_lnk--> Imagineers.<p>When describing one of his earliest plans to Herb Ryman (who created the first aerial drawing of Disneyland to present to the <!--del_lnk--> Bank of America for funds), Disney said, "Herbie, I just want it to look like nothing else in the world. And it should be surrounded by a train." Entertaining his daughters and their friends in his backyard and taking them for rides on his <!--del_lnk--> Carolwood Pacific Railroad had inspired Disney to include a railroad in the plans for Disneyland.<p>Among his closest friends in his last decade of life were Bob Hannah; the trainmaster; and Lorne Cline; lead brakeman; who later regaled park guests with stories about Walt into the late 1970s &mdash Walt did not ever want to lose control of the railroad to the financial backers of Disneyland and so placed the steam train and monorail attractions into a free-standing company called "RETLAW" (which is "Walter" spelled backwards) of which he and his wife were sole owners. Prior to its dissolution into the Disney Corp in the 1980s, he (and heirs) would receive $0.60 for each person through the turnstile at the train stations and supervisors could be seen currying favour with the owner by spinning the turnstiles to increase the count (and revenues) before park opening and after closing.<p><a id="Expanding_into_new_areas" name="Expanding_into_new_areas"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Expanding into new areas</span></h3>
<p>As Walt Disney Productions began work on Disneyland, it also began expanding its other entertainment operations. <i><a href="../../wp/t/Treasure_Island.htm" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a></i> (1950) became the studio's first all-live-action feature, and was soon followed by such successes as <i><!--del_lnk--> 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea</i> (in <!--del_lnk--> CinemaScope, 1954), <i><!--del_lnk--> The Shaggy Dog</i> (1959), and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Parent Trap</i> (1961). The Walt Disney Studio was one of the first to take full advantage of the then-new medium of television, producing its first TV special, <i><!--del_lnk--> One Hour in Wonderland</i>, in 1950. Disney began hosting a <!--del_lnk--> weekly anthology series on <!--del_lnk--> ABC named <!--del_lnk--> <i>Disneyland</i> after the park, where he showed clips of past Disney productions, gave tours of his studio, and familiarized the public with Disneyland as it was being constructed in <!--del_lnk--> Anaheim, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>. In 1955, he debuted the studio's first daily television show, the popular <i><!--del_lnk--> Mickey Mouse Club</i>, which would continue in many various incarnations into the 1990s.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15807.jpg.htm" title="Walt Disney meets with Wernher von Braun."><img alt="Walt Disney meets with Wernher von Braun." height="228" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Disneyandvonbraun.jpg" src="../../images/129/12924.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15807.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Walt Disney meets with <a href="../../wp/w/Wernher_von_Braun.htm" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a>.</div>
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<p>As the studio expanded and diversified into other media, Disney devoted less of his attention to the animation department, entrusting most of its operations to his key animators, whom he dubbed the <!--del_lnk--> Nine Old Men. During Disney's lifetime, the animation department created the successful <i><!--del_lnk--> Lady and the Tramp</i> (in <!--del_lnk--> CinemaScope, 1955), <i><!--del_lnk--> One Hundred and One Dalmatians</i> (1961), the financially disappointing <i><!--del_lnk--> Sleeping Beauty</i> (in <!--del_lnk--> Super Technirama <!--del_lnk--> 70mm, 1959) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Sword in the Stone</i> (1963).<p>Production on the short cartoons had kept pace until 1956, when Disney shut down the shorts division. Special shorts projects would continue to be made for the rest of the studio's duration on an irregular basis. Disney's mind was set toward expansion, and he wanted to make longer films.<p>These productions were all distributed by Disney's new subsidiary, <!--del_lnk--> Buena Vista Distribution, which had assumed all distribution duties for Disney films from <!--del_lnk--> RKO by 1955. <!--del_lnk--> Disneyland, one of the world's first <!--del_lnk--> theme parks, finally opened on <!--del_lnk--> July 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1955, and was immediately successful. Visitors from around the world came to visit Disneyland, which contained attractions based upon a number of successful Disney properties and films. After 1955, the Disneyland TV show became known as <i>Walt Disney Presents</i>. The show went from black-and-white to colour in 1961 — changing its name to <i>Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Colour</i> — and eventually evolved into what is today known as <!--del_lnk--> <i>The Wonderful World of Disney</i>, which continued to air on <!--del_lnk--> ABC until 2005, when it ceased as a regular series, due in part to premium pay-cable rights currently held by the <!--del_lnk--> Starz! movie network. Since 2005, Disney features have been split between ABC, the <!--del_lnk--> Hallmark Channel, and <!--del_lnk--> Cartoon Network via separate broadcast rights deals. It currently airs periodically, with features such as the December 2005 revival of <i><!--del_lnk--> Once Upon a Mattress</i>.<p>During the mid-1950s, Disney produced a number of <!--del_lnk--> educational films on the space program in collaboration with <!--del_lnk--> NASA rocket designer <a href="../../wp/w/Wernher_von_Braun.htm" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a>: <i>Man in Space</i> and <i>Man and the Moon</i> in 1955, and <i>Mars and Beyond</i> in 1957. The films attracted the attention of not only the general public, but also the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet space program.<p>The TV series and book <i>Our Friend the Atom</i> (1956, together with <!--del_lnk--> Heinz Haber) were produced as part of an effort by the <!--del_lnk--> Eisenhower administration to enhance the image of nuclear energy.<p><a id="Early_1960s_successes" name="Early_1960s_successes"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Early 1960s successes</span></h3>
<p>By the early 1960s, the Disney empire was a major success, and Walt Disney Productions had established itself as the world's leading producer of family entertainment. Walt Disney was the Head of Pageantry for the <!--del_lnk--> 1960 Winter Olympics. After decades of trying, Disney finally procured the rights to <!--del_lnk--> P.L. Travers' books about a magical nanny. <i><!--del_lnk--> Mary Poppins</i>, released in 1964, was the most successful Disney film of the 1960s and featured a memorable song score written by Disney favorites, the <!--del_lnk--> Sherman Brothers. Many hailed the live-action/animation combination feature as Disney's greatest achievement. The same year, Disney debuted a number of exhibits at the <!--del_lnk--> 1964 New York World's Fair, including <!--del_lnk--> Audio-<!--del_lnk--> Animatronic figures, all of which were later integrated into attractions at Disneyland and a new theme park project to be established on the <!--del_lnk--> East Coast, which Disney had been planning ever since Disneyland opened.<p><a id="Ski_resorts" name="Ski_resorts"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Ski resorts</span></h3>
<p>Walt Disney first showed interest in <!--del_lnk--> ski resorts with his investment in <!--del_lnk--> Sugar Bowl Ski Resort in the 1930s. However, his interest was brought to a new level in the 1960s when he commissioned plans for <!--del_lnk--> Disney's Mineral King Ski Resort. Official plans for the resort were announced just months before his death. The project was eventually canceled due to heavy protest from many <!--del_lnk--> environmental organizations, most notably the <!--del_lnk--> Sierra Club. The 1970s saw yet another set of Disney plans for a ski resort, in <!--del_lnk--> Independence Lake near <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco. Like the Mineral King plans, the Independence Lake project was scrapped for many of the same reasons. There are plans for two more new ski resorts to open in 2008.<p><a name=".22Florida_Project.22"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">"Florida Project"</span></h3>
<p>In 1964, Walt Disney Productions began quietly purchasing land in central <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> southwest of <!--del_lnk--> Orlando in a largely rural area of marginal orange groves for Disney's "Florida Project." Disney did so under the mask of many fake companies, in order to keep the price of land as low as he could. As soon as the word got out that Disney was purchasing the land, however, the prices immediately rose. The company acquired over 27,000 acres (109 km²) of land, and arranged favorable state legislation which would provide unprecedented quasi-governmental control over the area to be developed in 1966, founding the <!--del_lnk--> Reedy Creek Improvement District. Disney and his brother Roy then announced plans for what they called "<!--del_lnk--> Disney World."<p><a id="Plans_for_Disney_World_and_EPCOT" name="Plans_for_Disney_World_and_EPCOT"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Plans for Disney World and EPCOT</span></h3>
<p>Disney World was to include a larger, more elaborate version of Disneyland to be called the Magic Kingdom, and would also feature a number of golf courses and resort hotels. The heart of Disney World, however, was to be the Experimental Prototype City (or Community) of Tomorrow, or <!--del_lnk--> EPCOT for short. EPCOT was designed to be an operational city where residents would live, work, and interact using advanced and experimental technology, while scientists would develop and test new technologies to improve human life and health.<p><a id="Death_of_Walt_Disney" name="Death_of_Walt_Disney"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Death of Walt Disney</span></h3>
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<p>Songwriter <!--del_lnk--> Robert B. Sherman said about the last time he saw Walt Disney:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<td>He was up in the third floor of the animation building after a run-through of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Happiest Millionaire</i>. He usually held court in the hallway afterward for the people involved with the picture. And he started talking to them, telling them what he liked and what they should change, and then, when they were through, he turned to us and with a big smile, he said, 'Keep up the good work, boys.' And he walked to his office. It was the last we ever saw of him.</td>
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<p>Disney's involvement in Disney World ended in late 1966; after many years of <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco_smoking.htm" title="Tobacco smoking">chain-smoking</a> cigarettes, he was diagnosed with <a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>. He was checked into the St. Joseph's <!--del_lnk--> Hospital across the street from the Disney Studio lot and his health began to deteriorate, causing him to suffer cardiac arrest.<p>He died on <!--del_lnk--> December 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1966 at 9:30am, ten days after his 65th birthday. He was cremated on <!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1966 at the <!--del_lnk--> Forest Lawn Cemetery in <!--del_lnk--> Glendale, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>. Roy Disney continued to carry out the Florida project, insisting that the name be changed to <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney World in honour of his brother. Roy O. Disney died just three months after the <!--del_lnk--> Magic Kingdom opened for business in 1971.<p>There has been a long-standing rumor that after his death, Disney was <!--del_lnk--> cryopreserved so he may be revived at a later date. However, this has been refuted on numerous occasions. In fact, Disney was cremated, and his ashes were interred at <!--del_lnk--> Forest Lawn Memorial Park in <!--del_lnk--> Glendale.<p>A similar rumor has sprung up that shortly after his death, top Disney executives were shown a film that Disney made shortly before his death, that basically outlines the company's strategies for the next five (or ten) years. To bolster the story, pictures (or perhaps a short clip) of Walt planning EPCOT is shown. This is also false. The footage is from a pitch film Walt made to promote the building of EPCOT. According to <!--del_lnk--> www.snopes.com, Disney really didn't like talking about death, and wouldn't even go to funerals of close friends and aunts.<p><a name="1967-present:_Legacy"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">1967-present: Legacy</span></h2>
<p><a id="Continuing_the_vision" name="Continuing_the_vision"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Continuing the vision</span></h3>
<p>Roy O. Disney returned from retirement to take full control of Walt Disney Productions and WED Enterprises. He still refused to talk about his brother, and his grief, though rarely shown to other people, lasted until his death in 1971. In October of that year, their families met in front of Cinderella's Castle at the Magic Kingdom to officially open the Walt Disney World Resort. After an orchestra made up of over 66 countries performed a medley of Disney music, Roy stepped up to the podium.<p>After giving his dedication for <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney World, he then asked Lillian Disney to join him. As the orchestra played "<!--del_lnk--> When You Wish Upon a Star", she stepped up to the podium accompanied by Mickey Mouse. He then said, "Lilly, you knew all of Walt's ideas and hopes as well as anybody; what would Walt think of it [Walt Disney World]?". "I think Walt would have approved," she replied. Roy died from a cerebral hemorrhage in December, the day he was due to open the Disneyland Christmas parade.<p>When the second phase of the Walt Disney World <!--del_lnk--> theme park was built, EPCOT was translated by Walt Disney's successors into EPCOT Centre, which opened in 1982. As it currently exists, EPCOT is essentially a living <!--del_lnk--> world's fair, a far cry from the actual functional city that Disney had envisioned. In 1992 Walt Disney Imagineering took the step closer to Walt's vision and dedicated <!--del_lnk--> Celebration, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, a town built by the Walt Disney Company adjacent to Walt Disney World, that harkens back to the spirit of EPCOT. EPCOT was also originally intended to be devoid of Disney characters which initially limited the appeal of the park to young children. The company later changed this policy. The sale of alcoholic beverages is also permitted at EPCOT, something never allowed in the Magic Kingdom.<p><a id="The_Disney_entertainment_empire" name="The_Disney_entertainment_empire"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The Disney entertainment empire</span></h3>
<p>Today, Walt Disney's animation/motion picture studios and theme parks have developed into a multi-billion dollar television, motion picture, vacation destination and media corporation that carries his name. <!--del_lnk--> The Walt Disney Company today owns, among other assets, five vacation resorts, eleven theme parks, two water parks, thirty-nine hotels, eight motion picture studios, six record labels, eleven cable television networks, and one terrestrial television network.<p><a id="Disney_Animation_today" name="Disney_Animation_today"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Disney Animation today</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Traditional hand-drawn animation, with which Walt Disney built the success of his company, no longer continues at the <!--del_lnk--> Walt Disney Feature Animation studio. After a stream of financially unsuccessful traditionally-animated features in the late-1990s and early 2000s, the two satellite studios in <!--del_lnk--> Paris and <!--del_lnk--> Orlando were closed, and the main studio in <!--del_lnk--> Burbank was converted to a computer animation production facility. In 2004, Disney released their final traditionally animated feature film, <i><!--del_lnk--> Home on the Range</i>. The <!--del_lnk--> DisneyToons studio in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, which produced lower-budget traditionally animated films, at first appeared to survive the purge, but its closing was announced in July 2005.<p>Only recently with <!--del_lnk--> Roy E. Disney's return and <!--del_lnk--> Bob Iger now the CEO and with the Disney purchase of <!--del_lnk--> Pixar Animation Studios, reviving the traditional style of animation for which Disney has been famous for is again a reality. New creative head of Disney animation, <!--del_lnk--> John Lasseter, commissioned veteran Disney animator <!--del_lnk--> James Baxter to produce an animated test sequence for Disney CEO Robert Iger in February of 2006. If approved, the film based on this test sequence, called the Frog Princess, will be released in 2007.<p><a id="CalArts" name="CalArts"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">CalArts</span></h3>
<p>Disney devoted substantial time in his later years funding <!--del_lnk--> The California Institute of the Arts (CalArts), which was formed in 1961 through a merger of the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music and the <!--del_lnk--> Chouinard Art Institute, which had helped in the training of the animation staff during the 1930s. When he died, one fourth of his estate went towards CalArts, which greatly helped the building of its campus. He also donated 38 acres (154,000 m²) of the Golden Oaks ranch in <!--del_lnk--> Valencia for the school to be built on. CalArts moved onto the Valencia campus in 1971.<p>Lillian Disney devoted much of her time after her husband died to pursuing CalArts and organized hundreds of fund raising events for the university in her late husband's honour (as well as funding the Walt Disney Symphony Hall). After Lillian's passing, the legacy continued with daughter Diane and husband Ron continuing the tradition. CalArts is one of the largest independent universities in California today, mostly because of the contributions of the Disneys.<p><a id="Academy_Awards" name="Academy_Awards"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Academy Awards</span></h2>
<p>Among many awards, Walt Disney holds the record for having the most <!--del_lnk--> Academy Awards. 22 won, and 4 honorary.<ul>
<li><b>1969</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day<li><b>1959</b> Best Short Subject, Live Action Subjects for: Grand Canyon<li><b>1956</b> Best Documentary, Short Subjects for: Men Against the Arctic<li><b>1955</b> Best Documentary, Features for: The Vanishing Prairie (1954)<li><b>1954</b> Best Documentary, Features for: The Living Desert (1953)<li>Best Documentary, Short Subjects for: The Alaskan Eskimo (1953)<li>Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Toot Whistle Plunk and Boom (1953)<li>Best Short Subject, Two-reel for: Bear Country (1953)<li><b>1953</b> Best Short Subject, Two-reel for: Water Birds (1952)<li><b>1952</b> Best Short Subject, Two-reel for: Nature's Half Acre (1951)<li><b>1951</b> Best Short Subject, Two-reel for: Beaver Valley (1950)<li><b>1949</b> Best Short Subject, Two-reel for: Seal Island (1948)<li><b>1943</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Der Fuehrer's Face (1942)<li><b>1942</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Lend a Paw (1941)<li>Honorary Award for: <i>Fantasia</i> (1940)</ul>
<p>Shared with: William E. Garity J.N.A. Hawkins For their outstanding contribution to the advancement of the use of sound in motion pictures through the production of <i>Fantasia</i> (certificate).<ul>
<li>Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award<li><b>1940</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Ugly Duckling(1939)<li><b>1939</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Ferdinand the Bull (1938)<li>Honorary Award for: <!--del_lnk--> Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)</ul>
<p>For <!--del_lnk--> Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, recognized as a significant screen innovation which has charmed millions and pioneered a great new entertainment field (one statuette - seven miniature statuettes).<ul>
<li><b>1938</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: The Old Mill (1937)<li><b>1937</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: The Country Cousin (1936)<li><b>1936</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Three Orphan Kittens (1935)<li><b>1935</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: The Tortoise and the Hare (1934)<li><b>1934</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Three Little Pigs (1933)<li><b>1932</b> Best Short Subject, Cartoons for: Flowers and Trees (1932)<li>Honorary Award For the creation of <!--del_lnk--> Mickey Mouse.</ul>
<p><a id="Other_Honors" name="Other_Honors"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Other Honours</span></h2>
<p>Walt Disney was the inaugural recipient of a star on the <!--del_lnk--> Anaheim walk of stars. The star is in honour of Walt's significant contributions to the city of <!--del_lnk--> Anaheim, California, specifically, <!--del_lnk--> Disneyland, now the <!--del_lnk--> Disneyland Resort. It is located at the pedestrian entrance to the Disneyland Resort on Harbour Boulevard.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney"</div>
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<p><b>Walter "Walt" Whitman</b> (<!--del_lnk--> May 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1819-<!--del_lnk--> March 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1892) was an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> <!--del_lnk--> poet, <!--del_lnk--> essayist, <!--del_lnk--> journalist, and <!--del_lnk--> humanist. Proclaimed the "greatest of all American poets" by many foreign observers a mere four years after his death, his works have been translated into more than 25 languages. Whitman is among the most influential and controversial poets in the American canon, his work described in 1897 as a "rude shock" and "the most audacious and debatable contribution yet made to American literature." He largely abandoned the <!--del_lnk--> metrical structures of European poetry for an expansionist <!--del_lnk--> freestyle verse—"irregular" but "beautifully rhythmic" —which represented his philosophical view that America was destined to reinvent the world as emancipator and liberator of the human spirit. As he wrote in <i>Chants Democratic</i>, "Rhymes and rhymers pass away—… America justifies itself, give it time.…"<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Whitman was born in <!--del_lnk--> West Hills, <!--del_lnk--> Huntington on <!--del_lnk--> Long Island in <!--del_lnk--> New York, second oldest of nine children of Walter Whitman and Louisa (Van Velsor) Whitman. His most famous work is <i><!--del_lnk--> Leaves of Grass</i>, which he continued to edit and revise until his death. A group of civil war poems, included within <i>Leaves of Grass</i>, is often published as an independent collection under the name of <i><!--del_lnk--> Drum-Taps.</i><p>The first versions of "Leaves of Grass" were self-published and poorly received. Several poems featured graphic depictions of the human body, enumerated in Whitman's innovative "cataloguing" style, which contrasted with the reserved <!--del_lnk--> Puritan ethic of the period. Despite its revolutionary content and structure, subsequent editions of the book evoked critical indifference in the US literary establishment. Outside the US, the book was a world-wide sensation, especially in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, where Whitman's intense humanism influenced the naturalist revolution in French letters.<p>By 1864, Walt Whitman was world famous and <i>Leaves of Grass</i> had been accepted by a publishing house in the US. Though still considered an <!--del_lnk--> iconoclast and a literary outsider, the poet's status began to grow at home. During his final years, Whitman became a respected literary vanguard visited by young artists. Several photographs and paintings of Whitman with a large beard cultivated a "Christ-figure" mystique. Whitman did not invent American <!--del_lnk--> transcendentalism, but he had become its most famous exponent and he was also associated with American <a href="../../wp/m/Mysticism.htm" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>. In the 20th century young writers such as <!--del_lnk--> Hart Crane, <!--del_lnk--> William Carlos Williams, <!--del_lnk--> Allen Ginsberg, and <a href="../../wp/j/Jack_Kerouac.htm" title="Jack Kerouac">Jack Kerouac</a> rediscovered Whitman and reinterpreted his literary manifesto for younger audiences.<p><a id="Poetry" name="Poetry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Poetry</span></h2>
<p>After losing his job as editor of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Daily Eagle</i> because of his <!--del_lnk--> abolitionist sentiment and his support of the <!--del_lnk--> free-soil movement, Whitman self-published an early edition of <i><!--del_lnk--> Leaves of Grass</i> in 1855 with <!--del_lnk--> Rome Brothers. Except for his own anonymous reviews, the early edition of the book received little attention. One exception was <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Waldo Emerson, the philosopher and essayist, who praised <i>Leaves of Grass</i> in a letter to Whitman, saying "I greet you at the beginning of a great career". Whitman republished the letter in the second edition of <i>Leaves of Grass</i> without Emerson's permission. Emerson was furious, but continued to recommend the book. A few prominent intellectuals such as <!--del_lnk--> Oliver Wendell Holmes were outwardly opposed to Whitman and found his writing's sensuality obscene. <p>It was not until 1864 that <i><!--del_lnk--> Leaves of Grass</i> found a publisher other than Whitman. After <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Interior <!--del_lnk--> James Harlan read it, he said he found it offensive and fired Whitman from his job at the <!--del_lnk--> Interior Department. The 1860 re-issue was greatly enlarged, containing two new sections, "Children of Adam" and "Calamus". This revising of <i>Leaves of Grass</i> would continue for the rest of his life, and by 1892, <i>Leaves of Grass</i> had been reissued in more than seven different versions.<p>English composers of the early 20th century, notably <a href="../../wp/g/Gustav_Holst.htm" title="Gustav Holst">Gustav Holst</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Delius, and <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Vaughan Williams, felt a strong affinity for Whitman's poetry. Williams' Symphony #1, "A Sea Symphony", uses Whitman's poems superbly, as does his "Dona Nobis Pacem".<p><a id="Political_views" name="Political_views"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Political views</span></h2>
<p>Whitman's political views generally reflected 19th-century <a href="../../wp/l/Liberalism.htm" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> free trade he stated: <i>"The spirit of the <!--del_lnk--> tariff is malevolent. It flies in the face of all American ideals. I hate it root and branch. It helps a few rich men to get rich, it helps the great mass of poor men to get poorer. I am for free trade because I am for anything that will break down the barriers between peoples. I want to see the countries all wide open."</i> A little discussed aspect of Whitman's political views is that he wrote in the Brooklyn Eagle as a staunch supporter of the <!--del_lnk--> Mexican-American War.<p><a id="American_Civil_War" name="American_Civil_War"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">American Civil War</span></h2>
<p>In December of 1862, Whitman was first exposed to the tragedy of the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> when he traveled to <!--del_lnk--> Virginia in search of his brother George who had been wounded in battle. Whitman spent several days at camp hospitals of the <!--del_lnk--> Army of the Potomac at Falmouth, VA just after the particularly bloody battle of Fredericksburg. He was so moved by the scene at the battlefield hospital that he traveled to <!--del_lnk--> Washington D.C. and spent much of the next three years working occasionally as an unofficial nurse in several army hospitals in and around the city. Whitman made a great effort to get to know wounded soldiers, bringing them small gifts and writing letters for them. He recorded his day-to-day experiences during this time and in 1875 published a volume of these journals under the title <i>Memoranda During the War</i>. This period also inspired the poem, "The Wound Dresser", which was later set to music by <!--del_lnk--> John Adams.<p>Much of <i>Memoranda During the War</i> is devoted to brief portraits of wounded and dying soldiers met during his time in the hospitals. Some of these wounded men spent their last moments of life in the company of Whitman and his prose monuments to them reveal a deeply human side of the man whose poetry often tends toward the grandiose.<p>While he eventually came to see the war as a necessary step in the moral development of the still-young nation, much of Whitman's writing from this period evinces a pessimistic uncertainty about the nation and the people that he spent his early career exalting. He mentions near the beginning of <i>Memoranda</i> that "...so much of a Race depends on what it thinks of death, and how it stands personal anguish and sickness." It is this aspect of the American character that was tested on an unprecedented scale during the Civil War and Whitman, self-appointed spokesman of the nation's soul, put himself in a position to witness and participate in the trial. Whitman was a great admirer of Lincoln and deeply mourned his death. He wrote multiple poems concerning the passing of the beloved president, including the elegy "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" and the minor but famous "<!--del_lnk--> O Captain! My Captain!"<p><a id="Later_life_and_honors" name="Later_life_and_honors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later life and honours</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12929.jpg.htm" title="Walt Whitman, 1887"><img alt="Walt Whitman, 1887" height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Walt_Whitman_edit_2.jpg" src="../../images/129/12929.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>In 1873, Whitman suffered a <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">stroke</a> while working and living in Washington, D.C. He never completely recovered, but continued to write poetry. He lived his final years at his home on Mickle Street in <!--del_lnk--> Camden, New Jersey, revising Leaves of Grass and receiving visitors including <!--del_lnk--> Oscar Wilde.<p>After his stroke, his fame grew substantially both at home and abroad. Mostly it was stimulated by several prominent British writers criticizing the American academy for not recognizing Whitman's talents. These included <!--del_lnk--> William Rossetti and <!--del_lnk--> Anne Gilchrist. At this time in his life, Whitman also had a prominent group of national and international disciples, including Canadian writer and physician <!--del_lnk--> Richard Bucke.<p>During his later years, Whitman ventured out on only two significant journeys: to <!--del_lnk--> Colorado in 1879 and to Boston to visit Emerson in 1881. Whitman died on <!--del_lnk--> March 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1892, and was buried in Camden's Harleigh Cemetery.<p>Although Whitman left Long Island at age 22, he is still much revered there and especially in his native Huntington, where a large <!--del_lnk--> shopping mall, <!--del_lnk--> high school and major road are all named in his honor. Camden and the surrounding area also honour the poet. The <!--del_lnk--> Walt Whitman Bridge spans the <!--del_lnk--> Delaware River, linking <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and southern <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey, and the <!--del_lnk--> Walt Whitman Centre at <!--del_lnk--> Rutgers Camden hosts poets, plays and other events. Additionally, a statue of Whitman can be found in the campus centre.<p><a id="Manuscripts" name="Manuscripts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Manuscripts</span></h2>
<p>An extensive collection of Walt Whitman's manuscripts is maintained in the <a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Congress.htm" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> thanks largely to the efforts of Russian immigrant <!--del_lnk--> Charles Feinberg. Feinberg preserved Whitman's manuscripts and promoted his poetry so intensely through a period when Whitman's fame largely declined that <!--del_lnk--> University of Paris-Sorbonne Professor <!--del_lnk--> Steven Asselineau claimed "for nearly half a century Feinberg was in a way Whitman's representative on earth" .<p><a id="Influence_on_later_poets" name="Influence_on_later_poets"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Influence on later poets</span></h2>
<p>Walt Whitman's influence on contemporary North American poetry is so enormous that it has been said that American poetry divides into two camps: that which naturally flows from Whitman and that which consciously strives to reject it. Whitman's great talents presented a complex paradox for the <!--del_lnk--> modernist poets <!--del_lnk--> T.S. Eliot and <a href="../../wp/e/Ezra_Pound.htm" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>, who recognized Whitman's value, but feared the implications of his influence.<p>During the height of modernism, Whitman continued to present "a problem" until he was rescued by such influential poets as William Carlos Williams and Hart Crane. Later, Allen Ginsberg and the beat poets would become the most vociferous champions of Whitman's expansive, abundant, humanistic America. Ginsberg begins his famous poem "Supermarket in California" with a reference to Walt Whitman. The hand of Whitman can be seen working in such diverse twentieth-century poets as <!--del_lnk--> John Berryman, <!--del_lnk--> Galway Kinnell, <!--del_lnk--> Langston Hughes, <!--del_lnk--> Philip Levine, <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Koch, <!--del_lnk--> James Wright, <!--del_lnk--> Joy Harjo, <!--del_lnk--> William Carlos Williams, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Oliver, and <!--del_lnk--> June Jordan, to name only a few.<p>Whitman was also revered by international poets ranging from <!--del_lnk--> Pablo Neruda to <!--del_lnk--> Rimbaud to <!--del_lnk--> Federico García Lorca to <!--del_lnk--> Fernando Pessoa.<p>Yale professor and literary critic <!--del_lnk--> Harold Bloom considers Walt Whitman to be among the five most important U.S. poets of all time (along with <!--del_lnk--> Emily Dickinson, <!--del_lnk--> Wallace Stevens, <!--del_lnk--> Hart Crane, and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Frost).<p>Whitman was also a huge influence on the English novelist and poet, <!--del_lnk--> D.H. Lawrence.<p><a id="Whitman_and_sexuality" name="Whitman_and_sexuality"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Whitman and sexuality</span></h2>
<p>Whitman's expression of sexuality ranged from his admiration for <!--del_lnk--> 19th-century ideals of <!--del_lnk--> male friendship to openly erotic descriptions of the male body, as can be readily seen in his poem "<!--del_lnk--> Song of Myself". This is in contradiction to the outrage Whitman displayed when confronted about these messages in public, praising <!--del_lnk--> chastity and denouncing <!--del_lnk--> onanism. He also long claimed to have a <!--del_lnk--> Black female <!--del_lnk--> paramour in <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans, and six illegitimate children. This story about the paramour in New Orleans has led historians on a wild goose chase. <!--del_lnk--> Jean Luc Montaigne specifies that the name of Whitman's lover was Jean Granouille, not Jeanine Granouille. This mixed-blood male was only 26 years old when he met Whitman, and was the son of a <!--del_lnk--> Huguenot preacher and a slave. Some, in order to whitewash Whitman's reputation, converted Jean into Jeanine. Having an African-American female as a lover was far more acceptable than having a partially-Black male lover. Modern scholarly opinion believes these poems reflected Whitman's true feelings towards his sexuality, but he tried to cover up his feelings in a <!--del_lnk--> homophobic culture. In "<!--del_lnk--> Once I Pass'd Through A Populous City" he changed the sex of the beloved from male to female prior to publication.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the intense comradeship at the front lines in <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, which were visited by Whitman as he searched for his wounded brother, and later in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> where he spent a huge amount of time as an unpaid <!--del_lnk--> nurse, fueled his ideas about the convergence of homosexuality and <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a>. In "<!--del_lnk--> Democratic Vistas", he begins to discriminate between <i>amative</i> (i.e., heterosexual) and <i>adhesive</i> (i.e., homosexual) love, and identifies the latter as the key to forming the community without which democracy is incomplete:<dl>
<dd><i>It is to the development, identification, and general prevalence of that fervid comradeship (the adhesive love, at least rivaling the amative love hitherto possessing imaginative literature, if not going beyond it), that I look for the counterbalance and offset of our materialistic and vulgar American democracy, and for the spiritualization thereof.</i></dl>
<p>In 1915, <!--del_lnk--> Fernando Pessoa explicitly described Whitman as being homosexual in his sensationalistic poem <i>Saudação a Walt Whitman</i>.<p>In the 1970s, the <!--del_lnk--> gay liberation movement made Whitman one of their poster children, citing the homosexual content and comparing him to <!--del_lnk--> Jean Genet for his love of young working-class men ("We Two Boys Together Clinging"). In particular the "<!--del_lnk--> Calamus" poems, written after a failed and very likely homosexual relationship, contain passages that were interpreted to represent the <!--del_lnk--> coming out of a <!--del_lnk--> gay man. The name of the poems alone would have sufficed to convey homosexual connotations to the ones in the know at the time, since the <!--del_lnk--> calamus plant is associated with <!--del_lnk--> Kalamos, a god in antique <a href="../../wp/m/Mythology.htm" title="Mythology">mythology</a> who was transformed with grief by the death of his lover, the male youth <!--del_lnk--> Karpos. In addition, the calamus plant's central characteristic is a prominent central vein that is phallic in appearance.<p>Whitman's romantic and sexual attraction towards other men is not disputed. However, whether or not Whitman had sexual relationships with men has been the subject of some critical disagreement. The best evidence is a pair of third-hand accounts attributed to fellow poets <!--del_lnk--> George Sylvester Viereck and <!--del_lnk--> Edward Carpenter, neither of whom entrusted those accounts to print themselves. Though scholars in the field have increasingly supported the view of Whitman as actively homosexual, this aspect of his personality is still sometimes omitted when his works are presented in educational settings. The love of Whitman's life may well have been <!--del_lnk--> Peter Doyle, a bus conductor whom he met around 1866. They were inseparable for several years. Interviewed in 1895, Doyle said: "We were familiar at once — I put my hand on his knee — we understood. He did not get out at the end of the trip — in fact went all the way back with me.". Whitman's love for Peter Doyle influenced his prophetic theory of comradeship.<p><a id="Onanism" name="Onanism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Onanism</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Harold Bloom in <i>The Western Canon</i> proposes that although Whitman was primarily attracted to his own sex, his primary expressions of sexuality throughout his life were onanistic and reads numerous onanistic references into <i>Leaves of Grass</i>. He writes of Whitman as one of the first Western writers to speak in praise of masturbation. This view is supported by Robert S. Frederickson in his essay "Public Onanism: Whitman's Song of Himself". Bloom's thesis – that the sexual experience Whitman celebrates was possibly merely imagined - has been ridiculed by other scholars, such as Gary Schmidgall, who view it as obtuse at best, and homophobic at worst.<p><a id="Chronology" name="Chronology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline"><b>Chronology</b></span></h2>
<ul>
<li>1819: Born on May 31.<li>1841: Moves to New York City.<li>1855: Father, Walter, dies. First edition of <i>Leaves of Grass</i>.<li>1862: Visits his brother, George, who was wounded in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Fredericksburg.<li>1865: <i>Drum-Taps</i>, Whitman's wartime poetry (later incorporated into <i>Leaves of Grass</i>), published.<li>1866: Meets Peter Doyle<li>1873: Suffers first Stroke, Moves to Camden. Mother Louisa dies.<li>1877: Meets <!--del_lnk--> Richard Maurice Bucke<li>1882: Meets <!--del_lnk--> Oscar Wilde. Publishes <i>Specimen Days & Collect</i>.<li>1888: Second stroke. Serious illness. Publishes <i>November Boughs</i>.<li>1891: Final edition of <i>Leaves of Grass</i>.<li>1892: Dies on March 26, buried Harleigh Cemetery, Camden, New Jersey.</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Selected works</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>1855 <i>Leaves of Grass</i> — 95 pages; 10-page preface, followed by 12 poems<li>1856 <i>Leaves of Grass</i> — 32 poems, with prose annexes<li>1860 <i>Leaves of Grass</i> — 456 pages; 178 poems<li>1865 <i>Drum-Taps</i><li>1865–1866 <i>Sequel to Drum-Taps</i><li>1867 <i>Leaves of Grass</i> — re-edited; adding <i>Drum-Taps</i>, <i>Sequel to Drum-Taps</i>, and <i>Songs Before Parting</i>; 6 new poems<li>1871–72 <i>Leaves of Grass</i> — adding 120 pages with 74 poems, 24 of which were new texts<li>1881–82 <i>Leaves of Grass</i> — adding 17 new poems, deleting 39, and rearranging; 293 poems total<li>1891–92 <i>Leaves of Grass</i> — no significant new material<li>Walt Whitman, et al., <i><!--del_lnk--> The Classics of Style</i>. <!--del_lnk--> The American Academic Press, 2006, includes writing advice of Whitman, as well as other authors</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Whitman"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Walter Raleigh</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_15001750.htm">British History 1500-1750</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<p><b>Sir Walter Raleigh</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 1552 or <!--del_lnk--> 1554 – <!--del_lnk--> 29 October <!--del_lnk--> 1618), is a famed <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> writer, <!--del_lnk--> poet, <!--del_lnk--> courtier and <!--del_lnk--> explorer. He was responsible for establishing the first English colony in the <!--del_lnk--> New World, on <!--del_lnk--> June 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1584, at <!--del_lnk--> Roanoke Island in present-day <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina. When the settlement failed, the ultimate fate of the colonists was never authoritatively ascertained, and it became known as <!--del_lnk--> "The Lost Colony".<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Raleigh was born in the year 1552 in the house of Hayes Barton, not far from <!--del_lnk--> Budleigh Salterton in <!--del_lnk--> Devon. He was a <!--del_lnk--> half brother of <!--del_lnk--> Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and also had a full brother named Carew Raleigh. Raleigh's family was strongly <!--del_lnk--> Protestant in religious orientation and experienced a number of near-escapes during the reign of the Catholic Queen <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" title="Mary I of England">Mary I of England</a>. In the most notable of these, Raleigh's father had to hide in a tower to avoid being killed. Thus, during his childhood, Raleigh developed a hatred of <!--del_lnk--> Catholicism, proving himself quick to express it after the Protestant <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth I</a> came to the throne in <!--del_lnk--> 1558.<p>In 1568 or 1572, he was registered as an undergraduate at <!--del_lnk--> Oriel College, <!--del_lnk--> Oxford, but does not seem to have taken up residence, and in 1575 he was registered at the <!--del_lnk--> Middle Temple. His life between these two dates is uncertain but from a reference in his <i>History of the World</i> he seems to have served with the <!--del_lnk--> French Huguenots at the <!--del_lnk--> battle of Jarnac, <!--del_lnk--> 13 March <!--del_lnk--> 1569. At his trial in 1603 he stated that he had never studied law.<p>In 1578, as captain of the ship <i>Falcon</i>, Raleigh went on an expedition with Humphrey Gilbert against the Spanish. He was also perhaps with him on an unsuccessful voyage the following year.<p><a id="Ireland" name="Ireland"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ireland</span></h2>
<p>Between 1579 and 1583, Raleigh took part in the suppression of the <!--del_lnk--> Desmond Rebellions. He was present at the siege of Smerwick, where he oversaw the slaughter of some 700 Italian soldiers after they had surrendered unconditionally. Upon the seizure and distribution of land following the attainders arising from the rebellion, Raleigh received 40,000 acres (160 km²), including the coastal walled towns of <!--del_lnk--> Youghal and <!--del_lnk--> Lismore. This made him one of the principal landowners in <!--del_lnk--> Munster, but he enjoyed limited success in inducing English tenants to settle on his <!--del_lnk--> estates.<p>During his seventeen years as an Irish landlord, Raleigh made the town of <!--del_lnk--> Youghal his occasional home, where he was mayor from 1588 to 1589. He is credited with having planted the first <a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" title="Potato">potatoes</a> in Ireland, but it is far more likely that the plant arrived in Ireland through trade with the Spanish. His town mansion, Myrtle Grove, is assumed to be the setting for the story that his servant doused him with a bucket of water after seeing clouds of smoke coming from Raleigh's pipe, in the belief he had been set alight. But this story is also told of other places related to Raleigh: the Virginia Ash inn in Henstridge near Sherborne, <!--del_lnk--> Sherborne Castle, and <!--del_lnk--> South Wraxall Manor in <!--del_lnk--> Wiltshire, home of Raleigh's friend, Sir <!--del_lnk--> Walter Long.<p>Amongst Raleigh's acquaintances in Munster was another Englishman who had been granted land there, the poet <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Spenser. In the 1590s, he and Raleigh travelled together from Ireland to the court at London, where Spenser presented part of his allegorical poem, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Faerie Queene</i>, to Elizabeth I.<p>Raleigh's management of his Irish estates ran in to difficulties, which contributed to a decline in his fortunes. In 1602, he sold the lands to <!--del_lnk--> Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. Boyle subsequently prospered under kings <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, such that following Raleigh's death, Raleigh family members approached Boyle for compensation on the basis that Raleigh had struck an improvident bargain.<p><a id="The_New_World" name="The_New_World"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The New World</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/532/53243.jpg.htm" title="Engraved portrait of Raleigh."><img alt="Engraved portrait of Raleigh." class="thumbimage" height="290" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Raleigh-Walter-Sir-LOC.jpg" src="../../images/532/53243.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/532/53243.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Engraved portrait of Raleigh.</div>
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<p>Raleigh's plan for colonization in the "<!--del_lnk--> Colony and Dominion of Virginia" (which included the present-day states of <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia) in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> ended in failure at <!--del_lnk--> Roanoke Island, but paved the way for subsequent colonies. His voyages were funded primarily by himself and his friends, never providing the steady stream of <!--del_lnk--> revenue necessary to start and maintain a colony in America. (Subsequent colonization attempts in the early <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> were made under the <!--del_lnk--> joint-stock <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Company which was able to pull together the capital necessary to create successful colonies.)<p>Raleigh put together several voyages to travel to and explore the <!--del_lnk--> New World. The first English colony in the new world was established by Sir Walter Raleigh on <!--del_lnk--> 4 June <!--del_lnk--> 1584 at <!--del_lnk--> Roanoke Island of old <!--del_lnk--> Virginia (now <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina). The settlement was forced to abandon the island for a number of reasons. Most of the first settlers were not skilled farmers or gardeners; the soil on the island is very sandy, dry and infertile; and the settlers' primary motivation for venturing to America was to seek fortune in gold or other precious products. When it became obvious that this was not going to happen, they wanted to leave. Relations broke down between the settlers and the local native tribes as the colonists placed heavy demands on the natives' crops.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1587, Raleigh attempted a second <!--del_lnk--> expedition again establishing a settlement on Roanoke Island. This time, a more <!--del_lnk--> diversified group of settlers was sent, including some entire families, under the governance of <!--del_lnk--> John White. After a short while in America, White was recalled to England in order to find more supplies for the colony. He was unable to return the following year as planned, however, because the Queen had ordered that all vessels remain at port in case they were needed to fight the <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_Armada.htm" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a>. It was not until <!--del_lnk--> 1591 that the supply vessel arrived at the colony, 4 years later, only to find that all colonists had disappeared. The only clue to their fate was the word "CROATOAN" and letters "CRO" carved into separate tree trunks, suggesting the possibility that they were either massacred, absorbed or taken away by <!--del_lnk--> Croatoans or perhaps another native tribe. Other speculation includes their being swept away or lost at sea during the stormy weather of <!--del_lnk--> 1588 (credited with aiding in the defeat of the Spanish Armada). However, it is worth noting that a hurricane prevented John White and the crew of the supply vessel from actually visiting Croatoan to investigate the disappearance, and no further attempts at contact were recorded for some years. Whatever the fate of the settlers, the settlement is now remembered as the <!--del_lnk--> "Lost Colony of Roanoke Island".<p><a id="Later_life" name="Later_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later life</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/532/53245.jpg.htm" title="Raleigh and his son Walter in 1602."><img alt="Raleigh and his son Walter in 1602." class="thumbimage" height="329" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WalterRaleighandson.jpg" src="../../images/532/53245.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/532/53245.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Raleigh and his son Walter in 1602.</div>
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<p>In December <!--del_lnk--> 1581 Raleigh came back to England from Ireland with despatches as his company had been disbanded. He took part in Court life and became a favourite of Queen Elizabeth. The various colourful stories told about him at this period are unlikely to be literally true. In <!--del_lnk--> 1592, Raleigh was given many rewards by the Queen, including Durham House in the Strand and the estate of Sherborne, Dorset. He was appointed <!--del_lnk--> Captain of the Guard, and as <!--del_lnk--> Lord Warden of the Stannaries of <!--del_lnk--> Devon and <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall. Raleigh was knighted in <!--del_lnk--> 1585. However, he was not given any of the <!--del_lnk--> great offices of state. In the Armada year of 1588 he was employed as <!--del_lnk--> Vice Admiral of Devon, looking after the coastal defenses and military levies. He does not seem to have taken part in the sea battles.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1591, Raleigh was secretly married to <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth ("Bess") Throckmorton (or <i>Throgmorton</i>), eleven years his junior, one of the Queen's <!--del_lnk--> ladies-in-waiting and pregnant for the third time. She gave birth to a child who was given to a <!--del_lnk--> wet nurse at Durham House, but does not seem to have survived, and Bess resumed her duties. When, during the following year, the unauthorized marriage was discovered, the Queen ordered Raleigh imprisoned and Bess dismissed from court. He was released from prison to divide the spoils from a captured Spanish ship, the <i>Madre de Dios</i> ("Mother of God").<p>It would be several years before Raleigh returned to favour. The couple remained devoted to each other and during Raleigh's absences, Bess proved a capable manager of the family's fortunes and reputation. They had two sons, Walter (known as Wat) and Carew. Raleigh retired to his estate at Sherborne where he built a new house, completed in <!--del_lnk--> 1594, known then as Sherborne Lodge but is now extended and known as Sherborne (new) Castle. He made friends with the local <!--del_lnk--> gentry, such as Sir Ralph Horsey of Clifton Maybank and Charles Thynne of Longleat. During this period at a dinner party at Horsey's, there was a heated discussion about religion which later gave rise to charges of <a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" title="Atheism">atheism</a> against Raleigh. He was elected to Parliament, speaking on religious and naval matters.<p>A year after coming into possession of a Spanish account of a great golden city at the headwaters of the <!--del_lnk--> Caroni River in 1594, he explored <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> in search of Manoa, the golden city. Once back in England, he published an account of his voyage claiming to have found the city when in fact, he never even made it all the way up the river. Raleigh took part in the capture of <!--del_lnk--> Cadiz in <!--del_lnk--> 1596, where he was wounded. He also participated in a voyage to the <!--del_lnk--> Azores in <!--del_lnk--> 1597.<p>From <!--del_lnk--> 1600 to <!--del_lnk--> 1603, Raleigh was the Governor of the <!--del_lnk--> Channel Island of <a href="../../wp/j/Jersey.htm" title="Jersey">Jersey</a>, and he was responsible for modernizing the defenses of the island. He named the new fortress protecting the approaches to <!--del_lnk--> Saint Helier <i>Fort Isabella Bellissima</i> — or, in the less ebullient English version, <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Castle.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/135/13568.jpg.htm" title="Raleigh's "cell", Bloody Tower, Tower of London"><img alt="Raleigh's "cell", Bloody Tower, Tower of London" class="thumbimage" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bloodytower_interior.jpg" src="../../images/135/13568.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/135/13568.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Raleigh's "cell", Bloody Tower, Tower of London</div>
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<p>Though royal favour with Elizabeth had been restored by this time, it did not last. Elizabeth died in <!--del_lnk--> 1603, and Raleigh was imprisoned in the <a href="../../wp/t/Tower_of_London.htm" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> on <!--del_lnk--> 19 July. Later that year, on <!--del_lnk--> 17 November, Raleigh was tried in the converted <!--del_lnk--> Great Hall of <!--del_lnk--> Winchester Castle for <!--del_lnk--> treason due to his supposed involvement in the <!--del_lnk--> Main Plot against King James. He was left to languish in the Tower of London until <!--del_lnk--> 1616. While imprisoned, he wrote many treatises and the first volume of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Historie of the World</i>, about the ancient history of <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a>.<p>In 1616, Sir Walter was released from the Tower of London in order to conduct a second expedition to the <!--del_lnk--> Orinoco River in South America, in search of <!--del_lnk--> El Dorado. In the course of the expedition, Raleigh's men, under the command of <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Keymis, sacked the Spanish outpost of <!--del_lnk--> San Thome. During the initial attack on the town, Raleigh's son Walter was struck by a bullet and killed. On Raleigh's return to England, the outraged <!--del_lnk--> Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, the Spanish <!--del_lnk--> ambassador, demanded that King James reinstate Raleigh's death sentence.<p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h2>
<p>The Spanish ambassador's demand was granted. Raleigh was beheaded with an axe at <!--del_lnk--> Whitehall on <!--del_lnk--> 29 October <!--del_lnk--> 1618. "Let us dispatch," he asked his executioner. "At this hour my ague comes upon me. I would not have my enemies think I quaked from fear." After he was allowed to see the axe that would behead him, he mused: "This is a sharp Medicine, but it is a Physician for all diseases and miseries". According to many biographers — <!--del_lnk--> Raleigh Trevelyan in his book <i>Sir Walter Raleigh</i> (2003) for instance — Sir Walter's final words (as he lay ready for the axe to fall) were: "Strike man, strike!"<p>His widow claimed the corpse and had it buried in the local church in <!--del_lnk--> Beddington, <!--del_lnk--> Surrey, the home of Lady Raleigh. "The Lords," she wrote, "have given me his dead body, though they have denied me his life. God hold me in my wits".<p>Although his popularity had waned considerably since his Elizabethan heyday, his execution was seen by many, both at the time and since, as unnecessary and unjust. It has been suggested that any involvement in the Main Plot appears to have been limited to a meeting with <!--del_lnk--> Lord Cobham.<p><a id="Poetry" name="Poetry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Poetry</span></h2>
<p>Walter Raleigh is generally considered one of the foremost poets of the Elizabethan era. His poetry is generally written in the relatively straightforward, unornamented mode known as the plain style. <a href="../../wp/c/C._S._Lewis.htm" title="C. S. Lewis">C. S. Lewis</a> considered Raleigh one of the era's "<i>silver poets</i>," a group of writers who resisted the <a href="../../wp/i/Italian_Renaissance.htm" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> influence of dense classical reference and elaborate poetic devices. In poems such as "<i>What is Our Life</i>" and "<i>The Lie</i>" Raleigh expresses a <i>contemptus mundi</i> (contempt of the world) attitude more characteristic of <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">the Middle Ages</a> than of the dawning era of humanistic optimism. However, his lesser-known long poem "<i>The Ocean to Cynthia</i>" combines this vein with the more elaborate conceits associated with his contemporaries Spenser and Donne, while achieving a power and originality that justifies Lewis' assessment, and contradicts it by expressing a melancholy sense of history reminiscent of "The Tempest" and all the more effective for being the product of personal experience. Raleigh is also Marlovian in terms of the terse line, e.g. "She sleeps thy death that erst thy danger sighed".<p><a id="Raleigh_in_culture" name="Raleigh_in_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Raleigh in culture</span></h2>
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<li>The 1955 film, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Virgin Queen</i>, starring <a href="../../wp/b/Bette_Davis.htm" title="Bette Davis">Bette Davis</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Todd, and <!--del_lnk--> Joan Collins, dramatizes the relationships between Queen Elizabeth, Raleigh, and his wife.<li>Sir Walter Raleigh appears as a secondary character (bass) in Benjamin Britten's 1953 opera <!--del_lnk--> Gloriana.<li>Raleigh's name is quoted in <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>' <!--del_lnk--> White Album song <i><!--del_lnk--> I'm So Tired</i>, where the lyrics chide him for bringing the <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> plant to England - "Although I'm so tired, I'll have another cigarette. And curse Sir Walter Raleigh. He was such a stupid git!". (A northern English expression meaning idiot).<li><!--del_lnk--> Raleigh, <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina, takes its name from Sir Walter. The Hayes Barton neighbourhood takes its name from his birthplace. There are other cities and towns in the New World named "Raleigh", and a misspelling of it in <!--del_lnk--> Rolla, Missouri<li><!--del_lnk--> Raleigh County in southern <a href="../../wp/w/West_Virginia.htm" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> is named for Sir Walter Raleigh.<li>There is a noted brand of American pipe tobacco called "Sir Walter Raleigh".<li>The name "Sir Walter Raleigh" is sometimes used in the odd <!--del_lnk--> Prince Albert in a can joke.<li>In February 2006, a bronze statue of Raleigh by sculptress <!--del_lnk--> Vivien Mallock was unveiled in the Devonshire village of <!--del_lnk--> East Budleigh. Costing some £30,000, it was a source of controversy as it had been part-funded by the <!--del_lnk--> British American Tobacco company.<li>The title of his comedy <i><!--del_lnk--> History of the World, Part I</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Mel Brooks is a reference to Raleigh having finished only the first volume of his <i>Historie of the World</i> at the time he was executed.<li>Raleigh plays an important part in <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Burgess's novel <!--del_lnk--> A Dead Man in Deptford in which he is suggested as one of the persons who might have been responsible for the murder of <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Marlowe.<li>In the second series of the television program <i><!--del_lnk--> Blackadder</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Blackadder tells <!--del_lnk--> Queen Elizabeth that he'll sail around the <!--del_lnk--> Cape of Good Hope to show up, as Blackadder calls him, Walter "Ooh What A Big Ship I've Got" Raleigh. Blackadder also refers to him as "Sir Walter Rather-a-Wally Raleigh". Raleigh is played by <!--del_lnk--> Simon Jones.<li>One of <!--del_lnk--> Bob Newhart's <!--del_lnk--> stand-up comedy routines depicts one side of a telephone conversation between a skeptical businessman in London (played by Newhart) and "Nutty Walt" Raleigh who tries unsuccessfully to convince him of the merits of tobacco.<li>Raleigh's relationship with Bess Throckmorton and Elizabeth I is the subject of a forthcoming film, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Golden Age</i> starring <!--del_lnk--> Cate Blanchett as <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth I, and <!--del_lnk--> Clive Owen as Raleigh.<li>Raleigh is the subject of a chapter in <!--del_lnk--> William Carlos Williams' historicist essay titled <!--del_lnk--> In the American Grain (1925). Other chapters in the book are devoted to <!--del_lnk--> Hernán Cortéz, <!--del_lnk--> Juan Ponce de Leon, <!--del_lnk--> Hernando De Soto, <!--del_lnk--> Samuel de Champlain, and figures of American culture and politics.<li>Raleigh's name is mentioned in the <!--del_lnk--> Brobdingnagian Bards song <!--del_lnk--> "If I Had a Million Ducats" (a parody of <!--del_lnk--> "If I Had A Million Dollars" by <!--del_lnk--> Barenaked Ladies).</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Raleigh"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Walter Scott</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Writers_and_critics.htm">Writers and critics</a></h3>
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<p><b>Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 15 August <!--del_lnk--> 1771 – <!--del_lnk--> 21 September <!--del_lnk--> 1832) was a prolific <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <!--del_lnk--> historical novelist and <!--del_lnk--> poet popular throughout <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> during his time. In some ways Scott was the first author to have a truly international career in his lifetime, with many contemporary readers all over Europe, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>.<p>His novels and (to a lesser extent) his poetry are still read, but he is less popular today than he was at the height of his fame. Nevertheless many of his works remain classics of both <!--del_lnk--> English-language literature and specifically <!--del_lnk--> Scottish literature. Famous titles include <i><!--del_lnk--> Ivanhoe</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Rob Roy</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Lady of the Lake</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Waverley</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Heart of Midlothian</i>.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_days" name="Early_days"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early days</span></h2>
<p>Born in College Wynd in the <!--del_lnk--> Old Town of <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1771, the son of a <!--del_lnk--> solicitor, the young Walter Scott survived a childhood bout of <!--del_lnk--> polio that would leave him lame in his right leg for the rest of his life. To restore his health he was sent to live for some years in the rural <!--del_lnk--> Borders region at his grandparents' farm at Sandyknowe. Here he learned the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends which characterised much of his work. Also, for his health, he spent a year in <!--del_lnk--> Bath, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<p>After studying law at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Edinburgh, he followed in his father's footsteps and became a lawyer in Edinburgh. As a lawyer's clerk he made his first visit to the <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Highlands.htm" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a> directing an eviction. He was admitted to the <!--del_lnk--> Faculty of Advocates in 1792. He had an unsuccessful love suit with Williamina Belsches of Fettercairn, who married Sir <!--del_lnk--> William Forbes.<p><a id="Literary_career_launched" name="Literary_career_launched"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Literary career launched</span></h2>
<p>At the age of 25 he began dabbling in writing, translating works from <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>, his first publication being rhymed versions of ballads by <!--del_lnk--> Bürger in <!--del_lnk--> 1796. He then published a three-volume set of collected Scottish ballads, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border</i>. This was the first sign of his interest in <!--del_lnk--> Scottish history from a literary standpoint.<p>Scott then became an ardent volunteer in the <!--del_lnk--> yeomanry and on one of his "raids" he met at <!--del_lnk--> Gilsland Spa Margaret Charlotte Charpentier (or Charpenter), daughter of Jean Charpentier of <a href="../../wp/l/Lyon.htm" title="Lyon">Lyon</a> in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> whom he married in <!--del_lnk--> 1797. They had five children. In <!--del_lnk--> 1799 he was appointed <!--del_lnk--> Sheriff-Depute of the <!--del_lnk--> County of Selkirk, based in the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Burgh of <!--del_lnk--> Selkirk.<p>In his earlier married days, Scott had a decent living from his earnings at the law, his salary as Sheriff-Depute, his wife's income, some revenue from his writing, and his share of his father's rather meagre estate.<p>After Scott had founded a printing press, his poetry, beginning with <i>The Lay of the Last Minstrel</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1805, brought him fame. He published a number of other poems over the next ten years, including the popular <i><!--del_lnk--> The Lady of the Lake</i>, printed in <!--del_lnk--> 1810 and set in the <!--del_lnk--> Trossachs. Portions of the German translation of this work were later set to music by <a href="../../wp/f/Franz_Schubert.htm" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a>. One of these songs, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ellens dritter Gesang</i>, is popularly labeled as "Schubert's <i><!--del_lnk--> Ave Maria</i>".<p>Another work from this time period, <i><!--del_lnk--> Marmion</i>, produced some of his most quoted (and most often mis-attributed) lines. Canto VI. Stanza 17 reads:<dl>
<dd><i>Yet Clare's sharp questions must I shun,</i><dd><i>Must separate Constance from the nun</i><dd><i><b>Oh! what a tangled web we weave</b></i><dd><i><b>When first we practice to deceive!</b></i><dd><i>A Palmer too! No wonder why</i><dd><i>I felt rebuked beneath his eye;</i></dl>
<p>In 1809 his <!--del_lnk--> Tory sympathies led him to become a co-founder of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Quarterly Review</i>, a review journal to which he made several anonymous contributions.<p><a id="The_novels" name="The_novels"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The novels</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15802.jpg.htm" title="Walter Scott"><img alt="Walter Scott" height="228" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Walter_Scott_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_18396.jpg" src="../../images/158/15802.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15802.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Walter Scott</div>
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<p>When the press became embroiled in pecuniary difficulties, Scott set out, in <!--del_lnk--> 1814, to write a cash-cow. The result was <i><!--del_lnk--> Waverley</i>, a <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a> which did not name its author. It was a tale of the "Forty-Five" <a href="../../wp/j/Jacobite_rising.htm" title="Jacobite rising">Jacobite rising</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Great Britain with its <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> protagonist Edward Waverley, by his Tory upbringing sympathetic to <!--del_lnk--> Jacobitism, becoming enmeshed in events but eventually choosing <!--del_lnk--> Hanoverian respectability. The novel met with considerable success. There followed a succession of novels over the next five years, each with a Scottish historical setting. Mindful of his reputation as a poet, he maintained the anonymous habit he had begun with <i>Waverley</i>, always publishing the novels under the name <b>Author of Waverley</b> or attributed as "Tales of..." with no author. Even when it was clear that there would be no harm in coming out into the open he maintained the façade, apparently out of a sense of fun. During this time the nickname <b>The Wizard of the North</b> was popularly applied to the mysterious best-selling writer. His identity as the author of the novels was widely rumoured, and in <!--del_lnk--> 1815 Scott was given the honour of dining with <!--del_lnk--> George, Prince Regent, who wanted to meet "the author of Waverley".<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1819 he broke away from writing about Scotland with <i><!--del_lnk--> Ivanhoe</i>, a historical romance set in 12th-century <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. It too was a runaway success and, as he did with his first novel, he unleashed a slew of books along the same lines. Among other things, the book is noteworthy for having a very sympathetic <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> major character, <!--del_lnk--> Rebecca, considered by many critics to be the book's real heroine - relevant to the fact that the book was published at a time when the struggle for the <!--del_lnk--> Emancipation of the Jews in England was gathering momentum.<p>As his fame grew during this phase of his career, he was granted the title of <!--del_lnk--> baronet, becoming Sir Walter Scott. At this time he organised the <!--del_lnk--> visit of King George IV to Scotland, and when the King visited Edinburgh in <!--del_lnk--> 1822 the spectacular <!--del_lnk--> pageantry Scott had concocted to portray George as a rather tubby reincarnation of <!--del_lnk--> Bonnie Prince Charlie made <!--del_lnk--> tartans and <!--del_lnk--> kilts fashionable and turned them into symbols of <!--del_lnk--> Scottish national identity.<p>Scott included little in the way of punctuation in his drafts which he left to the printers to supply.<p><a id="Financial_woes" name="Financial_woes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Financial woes</span></h2>
<p>Beginning in <!--del_lnk--> 1825 he went into dire financial straits again, as his company nearly collapsed. That he was the author of his novels became general knowledge at this time as well. Rather than declare <!--del_lnk--> bankruptcy he placed his home, <!--del_lnk--> Abbotsford House, and income into a trust belonging to his creditors, and proceeded to write his way out of debt. He kept up his prodigious output of fiction (as well as producing a non-fiction biography of <!--del_lnk--> Napoleon Bonaparte) until <!--del_lnk--> 1831. By then his health was failing, and he died at Abbotsford in <!--del_lnk--> 1832. Though not in the clear by then, his novels continued to sell, and he made good his debts from beyond the grave. He was buried in <!--del_lnk--> Dryburgh Abbey where nearby, fittingly, a large statue can be found of <!--del_lnk--> William Wallace—one of Scotland's most romantic historical figures.<p><a id="His_home.2C_Abbotsford_House" name="His_home.2C_Abbotsford_House"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">His home, <!--del_lnk--> Abbotsford House</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15803.jpg.htm" title="Displays of armour at Abbotsford House"><img alt="Displays of armour at Abbotsford House" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abbotsford04.jpg" src="../../images/158/15803.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15803.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Displays of armour at <!--del_lnk--> Abbotsford House</div>
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<p>When Sir Walter Scott was a boy he sometimes travelled with his father from <!--del_lnk--> Selkirk to <!--del_lnk--> Melrose, in the <!--del_lnk--> Border Country where some of his novels are set. At a certain spot the old gentleman would stop the carriage and take his son to a stone on the site of the battle of <!--del_lnk--> Melrose (1526). Not far away was a little farm called Cartleyhole, and this he eventually purchased. In due course the farmhouse developed into a wonderful home that has been likened to a fairy palace. Through windows enriched with the insignia of heraldry the sun shone on suits of armour, trophies of the chase, fine furniture, and still finer pictures. Panelling of oak and cedar and carved ceilings relieved by coats of arms in their correct colour added to the beauty of the house. More land was purchased, until Scott owned nearly 1,000 acres (4 km²), and it is estimated that the building cost him over £25,000. A neighbouring Roman road with a ford used in olden days by the abbots of Melrose suggested the name of Abbotsford.<p><a id="Assessment" name="Assessment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Assessment</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15804.jpg.htm" title="The Scott Monument, EdinburghAlternate View"><img alt="The Scott Monument, EdinburghAlternate View" height="406" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Scott-monument-edin.jpg" src="../../images/158/15804.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15804.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Scott Monument, <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a><br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Alternate View</b></div>
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<p>Among the early critics of Scott was <a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Twain.htm" title="Mark Twain">Mark Twain</a>, who blamed Scott's "romantacization of battle" for the South's decision to fight the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. Twain's ridiculing of <!--del_lnk--> chivalry in <!--del_lnk--> A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court is considered as specifically targeting Scott's books.<p>From being one of the most popular novelists of the 19th century, Scott suffered from a disastrous decline in popularity after the <!--del_lnk--> First World War. The tone was set early on in <!--del_lnk--> E.M. Forster's classic "Aspects of the Novel" (1927), where Scott was savaged as being a clumsy writer who wrote slapdash, badly plotted novels. Scott also suffered from the rising star of <a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Austen.htm" title="Jane Austen">Jane Austen</a>. Considered merely an entertaining "woman's novelist" in the 19th century, in the 20th Austen began to be seen as perhaps the major English novelist of the first few decades of the 19th century. As Austen's star rose, Scott's sank, although, ironically, he had been one of the few male writers of his time to recognize Austen's genius.<p>Scott's many flaws (ponderousness, prolixity, lack of humor) were fundamentally out of step with Modernist sensibilities. Nevertheless, Scott was responsible for two major trends that carry on to this day. First, he essentially invented the modern historical novel; an enormous number of imitators (and imitators of imitators) would appear in the 19th century. It is a measure of Scott's influence that <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>'s central railway station, opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1854 for the <!--del_lnk--> North British Railway, is called the <!--del_lnk--> Waverley Station. Second, his Scottish novels followed on from <!--del_lnk--> James Macpherson's <!--del_lnk--> Ossian cycle in rehabilitating the public perception of <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Highlands.htm" title="Scottish Highlands">Highland</a> culture after years in the shadows following southern distrust of hill bandits and the <!--del_lnk--> Jacobite rebellions. As enthusiastic chairman of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Celtic Society of Edinburgh</i> he contributed to the reinvention of Scottish culture. It is worth noting, however, that Scott was a Lowland Scot, and that his re-creations of the Highlands were more than a little fanciful. His organisation of the <!--del_lnk--> visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 was a pivotal event, leading Edinburgh tailors to invent many "clan <!--del_lnk--> tartans" out of whole cloth, so to speak. After being essentially unstudied for many decades, a small revival of interest in Scott's work began in the <!--del_lnk--> 1970s and <!--del_lnk--> 1980s. Ironically, <!--del_lnk--> postmodern tastes (which favoured discontinuous narratives, and the introduction of the 'first person' into works of fiction) were more favourable to Scott's work than Modernist tastes. Despite all the flaws, Scott is now seen as an important innovator, and a key figure in the development of Scottish and world literature.<p>Scott was also responsible, through a series of pseudonymous letters published in the <i>Edinburgh Weekly News</i> in 1826, for retaining the right of Scottish banks to issue their own banknotes, which is reflected to this day by his continued appearance on the front of all notes issued by the <!--del_lnk--> Bank of Scotland.<p>Many of his works were illustrated by his friend, <!--del_lnk--> William Allan.<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_Waverley_Novels" name="The_Waverley_Novels"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The <!--del_lnk--> Waverley Novels</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Waverley</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1814)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Guy Mannering</i> (1815)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Antiquary</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1816)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Rob Roy</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1818)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Ivanhoe</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1819)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Kenilworth</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1821)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Pirate</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1822)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Fortunes of Nigel</i> (1822)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Peveril of the Peak</i> (1822)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Quentin Durward</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1823)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> St. Ronan's Well</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1824)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Redgauntlet</i> (1824)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tales of the Crusaders</i>, consisting of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Betrothed</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Talisman</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1825)<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>Woodstock</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1826)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Chronicles of the Canongate, 2nd series, <!--del_lnk--> The Fair Maid of Perth</i> (1828)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Anne of Geierstein</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1829)</ul>
<p><a id="Tales_of_My_Landlord" name="Tales_of_My_Landlord"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Tales of My Landlord</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i>1st series <!--del_lnk--> The Black Dwarf and <!--del_lnk--> Old Mortality</i> (1816)<li><i>2nd series, <!--del_lnk--> The Heart of Midlothian</i> (1818)<li><i>3rd series, <!--del_lnk--> The Bride of Lammermoor and <!--del_lnk--> A Legend of Montrose</i> (1819)<li><i>4th series, <!--del_lnk--> Count Robert of Paris and <!--del_lnk--> Castle Dangerous</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1832)</ul>
<p><a id="Tales_from_Benedictine_Sources" name="Tales_from_Benedictine_Sources"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Short stories</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i>Chronicles of the Canongate</i>, 1st series (<!--del_lnk--> 1827). Collection of three short stories:</ul>
<p><i>The Highland Widow</i>, <i>The Two Drovers</i> and <i>The Surgeon's Daughter</i>.<ul>
<li><i>The Keepsake Stories</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1828). Collection of three short stories:</ul>
<p><i>My Aunt Margaret's Mirror</i>, <i>The Tapestried Chamber</i> and <i>Death Of The Laird's Jock</i>.<p><a id="Poems" name="Poems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Poems</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i>William and Helen, Two Ballads from the German</i> (translator) (<!--del_lnk--> 1796)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1802-<!--del_lnk--> 1803)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Lay of the Last Minstrel</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1805)<li><i>Ballads and Lyrical Pieces</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1806)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Marmion</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1808)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Lady of the Lake</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1810)<li><i>The Vision of Don Roderick</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1811)<li><i>The Bridal of Triermain</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1813)<li><i>Rokeby</i> (1813)<li><i>The Field of Waterloo</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1815)<li><i>The Lord of the Isles</i> (1815)<li><i>Harold the Dauntless</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1817)<li>"Young Lochinvar"<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bonnie Dundee</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1830)</ul>
<p><a id="Other" name="Other"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Introductory Essay to <i>The Border Antiquities of England and Scotland</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1814-<!--del_lnk--> 1817)<li><i>The Chase</i> (translator) (<!--del_lnk--> 1796)<li><i>Goetz of Berlichingen</i> (translator) (<!--del_lnk--> 1799)<li><i>Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk</i> (1816)<li><i>Provincial Antiquities of Scotland</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1819-<!--del_lnk--> 1826)<li><i>Lives of the Novelists</i> (1821-<!--del_lnk--> 1824)<li><i>Halidon Hall</i> (1822)<li><i>The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte</i> (1827)<li><i>Religious Discourses</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1828)<li><i>Tales of a Grandfather, 1st series</i> (1828)<li><i>History of Scotland</i>, 2 vols. (1829-<!--del_lnk--> 1830)<li><i>Tales of a Grandfather, 2nd series</i> (1829)<li><i>The Doom of Devorgoil</i> (1830)<li><i>Essays on Ballad Poetry</i> (1830)<li><i>Tales of a Grandfather, 3rd series</i> (1830)<li><i>Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1831)<li><i>The Bishop of Tyre</i></ul>
<p><a id="Quote" name="Quote"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Quote</span></h2>
<p><i>Breathes there the man, with soul so dead,</i> <i>Who never to himself hath said,</i> <i>This is my own, my native land!</i> from <i><!--del_lnk--> The Lay of the Last Minstrel</i> by Walter Scott<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Scott"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">War</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Military_History_and_War.htm">Military History and War</a></h3>
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<td style="padding-bottom: 5px; background:lightsteelblue; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Military history</td>
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<td style="padding:0 5px; background:ivory; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Arctic · <!--del_lnk--> Cyberspace · <!--del_lnk--> Desert<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jungle · <!--del_lnk--> Mountain · <!--del_lnk--> Urban</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><a href="../../wp/w/Weapon.htm" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></th>
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<td style="padding:0 5px; background:ivory; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Armoured · <!--del_lnk--> Artillery · <!--del_lnk--> Biological · <!--del_lnk--> Cavalry<br /><!--del_lnk--> Chemical · <!--del_lnk--> Electronic · <!--del_lnk--> Infantry ·<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mechanized · <!--del_lnk--> Nuclear · <!--del_lnk--> Psychological<br /><!--del_lnk--> Radiological · <!--del_lnk--> Ski · <!--del_lnk--> Submarine</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Tactics</th>
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<td style="padding:0 5px; background:ivory; text-align:center;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Amphibious · <!--del_lnk--> Asymmetric · <!--del_lnk--> Attrition<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cavalry · <!--del_lnk--> Conventional · <!--del_lnk--> Fortification<br /><!--del_lnk--> Guerrilla · <!--del_lnk--> Hand to hand · <a href="../../wp/i/Invasion.htm" title="Invasion">Invasion</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Joint · <!--del_lnk--> Maneuver · <a href="../../wp/s/Siege.htm" title="Siege">Siege</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Total<br /><a href="../../wp/t/Trench_warfare.htm" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Unconventional</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Strategy</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Economic · <!--del_lnk--> Grand · <!--del_lnk--> Operational</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Organization</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Chain of command · <!--del_lnk--> Formations<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ranks · <!--del_lnk--> Units</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Logistics</th>
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<td style="padding:0 5px; background:ivory; text-align:center;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Equipment · <!--del_lnk--> Materiel · <!--del_lnk--> Supply line</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Law</th>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Court-martial · <!--del_lnk--> Laws of war · <!--del_lnk--> Occupation<br /><!--del_lnk--> Tribunal · <!--del_lnk--> War crime</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Government and politics</th>
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<td style="padding:0 5px; background:ivory; text-align:center;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Conscription · <!--del_lnk--> Coup d'état<br /><a href="../../wp/m/Military_dictatorship.htm" title="Military dictatorship">Military dictatorship</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Martial law<br /><!--del_lnk--> Militarism · <!--del_lnk--> Military rule</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;">Military studies</th>
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<td style="padding:0 5px; background:ivory; text-align:center;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Military academy · <!--del_lnk--> Military science<br /><a href="../../wp/w/War.htm" title="Polemology">Polemology</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Philosophy of war<br /><!--del_lnk--> Peace and conflict studies</td>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:silver; font-size:106%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Lists</th>
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<td style="padding:0 5px; background:ivory; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Authors · <!--del_lnk--> Battles · <!--del_lnk--> Civil wars<br /><!--del_lnk--> Commanders · <!--del_lnk--> Invasions · <!--del_lnk--> Operations<br /><!--del_lnk--> Sieges · <!--del_lnk--> Raids · <!--del_lnk--> Tactics · <!--del_lnk--> Theorists<br /><!--del_lnk--> Wars · <!--del_lnk--> War crimes · <!--del_lnk--> War criminals<br /><!--del_lnk--> Weapons · <!--del_lnk--> Writers</td>
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<p>Wars may be prosecuted simultaneously in one or more <!--del_lnk--> theaters of war. Within each theatre, there may be one or more consecutive <!--del_lnk--> military campaigns. Individual actions of war within a specific campaign are traditionally called <!--del_lnk--> battles, although this terminology is not always applied to contentions in modernity involving aircraft, missiles or bombs alone in the absence of ground troops or naval forces.<p>The factors leading to war are often complicated and due to a range of issues. Where disputes arise over issues such as <!--del_lnk--> sovereignty, <!--del_lnk--> territory, <!--del_lnk--> resources, <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a>, or <!--del_lnk--> ideology and a peacable resolution is not sought, fails, or is thwarted, then war often results.<p>A war may begin following an official <!--del_lnk--> declaration of war in the case of international war, although this has not always been observed either historically or contemporarily. A declaration of war is not normally made in internal wars.<p>
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</script><a id="Conduct_of_war" name="Conduct_of_war"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conduct of war</span></h2>
<p>The exact conduct of war will depend to a great extent upon its objectives, which may include factors such as the seizure of territory, the annihilation of a rival state, the subjugation of another people or recognition of one's own people as a separate state. Typically any military action by one state is opposed, ie is countered by the military forces of one or more states. Therefore, the ultimate objective of each state becomes secondary to the immediate objective of removing or nullification of the resistance offered by the opposing military forces. This may be accomplished variously by out-maneuvering them, by destroying them in open battle, by causing them to desert or surrender, or to be destroyed by indirect action such pestilence and starvation.<p><a id="Limitations_on_war" name="Limitations_on_war"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Limitations on war</span></h3>
<p>At times throughout history, societies have attempted to limit the cost of war by formalising it in some way. Limitations on the targeting of <!--del_lnk--> civilians, what type of weapons can be used, and when combat is allowed have all fallen under these rules in different conflicts. <!--del_lnk--> Total war is the modern term for the targeting of civilians and the <!--del_lnk--> mobilization of an entire society, when every member of the society has to contribute to the <!--del_lnk--> war effort.<p>While culture, <a href="../../wp/l/Law.htm" title="Law">law</a>, and religion have all been factors in causing wars, they have also acted as restraints at times. In some cultures, for example, conflicts have been highly ritualised to limit actual loss of life. In modern times increasing international attention has been paid to peacefully resolving conflicts which lead to war. The United Nations is the latest and most comprehensive attempt to, as stated in the preamble of the <!--del_lnk--> U.N. Charter, "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war."<p>A number of <!--del_lnk--> treaties regulate warfare, collectively referred to as the <i><!--del_lnk--> laws of war</i>. The most pervasive of these are the <!--del_lnk--> Geneva Conventions, the earliest of which began to take effect in the mid-<!--del_lnk--> 1800s.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12932.jpg.htm" title="Battle of Waterloo"><img alt="Battle of Waterloo" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Battle_of_Waterloo_-_Robinson.jpg" src="../../images/129/12932.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12932.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Waterloo</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>It must be noted that in war such treaties may be ignored if they interfere with the vital interests of either side; some have criticised such conventions as simply providing a <!--del_lnk--> fig leaf for the inhuman practice of war. By only illegalising "war against the rules", it is alleged, such treaties and conventions, in effect, <!--del_lnk--> sanction certain types of war.<p><a id="Termination_of_war" name="Termination_of_war"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Termination of war</span></h3>
<p>How a war affects the political and economic circumstances in the peace that follows usually depends on the "facts on the ground". Where evenly matched adversaries decide that the conflict has resulted in a <!--del_lnk--> stalemate, they may cease hostilities to avoid further loss of life and property. They may decide to restore the <!--del_lnk--> antebellum territorial boundaries, redraw boundaries at the line of military control, or negotiate to keep or exchange captured territory. Negotiations at the end of a war often result in a <!--del_lnk--> treaty, such as the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> of <!--del_lnk--> 1919, which ended the <!--del_lnk--> First World War.<p>A warring party that <!--del_lnk--> surrenders may have little negotiating power, with the victorious side either imposing a settlement or dictating most of the terms of any treaty. A common result is that conquered territory is brought under the dominion of the stronger military power. An <!--del_lnk--> unconditional surrender is made in the face of overwhelming military force as an attempt to prevent further harm to life and property. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Empire of Japan gave an unconditional surrender to the <!--del_lnk--> Allies in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> after the <!--del_lnk--> atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (see <!--del_lnk--> Surrender of Japan). A settlement or surrender may also be obtained through <!--del_lnk--> deception or <!--del_lnk--> bluffing.<p>Many other wars, however, have ended in complete destruction of the opposing territory, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Carthage of the <!--del_lnk--> Third Punic War between the <!--del_lnk--> Phoenician city of <!--del_lnk--> Carthage and Ancient Rome in <!--del_lnk--> 149 BC. In <!--del_lnk--> 146 BC the Romans burned the city, enslaved its citizens, and symbolically poured salt over the earth to ensure that nothing would ever grow there again.<p>Some wars or war-like actions end when the military objective of the victorious side has been achieved. Conquered territories may be brought under the permanent dominion of the victorious side. A raid for the purposes of <!--del_lnk--> looting may be completed with the successful capture of goods. In other cases an aggressor may decide to avoid continued losses and cease hostilities without obtaining the original objective.<p>Some hostilities, such as <!--del_lnk--> insurgency or <!--del_lnk--> civil war, may persist for long periods of time with only a low level of military activity. In some cases there is no negotiation of any official treaty, but fighting may trail off and eventually stop after the political demands of the belligerent groups have been reconciled, or combatants are gradually killed or decide the conflict is futile.<p><a id="Factors_leading_to_war" name="Factors_leading_to_war"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Factors leading to war</span></h2>
<p>The causes of war are many and varied and have been examined historically with a view to understanding war and prosecuting it more effectively, and more recently with a view to avoiding it. Most basically, the causes of war are those of means, and those of motive: that is, for a war to be waged, a state or political unit must be both physicaly equipped to prosecute a war, and also motivated to do so. Most fundamentally this motivation consists of a basic willingness to wage war, but motivations may be analysed more specifically.<p>In looking at the motivations for war, one must also consider that these may be different for those ordering the war to those undertaking the war. In general, for a state to prosecute a war, it must have the support of the leader or leaders of the state, the support of the military forces and, to a lesser extent, the support of the wider populace. For example, in the case of the third Punic War, Rome's leaders may have wished to make war with Carthage in order to bring about the annihilation of a resurgent rival, the army may have wished to make war with Carthage since there was great opportunity for plunder in leveling the city of Carthage, and the Roman people may have been wiling to make war with Carthage on account of the demonisation of the Carthaginians in popular culture, including rumours of child sacrifice. Therefore a single war may have many contributory motivations or causes. Various theories have been presented historically to explain the causes of war:<p><a id="Historical_theories" name="Historical_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Historical theories</span></h3>
<p>Historians tend to be reluctant to look for sweeping explanations for all wars. <!--del_lnk--> A.J.P. Taylor famously described wars as being like <!--del_lnk--> traffic accidents. There are some conditions and situations that make them more likely, but there can be no system for predicting where and when each one will occur. <!--del_lnk--> Social scientists criticise this approach, arguing that at the beginning of every war some leader makes a conscious decision, and that they cannot be seen as purely accidental. Still, one argument to this might be that there are few, if any, "pure" accidents. One may be able to find patterns which hold at least some degree of reliability, but because war is a collective of human intentions, some potentially quite fickle, it is very difficult to create a concise prediction system.Other factors included are difference in moral and religious beliefs, economical and trade disagreements, declaring independence, and others.<p><a id="Psychological_theories" name="Psychological_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Psychological theories</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">Psychologists</a> such as <!--del_lnk--> E.F.M. Durban and <!--del_lnk--> John Bowlby have argued that human beings, especially <!--del_lnk--> men, are <!--del_lnk--> inherently violent. While this violence is repressed in normal society, it needs the occasional outlet provided by war. This combines with other notions such as <!--del_lnk--> displacement, where a person transfers their grievances into <!--del_lnk--> bias and <!--del_lnk--> hatred against other <a href="../../wp/e/Ethnic_group.htm" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a>, nations, or <!--del_lnk--> ideologies. While these theories may have some explanatory value about why wars occur, they do not explain when or how they occur. In addition, they raise the question why there are sometimes long periods of peace and other eras of unending war. If the innate psychology of the human mind is unchanging, these variations are inconsistent. A solution adapted to this problem by militarists such as <!--del_lnk--> Franz Alexander is that peace does not really exist. Periods that are seen as peaceful are actually periods of preparation for a later war or when war is suppressed by a state of great power, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Pax Britannica.<p>If war is innate to human nature, as is presupposed by many psychological theories, then there is little hope of ever escaping it. One alternative is to argue that war is only, or almost only, a male activity, and if human leadership were in female hands, wars would not occur. This theory has played an important role in modern <!--del_lnk--> feminism. Critics, of course, point to various examples of female political leaders who had no qualms about using military force, such as <a href="../../wp/m/Margaret_Thatcher.htm" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indira_Gandhi.htm" title="Indira Gandhi">Indira Gandhi</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Golda Meir.<p>Other psychologists have argued that while human <!--del_lnk--> temperament allows wars to occur, they only do so when mentally unbalanced people are in control of a nation. This extreme school of thought argues leaders that seek war such as <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Hitler">Hitler</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Stalin were mentally abnormal. Though this does nothing to explain away the thousands of free and presumably sane men that wage wars on their behalf.<p>A distinct branch of the psychological theories of war are the arguments based on <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary psychology. This school tends to see war as an extension of animal behaviour, such as territoriality and <!--del_lnk--> competition. However, while war has a natural cause, the development of technology has accelerated human destructiveness to a level that is irrational and damaging to the species. We have similar instincts to that of a <a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> but overwhelmingly more power. The earliest advocate of this theory was <a href="../../wp/k/Konrad_Lorenz.htm" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a>. These theories have been criticised by scholars such as <!--del_lnk--> John G. Kennedy, who argue that the organised, sustained war of humans differs more than just technologically from the territorial fights between animals. Others have attempted to explain the psychological reasoning behind the human tendency for warring as a joined effort of a class of higher intelligence beings at participating in, experiencing and attempting to control the ultimate fate of each human, death.<p>In his fictional book <i><!--del_lnk--> Nineteen-Eighty-Four</i>, <!--del_lnk--> George Orwell talks about a state of constant war being used as one of many ways to distract people. War inspires <!--del_lnk--> fear and hate among the people of a nation, and gives them a "legitimate" enemy upon whom they can focus this fear and hate. Thus the people are prevented from seeing that their true enemy is in fact their own repressive government. By this theory war is another "<!--del_lnk--> opiate of the masses" by which a <!--del_lnk--> state controls its people and prevents <a href="../../wp/r/Revolution.htm" title="Revolution">revolution</a>.<p><a id="Anthropological_theories" name="Anthropological_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anthropological theories</span></h3>
<p>Several <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropologists</a> take a very different view of war. They see it as fundamentally cultural, learned by nurture rather than nature. Thus if human societies could be reformed, war would disappear. To this school the acceptance of war is inculcated into each of us by the <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religious</a>, <!--del_lnk--> ideological, and <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalistic</a> surroundings in which we live.<p>Many anthropologists also see no links between various forms of violence. They see the fighting of animals, the skirmishes of <!--del_lnk--> hunter-gatherer <a href="../../wp/t/Tribe.htm" title="Tribe">tribes</a>, and the organised warfare of modern societies as distinct phenomena each with their own causes. Theorists such as <!--del_lnk--> Ashley Montagu emphasise the top-down nature of war, that almost all wars are begun not by popular pressure but by the whims of leaders, and that these leaders also work to maintain a system of ideological justifications for war.<p><a id="Sociological_theories" name="Sociological_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sociological theories</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/s/Sociology.htm" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> has long been very concerned with the origins of war, and many thousands of theories have been advanced, many of them contradictory. Sociology has thus divided into a number of schools. One, the <i>Primat der Innenpolitik</i> (Primacy of Domestic Politics) school based on the works of <!--del_lnk--> Eckart Kehr and <!--del_lnk--> Hans-Ulrich Wehler, sees war as the product of domestic conditions, with only the target of aggression being determined by international realities. Thus <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> was not a product of international <!--del_lnk--> disputes, secret treaties, or the balance of power but a product of the economic, social, and political situation within each of the states involved.<p>This differs from the traditional <i>Primat der Aussenpolitik</i> (Primacy of Foreign Politics) approach of <!--del_lnk--> Carl von Clausewitz and <!--del_lnk--> Leopold von Ranke that argues it is the decisions of statesmen and the <!--del_lnk--> geopolitical situation that leads to war.<p><a id="Malthusian_theories" name="Malthusian_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Malthusian theories</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Pope Urban II in <!--del_lnk--> 1095, on the eve of the <a href="../../wp/f/First_Crusade.htm" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>, wrote, "For this land which you now inhabit, shut in on all sides by the sea and the mountain peaks, is too narrow for your large population; it scarcely furnishes food enough for its cultivators. Hence it is that you murder and devour one another, that you wage wars, and that many among you perish in civil strife. Let hatred, therefore, depart from among you; let your quarrels end. Enter upon the road to the Holy Sepulcher; wrest that land from a wicked race, and subject it to yourselves."<p>This is one of the earliest expressions of what has come to be called the Malthusian theory of war, in which wars are caused by expanding populations and limited resources. <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Malthus.htm" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1766–<!--del_lnk--> 1834) wrote that populations always increase until they are limited by war, <!--del_lnk--> disease, or <a href="../../wp/f/Famine.htm" title="Famine">famine</a>.<p>This theory is thought by Malthusians to account for the relative decrease in wars during the past fifty years, especially in the <!--del_lnk--> developed world, where advances in agriculture have made it possible to support a much larger population than was formerly the case, and where <a href="../../wp/b/Birth_control.htm" title="Birth control">birth control</a> has dramatically slowed the increase in population.<p><a id="Evolutionary_psychology_theories" name="Evolutionary_psychology_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Evolutionary psychology theories</span></h3>
<p>Close to Malthusians is the application of <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary psychology to analyse why humans wage wars. Wars are seen as the result of evolved psychological traits that are turned on by either being attacked or by a population perception of a bleak future. The theory accounts for the IRA going out of business, but leads to a dire view of current wars.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Rationalist_theories" name="Rationalist_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rationalist theories</span></h3>
<p>Rationalist theories of war assume that both sides to a potential war are rational, which is to say that each side wants to get the best possible outcome for itself for the least possible loss of life and property to its own side. Given this assumption, if both countries knew in advance how the war would turn out, it would be better for both of them to just accept the post-war outcome without having to actually pay the costs of fighting the war. This is based on the notion, generally agreed to by almost all scholars of war since <!--del_lnk--> Carl von Clausewitz, that wars are reciprocal, that all wars require both a decision to attack and also a decision to resist attack. Rationalist theory offers three reasons why some countries cannot find a bargain and instead resort to war: issue indivisibility, information asymmetry with incentive to deceive, and the inability to make credible committments.<p>Issue indivisibility occurs when the two parties cannot avoid war by bargaining because the thing over which they are fighting cannot be shared between them, only owned entirely by one side or the other. Religious issues, such as control over the <!--del_lnk--> Temple Mount in Jerusalem, are more likely to be indivisible than economic issues.<p>A bigger branch of the theory, advanced by scholars of international relations such as <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Blainey, is the problem of information asymmetry with incentives to misrepresent. The two countries may not agree on who would win a war between them, or whether victory would be overwhelming or merely eked out, because each side has military secrets about its own capabilities. They will not avoid the bargaining failure by sharing their secrets, since they cannot trust each other not to lie and exaggerate their strength to extract more concessions. For example, Sweden made efforts to deceive Nazi Germany that it would resist an attack fiercely, partly by playing on the myth of Aryan superiority and by making sure that <!--del_lnk--> Hermann Göring only saw elite troops in action, often dressed up as regular soldiers, when he came to visit.<p>Intelligence gathering may sometimes, but not always, mitigate this problem. For example, the Argentinean dictatorship knew that the United Kingdom had the ability to defeat them, but their intelligence failed them on the question of whether the British would use their power to resist the annexation of the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>. The American decision to enter the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> was made with the full knowledge that the communist forces would resist them, but did not believe that the guerrillas had the capability to long oppose <!--del_lnk--> American forces.<p>Thirdly, bargaining may fail due to the states' inability to make credible committments. In this scenario, the two countries might be able to come to a bargain that would avert war if they could stick to it, but the benefits of the bargain will make one side more powerful and lead it to demand even more in the future, so that the weaker side has an incentive to make a stand now.<p>Rationalist explanations of war can be critiqued on a number of grounds. The assumptions of cost-benefit calculations become dubious in the most extreme genocial cases of World War II, where the only bargain offered in some cases was infinitely bad. Rationalist theories typically assume that the state acts as a unitary individual, doing what is best for the state as a whole; this is problematic when, for example, the country's leader is beholden to a very small number of people, as in a personalistic dictatorship. Rationalist theory also assumes that the actors are rational, able to accurately assess their likelihood of success or failure, but the proponents of the psychological theories above would disagree.<p>Rationalist theories are usually explicated with <a href="../../wp/g/Game_theory.htm" title="Game theory">game theory</a>.<p><a id="Economic_theories" name="Economic_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Economic theories</span></h3>
<p>Another school of thought argues that war can be seen as an outgrowth of <!--del_lnk--> economic competition in a chaotic and competitive international system. In this view wars begin as a pursuit of new <a href="../../wp/m/Market.htm" title="Market">markets</a>, of <!--del_lnk--> natural resources, and of wealth. Unquestionably a cause of some wars, from the empire building of Britain to the <!--del_lnk--> 1941 <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> <!--del_lnk--> invasion of the Soviet Union in pursuit of <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a>, this theory has been applied to many other conflicts. It is most often advocated by those to the <!--del_lnk--> left of the political spectrum, who argue that such wars serve the interests of the wealthy but are fought by the poor; however it is combated by the capitalist message of poverty is relative and one poor in one country can be the wealthiest in another ideology. Some social activists argue that <!--del_lnk--> materialism is the supreme cause of war.<p><a id="Marxist_theories" name="Marxist_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Marxist theories</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Marxist theory of war argues that all war grows out of the <!--del_lnk--> class war. It sees wars as imperial ventures to enhance the power of the ruling class and divide the proletariat of the world by pitting them against each other for contrived ideals such as nationalism or religion. Wars are a natural outgrowth of the free market and class system, and will not disappear until a <!--del_lnk--> world revolution occurs.<p><a id="Political_science_theories" name="Political_science_theories"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Political science theories</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> statistical analysis of war was pioneered by <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Fry Richardson following <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. More recent databases of wars and armed conflict have been assembled by the Correlates of War Project, <!--del_lnk--> Peter Brecke and the <!--del_lnk--> Uppsala Department of Peace and Conflict Research.<p>There are several different <!--del_lnk--> international relations theory schools. Supporters of <!--del_lnk--> realism in international relations argue that the motivation of states is the quest for (mostly) military and economic power or security. War is one tool in achieving this goal.<p>One position, sometimes argued to contradict the realist view, is that there is much empirical evidence to support the claim that states that are <!--del_lnk--> democracies do not go to war with each other, an idea known as the <!--del_lnk--> democratic peace theory.Other factors included are difference in moral and religious beliefs, economical and trade disagreements, declaring independence, and others.<p><a id="Types_of_war_and_warfare" name="Types_of_war_and_warfare"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of war and warfare</span></h2>
<p><a id="By_cause" name="By_cause"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">By cause</span></h3>
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th width="50">Type</th>
<th width="225">Example</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Extortionate</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pecheneg and <!--del_lnk--> Cuman forays on <!--del_lnk--> Rus in 9th–13th centuries AD</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Aggressive</td>
<td>the wars of <a href="../../wp/c/Cyrus_the_Great.htm" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus II</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 550–<!--del_lnk--> 529 BC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Colonial</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Franco-Chinese War</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>National liberation</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Algerian War of Independence</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Religious</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Huguenot Wars</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dynastic</td>
<td>The <a href="../../wp/w/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession.htm" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Trade</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Opium Wars</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Revolutionary</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> French Revolutionary Wars</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Guerrilla</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Marxism, succeeded by the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet ideology, distinguished the just and unjust war. Just war was considered to be <!--del_lnk--> slave rebellions or national liberation movements, while the second type carried the <!--del_lnk--> imperialistic character. Smaller armed conflicts are often called <!--del_lnk--> riots, rebellions, <!--del_lnk--> coups, etc.<p>When one country sends armed forces to another, allegedly to restore order or prevent <!--del_lnk--> genocide or other <!--del_lnk--> crimes against humanity, or to support a legally recognised government against <!--del_lnk--> insurgency, that country sometimes refers to it as a <!--del_lnk--> police action. This usage is not always recognised as valid, however, particularly by those who do not accept the connotations of the term.<p>"<!--del_lnk--> Conventional warfare" describes either:<ul>
<li>A war between nation-states<li>War where nuclear or biological weapons are not used</ul>
<p>(Compare with <!--del_lnk--> unconventional warfare and <!--del_lnk--> nuclear warfare.)<p>A war where the forces in conflict belong to the same country or empire or other political entity is known as a <!--del_lnk--> civil war. <!--del_lnk--> Asymmetrical warfare is a conflict between two populations of drastically different levels of military <!--del_lnk--> mechanisation. This type of war often results in <!--del_lnk--> guerrilla tactics. The <!--del_lnk--> Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a common example of asymmetrical warfare.<p>Military action produces a very small percentage of air pollution emissions. Intentional air pollution in combat is one of a collection of techniques collectively called <!--del_lnk--> chemical warfare. <!--del_lnk--> Poison gas as a <!--del_lnk--> chemical weapon was principally used during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and resulted in an estimated 91,198 deaths and 1,205,655 injuries. Various treaties have sought to ban its further use. Non-lethal chemical weapons, such as <!--del_lnk--> tear gas and <!--del_lnk--> pepper spray, are widely used.<p><a id="By_style" name="By_style"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">By style</span></h3>
<p>Historian <!--del_lnk--> Victor Davis Hanson has described a unique "Western Way of War", in an attempt to explain the military successes of Western Europe. It originated in <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, where, in an effort to reduce the damage that warfare has on society, the city-states developed the concept of a decisive pitched battle between heavy infantry. This would be preceded by formal declarations of war and followed by peace negotiations. In this system constant low-level skirmishing and guerrilla warfare were phased out in favour of a single, decisive contest, which in the end cost both sides less in casualties and property damage. Although it was later perverted by <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, this style of war initially allowed neighbours with limited resources to coexist and prosper.<p>He argues that Western-style armies are characterised by an emphasis on discipline and teamwork above individual bravado. Examples of Western victories over non-Western armies include the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Marathon.htm" title="Battle of Marathon">Battle of Marathon</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Gaugamela, the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Tenochtitlan, and the defence of <!--del_lnk--> Rorke's Drift.<p><a id="Warfare_environment" name="Warfare_environment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Warfare environment</span></h3>
<p>The environment in which a war is fought has a significant impact on the type of combat which takes place, and can include within its area different types of terrain. This in turn means that soldiers have to be trained to fight in a specific types of environments and terrains that generally reflects troops' mobility limitations or enablers. These include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Arctic warfare or Winter warfare in general<li><!--del_lnk--> Desert warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Jungle warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Mobile warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Naval warfare or Aquatic warfare that includes Littoral, Amphibious and Riverine warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Sub-aquatic warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Mountain warfare sometimes called Alpine warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Urban warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Air warfare that includes Airborne warfare and Airmobile warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Space warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Electronic warfare including Radio, Radar and Network warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Border warfare a type of limited defensive warfare<li><!--del_lnk--> Mine warfare a type of static terrain denial warfare</ul>
<p><a id="History_of_war" name="History_of_war"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of war</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Military activity has been a constant process over thousands of years. War was likely to have consisted of small-scale raiding only until the historically recent rejection of hunter-gatherer lifestyle for settled agricultural and city-based life. This change in lifestyle would have meant that when a group came under threat it was less likely to simply move on since it would have had crops and a settlement to defend. Further, it is widely accepted that the adoption of agriculture led to a food surplus, such that some individuals would have been excess to requirements for agricultural production and were able to specialist in other areas of employment, such as metalworking. The advent of gunpowder and the acceleration of scientific discoveries has led to modern warfare being highly technological.<p><a id="Morality_of_war" name="Morality_of_war"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Morality of war</span></h2>
<p>Throughout history war has been the source of serious <!--del_lnk--> moral questions. Although many ancient nations and some more modern ones viewed war as noble, over the sweep of history, concerns about the morality of war have gradually increased. Today, war is generally seen as undesirable and, by some, morally problematic. At the same time, many view war, or at least the preparation and readiness and willingness to engage in war, as necessary for the defense of their country. <!--del_lnk--> Pacifists believe that war is inherently immoral and that no war should ever be fought.<p>The negative view of war has not always been held as widely as it is today. Many thinkers, such as <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich von Treitschke, saw war as humanity's highest activity where <!--del_lnk--> courage, <!--del_lnk--> honour, and ability were more necessary than in any other endeavour. At the outbreak of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the writer <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Mann wrote, "Is not peace an element of civil corruption and war a purification, a liberation, an enormous hope?" This attitude has been embraced by societies from <!--del_lnk--> Sparta and <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a> in the ancient world to the <!--del_lnk--> fascist states of the <!--del_lnk--> 1930s. The defeat and repudiation of the fascist states and their <!--del_lnk--> militarism in the <!--del_lnk--> Second World War, the shock of the first use of <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> and increasing belief in the value of individual life (as enshrined in the concept of <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, for example) have contributed to the current view of war.<p>Today, some see only <!--del_lnk--> just wars as <!--del_lnk--> legitimate, and believe that it is the responsibility of world organisations such as the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> to oppose wars of unjust aggression. Other people believe that world organisations have no more standing to judge the morality of a war than that of a sovereign country.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War"</div>
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| ['Weapon', 'Invasion', 'Siege', 'Trench warfare', 'Military dictatorship', 'Polemology', 'Religion', 'Law', 'Treaty of Versailles', 'World War II', 'Psychology', 'Ethnic group', 'Margaret Thatcher', 'Indira Gandhi', 'Napoleon', 'Hitler', 'Chimpanzee', 'Konrad Lorenz', 'Revolution', 'Anthropology', 'Religion', 'Nationalism', 'Tribe', 'Sociology', 'World War I', 'First Crusade', 'Thomas Malthus', 'Famine', 'Birth control', 'Falkland Islands', 'Vietnam War', 'Game theory', 'Market', 'Nazism', 'Petroleum', 'World War I', 'Cyrus the Great', 'War of the Spanish Succession', 'World War I', 'Ancient Greece', 'Alexander the Great', 'Battle of Marathon', 'World War I', 'Ancient Rome', 'Nuclear weapons', 'Human rights', 'United Nations'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">War and Peace</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Novels.htm">Novels</a></h3>
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<caption style="font-size: larger;"><span style="display:none;"><b>Title</b></span> <i><b>War and Peace</b></i></caption>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Cover to the English first edition" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WarAndPeace.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="150" /></span></div>
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<th>Author</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Leo_Tolstoy.htm" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Original title</th>
<td>Война и мир (<i>Voyna i mir</i>)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" title="Country">Country</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Russian Empire</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">Language</a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a></td>
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<th><span style="white-space:nowrap">Genre(s)</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Historical, <!--del_lnk--> Romance, <!--del_lnk--> War novel</td>
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<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Publisher</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Russki Vestnik (series)</td>
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<th>Released</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1865 to <!--del_lnk--> 1869 (series)</td>
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<th>Media type</th>
<td>Print (<!--del_lnk--> Hardback & <!--del_lnk--> Paperback) & Audio book</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> ISBN</th>
<td>NA</td>
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<p><i><b>War and Peace</b></i> (<a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Война и мир, <i>Voyna i mir</i>; in original <!--del_lnk--> orthography: Война и миръ, <i>Voyna i mir"</i>) is an epic <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a> by <a href="../../wp/l/Leo_Tolstoy.htm" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a>, first published from <!--del_lnk--> 1865 to <!--del_lnk--> 1869 in <i>Russki Vestnik</i>, which tells the story of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> society during the <!--del_lnk--> Napoleonic Era. It is usually described as one of Tolstoy's two major masterpieces (the other being <i><a href="../../wp/a/Anna_Karenina.htm" title="Anna Karenina">Anna Karenina</a></i>) as well as one of the world's greatest novels.<p><i>War and Peace</i> offered a new kind of fiction, with a great many characters caught up in a plot that covered nothing less than the grand subjects indicated by the title, combined with the equally large topics of youth, age and marriage. While today it is considered a <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a>, it broke so many novelistic conventions of its day that many critics of Tolstoy's time did not consider it as such. Tolstoy himself considered <i><a href="../../wp/a/Anna_Karenina.htm" title="Anna Karenina">Anna Karenina</a></i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1878) to be his first attempt at a novel in the European sense.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2>
<p>The Russian words for "<a href="../../wp/p/Peace.htm" title="Peace">peace</a>" (pre-1918: "миръ" ) and "<!--del_lnk--> world" (pre-1918: "міръ", including "world" in the sense of "secular society"; see <!--del_lnk--> mir (social)) are <!--del_lnk--> homonyms and since the <!--del_lnk--> 1918 reforms have been spelled identically, which led to an <!--del_lnk--> urban legend in the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> saying that the original manuscript was called "Война и міръ" (so the novel's title would be correctly translated as "War and the World" or "War and Society"). However, Tolstoy himself translated the title into French as "La guerre et la paix" ("War and Peace"). The confusion has been promoted by the popular Soviet TV quiz show <i><!--del_lnk--> Chto? Gde? Kogda?</i> (Что? Где? Когда? - <i><!--del_lnk--> What? Where? When?</i>), which in 1982 presented as a correct answer the "society" variant, based on a 1913 edition of "<i>War and Peace</i>" with a misprint in a single page. This episode was repeated in 2000, which refuelled the legend.<p>In contrast, there is also a (unrelated) poem by <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Mayakovsky called "Война и міръ" (i.e. "міръ" as "society"), written in 1916.<p><a id="Origin" name="Origin"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Origin</span></h2>
<p>Tolstoy initially intended to write a novel about the <!--del_lnk--> Decembrist revolt. His investigation of the causes of this revolt led him all the way back to <!--del_lnk--> Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, and ultimately the history of that war. All that remains of that intention is a foreshadowing in the first epilogue that Prince Bezukhov and Prince Andrei Bolkonski's son are going to be members of the Decembrists.<p><a id="Language" name="Language"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Language</span></h2>
<p>Although Tolstoy wrote the bulk of the book, including all the narration, in Russian, significant pockets of dialogue throughout the book (including its opening sentence) are written in <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>. This merely reflected reality, as the Russian aristocracy in the nineteenth century all knew French and tended to speak French among themselves, as the <!--del_lnk--> lingua franca of the European upper classes, rather than Russian, and indeed Tolstoy makes one reference to an adult Russian aristocrat who has to take Russian lessons to try and master the national language. Less realistically, the Frenchmen portrayed in the novel, including Napoleon himself, sometimes speak in French, sometimes in Russian.<p><a id="Plot_introduction" name="Plot_introduction"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Plot introduction</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>The novel tells the story of a number of <!--del_lnk--> aristocratic families (particularly the Bezukhovs, the Bolkonskis, and the Rostovs) and the entanglements of their personal lives with the history of <!--del_lnk--> 1805–<!--del_lnk--> 1813, specifically Napoleon's invasion of Russia. As events proceed, Tolstoy systematically denies his subjects any significant free choice: the onward roll of history determines happiness and tragedy alike.<p>The standard Russian text is divided into four books (fifteen parts) and two <!--del_lnk--> epilogues. While roughly the first two-thirds of the novel concern themselves strictly with the fictional characters, the later parts of the novel, as well as one of the work's two epilogues, increasingly contain highly controversial, nonfictional <!--del_lnk--> essays about the nature of war, political power, <a href="../../wp/h/History.htm" title="History">history</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> historiography. Tolstoy interspersed these essays into the story in a way which defies conventional fiction. Certain abridged versions removed these essays entirely, while others (published even during Tolstoy's life) simply moved these essays into an appendix.<p><a id="Plot_summary" name="Plot_summary"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Plot summary</span></h2>
<div class="notice spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p><i>War and Peace</i> depicts a huge cast of characters, both historical and fictional, the majority of whom are introduced in the first book. At a <!--del_lnk--> soirée given by Anna Pavlovna Scherer in July 1805, the main players and families of the novel are made known. <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Bezukhov is the illegitimate son of a wealthy <!--del_lnk--> count who is dying of a stroke, and becomes unexpectedly embroiled in a tussle for his inheritance. The intelligent and sardonic Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, husband of a charming wife Lise, finds little comfort in married life, instead choosing to be <!--del_lnk--> aide-de-camp of Prince Mikhail <!--del_lnk--> Kutuzov in their coming war against <!--del_lnk--> Napoleon. We learn too of the <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> Rostov family, with four adolescent children, of whom the vivacious younger daughter Natalya Rostova ("Natasha") and impetuous older Nikolai Rostov are the most memorable. At Bald Hills, Prince Andrei leaves his pregnant wife to his eccentric father and religiously devout sister Maria Bolkonskaya and leaves for war.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/202/20239.jpg.htm" title="The first page of War and Peace in an early edition"><img alt="The first page of War and Peace in an early edition" class="thumbimage" height="230" longdesc="/wiki/Image:First_page_of_war_and_peace.JPG" src="../../images/202/20239.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/202/20239.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The first page of War and Peace in an early edition</div>
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<p>If there is a central character to <i>War and Peace</i> it is Pierre Bezukhov who, upon receiving an unexpected inheritance, is suddenly burdened with the responsibilities and conflicts of a Russian nobleman. His former carefree behaviour vanishes and he enters upon a philosophical quest particular to Tolstoy: how should one live a moral life in an imperfect world? He attempts to free his <!--del_lnk--> peasants, but ultimately achieves nothing. He enters into marriage with Prince Kuragin's beautiful and immoral daughter Elena, against his own better judgement.<p>Elena and her brother Anatoly then conspire together for Anatoly to seduce and dishonor the young and beautiful Natasha Rostova. This plan fails, yet, for Pierre, it is the cause of an important meeting with Natasha. When <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a> invades Russia, Pierre observes the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Borodino up close by standing near a Russian artillery crew and he learns how bloody and horrific war really is. When Napoleon's <!--del_lnk--> Grand Army occupies an abandoned and burning <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, Pierre takes off on a <!--del_lnk--> quixotic mission to assassinate <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a> and is captured as a <!--del_lnk--> prisoner of war. After witnessing French soldiers sacking Moscow and shooting Russian civilians, Pierre is forced to march with the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Army during its disastrous retreat from Moscow. He is later freed by a Russian raiding party. His wife Elena dies sometime during the last throes of Napoleon's invasion and Pierre is reunited with Natasha while the victorious Russians rebuild Moscow. Pierre finds love at last and marries Natasha, while Nikolai marries Maria Bolkonskaya. Andrei, who was also in love with Natasha, is wounded during Napoleon's invasion and eventually dies after being reunited with Natasha before the end of the war.<p>Tolstoy vividly depicts the contrast between <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> and the Russian general <!--del_lnk--> Kutuzov, both in terms of <!--del_lnk--> personality and in the clash of armies. Napoleon believed that he could control the course of a battle by giving orders, sent by courier, which inevitably got delayed, garbled, or made irrelevant by unforeseen development; Kutuzov believed that all he could do was plan the initial disposition of his troops, then let subordinates closer to the action actually direct the fighting. He would sit in his tent until the battle was over, and he sometimes fell asleep in the middle of an important battle. Napoleon chose wrongly, opting to march on to <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> and occupy it for five fatal weeks, when he would have been better off destroying the Russian army in a decisive battle. Kutuzov refused to destroy his army to save Moscow: instead he retreated and allowed the French to occupy the city. Once in Moscow, the tightly-organized <i>Grande Armée</i> dispersed, occupying houses more or less at random; the chain of command broke down, and (in Tolstoy's opinion inevitably) burned Moscow to the ground. Tolstoy thinks that it was inevitable because when a wooden city is left in the hands of strangers, who naturally cook meals, smoke pipes, and try to keep warm, fires will inevitably start. In the absence of an organized Fire Department, such fires would burn large parts of the city. After the fires, the disorganized French army headed for home, where they were destroyed by the Russian winter and harried by partisan raids. Napoleon took his carriage and a team of fast horses and left ahead of the army, most of whom never saw France again. General Kutuzov believes time to be his best ally, and refrains from engaging the French, who ultimately destroy themselves as they limp back toward the French border. They are all but destroyed by a final <!--del_lnk--> Cossack attack as they straggle back toward <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>.<div class="notice spoiler endspoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div>
<p><a id="Characters_in_.22War_and_Peace.22" name="Characters_in_.22War_and_Peace.22"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Characters in "War and Peace"</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierre Bezukhov — A freethinking <!--del_lnk--> Freemason, though weak and at times reckless, is capable of decisive action and great displays of willpower when circumstances demand it.<li><!--del_lnk--> Natasha Rostova — the chief female character, charming due to her exuberant and enthusiastic personality<li><!--del_lnk--> Andrei Bolkonski — A cynic, who is the foil to Pierre.<li><!--del_lnk--> Maria Bolkonskaya — A woman who struggles between the obligations of her religion and the desires of her heart.<li><!--del_lnk--> Nikolai Rostov<li><a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Kutuzov<li><!--del_lnk--> Elena Kuragina - Pierre's wife, who earns social power in circles in high society<li><!--del_lnk--> Anatoly Kuragin<li><!--del_lnk--> Petya Rostov<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Freemason</ul>
<p>Many of Tolstoy's characters in <i>War and Peace</i> were based on real-life people known to Tolstoy himself. Nikolai Rostov and Maria Bolkonskaya were based on Tolstoy's own memories of his father and mother, while Natasha was modeled after Tolstoy's wife and sister-in-law. Pierre and Prince Andrei bear much resemblance to Tolstoy himself, and many commentators have treated them as alter egos of the author.<p><a id="Film.2C_TV.2C_theatrical_and_other_adaptations" name="Film.2C_TV.2C_theatrical_and_other_adaptations"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Film, TV, theatrical and other adaptations</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The first Russian film adaptation of <i>War and Peace</i> was the 1915 Vladimir Gardin directed film <i>Voyna i mir</i>, starring Gardin and Russian ballerina <!--del_lnk--> Vera Karalli.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Initiated by a proposal of German director <!--del_lnk--> Erwin Piscator in 1938, Russian composer <!--del_lnk--> Sergei Prokofiev composed an <!--del_lnk--> opera based on this epic novel during the 1940s. The complete musical work premiered in <a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a> in 1955.</ul>
<ul>
<li>First successful stage adaptations of <i>War and Peace</i> were produced by <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Neumann and <!--del_lnk--> Erwin Piscator (1942, revised 1955, published by Macgibbon & Kee in London 1963, and staged in 16 countries since) and R. Lucas (1943). A second film adaptation was produced by F. Kamei in Japan (1947).</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> War and Peace</i> (1956): <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> director <!--del_lnk--> King Vidor made a 208-minute long film starring <!--del_lnk--> Audrey Hepburn (Natasha), <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Fonda.htm" title="Henry Fonda">Henry Fonda</a> (Pierre) and <!--del_lnk--> Mel Ferrer (Andrei). The casting of <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Fonda.htm" title="Henry Fonda">Henry Fonda</a> as the youthful Pierre has been questioned, but many critics consider <!--del_lnk--> Audrey Hepburn perfect as Natasha,</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> War and Peace</i> (1968): <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> director <!--del_lnk--> Sergei Bondarchuk made a critically acclaimed four-part film version (<i>Vojna i mir</i>) of the novel, released individually in 1965-1967, and as a re-edited whole in 1968, starring <!--del_lnk--> Lyudmila Savelyeva (as Natasha Rostova) and <!--del_lnk--> Vyacheslav Tikhonov (as Andrei Bolkonsky). Bondarchuk himself played the character of Pierre Bezukhov. By the time Bondarchuk made this film, the flawless image of Natasha as created by <!--del_lnk--> Audrey Hepburn had achieved an almost iconic status among Western audiences, and it was therefore a challenge for the director to select an actress for this role. The actress he chose, Lyudmila Savelyeva, looked very similar to Hepburn. The film was almost seven hours long; it involved thousands of actors and extras and it took seven years to finish the shooting, as a result of which the actors age dramatically from scene to scene. It won an <!--del_lnk--> Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film for its authenticity and massive scale. <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<ul>
<li>In December <!--del_lnk--> 1970, <!--del_lnk--> Pacifica Radio station <!--del_lnk--> WBAI broadcast a reading of the entire novel (the 1968 Dunnigan translation) read by over 140 celebrities and ordinary people. <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> War and Peace</i> (1972): The <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> (British Broadcasting Corporation) made a television <!--del_lnk--> miniseries based on the novel , broadcast between in 1972-73. <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Hopkins played the lead role of Pierre. Other lead characters were played by <!--del_lnk--> Rupert Davies, <!--del_lnk--> Faith Brook, <!--del_lnk--> Morag Hood, <!--del_lnk--> Alan Dobie, <!--del_lnk--> Angela Down and <!--del_lnk--> Sylvester Morand.</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Love and Death</i> (1975): <!--del_lnk--> Woody Allen wrote and directed a satirical take on <i>War and Peace</i> and other <!--del_lnk--> Russian Epic Novels.</ul>
<ul>
<li>A stage adaptation by <!--del_lnk--> Helen Edmundson was published in 1996 by Nick Hern Books, London. The play was first produced in 1996 at the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_National_Theatre.htm" title="Royal National Theatre">Royal National Theatre</a>.</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The title <i>War and Peace</i> or <i>La Guerre et la Paix</i> was also the title of an earlier political work by French <a href="../../wp/a/Anarchism.htm" title="Anarchist">anarchist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Proudhon, published in 1864. As Tolstoy had met Proudhon personally, and was held to be an admirer of his work and politics, it is likely that the title <i>War and Peace</i> was inspired by Proudhon's <i>La Guerre et la Paix</i>.</ul>
<p><a id="English_translations" name="English_translations"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">English translations</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Clara Bell (from a French version) 1885-86<li>W. H. Dole 1889<li>Leo Wiener 1904<li><!--del_lnk--> Constance Garnett (1904)<li><!--del_lnk--> Louise and Aylmer Maude (1922-3)<li>Rosemary Edmonds (1957, revised 1978)<li>Princess <!--del_lnk--> Alexandra Kropotkin (1960)<li>Ann Dunnigan (1968)<li>Anthony Briggs (2005)<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Pevear and <!--del_lnk--> Larissa Volokhonsky (expected Fall 2007)</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">War in Somalia (2006–present)</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Conflict_and_Peace.htm">Conflict and Peace</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;">
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">War in Somalia (2006–present)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Part of the <!--del_lnk--> Somali Civil War</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.25em;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Somalianwar06.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="300" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> TFG soldiers in a <!--del_lnk--> technical near <!--del_lnk--> Baidoa.</td>
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<td colspan="2">
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 – ongoing</td>
</tr>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th>
<td>Southern <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Result</th>
<td>Ongoing Conflict <ul>
<li>Overthrow of <!--del_lnk--> ICU government in <a href="../../wp/m/Mogadishu.htm" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Transitional Federal Government establishes control over Mogadishu and southern Somalia<li>Ethiopian troops are deployed in southern Somalia<li>Emergence of <!--del_lnk--> Islamist insurgency by <!--del_lnk--> PRM<li><!--del_lnk--> Inter-clan fighting resumes, so far to a limited degree.</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Combatants</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9943.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Icu_flag.svg" src="../../images/99/9943.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Islamic Courts Union<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/202/20273.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Somalia_Islamic_Courts_Flag.svg" src="../../images/202/20273.png" width="22" /></a> Pro-Islamist militias<br />
<p>
<br /><b>Alleged:</b><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/4/407.png.htm" title="Flag of Eritrea"><img alt="Flag of Eritrea" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Eritrea.svg" src="../../images/4/407.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Foreign Mujahideen<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/202/20276.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Jihad.svg" src="../../images/202/20276.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> al-Qaeda</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><b>South:</b><br />
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1030.png.htm" title="Flag of Ethiopia"><img alt="Flag of Ethiopia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg" src="../../images/10/1030.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Transitional Government of Somalia<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a><br />
<br /><b>North:</b><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1030.png.htm" title="Flag of Ethiopia"><img alt="Flag of Ethiopia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg" src="../../images/10/1030.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Galmudug<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Puntland<br />
<br /><b>After the invasion:</b><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/202/20278.png.htm" title="Flag of African Union"><img alt="Flag of African Union" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_African_Union.svg" src="../../images/202/20278.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> AMISOM<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Commanders</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9943.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Icu_flag.svg" src="../../images/99/9943.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Hassan Aweys<br />
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9943.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Icu_flag.svg" src="../../images/99/9943.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Sharif Ahmed<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9943.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Icu_flag.svg" src="../../images/99/9943.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Hasan Hersi<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9943.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Icu_flag.svg" src="../../images/99/9943.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Adan Ayrow<br />
</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Barre Adan Shire "Hirale"<br />
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Abdi Qeybdid (Galmudug)<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/4/403.png.htm" title="Flag of Somalia"><img alt="Flag of Somalia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Somalia.svg" src="../../images/4/403.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Adde Musa (Puntland)<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1030.png.htm" title="Flag of Ethiopia"><img alt="Flag of Ethiopia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg" src="../../images/10/1030.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Meles Zenawi<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Patrick M. Walsh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Strength</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">4,000 ICU militia<br />
<p><b>Alleged forces:</b><br /> 100-300 foreign jihadists</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">Somalia: 10,000<br /> Ethiopia: 8-15,000<br /> AMISOM: 8,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Casualties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">1,300 KIA (Ethiopian claim)<br /> 3,000+ injured<br />
</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">N/A</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><strong class="selflink">War in Somalia (2006–present)</strong></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Baidoa – <!--del_lnk--> Bandiradley – <!--del_lnk--> Beledweyne – <!--del_lnk--> Jowhar – <!--del_lnk--> Mogadishu (fall) – <!--del_lnk--> Jilib – <!--del_lnk--> Kismayo – <!--del_lnk--> Ras Kamboni – <!--del_lnk--> Mogadishu (battle)<br /><b>Chronology: <!--del_lnk--> 2006 <!--del_lnk--> 2007</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><!--del_lnk--> Somali Civil War</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Revolution (1986–92) – <!--del_lnk--> UN intervention (1992–95) – <!--del_lnk--> Attempts at Reconciliation (1991–2004) – <!--del_lnk--> Consolidation (1998–2006) – <!--del_lnk--> Rise of the ICU (2006) – <strong class="selflink">Ethiopian intervention (2006–present)</strong> – <!--del_lnk--> Islamist insurgency (2007–present)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Recent <!--del_lnk--> conflicts in the Horn of Africa</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Eritrean War of Independence – <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian Civil War – <!--del_lnk--> Ogaden War – <!--del_lnk--> Somali Civil War – <!--del_lnk--> Djiboutian Civil War – <!--del_lnk--> Eritrean-Ethiopian War – <strong class="selflink">Ethiopian war in Somalia</strong></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>War in Somalia</b> is an ongoing armed conflict involving largely <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopian</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somali</a> <!--del_lnk--> Transitional Federal Government (TFG) forces versus the <!--del_lnk--> Islamist militant <!--del_lnk--> umbrella group, the <!--del_lnk--> Islamic Court Union (ICU), and other affiliated militias for control of the country. The war officially began on <!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, when the leader of the ICU, <!--del_lnk--> Sheik Hassan Dahir Aweys, declared "Somalia is in a <!--del_lnk--> state of war, and all <!--del_lnk--> Somalis should take part in this struggle against Ethiopia". On <!--del_lnk--> December 24, Ethiopia stated it would actively combat the ICU.<p>Ethiopia's prime minister, <!--del_lnk--> Meles Zenawi, said Ethiopia entered hostilities because it faced a direct threat to its own borders. “Ethiopian defense forces were forced to enter into war to protect the sovereignty of the nation,” he said. “We are not trying to set up a government for Somalia, nor do we have an intention to meddle in Somalia's internal affairs. We have only been forced by the circumstances.”<p>While it is true the ICU made threats to carry the war into Ethiopia, the circumstances referred to were in part due to prior Ethiopian actions. Ethiopia's involvement in Somalia had begun months before, with the intercession of forces to support the establishment of the transitional government, and to support other regional governments considered more acceptable to Ethiopia.<p>The ICU, which controlled the coastal areas of southern Somalia, engaged in fighting with the forces of the Somali TFG, and the autonomous regional governments of <!--del_lnk--> Puntland and <!--del_lnk--> Galmudug, all of whom were backed by Ethiopian troops. The outbreak of heavy fighting began on <!--del_lnk--> December 20 with the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Baidoa, after the lapse of a one-week deadline the ICU imposed on Ethiopia (on <!--del_lnk--> December 12) to withdraw from the nation. Ethiopia, however, refused to abandon its positions around the TFG interim capital at <!--del_lnk--> Baidoa. On <!--del_lnk--> December 29, after several successful battles, TFG and Ethiopian troops <!--del_lnk--> entered Mogadishu relatively unopposed. Although not announced until later, a small number of U.S. special forces troops accompanied Ethiopian and TFG troops after the collapse and withdrawal of the ICU to give military advice and to track suspected al-Qaida fighters.<p>The two sides had traded war declarations and gun fire on several occasions before. Eastern African countries and international observers fear the Ethiopian offensive may lead to a regional war, involving <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, a long-time enemy of Ethiopia, who Ethiopia claims to be a supporter of the ICU.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Forces_involved" name="Forces_involved"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Forces involved</span></h2>
<p>The scope of forces involved are difficult to calculate because of many factors, including lack of formal organization or record-keeping, and claims which remained masked by <!--del_lnk--> disinformation. Ethiopia for months leading up to the war maintained it had only a few hundred advisors in the country. Yet independent reports indicated far more troops. According to the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>, "The United Nations estimated that at least 8,000 Ethiopian troops may be in the country while the AP suggests the number closer to 12-15,000, while regional rival Eritrea has deployed some 2,860 troops in support of the Islamic group." Ethiopia only admitted to 3,511–4,805 being involved, though the ICU claimed the Ethiopians had 30,000 troops, while Eritrea denies having any troops in Somalia. In addition, the TFG alleged there were up to 8,000 foreign <!--del_lnk--> mujahideen fighting on behalf of the ICU, based on the ICU's worldwide appeal for Muslim <!--del_lnk--> mujahideen to come fight for their cause. Somali government troops and allied militias estimated roughly 10,000.<p><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Historic_background" name="Historic_background"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Historic background</span></h3>
<p>A broader perspective shows many incidents of Ethiopian-Somali conflict. Boundary disputes over the <!--del_lnk--> Ogaden region date to the 1948 settlement when the land was <!--del_lnk--> granted to Ethiopia. Somali disgruntlement with this decision has led to repeated attempts to invade Ethiopia with the hopes of taking control of the Ogaden to create a <!--del_lnk--> Greater Somalia. This plan would have reunited the Somali people of the Ethiopian-controlled Ogaden with those living in the Republic of Somalia. Without that, ethnic and political tensions have caused cross-border clashes over the years.<ul>
<li>1960–1964 <!--del_lnk--> Border Dispute<li>1977–1978 <!--del_lnk--> Ogaden War<li>1982 August Border Clash<li>1998–2000 Cross-border warfare during the chaotic warlord-led era.</ul>
<p>Conflicts between Ethiopia and Somalia are not limited to the 20th–21st Centuries. Wars between Somalia, or its precursor Islamic states, and Ethiopia, stretch back to 16th century. For example, <!--del_lnk--> Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi was a 16th Century Islamic leader popular in Somali culture for his <!--del_lnk--> jihad against the Ethiopians during the rise of the <!--del_lnk--> Adal Sultanate.<p>Therefore, painful living history, oral and cultural traditions, long-standing ethnic divisions and sectarian differences lay between the two nations and fuel the conflict.<p><a id="Diplomatic_and_humanitarian_efforts" name="Diplomatic_and_humanitarian_efforts"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Diplomatic and humanitarian efforts</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The war is being responded to by high-level diplomatic engagements, including the UN <!--del_lnk--> Security Council, the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="EU">EU</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, and <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a>. Many humanitarian organizations are making appeals to stem the conflict before it causes catastrophic civilian suffering.<p><a id="Information_Warfare.2C_Disinformation_and_Propaganda" name="Information_Warfare.2C_Disinformation_and_Propaganda"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Information Warfare, Disinformation and Propaganda</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Even before the beginning of the war there have been significant assertions and accusations of the use of <!--del_lnk--> disinformation and <a href="../../wp/p/Propaganda.htm" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> tactics by various parties to shape the causes and course of the conflict. This includes assertions of falsification of the presence or number of forces involved, exaggeration or minimization of the casualties inflicted or taken, influence or control of media outlets (or shutting them down), and other informational means and media to sway popular support and international opinion.<p><a id="Timeline_of_the_build-up" name="Timeline_of_the_build-up"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Timeline of the build-up</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="July.E2.80.93October_2006" name="July.E2.80.93October_2006"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">July–October 2006</span></h3>
<p>Ethiopian troops moved into Somalian territory on <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2006.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the ICU sent <!--del_lnk--> technicals out towards the Ethiopian border north of Beledweyne. Ethiopian troops were reportedly sent across the border to stop the ICU's advance.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 9, it was reported Ethiopian troops seized <!--del_lnk--> Burhakaba. Another article seemed to indicate the Ethiopian control was a troop convoy passing through. Islamists claim the town reverted to their control after the Ethiopians departed. SomaliNet reports the elders asked the government to leave to avoid bloodshed in their town. The article said it was government troops, and not Ethiopians who had come to the town.<p><a id="November_-_December_2006" name="November_-_December_2006"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">November - December 2006</span></h3>
<p>An Ethiopian column of 80 vehicles was hit by landmines then attacked with gunfire by a group of about 50 troops loyal to the ICU on <!--del_lnk--> November 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 near Berdaale, 30 miles (50 km) west of Baidoa. Six Ethiopians were reported killed in the attack. Two Ethiopian trucks burned and two were overturned.<p>An exchange of mortar shells between Islamic Courts Union and Ethiopian forces occurred in <!--del_lnk--> Galkayo on <!--del_lnk--> November 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 with both Islamists and Ethiopian forces facing off. Ethiopian and Islamist forces in Galkayo, central Somalia, were less than 5 kilometers away from one another.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 30, an Ethiopian military convoy in Somalia was ambushed by fighters loyal to the Islamic Courts Union. Eyewitnesses said a truck was blown up and there was an exchange of fire. The ICU claim 20 soldiers died. Ethiopia's parliament voted the same day to authorize the government take "all necessary" steps to rebuff any potential invasion by Somalia's Islamists.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, fighters from Somalia's Islamic Courts Union clashed with Somalian pro-government forces, allegedly in cooperation with Ethiopian troops. Sheikh <!--del_lnk--> Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, head of the Islamic Courts, told a crowd in <a href="../../wp/m/Mogadishu.htm" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a> that fighting had started in <!--del_lnk--> Dinsor in the south, and called on all Somalis to "stand up and defeat the enemies". Another official said Ethiopian troops had shelled the town of <!--del_lnk--> Bandiradley. The Deputy Defence Minister of the Somali government, Salat Ali Jelle, confirmed the fighting but denied any Ethiopian troops were involved. The Ethiopian government has denied repeated claims that its troops are fighting alongside Somali government militia.<p>Witnesses in <!--del_lnk--> Dagaari village near Bandiradley said that they saw hundreds of Ethiopian troops and tanks take up positions near the town with militiamen from the northeastern semi-autonomous region of <!--del_lnk--> Puntland.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 9, fighters from Somalia's Islamic Courts and pro-government soldiers clashed in a second day of fighting. The fighting occurred 40 kilometers from the interim government's headquarters in Baidoa. Mohamed Ibrahim Bilal, an Islamic Courts official, said that the government had launched a counterattack at Rama'addey village, while <!--del_lnk--> Ali Mohamed Gedi, the prime minister, claimed that Islamic Courts fighters had attacked government positions.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 13, a Reuters report said that the ICU claimed 30,000 Ethiopian troops were involved in Somalia, while 4,000 foreign fighters were involved on the side of the ICU. Ethiopia denied having troops other than "military advisors" present.<p><a id="War" name="War"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">War</span></h2>
<p><a name="2006"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">2006</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 20, major fighting broke out around the TFG capital of Baidoa. Thirteen trucks filled with Ethiopian reinforcements were reported en route to the fighting. Leaders of both groups briefly kept an option open for peace talks brokered by the EU.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 22, nearly 20 Ethiopian tanks headed toward the front line. According to government sources Ethiopia had 20 <!--del_lnk--> T-55 tanks and four attack helicopters in Baidoa.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 23, Ethiopian tanks and further reinforcements arrived in Daynuunay, 30 kilometres east of Baidoa; prompting ICU forces to vow all-out war despite a commitment to a EU-brokered peace. Heavy fighting continued in Lidale and Dinsoor.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 24, Ethiopia admitted its troops were fighting the Islamists, after stating earlier in the week it had only sent several hundred military advisors to Baidoa. Heavy fighting erupted in border areas, with reports of air strikes and shelling, including targets near the ICU-held town of Beledweyne. According to Ethiopian Information Minister Berhan Hailu: "The Ethiopian government has taken self-defensive measures and started counter-attacking the aggressive extremist forces of the Islamic Courts and foreign terrorist groups."<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 25, Ethiopian and Somali forces captured Beledweyne. Defending ICU forces fled Beledweyne concurrent to Ethiopian airstrikes against the Mogadishu and Bali-Dogle airports. Heavy fighting was also reported in Burhakaba.<div class="thumb tleft">
</div>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 26, the ICU was in retreat on all fronts, losing much of the territory they gained in the months preceding the Ethiopian intervention. They reportedly fell back to Daynuunay and <a href="../../wp/m/Mogadishu.htm" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 27, Ethiopian and Somali government forces were en route to Somalia's capital, Mogadishu after capturing the strategic town of Jowhar, 90km north from the capital. The ICU were in control of little more than the coast, abandoning many towns without putting up a fight. Also, the UIC top two commanders, defense chief <!--del_lnk--> Yusuf Mohammed Siad Inda'ade and his deputy Abu Mansur were away on the Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca.<p>After the <!--del_lnk--> Fall of Mogadishu to the Ethiopian and government forces on <!--del_lnk--> December 28, fighting continued in the <!--del_lnk--> Juba River valley, where the ICU retreated, establishing a new headquarters in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Kismayo. Intense fighting was reported on <!--del_lnk--> December 31 in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Jilib and the ICU frontlines collapsed during the night to artillery fire, causing the ICU to once again go into retreat, <!--del_lnk--> abandoning Kismayo, without a fight and retreating towards the <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenyan</a> border.<p><a name="2007"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">2007</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Military events in 2007 focused on the southern section of Somalia, primarily the <!--del_lnk--> withdrawal of ICU forces from <!--del_lnk--> Kismayo, and their pursuit using Ethiopian air strikes in Afmadow district concurrent to the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ras Kamboni. During this battle, the U.S. launched an airstrike conducted by an <!--del_lnk--> AC-130 gunship against suspected <!--del_lnk--> Al-Qaeda operatives. A second airstrike was made after the battle later in <!--del_lnk--> January 2007. In addition, there were various <!--del_lnk--> insurgent attacks in Mogadishu and around the country against Ethiopian and government forces, as well as inter-clan militia violence. The government meanwhile called for a <!--del_lnk--> disarmament of the militias, and declared martial law. In the beginning of March, the first <!--del_lnk--> African Union Mission to Somalia begun arriving in Somalia, as the insurgency flared up.<p>By the end of March, the fighting <!--del_lnk--> intensified in Mogadishu and more than a thousand people were killed. <!--del_lnk--> Hawiye clan militaimen allied with the islamists clashed with TFG and Ethiopian troops.<p><a id="Suicide_bombings" name="Suicide_bombings"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Suicide bombings</span></h2>
<p>In late 2006, two suicide bombings were reported in Baidoa where the government was stationed at the time.<p>In the beginning of April 2007, Al-Jazeera TV aired a Somali man who was speaking in Arabic and reciting <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Koran">Koranic</a> verses. Then they showed an <!--del_lnk--> SUV full what appeared to be explosives driving toward an Ethiopian compound followed by a large explosion.<p>The insurgents adapted Middle East style suicide bombings. At least one person blew himself on April 19, 2007 near an Ethiopian military compound. A bystander said at least two Ethiopian vehicles entering the compound were destroyed to small pieces. <!--del_lnk--> <p>On April 24, a suicide bomber attacked an Ethiopian forces compound in <!--del_lnk--> Afgoye town, 30km south of Mogadishu. There were no immediate casualty reports. <!--del_lnk--> <p>On April 25, 11 people were killed in a suicide attack on a major hotel around KM4 roundabout, south of Mogadishu where the Somali government officials are based. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Somaliland" name="Somaliland"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Somaliland</span></h2>
<p>Having secured the southern and central area of Somalia in mid January 2007, the Transitional Federal Government is faced with the issue of whether, and how, to unify the entirety of Somalia as it existed in 1991. Since that year, <!--del_lnk--> Somaliland has been operating as a <i>de facto</i> independent nation, though unrecognized internationally. According to the <!--del_lnk--> Transitional Federal Charter, the Somali Republic includes the area of Somaliland in the definition of its <!--del_lnk--> sovereign territory.<p>There are various political forces involved. Ethiopia depends on Somaliland to provide port facilities since the loss of the coast with <a href="../../wp/e/Eritrea.htm" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, and generally supports the idea of Somaliland independence, while Eritrea supports Somaliland being reabsorbed into Somalia to make a larger nation to counter Ethiopia's dominance on the region. As well, eastern Somaliland is disputed with <!--del_lnk--> Puntland because of clan ties..<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 11, Somaliland and Ethiopia held talks regarding further economic ties.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2007, leaders of Somaliland's three main political parties, the <!--del_lnk--> UDUB, <!--del_lnk--> Kulmiye, and <!--del_lnk--> UCID, held a press conference warning of regional war if Somalia tried to reabsorb Somaliland. On <!--del_lnk--> January 16, tens of thousands protested in <!--del_lnk--> Hargeisa against the prospect of reunification, burning Somalian flags. The next day, <!--del_lnk--> January 17, thousands demonstrated in favour of joining the TFG took place in the <!--del_lnk--> Sool and <!--del_lnk--> Sanag regions of Somaliland.<p><a id="Weapons" name="Weapons"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Weapons</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian Army is equipped with predominantly Soviet-made weapons while TFG and Islamic weapons vary, having mostly small arms. The following table should not be considered exhaustive.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Type</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Ethiopian Army</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> TFG</th>
<th>Islamists</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Tanks</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> T-55, <!--del_lnk--> T-62, <!--del_lnk--> T-72</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>APC's/IFV's</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BTR-40, <!--del_lnk--> M113, <!--del_lnk--> BTR-60</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> technicals</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> technicals</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Artillery</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2A18, <!--del_lnk--> M1937 Howitzer, <!--del_lnk--> BM-21, 120mm mortars</td>
<td>120mm mortars</td>
<td>120mm mortars</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Aircraft</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> MiG-21, <!--del_lnk--> MiG-23, <!--del_lnk--> Su-27</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Helicopters</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mi-6, <!--del_lnk--> Mi-8, <!--del_lnk--> Mi-24</td>
<td>none</td>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Small Arms, Light Weapons</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/AK-47.htm" title="AK-47">AK-47</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Heckler & Koch G3, <!--del_lnk--> PKM, <!--del_lnk--> DShK, <!--del_lnk--> ZU-23, <!--del_lnk--> RPG-2, <!--del_lnk--> RPG-7</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/AK-47.htm" title="AK-47">AK-47</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Heckler & Koch G3, <!--del_lnk--> PKM, <!--del_lnk--> DShK, <!--del_lnk--> ZU-23, <!--del_lnk--> RPG-2, <!--del_lnk--> RPG-7</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/AK-47.htm" title="AK-47">AK-47</a>, <!--del_lnk--> DShK, <!--del_lnk--> Browning M2, <!--del_lnk--> ZU-23, <!--del_lnk--> M79, <!--del_lnk--> RPG-7</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Key_people" name="Key_people"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Key people</span></h2>
<p><a id="TFG" name="TFG"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">TFG</span></h3>
<p>An <!--del_lnk--> August 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 article in the Sudan Tribune identified several warlords involved with TFG military units:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed – TFG president, former leader of the <!--del_lnk--> SSDF.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mohamed Omar Habeeb (Mohamed Dheere) – controlled Jowhar region with the help of Ethiopia; after losing in Mogadishu as part of the <!--del_lnk--> ARPCT, regrouped his militia in Ethiopia & since returned (see <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Jowhar).<li><!--del_lnk--> Muuse Suudi Yalahow – Controlled Medina District in Mogadishu but was forced to flee by the ICU. Has since returned to the city.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hussein Mohamed Farrah – son of late General <!--del_lnk--> Mohamed Farrah Aidid. Although his father was a key anti-U.N. force in the mid-1990s, Farrah is a naturalized U.S. citizen and former U.S. Marine who controlled <!--del_lnk--> Villa Somalia. Former leader of the <!--del_lnk--> SRRC militia. The Sudan Tribune says Farrah is in the patronage of Ethiopia, and Western interests see him as their best hope to improve Somali-Western relations.<li><!--del_lnk--> Abdi Hasan Awale Qeybdiid – former finance minister under Gen. Aidid; arrested in Sweden for warcrimes, but later released due to lack of evidence.<li>Colonel <!--del_lnk--> Hasan Muhammad Nur Shatigadud – affiliated with the <!--del_lnk--> Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA). Came to power after his militia (with the help of Ethiopian paramilitary forces) drived out Aidid's militia from Baidoa, which became the seat of the transitional government. Presently TFG Minister of Finance.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mohamed Qanyare Afrah – former Security Minister and member of <!--del_lnk--> ARPCT<li><!--del_lnk--> Barre Aadan Shire "Hiiraale" – leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Juba Valley Alliance (JVA); controls Kismayo (and until its loss to the ICU, Marka region).<li><!--del_lnk--> Hassan Abdullah Qalaad</ul>
<p><a id="ICU" name="ICU"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">ICU</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sharif Ahmed, head of the ICU executive committee<li><!--del_lnk--> Hassan Dahir Aweys, head of the ICU shura council, former Somali colonel, listed by the U.S. as a terrorist for heading <a href="../../wp/o/Osama_bin_Laden.htm" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a>-supported <!--del_lnk--> Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya in the 1990s.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hassan Abdullah Hersi al-Turki, led forces which captured Juba Valley, on U.S. terrorist list for taking over the leadership of Aweys' group<li><!--del_lnk--> Abu Taha al-Sudan, reported to have led the ICU troops in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Baidoa, former Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya, wanted by the U.S. as the financier of the <!--del_lnk--> 1998 United States embassy bombings and involvement in the <!--del_lnk--> 2002 Mombasa hotel bombing<li><!--del_lnk--> Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan, listed as a terrorist by the U.S. for reported involvement in the <!--del_lnk--> 2002 Mombasa hotel bombing, said to have been a target of the U.S. AC-130 raid in January 2007<li><!--del_lnk--> Fazul Abdullah Mohammed, listed as a terrorist by the U.S. for reported involvement in the <!--del_lnk--> 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. Some sources claim that he was a target of the U.S. AC-130 raid. His death by the AC-130 raid was later reported by Somali authorities, but denied by US officials.<li><!--del_lnk--> Aden Hashi Farah "Eyrow", led commandos of the ICU's <!--del_lnk--> Hizbul Shabaab movement against Ethiopian-backed forces in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Baidoa, before fleeing and being targeted by the U.S. AC-130 raid that killed eight people on <!--del_lnk--> January 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2007. Was named Al-Qaeda's leader in Somalia in <!--del_lnk--> March, 2007.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Somalia_%282006%E2%80%93present%29"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">War of the League of Cambrai</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Pre_1900_Military.htm">Pre 1900 Military</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;">
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">War of the League of Cambrai</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: lightsteelblue;">Part of the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Wars</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><a class="image" href="../../images/284/28405.png.htm" title="Northern Italy in 1494"><img alt="Northern Italy in 1494" height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Northern_Italy_in_1494.png" src="../../images/284/28405.png" width="300" /></a><br /> Northern Italy in 1494; by the start of the war in 1508, Louis XII had expelled the <!--del_lnk--> Sforza from the Duchy of Milan and added its territory to France.</td>
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<table class="infobox" style="margin: 0; cellpadding: 0; padding: 0; border: 0;" width="100%">
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th>
<td>1508–16</td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Result</th>
<td>Franco-Venetian victory</td>
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</td>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;">
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<th><strong class="selflink">War of the League of Cambrai</strong></th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Agnadello – <!--del_lnk--> Padua – <!--del_lnk--> Brescia – <!--del_lnk--> Ravenna – <!--del_lnk--> St. Mathieu – <!--del_lnk--> Novara – <!--del_lnk--> Guinegate – <!--del_lnk--> Flodden Field – <!--del_lnk--> La Motta – <!--del_lnk--> Marignano</td>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;">
<tr style="background: lightsteelblue;">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Italian Wars</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> First – <!--del_lnk--> Second – <strong class="selflink">League of Cambrai</strong> – <!--del_lnk--> Urbino – <a href="../../wp/i/Italian_War_of_1521.htm" title="Italian War of 1521">1521</a> – <!--del_lnk--> League of Cognac – <!--del_lnk--> 1535 – <!--del_lnk--> 1542 – <!--del_lnk--> 1551</td>
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<p>The <b>War of the League of Cambrai</b>, sometimes known as the <b>War of the Holy League</b> and by several other names, was a major conflict in the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Wars. The principal participants of the war, which was fought from 1508 to 1516, were <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Papal States, and the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice; they were joined, at various times, by nearly every significant power in <!--del_lnk--> Western Europe, including <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England, the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Scotland, the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Milan, <!--del_lnk--> Florence, the Duchy of <!--del_lnk--> Ferrara, and the <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pope Julius II had intended that the war would curb Venetian influence in northern <!--del_lnk--> Italy, and had, to this end, created the League of Cambrai (named after <!--del_lnk--> Cambrai, where the negotiations took place), an alliance against the Republic that included, besides himself, <!--del_lnk--> Louis XII of France, <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Maximilian I, and <!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand I of Spain. Although the League was initially successful, friction between Julius and Louis caused it to collapse by 1510; Julius then allied himself with Venice against France.<p>The Veneto-Papal alliance eventually expanded into the Holy League, which drove the French from Italy in 1512; disagreements about the division of the spoils, however, led Venice to abandon the alliance in favour of one with France. Under the leadership of <!--del_lnk--> Francis I, who had succeeded Louis to the throne, the French and Venetians would, through their victory at <!--del_lnk--> Marignano in 1515, regain the territory they had lost; the treaties of <!--del_lnk--> Noyon and <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, which ended the war the next year, would essentially return the map of Italy to the status quo of 1508.<p>
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</script><a id="Prelude" name="Prelude"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prelude</span></h2>
<p>In the aftermath of the <!--del_lnk--> First Italian War, <!--del_lnk--> Pope Alexander VI had moved to consolidate Papal control over central Italy by seizing the <!--del_lnk--> Romagna. <!--del_lnk--> Cesare Borgia, acting as <!--del_lnk--> gonfaloniere of the Papal armies, had expelled the <!--del_lnk--> Bentivoglio family from <a href="../../wp/b/Bologna.htm" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, which they had ruled as a fief, and was well on his way towards establishing a permanent Borgia state in the region when Alexander died on <!--del_lnk--> 18 August <!--del_lnk--> 1503. Although Cesare managed to seize the remnants of the Papal treasury for his own use, he was unable to secure Rome itself, as French and Spanish armies converged on the city in an attempt to influence the <a href="../../wp/p/Papal_conclave.htm" title="Papal conclave">Papal conclave</a>; the election of <!--del_lnk--> Pius III (who soon died, to be replaced by Julius II) stripped Cesare of his titles and relegated him to commanding a company of men-at-arms. Sensing Cesare's weakness, the dispossessed lords of the Romagna offered to submit to the Republic of Venice in exchange for aid in regaining their dominions; the Senate accepted and had taken possession of <!--del_lnk--> Rimini, <!--del_lnk--> Faenza, and a number of other cities by the end of 1503.<p>Julius II, having secured his own control of the Papal armies by arresting and imprisoning Cesare, first in Rome and later in Madrid, quickly moved to re-establish Papal control over the Romagna by demanding that Venice return the cities she had seized; the Republic, although willing to acknowledge Papal sovereignty over them and pay Julius an annual tribute, refused to surrender the cities themselves. In response, Julius concluded an alliance with France and the Holy Roman Empire against Venice; the death of <!--del_lnk--> Isabella of Castile and the resulting collapse of relations between the parties soon dissolved the alliance, but not before Venice had been induced to abandon several of the cities. Julius, although unsatisfied with his gains, did not himself possess sufficient forces to fight the Republic; for the next two years he instead occupied himself with the reconquest of Bologna and <!--del_lnk--> Perugia, which, located between Papal and Venetian territory, had in the meantime assumed a state of quasi-independence.<p>In 1507, Julius returned to the question of the cities in Venetian hands; once again rebuffed by the Senate, he encouraged the recently elected <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Maximilian I to attack the Republic. Maximilian, using his journey to Rome for the Imperial coronation as a pretext, entered Venetian territory with a large army in February 1508 and advanced on <!--del_lnk--> Vicenza, but was defeated by a Venetian army under <!--del_lnk--> Bartolomeo d'Alviano. A second assault by a <!--del_lnk--> Tyrolean force several weeks later was an even greater failure; Alviano not only routed the Imperial army but also proceeded to seize <!--del_lnk--> Trieste and <!--del_lnk--> Fiume, forcing Maximilian to conclude a truce with Venice.<p><a id="League_of_Cambrai_.281508.E2.80.9310.29" name="League_of_Cambrai_.281508.E2.80.9310.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">League of Cambrai (1508–10)</span></h2>
<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px;">
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue;">Combatants in the War of the League of Cambrai</th>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue;">League of Cambrai (1508–10)</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Papal States,<br /><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Ferrara</td>
<td width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue;">Veneto-Papal alliance (1510–11)</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Papal States,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice</td>
<td width="50%"><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Ferrara</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue;">Holy League against France (1511–13)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Papal States,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice,<br /><a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Swiss</td>
<td width="50%"><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Ferrara</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue;">Franco-Venetian alliance (1513–16)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Papal States,<br /><a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Milan,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Swiss</td>
<td width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice,<br /><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Ferrara</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Julius, humiliated by the failure of the Imperial invasion, turned to <!--del_lnk--> Louis XII of France (who, having been left in possession of <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a> after the <!--del_lnk--> Second Italian War, was interested in further expansion into Italy) with an offer of alliance. In mid-March, the Republic provided a pretext for an attack on itself by appointing her own candidate to the vacant bishopric of Vicenza (an act in keeping with prevailing custom, though Julius considered it a personal provocation); the Pope proceeded to call for all Christian nations to join him in an expedition to subdue Venice. On <!--del_lnk--> 10 December <!--del_lnk--> 1508, representatives of the Papacy, France, the Holy Roman Empire, and <!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand I of Spain concluded the League of Cambrai against the Republic. The agreement provided for the complete dismemberment of Venice's territory in Italy and for its partition among the signatories: Maximilian, in addition to regaining <!--del_lnk--> Istria, would receive <!--del_lnk--> Verona, Vicenza, <!--del_lnk--> Padua, and the <!--del_lnk--> Friuli; France would annex <!--del_lnk--> Brescia, <!--del_lnk--> Crema, <!--del_lnk--> Bergamo, and <!--del_lnk--> Cremona to its Milanese possessions; Ferdinand would seize <!--del_lnk--> Otranto; and the remainder, including <!--del_lnk--> Rimini and <!--del_lnk--> Ravenna, would be added to the Papal States.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 15 April <!--del_lnk--> 1509, Louis left Milan at the head of a French army and moved rapidly into Venetian territory. To oppose him, Venice had hired a <!--del_lnk--> condottiere army under the command of the <!--del_lnk--> Orsini cousins—Bartolomeo d'Alviano and <!--del_lnk--> Nicolo di Pitigliano—but had failed to account for the fact that the two disagreed on how best to stop the French advance. Consequently, when Louis crossed the <!--del_lnk--> Adda River in early May and Alviano advanced to meet him, Pitigliano, believing it best to avoid a pitched battle, moved away to the south. On <!--del_lnk--> 14 May, Alviano confronted the French at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Agnadello; outnumbered, he sent requests for reinforcements to his cousin, who replied with orders to break off the battle and continued on his way. Alviano, disregarding the new orders, continued the engagement; his army was eventually surrounded and destroyed. Pitigliano managed to avoid encountering Louis; but his mercenary troops, hearing of Alviano's defeat, had deserted in large numbers by the next morning, forcing him to retreat to <!--del_lnk--> Treviso with the remnants of the Venetian army.<p>The Venetian collapse was complete; Louis proceeded to occupy Venetian territory as far east as <!--del_lnk--> Brescia without encountering any significant resistance. The major cities that had not been occupied by the French—Padua, Verona, and Vicenza—were left undefended by Pitigliano's withdrawal, and quickly surrendered to Maximilian when Imperial emissaries arrived in the Veneto. Julius, having in the meantime issued an <!--del_lnk--> interdict against Venice that excommunicated every citizen of the Republic, invaded the Romagna and seized Ravenna with the assistance of the Duke of <!--del_lnk--> Ferrara, who had joined the League and seized the <!--del_lnk--> Polesine for himself.<p>The newly arrived Imperial governors, however, quickly proved to be unpopular. In mid-July, the citizens of Padua, aided by detachments of Venetian cavalry under the command of the <!--del_lnk--> proveditor <!--del_lnk--> Andrea Gritti, revolted; the <!--del_lnk--> landsknechts garrisoning the city were too few in number to mount effective resistance and Padua was restored to Venetian control on <!--del_lnk--> 17 July. The success of the revolt finally pushed Maximilian into action. In early August, a massive Imperial army, accompanied by bodies of French and Spanish troops, set out from <!--del_lnk--> Trento into the Veneto. Because of a lack of horses, as well as general disorganization, Maximilian's forces would not reach Padua until September, giving Pitigliano the time to concentrate such troops as were still available to him in the city. The <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Padua began on <!--del_lnk--> 15 September; although French and Imperial artillery successfully breached Padua's walls, the defenders managed to hold the city until Maximilian, growing impatient, lifted the siege on <!--del_lnk--> 30 September and withdrew to <!--del_lnk--> Tyrol with the main part of his army.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/215/21511.jpg.htm" title="Pope Julius II, painted by Raphael (oil on wood, c. 1511). Julius attempted to secure Papal authority in Italy by creating the League of Cambrai, an alliance aimed at curbing Venetian power."><img alt="Pope Julius II, painted by Raphael (oil on wood, c. 1511). Julius attempted to secure Papal authority in Italy by creating the League of Cambrai, an alliance aimed at curbing Venetian power." height="310" longdesc="/wiki/Image:09julius.jpg" src="../../images/284/28406.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/215/21511.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Pope Julius II, painted by <a href="../../wp/r/Raphael.htm" title="Raphael">Raphael</a> (oil on wood, c. 1511). Julius attempted to secure Papal authority in Italy by creating the League of Cambrai, an alliance aimed at curbing Venetian power.</div>
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<p>In mid-November, Pitigliano returned to the offensive; Venetian troops easily defeated the remaining Imperial forces, capturing Vicenza, <!--del_lnk--> Este, <!--del_lnk--> Feltre, and <!--del_lnk--> Belluno. Although a subsequent attack on Verona failed, Pitigliano managed to destroy a Papal army under <!--del_lnk--> Francesco II of Gonzaga in the process. A river attack on Ferrara by the Venetian <!--del_lnk--> galley fleet under <!--del_lnk--> Angelo Trevisan failed, however, when the Venetian ships, anchored in the <!--del_lnk--> Po River, were sunk by Ferrarese artillery; and a new French advance soon forced Pitigliano to withdraw to Padua once again.<p>Faced with a shortage of both funds and men, the Senate decided to send an embassy to Julius in order to negotiate a settlement. The terms insisted on by the Pope were harsh: the Republic lost her traditional power to appoint clergy in her territory, as well as all jurisdiction over Papal subjects in Venice, the Romagnan cities that had prompted the war were to be returned to Julius, and reparations were to be paid to cover his expenses in capturing them. The Senate argued over the terms for two months, but finally accepted them on February 24, 1510. Even before the Venetian ambassadors had presented themselves to Julius for <!--del_lnk--> absolution, however, the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Ten had privately resolved that the terms had been accepted under duress and were therefore invalid; and that Venice should violate them at the earliest opportunity.<p>This reconciliation between Venice and the Pope did not stop the French from again invading the Veneto in March. Pitigliano's death in January had left Andrea Gritti in command of the Venetian forces; although Maximilian failed to reinforce Louis, the French army was nonetheless sufficient to drive the Venetians from Vicenza by May. Gritti garrisoned Padua for an expected attack by a combined Franco-Imperial army; but Louis, more concerned by the death of his advisor, the Cardinal d'Amboise, abandoned his plans for a siege.<p><a id="Veneto-Papal_alliance_.281510.E2.80.9311.29" name="Veneto-Papal_alliance_.281510.E2.80.9311.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Veneto-Papal alliance (1510–11)</span></h2>
<p>Julius, meanwhile, had become increasingly concerned by the growing French presence in Italy; more significantly, he had formulated plans to seize the Duchy of <!--del_lnk--> Ferrara, a French ally, and to add its territory to the Papal States. His own forces being inadequate for the venture, the Pope hired an army of <!--del_lnk--> Swiss mercenaries, ordering them to attack the French in Milan; he also invited Venice to ally with him against Louis. The Republic, facing a renewed French onslaught, readily accepted the offer.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28407.jpg.htm" title="Alfonso d'Este, the Duke of Ferrara; excommunicated by Julius, he inflicted a number of defeats on the Papal forces."><img alt="Alfonso d'Este, the Duke of Ferrara; excommunicated by Julius, he inflicted a number of defeats on the Papal forces." height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Alfonso_I_d%27Este.jpg" src="../../images/284/28407.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28407.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Alfonso d'Este, the Duke of <!--del_lnk--> Ferrara; excommunicated by Julius, he inflicted a number of defeats on the Papal forces.</div>
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<p>By July 1510, the new Veneto-Papal alliance was on the offensive. An initial attack on French-occupied <a href="../../wp/g/Genoa.htm" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> failed, but Venetian troops under <!--del_lnk--> Lucio Malvezzo finally drove the French from <!--del_lnk--> Vicenza in early August; and a joint force commanded by <!--del_lnk--> Francesco Maria della Rovere, the Duke of <!--del_lnk--> Urbino, captured <!--del_lnk--> Modena on <!--del_lnk--> 17 August. Julius now <!--del_lnk--> excommunicated <!--del_lnk--> Alfonso d'Este, thus justifying an attack on the Duchy itself; in anticipation of his coming victory, the Pope traveled to <a href="../../wp/b/Bologna.htm" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, so as to be nearby when Ferrara was taken.<p>The French army, however, had been left unopposed by the Swiss (who, having arrived in Lombardy, had been bribed into leaving by Louis) and was free to march south into the heart of Italy. In early October, <!--del_lnk--> Charles d'Amboise advanced on Bologna, splitting the Papal forces; by <!--del_lnk--> 18 October, he was only a few miles from the city. Julius now realized that the Bolognese were openly hostile to the Papacy and would not offer any resistance to the French; left with only a detachment of Venetian cavalry, he resorted to excommunicating d'Amboise, who had in the meantime been convinced by the English ambassador to avoid attacking the person of the Pope and had thus withdrawn to Ferrara.<p>In December, a newly assembled Papal army besieged the fortress of <!--del_lnk--> Mirandola; d'Amboise, marching to relieve it, fell ill and died, briefly leaving the French in disarray. Alfonso d'Este, meanwhile, confronted and destroyed the Venetian forces on the <!--del_lnk--> Po River, leaving Bologna isolated once more. Julius, afraid of being trapped by the French, departed the city for Ravenna. Cardinal Alidosi, whom he left behind to command the defense of the city, was no better liked by the Bolognese than Julius himself had been; and when, on <!--del_lnk--> 23 May <!--del_lnk--> 1511, a French army commanded by <!--del_lnk--> Gian Giacomo Trivulzio arrived at the gates, they quickly surrendered. Julius blamed this defeat on the Duke of Urbino, who, finding this quite unfair, proceeded to murder Alidosi in full view of the Papal guard.<p><a id="Holy_League_.281511.E2.80.9313.29" name="Holy_League_.281511.E2.80.9313.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Holy League (1511–13)</span></h2>
<p>By June 1511, most of the Romagna was in French hands; the Papal army, disorganized and underpaid, was in no condition to prevent Trivulzio from advancing on Ravenna. In response to this debacle, Julius proclaimed a Holy League against France. The new alliance rapidly grew to include not only Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, who abandoned any pretense of adhering to the League of Cambrai in hopes of seizing <!--del_lnk--> Navarre and Lombardy from Louis, but also <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII of England</a> (who, having decided to use the occasion as an excuse to expand his holdings in northern France, concluded the Treaty of Westminster—a pledge of mutual aid against the French—with Ferdinand in November 1511).<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:272px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28408.jpg.htm" title="The death of Gaston de Foix during the Battle of Ravenna heralded a long period of defeats for France."><img alt="The death of Gaston de Foix during the Battle of Ravenna heralded a long period of defeats for France." height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Death_of_Gaston_de_Foix_in_the_Battle_of_Ravenna.jpg" src="../../images/284/28408.jpg" width="270" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28408.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The death of <!--del_lnk--> Gaston de Foix during the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ravenna heralded a long period of defeats for France.</div>
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<p>In February 1512, Louis appointed his nephew, <!--del_lnk--> Gaston de Foix, to command the French forces in Italy. Foix proved more energetic than Amboise had been; having checked the advance of <!--del_lnk--> Ramón de Cardona's Spanish troops on Bologna, he returned to Lombardy to <!--del_lnk--> sack Brescia, which had rebelled against the French and garrisoned itself with Venetian troops. Aware that much of the French army would be diverted to deal with the impending English invasion, Foix and Alfonso d'Este besieged <!--del_lnk--> Ravenna, the last Papal stronghold in the Romagna, in hopes of forcing the Holy League into a decisive engagement. Cardona marched to relieve the city in early April, and was decisively beaten in the resulting <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ravenna; the death of Foix during the fighting, however, left the French under the command of <!--del_lnk--> Jacques de la Palice, who, unwilling to continue the campaign without direct orders from Louis, contented himself with thoroughly sacking Ravenna.<p>By May 1512, the French position had deteriorated considerably. Julius had hired another army of Swiss mercenaries; they descended on Milan, bringing with them <!--del_lnk--> Maximilian Sforza, who was determined to regain control of the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy for his family. La Palice abandoned the Romagna (where the Duke of Urbino quickly captured Bologna and <!--del_lnk--> Parma) and retreated to Lombardy, attempting to intercept the invasion. By August, the Swiss had combined with the Venetian army and forced Triviulzio out of Milan, allowing Sforza to be proclaimed Duke with their support; La Palice was then forced to withdraw across the Alps.<p>In late August, the members of the League met at <!--del_lnk--> Mantua to discuss the situation in Italy (particularly the partition of territory acquired from the French). They quickly came to an agreement regarding <!--del_lnk--> Florence, which had angered Julius by allowing Louis to convene the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Pisa in its territory. At the Pope's request, Ramon de Cardona marched into <!--del_lnk--> Tuscany, smashed Florentine resistance, overthrew the Republic, and installed Cardinal <!--del_lnk--> Giuliano de' Medici as ruler of the city.<p>On the subject of territory, however, fundamental disagreements quickly arose. Julius and the Venetians insisted that Maximilian Sforza be permitted to keep the Duchy of Milan; Emperor Maximilian and Ferdinand conspired instead to have one of their cousins installed as duke. The Pope demanded the immediate annexation of Ferrara to the Papal States; Ferdinand objected to this arrangement, desiring the existence of an independent Ferrara to counter growing Papal power. Most problematic, however, was the attitude of Maximilian towards Venice. The Emperor refused to surrender any Imperial territory, which in his eyes included most of the Veneto, to the Republic; to this end, he signed an agreement with the Pope to exclude Venice entirely from the final partition. When the Republic objected, Julius threatened to reform the League of Cambrai against her. In response, Venice turned to Louis; on <!--del_lnk--> 23 March <!--del_lnk--> 1513, a treaty pledging to divide all of northern Italy between France and the Republic was signed at <!--del_lnk--> Blois.<p><a id="Franco-Venetian_alliance_.281513.E2.80.9316.29" name="Franco-Venetian_alliance_.281513.E2.80.9316.29"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Franco-Venetian alliance (1513–16)</span></h2>
<p>In late May 1513, a French army commanded by <!--del_lnk--> Louis de la Trémoille crossed the <!--del_lnk--> Alps and advanced on Milan; at the same time, Bartolomeo d'Alviano and the Venetian army marched west from Padua. The unpopularity of Maximilian Sforza, who was seen by the Milanese as a puppet of his Swiss mercenaries, enabled the French to move through Lombardy with little resitance; Trémoille, having seized Milan, besieged the remaining Swiss in <!--del_lnk--> Novara. On <!--del_lnk--> 6 June, the French were attacked by a Swiss relief army at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Novara, and were routed despite having superior numbers. Detachments of the Swiss army pursued the fleeing French over the Alps and had reached <!--del_lnk--> Dijon before being bribed into withdrawing.<p>The rout at Novara inaugurated a period of continuous defeats for the French alliance. English troops under <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> attacked La Palice at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Guinegate, scattered the French forces, and proceeded to sack <!--del_lnk--> Therouanne. In Navarre, resistance to Ferdinand's invasion collapsed; he rapidly consolidated his hold over the entire region and moved to support another English offensive in the <!--del_lnk--> Guyenne. <!--del_lnk--> James IV of Scotland invaded England at the behest of Louis; he failed to draw Henry's attention from France, and his disastrous defeat at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Flodden Field on <!--del_lnk--> 9 September <!--del_lnk--> 1513, ended Scotland's brief involvement in the war.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:272px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28409.jpg.htm" title="In 1515, the Franco-Venetian alliance decisively defeated the Holy League at the Battle of Marignano."><img alt="In 1515, the Franco-Venetian alliance decisively defeated the Holy League at the Battle of Marignano." height="280" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Marignano.JPG" src="../../images/284/28409.jpg" width="270" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28409.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In 1515, the Franco-Venetian alliance decisively defeated the Holy League at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Marignano.</div>
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<p>Meanwhile, Alviano, unexpectedly left without French support, retreated into the Veneto, pursued closely by the Spanish army under Cardona. While the Spanish were unable to capture Padua in the face of determined Venetian resistance, they penetrated deep into Venetian territory and by late September were in sight of <!--del_lnk--> Venice itself. Cardona attempted a bombardment of the city that proved largely ineffective; then, having no boats with which to cross the lagoon, turned back for Lombardy. Alviano, having been reinforced by hundreds of volunteers from the Venetian nobility, pursued Cardona and confronted him outside <!--del_lnk--> Vicenza on <!--del_lnk--> 7 October. In the resulting <!--del_lnk--> Battle of La Motta, the Venetian army was decisively defeated, with many prominent noblemen cut down outside the city walls as they attempted to flee.<p>However, the Holy League failed to follow up on these victories. Cardona and Alviano continued to skirmish in the <!--del_lnk--> Friuli for the rest of 1513 and through 1514, fighting several inconclusive battles, but Cardona was unable to make any real progress. Henry VIII, having failed to gain any significant territory, concluded a separate peace with France. Finally, the death of Julius left the League without a leader; Julius' successor to the Papacy, <!--del_lnk--> Leo X, was rather less concerned with military matters.<p>The death of Louis XII on <!--del_lnk--> 1 January <!--del_lnk--> 1515, brought <!--del_lnk--> Francis I to the throne. Having assumed the title of <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Milan at his coronation, Francis immediately moved to reclaim his holdings in Italy. By July, Francis had assembled an army in the <!--del_lnk--> Dauphiné. A combined Swiss and Papal force moved north from Milan to block the Alpine passes against him, but Francis, following the advice of Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, avoided the main passes and marched instead through the valley of the <!--del_lnk--> Stura. The French vanguard surprised the Milanese cavalry at <!--del_lnk--> Villafranca, capturing <!--del_lnk--> Prospero Colonna; meanwhile, Francis and the main body of the French confronted the Swiss at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Marignano on <!--del_lnk--> 13 September. The Swiss advance initially made headway; however, Francis' superiority in cavalry and artillery, together with the timely arrival of Alviano (who had successfully avoided Cardona's army at <!--del_lnk--> Verona) on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> 14 September, led to a strategically decisive victory for Francis and the Venetians.<p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h2>
<p>After the defeat at Marignano, the League no longer possessed the ability or the will to continue the war. Francis advanced on Milan, capturing the city on <!--del_lnk--> 4 October and removing Sforza from the throne. In December, he met with Leo at Bologna; the pope, who had in the meantime been deserted by the remainder of his <!--del_lnk--> Swiss mercenaries, surrendered <!--del_lnk--> Parma and <!--del_lnk--> Piacenza to Francis and <!--del_lnk--> Modena to the Duke of Ferrara. In return, Leo received guarantees of French noninterference in his proposed attack on the Duchy of Urbino. Finally, the Treaty of Noyon, signed by Francis and <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> in August 1516, recognized French claims to Milan and Spanish claims to Naples, removing Spain from the war.<p>Maximilian held out, making another attempt to invade Lombardy; his army failed to reach Milan before turning back, and by December 1516, he had entered into negotiations with Francis. The resulting Treaty of Brussels not only accepted French occupation of Milan, but also confirmed Venetian claims to the remainder of the Imperial possessions in Lombardy (except for <!--del_lnk--> Cremona), effectively ending the war with a return to the status quo of 1508. The peace, however, would last only four years; the election of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 caused Francis, who had desired the position for himself, to begin the <a href="../../wp/i/Italian_War_of_1521.htm" title="Italian War of 1521">Italian War of 1521</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Italian Wars, thus reignited, would then continue until 1530 without significant interruption.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">War of the Spanish Succession</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Pre_1900_Military.htm">Pre 1900 Military</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">War of the Spanish Succession</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><a class="image" href="../../images/284/28410.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Villars_a_Denain.jpg" src="../../images/284/28410.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /><i>The Battle of Denain 1712</i>. Oil by Jean Alaux</td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1701-<!--del_lnk--> 1714</td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a></td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Result</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Utrecht: Philip was recognised as King Philip V of Spain, but renounced his place in the French line of succession, thereby precluding the union of the French and Spanish crowns</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Combatants</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dutch Republic,<br /><a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Crown of Aragon</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Castile,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Bavaria</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Commanders</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Duke of Marlborough, <!--del_lnk--> Eugene of Savoy,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Margrave of Baden</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> King Louis XIV,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Marshal Villars,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Maximilian II Emanuel</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Strength</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">220,000</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">450,000</td>
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<th><strong class="selflink">War of the Spanish Succession</strong></th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Carpi – <!--del_lnk--> Chieri – <!--del_lnk--> Cremona – <!--del_lnk--> Luzzara – <!--del_lnk--> Cádiz – <!--del_lnk--> Málaga – <!--del_lnk--> Friedlingen – <!--del_lnk--> Vigo Bay – <!--del_lnk--> Höchstädt - <!--del_lnk--> Schellenberg – <!--del_lnk--> Blenheim – <!--del_lnk--> Cassano – <!--del_lnk--> Calcinato – <!--del_lnk--> Ramillies – <!--del_lnk--> Turin – <!--del_lnk--> Almansa – <!--del_lnk--> Toulon – <!--del_lnk--> Oudenarde – <!--del_lnk--> Malplaquet – <!--del_lnk--> Saragossa – <!--del_lnk--> Almenara – <!--del_lnk--> Brihuega – <!--del_lnk--> Villaviciosa – <!--del_lnk--> Denain – <!--del_lnk--> Barcelona</td>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28411.jpg.htm" title="Charles II was the last Habsburg King of Spain. After his death, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out as France and Austria vied for the Spanish empire."><img alt="Charles II was the last Habsburg King of Spain. After his death, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out as France and Austria vied for the Spanish empire." height="301" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Charles_II_of_Spain.jpg" src="../../images/284/28411.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28411.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Charles II was the last Habsburg King of Spain. After his death, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out as France and Austria vied for the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish empire.</div>
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<p>The <b>War of the Spanish Succession</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 1701-<!--del_lnk--> 1714) was a major <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> conflict that arose in <!--del_lnk--> 1701 after the death of the last <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Habsburg king, <!--del_lnk--> Charles II. Charles had bequeathed all of his possessions to <!--del_lnk--> Philip, duc d'Anjou - a grandson of the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">King Louis XIV</a> - who thereby became Philip V of Spain. The war began slowly, as the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Roman Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Leopold I fought to protect his own dynasty's claim to the Spanish inheritance. As Louis XIV began to expand his territories more aggressively, however, other European nations (chiefly <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Dutch Republic) entered on the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire's</a> side to check French expansion (and, in the English case, to safeguard the Protestant succession). Other states joined the coalition opposing France and Spain in an attempt to acquire new territories, or to protect existing dominions. The war was fought not only in Europe, but also in North America, where the conflict became known to the English colonists as <!--del_lnk--> Queen Anne's War.<p>The war lasted over a decade, and was marked by the military leadership of notable generals such as the <!--del_lnk--> Duc de Villars and the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Berwick for France, the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Marlborough for England, and <!--del_lnk--> Prince Eugene of Savoy for the Austrians. The war was concluded by the treaties of <!--del_lnk--> Utrecht (1713) and <!--del_lnk--> Rastatt (1714). As a result, Philip V remained King of Spain but was removed from the French line of succession, thereby averting a union of France and Spain. The Austrians gained most of the Spanish territories in Italy and the Netherlands. As a consequence, France's <!--del_lnk--> hegemony over continental Europe was ended, and the idea of a <!--del_lnk--> balance of power became a part of the international order due to its mention in the Treaty of Utrecht.<p>
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</script><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<p>As <!--del_lnk--> King Charles II of Spain had been both mentally and physically infirm from a very young age, it was clear that he could not produce an heir. Thus, the issue of the inheritance of the Spanish kingdoms - which included not only Spain, but also dominions in <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Low Countries, and the Americas - became quite contentious. Two dynasties claimed the Spanish throne: the French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs; both royal families were closely related to the late King of Spain.<p>The most direct and legitimate successor would have been <!--del_lnk--> Louis, the Grand Dauphin, the only legitimate son of King Louis XIV of France and Spanish princess <!--del_lnk--> Maria Theresa, herself King Charles II's elder half-sister. In addition, Louis XIV was a first cousin of his wife Maria Theresa and of King Charles II as his mother was Spanish princess <!--del_lnk--> Anne of Austria, the sister of King <!--del_lnk--> Philip IV, Charles II's father. The Dauphin, being next in the French line of succession as well, was a problematic choice: had he inherited both the French and the Spanish realms, he would have control of a vast empire that would have threatened the European <!--del_lnk--> balance of power. Furthermore, both Anne and Maria Theresa had renounced their rights to the Spanish succession upon their marriages. In the latter case, however, the renunciation was widely seen as invalid, since it had been predicated upon Spain's payment of the Infanta's dowry, which in the event was never paid.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28412.jpg.htm" title="King Louis XIV of France was the most powerful monarch in Europe; it was feared that allowing his son to inherit Spain would seriously compromise the balance of power in Europe."><img alt="King Louis XIV of France was the most powerful monarch in Europe; it was feared that allowing his son to inherit Spain would seriously compromise the balance of power in Europe." height="355" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg" src="../../images/284/28412.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28412.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> King Louis XIV of France was the most powerful monarch in Europe; it was feared that allowing his son to inherit Spain would seriously compromise the balance of power in Europe.</div>
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<p>The alternative candidate was the Holy Roman Emperor, <!--del_lnk--> Leopold I, of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty. He was a first cousin of the King of Spain, his mother having been another sister of Philip IV; moreover, Charles II's father, <!--del_lnk--> Philip IV, had given the succession to the Austrian line in his will. This candidate, too, posed formidable problems, for Leopold's success would have reunited the powerful Spanish-Austrian Habsburg empire of the sixteenth century. In <!--del_lnk--> 1668, only three years after Charles II had ascended, the then-childless Leopold had agreed to the partition of the Spanish territories between the Bourbons and the Habsburgs, even though Philip IV's will entitled him to the entire inheritance. In <!--del_lnk--> 1689, however, when <a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William III</a> of England required the Emperor's aid in the <!--del_lnk--> War of the Grand Alliance against France, he promised to support the Emperor's claim to the undivided Spanish empire.<p>A new candidate for the Spanish throne, the Electoral Prince <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria, had been born in <!--del_lnk--> 1692. Joseph Ferdinand was Leopold I's grandson, but in the female line, so he belonged not to the Habsburg but to the <!--del_lnk--> Wittelsbach dynasty. His mother, Maria Antonia, had been Leopold's daughter by his first marriage, to Philip IV of Spain's younger daughter Margaret Theresa. As Joseph Ferdinand was neither a Bourbon nor a Habsburg, the likelihood of Spain merging with either France or Austria remained low. Although Leopold and Louis were both willing to defer their claims to a junior line of the family - Leopold to his younger son, the <!--del_lnk--> Archduke Charles, and Louis to the Dauphin's younger son, the <!--del_lnk--> Duc d'Anjou - the Bavarian prince remained a far less threatening candidate. Accordingly, he soon became the preferred choice of England and the Netherlands. Joseph Ferdinand, moreover, would have been the lawful heir to the Spanish throne under Philip IV's will.<p>As the War of the Grand Alliance came to a close in <!--del_lnk--> 1697, the issue of the Spanish succession was becoming critical. England and France, exhausted by the conflict, agreed to the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Den Haag (1698), (the First Partition Treaty), which named Joseph Ferdinand heir to the Spanish throne, but divided Spanish territory in Italy and the Low Countries between France and Austria. This decision was taken without consulting the Spanish, who vehemently objected to the dismemberment of their empire. Thus, when the Partition Treaty became known in <!--del_lnk--> 1698, Charles II of Spain agreed to name the Bavarian Prince his heir, but assigned to him the whole Spanish Empire, not just the parts England and France had chosen.<p>The young Bavarian prince abruptly died of <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1699, reopening the issue of the Spanish succession. England and France soon ratified the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of London, 1700 (the Second Partition Treaty), assigning the Spanish throne to the Archduke Charles. The Italian territories would go to France, while the Archduke would receive the remainder of the Spanish empire. The Austrians, who were not party to the treaty, were displeased, for they openly vied for the whole of Spain, and it was the Italian territories in which they were most interested: richer, closer, and more governable. In Spain, distaste for the treaty was even greater; the courtiers were unified in opposing partition, but were divided on whether the throne should go to a Habsburg or a Bourbon. The pro-French statesmen, however, were in the majority, and in October <!--del_lnk--> 1700, Charles II agreed to bequeath all of his territory to the Dauphin's second son, the <!--del_lnk--> duc d'Anjou. Charles took steps to prevent the union of France and Spain; should Anjou have inherited the French throne, Spain would have gone to his younger brother, the duc de Berri. After Anjou and his brother, the Archduke Charles was to have been next in the line of succession.<p><a id="Beginning_of_the_war" name="Beginning_of_the_war"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Beginning of the war</span></h2>
<p>When the French court first learned of the will, Louis XIV's advisors convinced him that it was safer to accept the terms of the Second Partition Treaty, of <!--del_lnk--> 1700, than to risk war by claiming the whole Spanish inheritance. However, <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy, the French foreign secretary, successfully argued that whether France accepted the whole or a part of the Spanish Empire, it would still have to fight Austria, which did not accept the nature of the partition stipulated by the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of London, 1700. Furthermore, the terms of Charles' will stipulated that Anjou was only to be offered the choice of the whole Spanish Empire or nothing; if he refused, the entire inheritance was to go to Philip's younger brother <!--del_lnk--> Charles, duke of Berry, or to <!--del_lnk--> Archduke Charles of Austria if the duke of Berry refused. Knowing that the Maritime Powers - England and the United Provinces - would not join France in a fight to impose the partition treaty on the unwilling Austrians and Spanish, Louis determined to accept his grandson's inheritance. Charles II died on <!--del_lnk--> 1 November <!--del_lnk--> 1700, and on <!--del_lnk--> 24 November, Louis XIV proclaimed Anjou King of Spain. The new King, Philip V, was declared ruler of the entire Spanish empire, contrary to the provisions of the Second Partition Treaty. <a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William III of England</a>, however, could not declare war against France, since he did not have the support of the elites who determined policy in both England and the United Provinces. He reluctantly recognised Philip as king in April <!--del_lnk--> 1701.<p>Louis, however, took too aggressive a path in his attempt to secure French hegemony in Europe. He cut off England and the Netherlands from Spanish trade, thereby seriously threatening the commercial interests of those two countries. William III secured the support of his subjects and negotiated the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Den Haag with the United Provinces and Austria. The agreement, reached on September 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1701, recognised Philip V as King of Spain, but allotted Austria that which it desired most: the Spanish territories in Italy, forcing it to accept as well the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Netherlands, thus protecting that crucial region from French control. England and the Netherlands, meanwhile, were to retain their commercial rights in Spain.<p>A few days after the signing of the treaty, the former King of England, <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II</a> (who had been deposed by William III in <!--del_lnk--> 1688) died in France. Although Louis had treated William as King of England since the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Ryswick, he now recognized James II's son, <!--del_lnk--> James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"), as the rightful monarch. England and the United Provinces had already begun raising armies; Louis's action alienated the English public even further, and gave William grounds for war. Armed conflict began slowly, as Austrian forces under <!--del_lnk--> Prince Eugene of Savoy invaded the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Milan, one of the Spanish territories in Italy, prompting French intervention. England, the United Provinces, and most German states (most notably <!--del_lnk--> Prussia and <!--del_lnk--> Hanover), sided with Austria, but the <!--del_lnk--> Wittelsbach Electors of <!--del_lnk--> Bavaria and <!--del_lnk--> Cologne, the King of <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, and the Duke of <!--del_lnk--> Savoy supported France and Spain. In Spain, the <!--del_lnk--> cortes of <!--del_lnk--> Aragon, <!--del_lnk--> Valencia, and <!--del_lnk--> Catalonia (most of the kingdoms of the <!--del_lnk--> Crown of Aragon) declared themselves in favour of the Austrian Archduke. Even after William III died in <!--del_lnk--> 1702, his successor in England, <a href="../../wp/a/Anne_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="Anne of Great Britain">Anne</a>, continued the vigorous prosecution of the war, under the guidance of her ministers <!--del_lnk--> Godolphin and <!--del_lnk--> Marlborough.<p><a id="Early_fighting" name="Early_fighting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early fighting</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28413.jpg.htm" title="At the Battle of Vigo Bay, English and Dutch destroyed a Spanish treasure fleet, recovering silver to the value of about a million pounds sterling."><img alt="At the Battle of Vigo Bay, English and Dutch destroyed a Spanish treasure fleet, recovering silver to the value of about a million pounds sterling." height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bakhuizen%2C_Battle_of_Vigo_Bay.jpg" src="../../images/284/28413.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28413.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> At the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Vigo Bay, English and Dutch destroyed a <!--del_lnk--> Spanish treasure fleet, recovering silver to the value of about a million <a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">pounds sterling</a>.</div>
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<p>There were two main theatres of the war in Europe: Spain and West-Central Europe (especially the Low Countries). The latter theatre proved the more important, as Prince Eugene and the English Duke of Marlborough each distinguished themselves as military commanders. There was also important fighting in Germany and Italy.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1702, Eugene fought in Italy, where the French were led by the <!--del_lnk--> Duc de Villeroi, whom Eugene defeated and captured at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Cremona (<!--del_lnk--> February 1). Villeroi was now replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> Duc de Vendôme, who, despite a drawn <!--del_lnk--> battle at Luzzara in August and a considerable numerical superiority, proved unable to drive Eugene from Italy.<p>In the meantime, Marlborough led combined English, Dutch, and German forces in the Low Countries, where he captured several important fortresses, most notably <!--del_lnk--> Liège. On the Rhine, an Imperial army under <!--del_lnk--> Louis of Baden captured <!--del_lnk--> Landau in September, but the threat to Alsace was relieved by the entrance of the <!--del_lnk--> Elector of Bavaria into the war on the French side. Prince Louis was forced to withdraw across the Rhine, where he was defeated by a French army under <!--del_lnk--> Claude-Louis-Hector de Villars at <!--del_lnk--> Friedlingen. The English admiral <!--del_lnk--> Sir George Rooke also won an important naval battle, the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Vigo Bay, which resulted in the complete destruction of the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish treasure fleet and in the capture of tons of silver.<p>Next year, although Marlborough captured <!--del_lnk--> Bonn and drove the Elector of Cologne into exile, he failed in his efforts to capture <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>, and the French were successful in Germany. A combined Franco-Bavarian army under Villars and Max Emanuel of Bavaria defeated Imperial armies under Louis of Baden and <!--del_lnk--> Hermann Styrum, but the Elector's timidity prevented a march on Vienna, which led to Villars's resignation. French victories in south Germany continued after Villars' resignation, however, with a new army under <!--del_lnk--> Camille de Tallard victorious in the <!--del_lnk--> Palatinate. French leaders entertained grand designs, intending to use a combined French and Bavarian army to capture the <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austrian</a> capital the next year. By the end of the year <!--del_lnk--> 1703, however, France had suffered setbacks for Portugal and Savoy had defected to the other side. Meanwhile, the English, who had previously held the view that Philip could remain on the throne of Spain, now decided that their commercial interests would be more secure under the Archduke Charles.<p><a id="Blenheim_to_Malplaquet" name="Blenheim_to_Malplaquet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Blenheim to Malplaquet</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28414.jpg.htm" title="The Duke of Marlborough was the commander of the English, Dutch and German forces. He inflicted a crushing defeat on the French and Bavarians at the Battle of Blenheim."><img alt="The Duke of Marlborough was the commander of the English, Dutch and German forces. He inflicted a crushing defeat on the French and Bavarians at the Battle of Blenheim." height="332" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Marlborough-duke-first.jpg" src="../../images/284/28414.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28414.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Marlborough was the commander of the English, Dutch and German forces. He inflicted a crushing defeat on the French and Bavarians at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Blenheim.</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1704, the French plan was to use Villeroi's army in the Netherlands to contain Marlborough, while Tallard and the Franco-Bavarian army under Max Emanuel and <!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand de Marsin, Villars's replacement, would march on Vienna.<p>Marlborough - ignoring the wishes of the Dutch, who preferred to keep their troops in the Low Countries - led the English and Dutch forces southward to Germany; Eugene, meanwhile, moved northward from Italy with the Austrian army. The objective of these manœuvres was to prevent the Franco-Bavarian army from advancing on Vienna. Having met, the forces under Marlborough and Eugene faced the French under Tallard at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Blenheim. The battle was a resounding success for Marlborough and Eugene, and had the effect of knocking Bavaria out of the war. In that year, England achieved another important success as it captured <a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a> in Spain, with the help of Dutch forces under the command of <!--del_lnk--> Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt, and initially on behalf of the Archduke Charles.<p>Following the Battle of Blenheim, Marlborough and Eugene separated again, with the former going to the Low Countries, and the latter to Italy. In <!--del_lnk--> 1705, little progress was made by either France or the allies in any theatre. Marlborough and Villeroi manoeuvred indecisively in the Netherlands, and the story was much the same for Villars and Louis of Baden on the Rhine, and Vendôme and Eugene in Italy. The stalemate was broken in <!--del_lnk--> 1706, as Marlborough drove the French out of most of the Spanish Netherlands, decisively defeating troops under Villeroi in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ramillies in May and following up with the conquest of <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Dunkirk. Prince Eugene also met with success; in September, following the departure of Vendôme to shore up the shattered army in the Netherlands, he and the Duke of Savoy inflicted a heavy loss on the French under <!--del_lnk--> Orleans and Marsin at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Turin, driving them out of Italy by the end of the year.<p>Now that France had been expelled from Germany, the Low Countries and Italy, Spain became the centre of activity in the next few years. In <!--del_lnk--> 1706, the Portuguese general <!--del_lnk--> Marquês das Minas led an invasion of Spain from Portugal, managing to capture <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>. By the end of the year, however, Madrid was recovered by an army led by King Philip V and the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Berwick (the illegitimate son of <a href="../../wp/j/James_II_of_England.htm" title="James II of England">James II of England</a>, serving in the French army). <!--del_lnk--> Galway led another attempt on Madrid in <!--del_lnk--> 1707, but Berwick roundly defeated him at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Almansa on <!--del_lnk--> 25 April. Thereafter, the war in Spain settled into indecisive skirmishing from which it would not subsequently emerge.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1707, the War briefly intersected with the <!--del_lnk--> Great Northern War, which was being fought simultaneously in Northern Europe. A Swedish army under <!--del_lnk--> Charles XII arrived in <!--del_lnk--> Saxony, where he had just finished chastising the Elector <!--del_lnk--> Augustus II and forced him to renounce his claims to the Polish throne. Both the French and the Allies sent envoys to Charles's camp, and the French hoped to encourage him to turn his troops against the Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Joseph I, who Charles felt had slighted him by his support for Augustus. However, Charles, who liked to see himself as a champion of Protestant Europe, greatly disliked Louis XIV for his treatment of the Huguenots, and was generally uninterested in the western war. He turned his attention instead to Russia, ending the possibility of Swedish intervention.<p>Later in <!--del_lnk--> 1707, Prince Eugene led an allied invasion of southern France from Italy, but was stalled by the French army. Marlborough, in the meantime, remained in the Low Countries, where he was caught up in capturing an endless succession of fortresses. In <!--del_lnk--> 1708, Marlborough's army clashed with the French, who were beset by leadership problems: their commanders, the <!--del_lnk--> Duc de Bourgogne (Louis XIV's grandson) and the Duc de Vendôme were frequently at variance, the former often making unwise military decisions. Bourgogne's insistence that the French army not attack led Marlborough once again to unite his army with Eugene's, allowing the allied army to crush the French at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Oudenarde, and then proceeded to capture <a href="../../wp/l/Lille.htm" title="Lille">Lille</a>.<p>The disasters of Oudenarde and Lille led France to the brink of ruin. Louis XIV was forced to negotiate; he sent his foreign minister, the Marquis de Torcy, to meet the allied commanders at <a href="../../wp/t/The_Hague.htm" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>. Louis agreed to surrender Spain and all its territories to the allies, requesting only that he be allowed to keep <!--del_lnk--> Naples (in Italy). He was, moreover, prepared to furnish money to help expel Philip V from Spain. The allies, however, imposed more humiliating conditions; they demanded that Louis use the French army to dethrone his own grandson. Rejecting the offer, Louis chose to continue fighting until the bitter end. He appealed to the people of France, bringing thousands of new recruits into his army.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1709, the allies attempted three invasions of France, but two were so minor as to be merely diversionary. A more serious attempt was launched when Marlborough and Eugene advanced toward Paris. They clashed with the French under the Duc de Villars at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the war. Although the allies defeated the French, they lost over twenty thousand men, compared with only ten thousand for their opponents. The allies captured <!--del_lnk--> Mons but were unable to follow up their victory. The battle marked a turning point in the war; despite winning, the allies were unable to proceed with the invasion, having suffered such tremendous casualties.<p><a id="Final_stages" name="Final_stages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Final stages</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28415.jpg.htm" title="Marshal Villars (1653-1734) rescued the French fortunes in the War of the Spanish Succession. Villars, along with Turenne and Luxembourg, was one of Louis's greatest battlefield generals."><img alt="Marshal Villars (1653-1734) rescued the French fortunes in the War of the Spanish Succession. Villars, along with Turenne and Luxembourg, was one of Louis's greatest battlefield generals." height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Duc_de_Villars.jpg" src="../../images/284/28415.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28415.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Marshal Villars (<!--del_lnk--> 1653-<!--del_lnk--> 1734) rescued the French fortunes in the War of the Spanish Succession. Villars, along with <!--del_lnk--> Turenne and Luxembourg, was one of Louis's greatest battlefield generals.</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1710, the allies launched a final campaign in Spain, but failed to make any progress. An army under <!--del_lnk--> James Stanhope reached Madrid together with the Archduke Charles, but it was forced to capitulate at <!--del_lnk--> Brihuega when a relief army came from France. The alliance, in the meantime, began to weaken. In Great Britain, Marlborough's powerful political influence was lost, as the source of much of his clout - the friendship between his wife and the Queen - came to an end, with Queen Anne dismissing the <!--del_lnk--> Duchess of Marlborough from her offices and banishing her from the court. Moreover, the <!--del_lnk--> Whig ministry which had lent its support to the war fell, and the new <!--del_lnk--> Tory government that took its place sought peace. Marlborough was recalled to Great Britain in <!--del_lnk--> 1711, and was replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Ormonde.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1711, the Archduke Charles became Holy Roman Emperor as <!--del_lnk--> Charles VI following the sudden death of Joseph, his elder brother; now, a decisive victory for Austria would upset the balance of power just as much as a victory for France. The British, led by Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> Henry St John, began to secretly correspond with the Marquis de Torcy, excluding the Dutch and Austrians from their negotiations. The Duke of Ormonde refused to commit British troops to battle, so the French under Villars were able to recover much lost ground in <!--del_lnk--> 1712, such as at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Denain.<p>Peace negotiations bore fruit in <!--del_lnk--> 1713, when the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Utrecht was concluded, and Great Britain and the Netherlands ceased fighting France. <a href="../../wp/b/Barcelona.htm" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, which had supported the Archduke's claim to the throne of Spain and the allies in <!--del_lnk--> 1705, finally surrendered to the Bourbon army in <!--del_lnk--> 11 September <!--del_lnk--> 1714 following <!--del_lnk--> a long siege, ending the presence of the allies in Spain. Nowadays this date is remembered as the <!--del_lnk--> National Day of Catalonia. Hostilities between France and Austria lumbered on until <!--del_lnk--> 1714, when the Treaties of Rastatt and Baden were ratified, marking the end of the War of the Spanish Succession. Spain was slower in ratifying treaties of peace; it did not formally end its conflict with Austria until <!--del_lnk--> 1720, after it had been defeated by all the powers in the <!--del_lnk--> War of the Quadruple Alliance.<p><a id="Result" name="Result"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Result</span></h2>
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<p>Under the Peace of Utrecht, <!--del_lnk--> Philip was recognised as King Philip V of Spain, but renounced his place in the French line of succession, thereby precluding the union of the French and Spanish crowns (although there was some sense in France that this renunciation was illegal). He retained the Spanish overseas empire, but ceded the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Netherlands, <!--del_lnk--> Naples, <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Sardinia to Austria; <!--del_lnk--> Sicily and parts of the Milanese to Savoy; and Gibraltar and <!--del_lnk--> Minorca to Great Britain. Moreover, he granted the British the exclusive right to <!--del_lnk--> slave trading in Spanish America for thirty years, the so-called <i><!--del_lnk--> asiento</i>.<p>With regard to the political organization of their kingdoms, Philip issued the <i><!--del_lnk--> Decretos de Nueva Planta</i>, following the centralizing approach of the Bourbons in France, ending the political autonomy of the kingdoms of the <!--del_lnk--> Crown of Aragon; territories in Spain that had supported the Archduke Charles and up to then had kept their institutions in a framework of loose dynastic union. On the other hand, the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Navarre and the <!--del_lnk--> Basque Provinces, having supported the king against the Habsburg pretender, did not lose their autonomy and retained their traditional differentiated institutions and laws.<p>No important changes were made to French territory in Europe. Grandiose imperial desires to turn back the French expansion to the Rhine which had occurred since the middle decades of the seventeenth century were not realized, nor was the French border pushed back in the Low Countries. France agreed to stop supporting the <!--del_lnk--> Stuart pretenders to the British throne, instead recognising Anne as the legitimate queen. France gave up various North American colonial possessions, recognising British sovereignty over <!--del_lnk--> Rupert's Land and <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland, and ceding <!--del_lnk--> Acadia and its half of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Kitts. The Dutch were permitted to retain various forts in the Spanish Netherlands, and were permitted to annex a part of Spanish <!--del_lnk--> Guelders.<p>With the Peace of Utrecht, the wars to prevent French hegemony that had dominated the seventeenth century were over for the time being. France and Spain, both under Bourbon monarchs, remained allies during the following years. Spain, stripped of its territories in Italy and the Low Countries, lost most of its power, and became a second-rate nation in Continental politics.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Computing_People.htm">Computing People</a></h3>
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<p><b>Howard G. "Ward" Cunningham</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> May 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1949) is the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> computer programmer who <!--del_lnk--> invented the <!--del_lnk--> wiki. A pioneer in both <!--del_lnk--> design patterns and <!--del_lnk--> Extreme Programming, he started programming the software <!--del_lnk--> WikiWikiWeb in 1994 and installed it on the <!--del_lnk--> website of his software consultancy, Cunningham & Cunningham (commonly known by its domain name, <b>c2.com</b>), on <!--del_lnk--> March 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1995, as an add-on to the <!--del_lnk--> Portland Pattern Repository.<p>Cunningham currently lives in <!--del_lnk--> Beaverton, Oregon.<p>
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<p>Howard G. "Ward" Cunningham received his <!--del_lnk--> bachelor's degree in interdisciplinary engineering (<a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_engineering.htm" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" title="Computer science">computer science</a>) and his <!--del_lnk--> master's degree in computer science from <!--del_lnk--> Purdue University. He is a founder of Cunningham & Cunningham, Inc. He has also served as Director of R&D at <!--del_lnk--> Wyatt Software and as Principal Engineer in the <!--del_lnk--> Tektronix Computer Research Laboratory. He is founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Hillside Group and has served as program chair of the Pattern Languages of Programs conference which it sponsors. Ward was part of the <!--del_lnk--> Smalltalk community. From December 2003 until October 2005 he worked for <!--del_lnk--> Microsoft Corporation in the "patterns & practices" group. As of October 2005, he is the Director of Committer Community Development at the <!--del_lnk--> Eclipse Foundation.<p><a id="Ideas_and_inventions" name="Ideas_and_inventions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ideas and inventions</span></h2>
<p>Cunningham is well-known for a few widely disseminated ideas which he originated and developed. Among these, the most famous are the wiki (named after <!--del_lnk--> WikiWikiWeb), and many patterns in the field of software patterns, including the collection of patterns and practices that later became known as "Extreme Programming" or "XP."<p><a id="Patterns_and_Extreme_Programming" name="Patterns_and_Extreme_Programming"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Patterns and Extreme Programming</span></h3>
<p>Cunningham is also well known for his contributions to the developing practice of <!--del_lnk--> object-oriented programming: in particular, the use of <!--del_lnk--> pattern languages, and <!--del_lnk--> CRC (Class-Responsibility-Collaboration) cards (with <!--del_lnk--> Kent Beck). He is also a significant contributor to <!--del_lnk--> Extreme Programming, a <!--del_lnk--> software development methodology. A great deal of this work was carried out in the first wiki site itself. His most famous quote is probably, "What's the simplest thing that could possibly work?" Or, it could be, "What's the simplest thing that would definitely work?" The underlying theme in both of these is SIMPLE.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_Cunningham"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Warren G. Harding</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.USA_Presidents.htm">USA Presidents</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Warren Gamaliel Harding</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14395.jpg.htm" title="Warren G. Harding"><img alt="Warren G. Harding" height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warren_G_Harding_portrait_as_senator_June_1920.jpg" src="../../images/143/14395.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
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<hr />
<div style="background:lavender;">29th <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1921 – <!--del_lnk--> August 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1923</td>
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<th>Vice President(s) </th>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a></td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a></td>
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<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1865<br /> Near <!--del_lnk--> Blooming Grove, Ohio</td>
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<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1923<br /><!--del_lnk--> San Francisco, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a></td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Republican</td>
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<th>Spouse</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Florence Kling Harding</td>
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<th>Religion</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Baptist</td>
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<th>Signature</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/143/14396.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="26" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warren_G._Harding_signature.gif" src="../../images/143/14396.gif" width="128" /></a></td>
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<p><b>Warren Gamaliel Harding</b> (<!--del_lnk--> November 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1865 – <!--del_lnk--> August 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1923) was an <!--del_lnk--> American politician and the 29th <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>, serving from 1921 to 1923, when he became the sixth president to die in office. A <!--del_lnk--> Republican from the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Ohio, Harding was an influential <a href="../../wp/n/Newspaper.htm" title="Newspaper">newspaper</a> publisher with a flair for <!--del_lnk--> public speaking before entering politics, first in the <!--del_lnk--> Ohio Senate (1899–1903) and later as <!--del_lnk--> lieutenant governor of Ohio (1903–1905). His political leanings were <!--del_lnk--> conservative, and his record in both offices was relatively undistinguished.<p>At the conclusion of his term, Harding returned to private life, only to reenter politics ten years later as a <!--del_lnk--> United States Senator (1915–1921), where he again had a relatively undistinguished record, missing over two-thirds of the <!--del_lnk--> roll-call votes. An unknown politician at the time of the <!--del_lnk--> 1920 Republican National Convention, Harding emerged as a <!--del_lnk--> dark horse to become the presidential nominee through political maneuvering. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1920 election, he defeated his <!--del_lnk--> Democratic opponent <!--del_lnk--> James M. Cox in a <!--del_lnk--> landslide, 60.36 % to 34.19 % (404 to 127 in the <!--del_lnk--> electoral college), becoming the first president born after the culmination of the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>. He adopted <!--del_lnk--> laissez-faire policies both on economic and social policy. While on the final leg of a tour of the western states and the Alaska Territory, Harding died in <a href="../../wp/s/San_Francisco%252C_California.htm" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco, California</a>, 27 months into his term, at age 57. The cause of death was first said to have been food poisoning acquired during a stop-over in <a href="../../wp/v/Vancouver.htm" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, <!--del_lnk--> British Columbia. It was later believed that he died from <!--del_lnk--> apoplexy or a <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">stroke</a>; medical scholars now believe that Harding died of end-stage <!--del_lnk--> heart disease. He was succeeded by <!--del_lnk--> Vice President <a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>.<p>Because of several scandals involving others in his administration, after his death Harding gained a reputation as being one of America's least successful Presidents. In numerous <!--del_lnk--> polls of historians, Harding is ranked as one of the worst, or even last. However, some recent writers have come to different conclusions about Harding's place in history. <!--del_lnk--> John Dean, who wrote a 2004 biography of Harding for Times Press, has stated that "Harding is not a role model for a failed Presidency." Dr. Robert H. Ferrell, Distinguished Professor Emeritus of History at <!--del_lnk--> Indiana University, a Harding biographer and a leading national scholar on the presidency, concluded that Warren G. Harding was basically "a good President."<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>President Harding was born on <!--del_lnk--> November 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1865, near Corsica, Ohio (now <!--del_lnk--> Blooming Grove, Ohio). Harding was the eldest of the eight children of Dr. George Tryon Harding, Sr. and Phoebe Elizabeth (Dickerson) Harding. His heroes were <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Hamilton.htm" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>. His mother was a <!--del_lnk--> midwife who later obtained her <!--del_lnk--> medical license, and his father taught for a time at a rural school north of <!--del_lnk--> Mount Gilead, Ohio. While he was a teenager, the Harding family moved to <!--del_lnk--> Caledonia, Ohio in neighboring <!--del_lnk--> Marion County when Harding's father acquired <i>The Argus</i>, a local weekly newspaper. It was here that Harding learned the basics of the business. His education was completed at <!--del_lnk--> Ohio Central College in <!--del_lnk--> Iberia, Ohio. While a college student, he learned more about the printing and newspaper trade while working at the <i>Union Register</i> in Mount Gilead.<p>After graduation, Harding moved to <!--del_lnk--> Marion, Ohio, where he raised $300 with two friends to purchase the failing <i><!--del_lnk--> Marion Daily Star</i>. It was the weakest of Marion's three newspapers and the only daily in the growing city. Harding converted the paper's editorial platform to support the Republicans and enjoyed a moderate degree of success. However, his political stance was at odds with those who controlled most of Marion's local politics. When Harding moved to unseat the <i>Marion Independent</i> as the official paper of daily record, his actions brought the wrath of <!--del_lnk--> Amos Hall Kling, one of Marion's wealthiest real estate speculators, down upon him.<p>While Harding won the war of words and made the <i><!--del_lnk--> Marion Daily Star</i> one of the biggest newspapers in the county, the battle took a toll on his health. In 1889, when Harding was 24, he suffered <!--del_lnk--> exhaustion and nervous fatigue. He traveled to <!--del_lnk--> Battle Creek, Michigan to spend several weeks in a sanatorium regaining his strength. He later returned to Marion to continue operating the paper. He spent his days boosting the community on the editorial pages, and his evenings "bloviating" (Harding's term for informal conversation) with his friends over games of <!--del_lnk--> poker.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14397.jpg.htm" title="Harding and Florence pose for this garden photograph."><img alt="Harding and Florence pose for this garden photograph." height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HardingFlorence.jpg" src="../../images/143/14397.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14397.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Harding and Florence pose for this garden photograph.</div>
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<p>On July 8, 1891, Harding married <!--del_lnk--> Florence Kling, an older woman, a divorcee, and the mother of a young son, Marshall Eugene DeWolfe. She had pursued him persistently, until he reluctantly surrendered and proposed. Florence's father, Amos Hall Kling, was Harding's nemesis. Upon hearing that his only daughter intended to marry Harding, Kling disowned her and even forbade his wife to attend her wedding. He opposed the marriage vigorously and would not speak to his daughter or son-in-law for eight years.<p>The couple complemented one another with Harding's affable personality balancing his wife's no-nonsense approach to life. Florence Harding inherited her father's determination and business sense and turned the Marion Daily Star into a profitable business. She has been credited with helping Harding to achieve greater things than he might have done alone, leading to speculation that she later pushed him all the way to the <!--del_lnk--> White House.<p>Harding was a <!--del_lnk--> Freemason, raised to the Sublime Degree of a <!--del_lnk--> Master Mason on <!--del_lnk--> August 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1920, in Marion Lodge #70, F.& A.M., in Marion, Ohio.<p><a id="Political_rise" name="Political_rise"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Political rise</span></h2>
<p>As an influential newspaper publisher with a flair for public speaking, Harding was elected to the Ohio State Senate in 1899. He served four years before being elected lieutenant governor of Ohio, a post he occupied from 1903 to 1905. His leanings were conservative, and his record in both offices was relatively undistinguished. At the conclusion of his term as lieutenant governor, Harding returned to private life.<p><a id="Senator" name="Senator"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Senator</span></h3>
<p>Re-entering politics five years later, Harding lost a race for governor in 1910 but won election to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> in 1914. He served in the Senate from 1915 until his inauguration as President on <!--del_lnk--> March 4, 1921, becoming the second sitting <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">Senator</a> to be elected <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>.<p>As with his first term as Senator, Harding had a relatively undistinguished record, missing over two-thirds of the roll-call votes. Among them was the vote to send the <!--del_lnk--> 19th Amendment (granting <!--del_lnk--> women's suffrage) to the states for ratification, a measure he had supported. Harding was a strong opponent of President <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s proposal to create a <a href="../../wp/l/League_of_Nations.htm" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, and he made a speech against its formation, claiming it was a mockery of American democracy.<p>In his book, <b><!--del_lnk--> Blink</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Gladwell has suggested that Harding's political success was based on his appearance, essentially that he "looked like a president". Gladwell argues that the first impression of Harding outweighed his intellectual and other deficiencies, and refers to the combination as the 'Harding Factor' in how people make decisions.<p><a id="Election_of_1920" name="Election_of_1920"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Election of 1920</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14398.jpg.htm" title="Harding inauguration, 1921."><img alt="Harding inauguration, 1921." height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:USA_inauguration_1921.jpg" src="../../images/143/14398.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14398.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Harding inauguration, 1921.</div>
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<p>Relatively unknown outside his own state, Harding was a true “<!--del_lnk--> dark horse” candidate, winning the <!--del_lnk--> United States Republican Party nomination due to the political machinations of his friends after the nominating convention had become deadlocked. Republican leaders met in a <!--del_lnk--> smoke-filled room at the <!--del_lnk--> Blackstone Hotel in <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> to end the deadlock. Before receiving the nomination, he was asked whether there were any embarrassing episodes in his past that might be used against him. His formal education was limited, he had a longstanding affair with the wife of an old friend, and he was a social drinker. Harding answered “No” and the Party moved to nominate him, only to discover later his relationship with <!--del_lnk--> Carrie Fulton Phillips. Phillips and her family received an extended tour of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> courtesy of the Republican Party, in order to secure her silence. Mrs. Harding's newlywed brother Vetallis “Tal” Kling and his bride Elnora “Nona” Younkins-Hinaman also received an all expense-paid tour of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> from the Hardings. The bride was a <!--del_lnk--> Catholic widow, and the marriage was performed in the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. At the time Catholic associations were a liability in American politics, and Catholics were targeted by the <a href="../../wp/k/Ku_Klux_Klan.htm" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, recently revived as anti-<!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic as well as anti-<!--del_lnk--> black and anti-<a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a>. The Klan was rapidly becoming popular in the Midwest. There is <!--del_lnk--> disputed evidence that Harding was a Klan member.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> 1920 election, Harding ran against Democratic <!--del_lnk--> Ohio Governor <!--del_lnk--> James M. Cox, whose vice presidential candidate was <!--del_lnk--> Assistant Secretary of the Navy <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. The election was seen in part as a <!--del_lnk--> referendum on whether to continue with the “<!--del_lnk--> progressive” work of the <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> administration or to revert to the “<!--del_lnk--> laissez-faire” approach of the <a href="../../wp/w/William_McKinley.htm" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> era.<p>Harding ran on a promise to “Return to Normalcy”, a term he coined to reflect three trends of his time: a renewed <!--del_lnk--> isolationism in reaction to <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, a resurgence of <!--del_lnk--> nativism, and a turning away from the government activism of the reform era.<p>Harding's “front porch campaign” during the late summer and fall of 1920 captured the imagination of the country. Not only was it the first campaign to be heavily covered by the press and to receive widespread <!--del_lnk--> newsreel coverage, but it was also the first modern campaign to use the power of <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood and <!--del_lnk--> Broadway stars, who traveled to Marion for photo opportunities with Harding and his wife. <!--del_lnk--> Al Jolson, <!--del_lnk--> Lillian Russell, <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Fairbanks, and <!--del_lnk--> Mary Pickford were among the conservative-minded luminaries to make the pilgrimage to central Ohio. Business icons <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Edison.htm" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Ford.htm" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Harvey Firestone also lent their cachet to the campaign. From the onset of the campaign until the November election, over 600,000 people traveled to Marion to participate.<p>The campaign owed a great deal to <!--del_lnk--> Florence Harding, who played perhaps a more active role than any previous candidate's wife in a presidential race. She cultivated the relationship between the campaign and the press. As the business manager of the <i>Star</i>, she understood reporters and their industry and played to their needs by making herself freely available to answer questions, pose for pictures, or deliver food prepared in her kitchen to the press office, which was a bungalow she had constructed at the rear of their property in Marion. Mrs. Harding even went so far as to coach her husband on the proper way to wave to newsreel cameras to make the most of coverage.<p>The campaign also drew upon Harding's popularity with women. Considered handsome, Harding photographed well compared to Cox. However, it was Harding's support for women's suffrage in the Senate that made him extremely popular with women: the ratification of the <!--del_lnk--> 19th Amendment in August 1920 brought huge crowds of women to <!--del_lnk--> Marion, Ohio to hear Harding.<p>During the campaign, rumors were spread that Harding's great-great-grandfather was a <!--del_lnk--> West Indian black and that other blacks might be found in his family tree. In response, Harding's campaign manager said, “No family in the state (of Ohio) has a clearer, a more honorable record than the Hardings, a blue-eyed stock from <!--del_lnk--> New England and <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania, the finest pioneer blood.” The rumors, perhaps based on no more than local gossip, were circulated by <!--del_lnk--> William Estabrook Chancellor. Rumors may have been sustained by an alleged response of Harding to a friendly reporter, perhaps meant merely to be dismissive: "How do I know, Jim? One of my ancestors may have jumped the fence." (Wallechinsky and Wallace, <i>The People's Almanac</i>)<p>The milestone election of 1920 was the first in which women could vote nationwide. Harding received 61% of the national vote and 404 electoral votes, an unprecedented margin of victory. Cox received 36% of the national vote and 127 electoral votes. Socialist <!--del_lnk--> Eugene V. Debs, campaigning from Federal prison, received 3% of the national vote. Debs was in prison for opposing Wilson's draft; despite the many political differences between the two candidates, when Harding became President he pardoned Debs.<p><a id="Presidency_1921.E2.80.931923" name="Presidency_1921.E2.80.931923"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Presidency 1921–1923</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14399.jpg.htm" title="Harding addresses the Senate. Photo 1921"><img alt="Harding addresses the Senate. Photo 1921" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Harding_Senate_Address.jpg" src="../../images/143/14399.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/143/14399.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Harding addresses the Senate. Photo <!--del_lnk--> 1921</div>
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<p>The administration of Warren G. Harding followed the Republican Party platform approved at the 1920 <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> convention. The thrust of the administration was to return the nation to a period in time when business forces — not government watchdog agencies — minded the business of the nation.<p>Harding also believed in the clear <!--del_lnk--> separation of powers; that it was the Congress that was responsible for legislation, and it was Harding’s duty to ensure that it was signed into law. Harding also held high regard for the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Supreme Court and believed that the Court’s role was to act as a safety net for Constitutional matters on behalf of the nation, its interests, and most importantly, its citizens. To solidify that notion, he nominated President <a href="../../wp/w/William_Howard_Taft.htm" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> for the position of Chief Justice.<p>Harding’s brief tenure in office has been widely characterized as one in which the President did little aside from play <!--del_lnk--> poker with <!--del_lnk--> cronies or golf with friends. During his twenty-seven months in office, he took one vacation, in the winter of 1922. During that vacation, the <!--del_lnk--> First Lady suffered an attack from kidney disease, and the vacation lengthened for one week until Mrs. Harding was released from the hospital.<p>During his term, Harding personally answered most of the correspondence sent to him, which included queries posed to the President from United States citizens. It wasn’t until his health began to decline in 1923 that he turned the correspondence over to a staff of assistants.<p>Harding also pushed for the establishment of the <!--del_lnk--> Bureau of Veterans Affairs (later organized as the <!--del_lnk--> Department of Veterans Affairs), the first permanent attempt at answering the needs of those who had served the nation in time of War. Both the President and Mrs. Harding visited with members of the armed services that were hospitalized.<p>The President also undertook a very active speaking schedule. In October 1921, in <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham, Alabama, Harding spoke out in favour of thoughtfully approaching the issue of race, stating that the nation could not enjoy the promises of prosperity until the matter of equality was addressed.<p>The Hardings visited their home community of Marion, Ohio once during the term when the city celebrated its Centennial the first week of July. The President arrived on <!--del_lnk--> 3 July, gave a speech to the community at the Marion County Fairgrounds on <!--del_lnk--> 4 July, and left the following morning for other speaking commitments.<p><a id="Events_during_Presidency" name="Events_during_Presidency"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Events during Presidency</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Peace treaties signed with Germany, Austria and Hungary, formally ending World War I for the United States<li>Established the <!--del_lnk--> Bureau of Veteran Affairs<li>Treaty to indemnify <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> for its loss of <a href="../../wp/p/Panama.htm" title="Panama">Panama</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Washington Naval Conference 1921-1922<li>Budget and Accounting Act 1921<li><!--del_lnk--> Revenue Act of 1921<li><!--del_lnk--> Fordney-McCumber Tariff 1922<li><!--del_lnk--> Teapot Dome Scandal<li>Resignation of Harding's <!--del_lnk--> Attorney General for accepting bribes<li>Pardon of war protestor Eugene Debs and other political prisoners<li>Warren Gamaliel Harding was the first President to visit Alaska.<li>Warren Gamaliel Harding was the eldest of eight children.<li>Warren Gamaliel Harding was the First American President to take office after World War One.<li>Warren Gamaliel Harding was the First President that was born after the culmination of the civil war.</ul>
<p><a id="Administration_and_Cabinet" name="Administration_and_Cabinet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Administration and Cabinet</span></h3>
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<td align="left"><b>OFFICE</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>NAME</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>TERM</b></td>
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<td align="left"><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a></td>
<td align="left"><b>Warren G. Harding</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td>
<td align="left"><b><a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a></b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Charles Evans Hughes</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Treasury</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Andrew Mellon</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of War</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John W. Weeks</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Attorney General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Harry M. Daugherty</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Postmaster General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Will H. Hays</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1922</td>
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<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Hubert Work</b></td>
<td align="left">1922–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Harry S. New</b></td>
<td align="left">1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Navy</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Edwin Denby</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Interior</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Albert B. Fall</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Hubert Work</b></td>
<td align="left">1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of Agriculture</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Henry C. Wallace</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of Commerce</td>
<td align="left"><b><a href="../../wp/h/Herbert_Hoover.htm" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a></b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of Labor</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> James J. Davis</b></td>
<td align="left">1921–1923</td>
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<p><a id="Supreme_Court_appointments" name="Supreme_Court_appointments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Supreme Court appointments</span></h3>
<p>Harding appointed the following justices to the <a href="../../wp/s/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States.htm" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Howard_Taft.htm" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> - Chief Justice - 1921 <ul>
<li>Harding was the only President to have appointed a previous President to the Supreme Court.</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> George Sutherland - 1922<li><!--del_lnk--> Pierce Butler - 1923<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward Terry Sanford - 1923</ul>
<p><a id="Administrative_Scandals" name="Administrative_Scandals"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative Scandals</span></h3>
<p>Upon winning the election, Harding appointed many of his old allies to prominent political positions. Known as the “<!--del_lnk--> Ohio Gang” (a term used by Charles Mee, Jr., for his book of the same name), some of the appointees used their new powers to rob the government. It is unclear how much, if anything, Harding himself knew about his friends' illicit activities.<p>The most infamous scandal of the time was the <!--del_lnk--> Teapot Dome affair, which shook the nation for years after Harding's death. The scandal involved <!--del_lnk--> United States Secretary of the Interior <!--del_lnk--> Albert B. Fall, who was convicted of accepting bribes and illegal no-interest personal loans in exchange for the leasing of public <!--del_lnk--> oil fields to business associates. (Absent the bribes and personal loans, the leases themselves were quite legal.) In 1931, Fall became the first member of a presidential Cabinet to be sent to prison.<p><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Miller, head of the <!--del_lnk--> Office of Alien Property, was convicted of accepting bribes. <!--del_lnk--> Jess Smith, personal aide to the <!--del_lnk--> Attorney General, destroyed papers and then committed <!--del_lnk--> suicide. <!--del_lnk--> Charles Forbes, director of the <!--del_lnk--> Veterans Bureau, skimmed profits, earned large amounts of kickbacks, and directed underground alcohol and drug distribution. He was convicted of <!--del_lnk--> fraud and <!--del_lnk--> bribery and drew a two-year sentence. Charles Cramer, an aide to Charles Forbes, also committed suicide.<p>No evidence to date suggests that Harding personally profited from these crimes, but he was apparently unable to stop them. “My God, this is a hell of a job!” Harding said. “I have no trouble with my enemies, but my damn friends, my God-damned friends… they're the ones that keep me walking the floor nights!”<p><a id="Death_in_office" name="Death_in_office"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Death in office</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14401.jpg.htm" title="Harding's casket can be seen in front of the White House."><img alt="Harding's casket can be seen in front of the White House." height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HardingFuneral.jpg" src="../../images/144/14401.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>In June 1923, Harding set out on a cross-country “Voyage of Understanding”, planning to meet ordinary people and explain his policies. During this trip, he became the first president to visit <!--del_lnk--> Alaska. Rumors of corruption in his administration were beginning to circulate in Washington by this time, and Harding was profoundly shocked by a long message he received while in Alaska, apparently detailing illegal activities previously unknown to him. At the end of July, while traveling south from <!--del_lnk--> Alaska through <!--del_lnk--> British Columbia, he developed what was thought to be a severe case of <!--del_lnk--> food poisoning. Arriving at the <!--del_lnk--> Palace Hotel in <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco, he developed <a href="../../wp/p/Pneumonia.htm" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>. Harding died of either a <!--del_lnk--> heart attack or a <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">stroke</a> at 7:35 p.m. on <!--del_lnk--> 2 August <!--del_lnk--> 1923, at the age of 57. The formal announcement, printed in the New York Times of August 2, 1923, stated that "A stroke of apoplexy was the cause of death." He had been ill exactly one week.<p>Naval physicians surmised that he had suffered a <a href="../../wp/m/Myocardial_infarction.htm" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a>; however, this diagnosis was not made by Dr. Charles Sawyer, the <!--del_lnk--> Surgeon General, who was traveling with the presidential party. Upon Sawyer's recommendation, Mrs. Harding refused permission for an <!--del_lnk--> autopsy, which soon led to speculation that the President had been the victim of a plot. Sawyer's medical qualifications were also called into question. Harding was succeeded by Vice President Calvin Coolidge, who was sworn in by his father, a justice of the peace, in <!--del_lnk--> Plymouth Notch, <!--del_lnk--> Vermont.<p>Following his death, Harding's body was returned to Washington, where it was placed in the East Room of the <!--del_lnk--> White House pending a <!--del_lnk--> state funeral at the <!--del_lnk--> United States Capitol. White House employees at the time were quoted as saying that the night before the funeral, they heard Mrs. Harding speak for more than an hour to her dead husband. The most commonly reported (though never verified) remark attributed to Mrs. Harding at this time was “They can't hurt you now, Warren.”<p>Harding was entombed in the receiving vault of the Marion Cemetery, Marion, Ohio, in August 1923. Following Mrs. Harding's death on <!--del_lnk--> 21 November <!--del_lnk--> 1924, she too was temporarily buried next to her husband. Both bodies were moved in December 1927 to the newly completed <!--del_lnk--> Harding Memorial in Marion, which was dedicated by President <a href="../../wp/h/Herbert_Hoover.htm" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1931. The lapse between the final interment and the dedication was partly because of the aftermath of the <!--del_lnk--> Teapot Dome scandal.<p><a id="Personal_scandals_and_allegations" name="Personal_scandals_and_allegations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Personal scandals and allegations</span></h2>
<p><a name=".22Taint.22_of_colored_blood"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">"Taint" of colored blood</span></h3>
<p>Harding's detractors began using the damaging rumor of his alleged <!--del_lnk--> African-American ancestry against him in the 1880s, claiming that Harding was "tainted by colored blood." Among those spreading the rumor was Amos Kling, Harding's future father-in-law, one of Marion's wealthiest citizens, who detested Harding and his newspaper.<p>Those who hold to the theory of mixed race do so without proof, often relying on the research of <!--del_lnk--> William Estabrook Chancellor for details of Harding's supposed African-American lineage. There is no scientific or legal basis for these arguments. Chancellor's work never provided clear indications of his sources, or his proof. In fact, so few copies of his book exist (one of five known copies is owned by a private book collector in Marion, Ohio) that its availability to modern scholars is limited (however, Justice Department agents are alleged to have bought and destroyed most copies of this book). Furthermore, there has never been a test of Harding's <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a>. The claim is also impossible to verify through public records in Ohio; Harding was born in 1865, and the state of Ohio did not require registration or recording of births until 1867. Furthermore, Chancellor's theories find no basis in <!--del_lnk--> Federal census records, nor in <!--del_lnk--> probate court records. Harding's 1923 <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>-issued death certificate also indicates nothing to suggest Chancellor's theories were accepted as fact. With the release in the 1960s of <!--del_lnk--> Francis Russell's <i>The Shadow of Blooming Grove</i>, the specter of Harding's mixed blood was again raised and, lacking factual sources, quickly put down as <!--del_lnk--> innuendo.<p><a id="Ku_Klux_Klan" name="Ku_Klux_Klan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ku Klux Klan</span></h3>
<p>There is another rumor that Harding was involved in the <a href="../../wp/k/Ku_Klux_Klan.htm" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>. Historians Wyn Craig Wade and Glenn Feldman are among those who promote the theory. Both assert that Harding joined the Klan following his election, taking his Klan oath in the Green Room of the White House. Wade's evidence, based on claims made by <!--del_lnk--> Stetson Kennedy, is dismissed by several Harding biographers as based on third-party hearsay. Wade uses as evidence letters written by members of the Calvin Coolidge administration.<p>However, no primary source material—that is to say material either written by Harding supporting the Klan or any documentation by members of the Harding administration to support Craig and Wade's assertions—is known to exist. Recent Harding biographers Robert Ferrell, Carl Anthony and <!--del_lnk--> John Dean dispute this claim and point to the allegations as an example of the rumors that surrounded the President after his death.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> January 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 <i>New York Times Magazine</i> <!--del_lnk--> carried an expose of Stetson Kennedy, showing that he had systematically exaggerated and misrepresented his work for over 50 years, calling to question the veracity of many of his sources.<p>Melinda Gilpin, site administrator for the Harding Home and Museum in Marion, argues that there is no primary evidence of Harding's Klan membership and that Harding was the first 20th Century President to speak out against the practice of <!--del_lnk--> lynching blacks. The 1920 Republican Party <!--del_lnk--> platform urged Congress to pass laws combating lynching <!--del_lnk--> , placing Harding's purported membership in conflict with Klan goals. Gilpin also points to the Klan's "one drop rule" (that no one who possessed even a drop of non-<!--del_lnk--> Caucasian blood could join the Klan) was in direct conflict with the rumors that swirled around Harding and his supposedly mixed race background.<p>In 2005, <!--del_lnk--> The Straight Dope presented a summary <!--del_lnk--> of many of these arguments against Harding's membership and added speculation about Harding's motives as further evidence that he would not have joined (i.e. that while it might have been politically expedient for him to join the KKK in public, to do it in private made no sense).<p><a id="Extramarital_affairs" name="Extramarital_affairs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Extramarital affairs</span></h3>
<p>The extent to which Harding engaged in extra-marital affairs is somewhat controversial. It has been recorded in primary documents that during his lifetime, Harding had an affair with <!--del_lnk--> Carrie Fulton Phillips; and <!--del_lnk--> Nan Britton wrote <i>The President's Daughter</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1927 documenting her affair and child (Elizabeth Ann) with Harding.<p>Rumors of the Harding love letters circulated through Marion, Ohio, for many years. However, their existence was not confirmed until author <!--del_lnk--> Francis Russell gained access to them during his research for his book, <i>The Shadow of Blooming Grove</i>. The letters were in the possession of Phillips. Phillips kept the letters in a box in a closet and was reluctant to share them. Russell persuaded her to relent, and the letters showed conclusively that Harding had a 15-year relationship with Mrs. Phillips, who was then the wife of his friend James Phillips, owner of the local department store, the Uhler-Phillips Company. Mrs. Phillips was ten years younger than Harding. By 1915, she began pressing Harding to leave his wife. When he refused, she left her husband and moved to <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> with her daughter Isabel. However, as the United States became increasingly likely to be drawn into <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Mrs. Phillips moved back to the U.S. and the affair reignited. Harding was now a U.S. Senator, and a vote was coming up on a declaration of war against <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>.<p>Mrs. Phillips threatened to go public with their affair if the Senator supported the war, but Harding defied her and voted for war, and Carrie did not reveal the scandal to the world. When Harding won the Republican presidential nomination in 1920, he did not disclose the relationship to party officials. Once they learned of the affair, it was too late to find another nominee. To reduce the likelihood of a scandal breaking, the <!--del_lnk--> Republican National Committee sent Phillips and her family on a trip to <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> and paid them over $50,000. She also received monthly payments thereafter, becoming the first and only person known to have successfully extorted money from a major political party.<p>The letters Harding wrote to Mrs. Phillips were confiscated at the request of the Harding heirs, who requested and received a court injunction prohibiting their inclusion in Russell's book. Russell in turn left quoted passages from the letters as blank passages in protest against the Harding heirs' actions. The Harding-Phillips love letters remain under an Ohio court protective order that expires in 2023, 100 years after Harding's death, after which the content of the letters may be published or reviewed.<p>Besides Mrs. Phillips, Harding also reportedly had an affair with Nan Britton, the daughter of Harding's friend, Dr. Britton of Marion. Nan Britton's obsession with Harding started at an early age when she began pasting pictures of Senator Harding on her bedroom walls. According to Britton's book <i>The President's Daughter</i>, she and Senator Harding conceived a daughter, <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Ann, in January of 1919, in his Senate office. Elizabeth Ann was born on October 22, 1919. Harding never met Elizabeth Ann but paid large amounts of <!--del_lnk--> child support. Harding and Britton, according to unsubstantiated reports, continued their affair while he was President, using a closet adjacent to the <!--del_lnk--> Oval Office for privacy. Following Harding's death, Britton unsuccessfully sued the estate of Warren G. Harding on behalf of Elizabeth Ann. Under cross-examination by Harding heirs' attorney, Grant Mouser (a former member of Congress himself), Britton's testimony was riddled with inconsistencies, and she lost her case. Britton married a Mr. Christian, who adopted Elizabeth Ann. In adulthood Elizabeth Ann married (Mrs. Henry Blaesing) and raised a family. During most of her life she shied from press coverage about her alleged birthright, and refused requests for interviews in her later years. Elizabeth Ann Blaesing died on November 17, 2005 in Oregon.<p><a id="Speaking_style" name="Speaking_style"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Speaking style</span></h2>
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<p>Harding was notorious for his verbal gaffes, such as his comment "I would like the government to do all it can to mitigate, then, in understanding, in mutuality of interest, in concern for the common good, our tasks will be solved." His errors were compounded by his insistence on writing his own speeches. Although it might not have been a mispronunciation as some thought, Harding's most famous "mistake" was his use of the word "normalcy" when the more correct word to use at the time would have been "normality." Harding decided he liked the sound of the word and made "Return to Normalcy" a recurring theme. Critic <!--del_lnk--> H.L. Mencken disagreed, saying of Harding, "He writes the worst English that I have ever encountered. It reminds me of a string of wet sponges; it reminds me of tattered washing on the line; it reminds me of stale bean soup, of college yells, of dogs barking idiotically through endless nights. It is so bad that a sort of grandeur creeps into it. It drags itself out of the dark abysm of pish, and crawls insanely up the topmost pinnacle of posh. It is rumble and bumble. It is flap and doodle. It is balder and dash." Mencken also coined the term "Gamalielese" to refer to Harding's distinctive style of speech. Upon Harding's death, poet <a href="../../wp/e/E._E._Cummings.htm" title="E. E. Cummings">E. E. Cummings</a> said "The only man, woman or child who wrote a simple declarative sentence with seven grammatical errors is dead." <p>Some suggest Harding had a form of <!--del_lnk--> aphasia.<p><a id="Memorials" name="Memorials"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Memorials</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Harding Memorial, <!--del_lnk--> Marion, Ohio.<li><!--del_lnk--> Harding County, New Mexico is named in his honour.<li>Ohio Northern University's College of Law was once named after him and later renamed.<li><!--del_lnk--> Harding Park Golf Club in San Francisco is named after him.<li>Peace Treaty Marker. Somerville, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey. In 1921, at the estate of the New Jersey Governor <!--del_lnk--> Joseph S. Frelinghuysen, Warren Harding signed the peace treaty which ended America's involvement in World War I. Today the estate is long gone and suburban sprawl has replaced it with mini-malls. The marker remains in a patch of grass near a Burger King parking lot along Rt 28, just North of the Somerville traffic circle.</ul>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>In <i><!--del_lnk--> Civilization IV</i>, each game concludes with various statistics and a scale comparing the player's score to various historical figures. Harding has the dubious distinction of being third from the bottom, placing below such names as <!--del_lnk--> Nero and above <!--del_lnk--> Ethelred the Unready and <!--del_lnk--> Dan Quayle.<li>Harding is the only U.S. president to be elected on his birthday, <!--del_lnk--> November 2 (it was his 55th).<li>The 1920 presidential election was the only presidential election in which the two major party nominees were office holders from the same state and had the same profession. Both men were from Ohio and were newspaper publishers.<li>Harding was the first U.S. president to ride to his inauguration in an automobile.<li>Harding was the first U.S. president to speak on the radio and have one in the White House.<li>Harding was known to host poker games at the White House. A legend has it that Harding once lost a set of White House china that had belonged to President <a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Harrison.htm" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a>; White House historians have since debunked that myth. <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Norman Thomas, founder of the <!--del_lnk--> American Civil Liberties Union and <!--del_lnk--> Socialist Party candidate for president, held a childhood job as a newsboy for Harding's <i>Marion Daily Star</i> where he was supervised by Florence Harding.<li>In the novel <i><!--del_lnk--> Mumbo-Jumbo</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Ishmael Reed, Warren G. Harding is featured as a character, and is alleged to have been assassinated by a secret society after becoming infected with "Jes' Grew".<li>President Harding and his wife both appear in fictional form as supporting characters in the novel <i>Carter Beats the Devil</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Glen David Gold. <!--del_lnk--> Charles Joseph Carter (also known as Carter the Great) was a famous stage magician in the early part of the 1900s, and the book offers an alternate explanation for the death of Warren Harding.<li>The Hardings also figure in <!--del_lnk--> Gore Vidal's 1990 novel <i>Hollywood</i>.<li>He was the first U.S. President born after the end of the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.<li>Harding's political rise is discussed in <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Gladwell's book "<!--del_lnk--> Blink". Gladwell attributes Harding's success and popularity to his commanding physical appearance and deep gravelly speaking voice, which caused people to overlook or forgive his lack of competence. Gladwell called this the "Warren G. Harding Error."<li>Harding was declared to be the worst president by <!--del_lnk--> Jon Stewart in <i><!--del_lnk--> America (The Book)</i>.<li>Harding is the subject of the song "Warren Harding" by singer-songwriter <!--del_lnk--> Al Stewart on his album <i><!--del_lnk--> Past, Present and Future</i>.<li>During the <!--del_lnk--> prohibition President Harding kept the White House well stocked with <!--del_lnk--> bootleg liquor, though, as a Senator, he had voted for Prohibition.<li>Corruption in the Harding Administration is investigated by <!--del_lnk--> H.L. Mencken and <!--del_lnk--> James M. Cain in Roy Hoopes' novel, <i>Our Man in Washington</i>.<li>Harding had the largest feet of any U.S. President. He wore size 14 shoes.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_G._Harding"</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22760.jpg.htm" title="Pope Innocent X, on whose orders the city of Castro was destroyed on September 2, 1649. Portrait by Diego Velázquez."><img alt="Pope Innocent X, on whose orders the city of Castro was destroyed on September 2, 1649. Portrait by Diego Velázquez." height="297" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pope_Innocent_X_by_Velazquez.jpg" src="../../images/227/22760.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The <b>Wars of Castro</b> describe a series of events in the mid-<!--del_lnk--> seventeenth century revolving around the ancient city of <!--del_lnk--> Castro (located in present-day <!--del_lnk--> Lazio, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>), which eventually resulted in the city's destruction on <!--del_lnk--> September 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1649. The conflict was a result of a power struggle between the papacy — represented by members of two deeply entrenched Roman families, the <!--del_lnk--> Barberini <!--del_lnk--> Pope Urban VIII and then the <!--del_lnk--> Pamphili <!--del_lnk--> Pope Innocent X — and the <!--del_lnk--> Farnese dukes of Parma, who controlled Castro and its surrounding territories.<p>Papal politics of the mid-<!--del_lnk--> seventeenth century were complicated, with frequently shifting military and political alliances across the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic world. While it is difficult to trace the precise origins of the feud between the duchy of Parma and the papacy, its origins can be looked for in political maneuverings occurring in the years or even decades preceding the start of military action. The duke of Parma and his immediate family had narrowly escaped a planned mass assassination of the <!--del_lnk--> Farnese in <!--del_lnk--> 1611, for which ten high-born conspirators were executed in the main square of <!--del_lnk--> Parma in May of the following year.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; float: left; margin-right: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em 1.4em 0.8em 0; background-color: transparent;">
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Odoardo Farnese, <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Parma and <!--del_lnk--> Piacenza, who controlled Castro, had quarrelled with Pope Urban VIII's influential Barberini nephews during a visit to <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1639. These offended relatives of the Pope convinced him to ban grain shipments originating in Castro from being distributed in Rome and the surrounding territory, thereby depriving Duke Odoardo of an important source of income. As a result, Duke Odoardo was unable to pay debts due to Roman creditors, which he had accumulated in military adventures against the <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> in <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a> and in luxurious living. These unpaid and unhappy creditors sought relief from the pope, who turned to military action in an attempt to force payment.<p><a id="First_War_of_Castro" name="First_War_of_Castro"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">First War of Castro</span></h2>
<p>Pope Urban VIII responded to the requests of Duke Odoardo's creditors by occupying the city of Castro with the forces of his nephew Taddeo Barberini (general in chief of the papal army) and Luigi Mattei on <!--del_lnk--> October 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1641. Securely in possession at Castro, Taddeo arrived with his forces in the papal city of Ferrara <!--del_lnk--> January 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1642. On <!--del_lnk--> January 11 the <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">opera</a> <i>L'Armida</i> by the Barberini house composer <!--del_lnk--> Marco Marazzoli was presented in his honour, and Marazzoli composed a work <i>Le pretensioni del <!--del_lnk--> Tebro e del <!--del_lnk--> Po</i> to compliment recent events.<p>Urban <!--del_lnk--> excommunicated Odoardo and rescinded his <!--del_lnk--> fiefdoms (which had been granted by <!--del_lnk--> Pope Paul III — Odoardo's great-great-great-grandfather — in <!--del_lnk--> 1545) on <!--del_lnk--> January 13. Odoardo countered with a military march of his own, this time on the papal state; his forces threatened to enter Rome. Odoardo also allied with the <!--del_lnk--> Republic of Venice, <!--del_lnk--> Modena, and his father-in-law, <!--del_lnk--> Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Pope, who had earlier turned to <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> for assistance, received little, as Spanish forces were fully occupied by the <!--del_lnk--> Thirty Years' War.<p>After attempted peace negotiations failed in <!--del_lnk--> 1643, the papal forces suffered a crucial defeat in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Lagoscuro in <!--del_lnk--> 1644 resulting in the surrender of the papal forces; a peace was agreed to in <!--del_lnk--> Ferrara on <!--del_lnk--> March 31 of that year. Under the terms of the peace, Odoardo was readmitted to the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and his fiefdoms were restored to him. Grain shipments from Castro to Rome were once again allowed, and Odoardo was to resume payments to his Roman creditors. This peace settlement concluded the first war of Castro, and was widely considered a disgrace to the papacy, which was unable to impose its will through use of military force.<p>Pope Urban VIII died just a few months after the peace settlement was agreed to, on <!--del_lnk--> July 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1644. On <!--del_lnk--> September 15, <!--del_lnk--> Pope Innocent X was elected to replace him. Two of the nephews of Pope Urban VIII, Taddeo and his brother Cardinal <!--del_lnk--> Antonio Barberini, were forced to abandon Rome after the first War of Castro and flee to <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> when Pope Innocent X began an investigation into illicit profits taken by the <!--del_lnk--> Barberini family during the war. There they depended on the hospitality of <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>, <!--del_lnk--> King of France, until <!--del_lnk--> 1653 when they returned to Rome, sealing a reconciliation with Innocent X by the marriage of Taddeo Barberini's son Maffeo with Olimpia Giustiniani, a niece of Innocent's.<p><a id="Second_War_of_Castro" name="Second_War_of_Castro"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Second War of Castro</span></h2>
<p>The Wars of Castro were renewed in <!--del_lnk--> 1649, when Odoardo's son, Duke <!--del_lnk--> Ranuccio II, who had succeeded to the title <!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1646, refused to pay back Roman creditors as his father had agreed to in the treaty signed five years prior. He also refused to recognize the new <!--del_lnk--> bishop of Castro appointed by Pope Innocent X. When the bishop, Mons. Cristoforo Giarda, was killed en route to Castro, near <!--del_lnk--> Monterosi, Pope Innocent X accused Duke Ranuccio II of murdering him. In retaliation for this alleged crime, forces under the pope marched on Castro on <!--del_lnk--> September 2, and on the pope's orders completely destroyed the city. Duke Ranuccio II was forced to cede control of the territories around Castro back to the pope, who then tried to use the land to settle accounts with the Duke's creditors. This marked the end of the second war of Castro, and the final demise of the city, as it was never rebuilt.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_Castro"</div>
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<p>The <b>Wars of the Roses</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 1455 - <!--del_lnk--> 1485) were a series of <!--del_lnk--> civil wars fought over the throne of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> between adherents of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Lancaster and the <!--del_lnk--> House of York. Both houses were branches of the <!--del_lnk--> Plantagenet royal house, tracing their descent from King <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III</a>.<p>The name "Wars of the Roses" was not used during the time of the wars, but has its origins in the badges associated with the two royal houses, the <!--del_lnk--> Red Rose of Lancaster and the <!--del_lnk--> White Rose of York. The term itself came into common usage only in the nineteenth century, after the publication of <!--del_lnk--> Anne of Geierstein by <!--del_lnk--> Sir Walter Scott. Scott based the name on a fictional scene in Shakespeare's play <!--del_lnk--> Henry VI Part 1, where the opposing sides pick different-coloured roses at the <!--del_lnk--> Temple Church.<p>Although the roses were occasionally used as symbols during the wars themselves, most of the participants wore badges associated with their immediate <!--del_lnk--> feudal <!--del_lnk--> lords or protectors. The unofficial system of <i><!--del_lnk--> Livery and Maintenance</i>, by which powerful nobles would offer protection to followers who would sport their colours and badges (<i>livery</i>) was one of the effects of the breakdown of royal authority which preceded and partly caused the wars. For example, Henry's forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon, whilst the Yorkist army used the symbol of a white boar.<p>The Wars were fought largely by the <!--del_lnk--> landed aristocracy and armies of feudal retainers; supporters of each house largely depended upon dynastic marriages with the nobility, feudal titles, and tenures. The Lancastrian patriarch <!--del_lnk--> John of Gaunt's first title was <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Richmond, the same title which Henry VII later held, whilst the Yorkist <!--del_lnk--> patriarch <!--del_lnk--> Edmund of Langley's first title was <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Cambridge.<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;">
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<td style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> 1st St Albans – <!--del_lnk--> Blore Heath – <!--del_lnk--> Ludford Bridge – <!--del_lnk--> Northampton – <!--del_lnk--> Wakefield – <!--del_lnk--> Mortimer's Cross – <!--del_lnk--> 2nd St Albans – <!--del_lnk--> Ferrybridge – <!--del_lnk--> Towton – <!--del_lnk--> Hedgeley Moor – <!--del_lnk--> Hexham – <!--del_lnk--> Edgecote Moor – <!--del_lnk--> Lose-coat Field – <!--del_lnk--> Barnet – <!--del_lnk--> Tewkesbury – <!--del_lnk--> Bosworth Field – <!--del_lnk--> Stoke Field</td>
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<p><a id="The_disputed_succession" name="The_disputed_succession"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The disputed succession</span></h2>
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<p>The antagonism between the two houses started with the overthrow of King <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_II_of_England.htm" title="Richard II of England">Richard II</a> by his cousin, <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_IV_of_England.htm" title="Henry IV of England">Henry Bolingbroke</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Lancaster, in <!--del_lnk--> 1399. As an issue of <!--del_lnk--> Edward III's third son <!--del_lnk--> John of Gaunt, Bolingbroke had a very poor claim to the <!--del_lnk--> throne. According to precedent, the crown should have passed to the male descendants of <!--del_lnk--> Lionel of Antwerp, <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Clarence (1338-1368), Edward III's second son, and in fact, Richard II had named Lionel's grandson, <!--del_lnk--> Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March as <!--del_lnk--> heir presumptive. However, Bolingbroke was crowned as Henry IV. He was tolerated as king since Richard II's government had been highly unpopular. Nevertheless, within a few years of taking the throne, Henry found himself facing several rebellions in <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Cheshire and <!--del_lnk--> Northumberland, which used the Mortimer claim to the throne both as pretext and rallying point. All these revolts were suppressed.<p>Henry IV died in <!--del_lnk--> 1413. His son and successor, <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_V_of_England.htm" title="Henry V of England">Henry V</a>, was a great soldier, and his military success against <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> in the <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> bolstered his enormous popularity, enabling him to strengthen the Lancastrian hold on the throne.<p>Henry V's short reign saw one conspiracy against him, the <!--del_lnk--> Southampton Plot led by <!--del_lnk--> Richard, Earl of Cambridge, a son of <!--del_lnk--> Edmund of Langley, the fifth son of Edward III. Cambridge was executed in <!--del_lnk--> 1415 for treason at the start of the campaign leading up to the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Agincourt. Cambridge's wife, <!--del_lnk--> Anne Mortimer, also had a claim to the throne, being the daughter of Roger Mortimer and thus a descendant of Lionel of Antwerp. Henry V died in <!--del_lnk--> 1422, and <!--del_lnk--> Richard, Duke of York, the son of Richard, Earl of Cambridge and Anne Mortimer, grew up to challenge his successor, the feeble King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a>, for the crown.<p><a id="Henry_VI" name="Henry_VI"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Henry VI</span></h2>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Lancastrian King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI of England</a> was surrounded by unpopular regents and advisors. The most notable of these were <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset and <!--del_lnk--> William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, who were blamed for mismanaging the government and poorly executing the continuing <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> with France. Under Henry VI, virtually all English holdings in France, including the land won by Henry V, were lost. Henry VI was seen as a weak, ineffectual king. In addition, he suffered from episodes of mental illness which he had possibly inherited from his grandfather <!--del_lnk--> Charles VI of France. By the 1450s, many considered Henry incapable. The Lancastrian kings had been plagued by questions of legitimacy, and the <!--del_lnk--> House of York believed that it had a stronger claim to the throne.<p>The increasing discord at court was mirrored in the country as a whole, where noble families engaged in private feuds and showed increasing disrespect for the royal authority and for the courts. The <!--del_lnk--> Percy-Neville feud was the best-known of these private wars, but others were being conducted freely. In many cases they were fought between old-established families, and formerly minor nobility raised in power and influence by Henry IV in the aftermath of the rebellions against him. The quarrel between the Percies, for long the Dukes of Northumberland, and the comparatively upstart Nevilles was one which followed this pattern; another was the feud between the Courtenays and Bonvilles in <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall.<p>A factor in these feuds was apparently the presence of large numbers of soldiers discharged from the English armies in France. Nobles engaged many of these to mount raids, or to pack courts of justice with their supporters, intimidating suitors, witnesses and judges.<p>This growing civil discontent, the abundance of feuding nobles with private armies, and corruption in Henry VI's court formed a political climate ripe for civil war.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1453, Henry suffered the first of several bouts of mental illness, so a Council of Regency was set up, headed by the powerful and popular <!--del_lnk--> Richard Plantagenet, <!--del_lnk--> Duke of York and head of the <!--del_lnk--> House of York as <!--del_lnk--> Lord Protector. Richard soon asserted his power with ever-greater boldness (although there is no proof that he had aspirations to the throne at this early stage). He imprisoned Somerset; and backed his allies, Salisbury and Warwick, in a series of minor conflicts with powerful supporters of Henry, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Dukes of Northumberland. Henry's recovery in <!--del_lnk--> 1455 thwarted Richard's ambitions, and the Duke of York was forced out of the royal court by Henry's queen, <!--del_lnk--> Margaret of Anjou. Since Henry was an ineffectual leader, the powerful and aggressive Queen Margaret emerged as the <i>de facto</i> leader of the Lancastrians. Margaret built up an alliance against Richard and conspired with other nobles to reduce his influence. An increasingly thwarted Richard finally resorted to armed hostilities in <!--del_lnk--> 1455 at the <!--del_lnk--> First Battle of St Albans.<p><a id="The_initial_phase_1455.E2.80.9360" name="The_initial_phase_1455.E2.80.9360"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The initial phase 1455–60</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52816.jpg.htm" title="15th-century clock tower of St Albans"><img alt="15th-century clock tower of St Albans" class="thumbimage" height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stalbans-tower.jpg" src="../../images/528/52816.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52816.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 15th-century clock tower of St Albans</div>
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<p>Although armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of Henry and Richard, the principal period of armed conflict in the Wars of the Roses took place between <!--del_lnk--> 1455 and <!--del_lnk--> 1489.<p><!--del_lnk--> Richard, Duke of York led a small force toward <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> and was met by Henry's forces at <!--del_lnk--> St Albans, north of London, on <!--del_lnk--> May 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1455. The relatively small <!--del_lnk--> First Battle of St Albans was the first open conflict of the civil war. Richard's aim was ostensibly to remove "poor advisors" from King Henry's side. The result was a Lancastrian defeat. Several prominent Lancastrian leaders, including <!--del_lnk--> Somerset, were lost. York and his allies regained their position of influence, and for a while both sides seemed shocked that an actual battle had been fought and did their best to reconcile their differences. When Henry suffered another bout of mental illness, York was again appointed Protector, and Margaret was shunted aside, charged with the king's care.<p>After the first Battle of St Albans, the compromise of 1455 enjoyed some success, with York remaining the dominant voice on the Council even after Henry's recovery. The problems which had caused conflict soon re-emerged, particularly the issue of whether the Duke of York, or Henry and Margaret's infant son, <!--del_lnk--> Edward, would succeed to the throne. Margaret refused to accept any solution that would disinherit her son, and it became clear that she would only tolerate the situation for as long as the Duke of York and his allies retained the military ascendancy. Henry went on <!--del_lnk--> royal progress in the Midlands in <!--del_lnk--> 1456, and Margaret did not allow him to return to London — the king and queen were popular in the Midlands but becoming ever more unpopular in London where merchants were angry at the decline in trade and widespread disorder. The king's court set up at <a href="../../wp/c/Coventry.htm" title="Coventry">Coventry</a>. By then, the new <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Somerset was emerging as a favourite of the royal court, filling his father's shoes. Margaret also persuaded Henry to dismiss the appointments York had made as Protector, while York himself was made to return to his post in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. Disorder in the capital and piracy on the south coast were growing, but the king and queen remained intent on protecting their own positions, with the queen introducing <!--del_lnk--> conscription for the first time in England. Meanwhile, York's ally, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick (later dubbed "The Kingmaker"), was growing in popularity in London as the champion of the merchant grounds.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52818.jpg.htm" title="Ludlow Castle, South Shropshire"><img alt="Ludlow Castle, South Shropshire" class="thumbimage" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ludlow_Castle_gatehouse.jpg" src="../../images/528/52818.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52818.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ludlow Castle, South Shropshire</div>
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<p>Following York's return from Ireland, hostilities resumed on <!--del_lnk--> September 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1459, at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Blore Heath in <!--del_lnk--> Staffordshire, when a large Lancastrian army failed to prevent a Yorkist force under <!--del_lnk--> Lord Salisbury from marching from <!--del_lnk--> Middleham Castle in <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire and linking up with York at <!--del_lnk--> Ludlow Castle. After a Lancastrian victory at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ludford Bridge, Edward, Earl of March (York's eldest son, later <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_IV_of_England.htm" title="Edward IV of England">Edward IV of England</a>), Salisbury, and Warwick fled to <!--del_lnk--> Calais. The Lancastrians were now back in total control, and Somerset was sent off to be Governor of <!--del_lnk--> Calais. His attempts to evict Warwick were easily repulsed, and the Yorkists even began to launch raids on the English coast from Calais in 1459–60, adding to the sense of chaos and disorder.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1460, Warwick and the others launched an invasion of England, and rapidly established themselves in <!--del_lnk--> Kent and London, where they enjoyed wide support. Backed by a papal emissary who had taken their side, they marched north. Henry led an army south to meet them while Margaret remained in the north with Prince Edward. The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Northampton, on <!--del_lnk--> July 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1460, proved disastrous for the Lancastrians. The Yorkist army under the Earl of Warwick, aided by treachery in the Lancastrian ranks, was able to capture King Henry and take him prisoner to London.<p><a id="The_Act_of_Accord" name="The_Act_of_Accord"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Act of Accord</span></h2>
<p>In the light of this military success, York now moved to press his claim to the throne based on the illegitimacy of the Lancastrian line. Landing in north <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, he and his wife <!--del_lnk--> Cecily entered London with all the ceremony usually reserved for a monarch. <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> was assembled, and when York entered he made straight for the throne, which he may have been expecting the Lords to encourage him to take for himself as they had Henry IV in <!--del_lnk--> 1399. Instead, there was stunned silence. He announced his claim to the throne, but the Lords, even Warwick and Salisbury, were shocked by his presumption; they had no desire at this stage to overthrow King Henry. Their ambition was still limited to the removal of his bad councillors.<p>The next day, York produced detailed <a href="../../wp/g/Genealogy.htm" title="Genealogy">genealogies</a> to support his claim based on his descent from <!--del_lnk--> Lionel of Antwerp and was met with more understanding. Parliament agreed to consider the matter and accepted that York's claim was better; but, by a majority of five, they voted that Henry should remain as king. A compromise was struck in October <!--del_lnk--> 1460 with the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Accord, which recognised York as Henry's successor, disinheriting Henry's six year old son, Edward. York accepted this compromise as the best on offer; it gave him much of what he wanted, particularly since he was also made Protector of the Realm and was able to govern in Henry's name. Margaret was ordered out of London with Prince Edward. The <!--del_lnk--> Act of Accord proved unacceptable to the Lancastrians, who rallied to Margaret, forming a large army in the north.<p><a id="Lancastrian_counter-attack" name="Lancastrian_counter-attack"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Lancastrian counter-attack</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52820.jpg.htm" title="Ruins of Sandal Castle, nr Wakefield, West Yorkshire"><img alt="Ruins of Sandal Castle, nr Wakefield, West Yorkshire" class="thumbimage" height="74" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SandalCastle_pugneys_emley.JPG" src="../../images/528/52820.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52820.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ruins of Sandal Castle, nr Wakefield, West Yorkshire</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52822.jpg.htm" title="Margaret of Anjou (fantasy)"><img alt="Margaret of Anjou (fantasy)" class="thumbimage" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Margaret_of_Anjou.jpg" src="../../images/528/52822.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52822.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Margaret of Anjou (fantasy)</div>
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<p>The Duke of York left London later that year with Lord Salisbury to consolidate his position in the north against Margaret's army, reported to be massing near the city of <a href="../../wp/y/York.htm" title="York">York</a>. Richard took up a defensive position at <!--del_lnk--> Sandal Castle near <!--del_lnk--> Wakefield at Christmas <!--del_lnk--> 1460. Although Margaret's army outnumbered Richard's by more than two to one, on <!--del_lnk--> December 30 York ordered his forces to leave the castle and mount an attack. His army was dealt a devastating defeat at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Wakefield. Richard was slain in the battle, and Salisbury and Richard's 17-year-old son, <!--del_lnk--> Edmund, Earl of Rutland, were captured and beheaded. Margaret ordered the heads of all three placed on the gates of York. This event, or the later defeat of <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a>, later inspired the <!--del_lnk--> mnemonic "Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain" for the seven colours of the <a href="../../wp/r/Rainbow.htm" title="Rainbow">rainbow</a>.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Act of Accord and the events of Wakefield left the 18-year-old <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_IV_of_England.htm" title="Edward IV of England">Edward, Earl of March</a>, York's eldest son, as Duke of York and heir to the throne. Salisbury's death left Warwick, his heir, as the biggest landowner in England. Margaret travelled to <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> to negotiate for Scottish assistance. <!--del_lnk--> Mary of Gueldres, Queen of Scotland agreed to give Margaret an army on condition that she cede the town of Berwick to Scotland and her daughter be betrothed to Prince Edward. Margaret agreed, although she had no funds to pay her army and could only promise booty from the riches of southern England, as long as no looting took place north of the river Trent. She took her army to <!--del_lnk--> Hull, recruiting more men as she went.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52824.jpg.htm" title="Parhelion at sunset"><img alt="Parhelion at sunset" class="thumbimage" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sundogs_-_New_Ulm.JPG" src="../../images/528/52824.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52824.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Parhelion at sunset</div>
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<p>Edward of York, meanwhile, met <!--del_lnk--> Pembroke's army, arriving from <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, and defeated them soundly at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Mortimer's Cross in <!--del_lnk--> Herefordshire. He inspired his men with a "vision" of three suns at dawn (a phenomenon known as "<!--del_lnk--> parhelion"), telling them that it was a portent of victory and represented the three surviving York sons — himself, George and Richard. This led to Edward's later adoption of the sign of the <i>sunne in splendour</i> as his personal emblem.<p>Margaret was now moving south, wreaking havoc as she progressed, her army supporting itself by looting as it passed through the prosperous south of England. In London, Warwick used this as propaganda to reinforce Yorkist support throughout the south — the town of <a href="../../wp/c/Coventry.htm" title="Coventry">Coventry</a> switching allegiance to the Yorkists. Warwick failed to start raising an army soon enough and, without Edward's army to reinforce him, was caught off-guard by the Lancastrians' early arrival at St Albans. At the <!--del_lnk--> Second Battle of St Albans the queen won the Lancastrians' most decisive victory yet, and as the Yorkist forces fled they left behind King Henry, who was found unharmed under a tree. Henry knighted thirty Lancastrian soldiers immediately after the battle. As the Lancastrian army advanced southwards, a wave of dread swept London, where rumours were rife about savage Northerners intent on plundering the city. The people of London shut the city gates and refused to supply food to the queen's army, which was looting the surrounding counties of <!--del_lnk--> Hertfordshire and <!--del_lnk--> Middlesex.<p><a id="Yorkist_triumph" name="Yorkist_triumph"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Yorkist triumph</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52826.jpg.htm" title="Edward IV"><img alt="Edward IV" class="thumbimage" height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Edward4.jpg" src="../../images/528/52826.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52826.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Edward IV</div>
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<p>Meanwhile, Edward was advancing towards London from the west where he had joined forces with Warwick. This coincided with the northward retreat by the queen to <!--del_lnk--> Dunstable, allowing Edward and Warwick to enter London with their army. They were welcomed with enthusiasm, money and supplies by the largely Yorkist-supporting city. Edward could no longer claim simply to be trying to wrest the king from bad councillors. With his father and brother having been killed at Wakefield, this had become a battle for the crown itself. Edward now needed authority, and this seemed forthcoming when the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of London asked the people of London their opinion and they replied with shouts of "King Edward". This was quickly confirmed by Parliament and Edward was unofficially crowned in a hastily arranged ceremony at <a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_Abbey.htm" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a> amidst much jubilation. Edward and Warwick thus captured London, although Edward vowed he would not have a formal <!--del_lnk--> coronation until Henry and Margaret were executed or exiled. He also announced that Henry had forfeited his right to the crown by allowing his queen to take up arms against his rightful heirs under the <!--del_lnk--> Act of Accord; though it was by now becoming widely argued that Edward's victory was simply a restoration of the rightful heir to the throne, which neither Henry nor his Lancastrian predecessors had been. It was this argument which Parliament had accepted the year before.<p>Edward and Warwick marched north, gathering a large army as they went, and met an equally impressive Lancastrian army at Towton. The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Towton, near York, was the biggest battle of the Wars of the Roses thus far. Both sides agreed beforehand that the issue was to be settled that day, with no quarter asked or given. An estimated 40-80,000 men took part with over 20,000 men being killed during (and after) the battle, an enormous number for the time and the greatest recorded single day's loss of life on English soil. Edward and his army won a decisive victory, the Lancastrians were routed, with most of their leaders slain. Henry and Margaret, who were waiting in York with their son Edward, fled north when they heard of the outcome. Many of the surviving Lancastrian nobles now switched allegiance to King Edward, and those who did not were driven back to the northern border areas and a few castles in Wales. Edward advanced to take York where he was confronted with the rotting heads of his father, his brother and Salisbury, which were soon replaced with those of defeated Lancastrian lords like the notorious <!--del_lnk--> John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford of Skipton-Craven, who was blamed for the execution of Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, after the Battle of Wakefield.<p>Henry and Margaret fled to Scotland where they stayed with the court of <!--del_lnk--> James III, implementing their earlier promise to cede <!--del_lnk--> Berwick to Scotland and leading an invasion of <!--del_lnk--> Carlisle later in the year. But lacking money, they were easily repulsed by Edward's men who were rooting out the remaining Lancastrian forces in the northern counties.<p>Edward IV's official <!--del_lnk--> coronation took place in June <!--del_lnk--> 1461 in London where he received a rapturous welcome from his supporters as the new king of England. Edward was able to rule in relative peace for ten years.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52827.jpg.htm" title="Harlech Castle, Gwynedd, Wales "><img alt="Harlech Castle, Gwynedd, Wales " class="thumbimage" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg" src="../../images/528/52827.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52827.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Harlech Castle, Gwynedd, Wales</div>
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<p>In the North, Edward could never really claim to have complete control until <!--del_lnk--> 1464, as apart from rebellions, several castles with their Lancastrian commanders held out for years. <!--del_lnk--> Dunstanburgh, <!--del_lnk--> Alnwick (the Percy family seat) and <!--del_lnk--> Bamburgh were some of the last to fall. Last to surrender was the mighty fortress of <!--del_lnk--> Harlech (Wales) in <!--del_lnk--> 1468 after a seven-year-long siege. The deposed King Henry was captured in 1465 and held prisoner at the <a href="../../wp/t/Tower_of_London.htm" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> where, for the time being, he was reasonably well treated.<p>There were two further Lancastrian revolts in 1464. The first clash was at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Hedgeley Moor on <!--del_lnk--> April 25 and the second at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Hexham on <!--del_lnk--> May 15. Both revolts were put down by Warwick's brother, <!--del_lnk--> John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu.<p><a id="Resumption_of_hostilities_1469.E2.80.9371" name="Resumption_of_hostilities_1469.E2.80.9371"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Resumption of hostilities 1469–71</span></h2>
<p>The period 1467–70 saw a marked and rapid deterioration in the relationship between King Edward and his former mentor, the powerful <!--del_lnk--> Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick — "the Kingmaker". This had several causes, but stemmed originally from Edward's decision to marry <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Woodville in secret in 1464. Edward later announced that, the news of his marriage as <i>fait accompli</i>, to the considerable embarrassment of Warwick, who had been negotiating a match between Edward and a French bride, convinced as he was of the need for an alliance with France. This embarrassment turned to bitterness when the Woodvilles came to be favoured over the Nevilles at court. Other factors compounded Warwick's disillusionment: Edward's preference for an alliance with <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy (over <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>), and Edward's reluctance to allow his brothers <!--del_lnk--> George, Duke of Clarence, and <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard, Duke of Gloucester</a>, to marry Warwick's daughters, <!--del_lnk--> Isabel Neville and <!--del_lnk--> Anne Neville, respectively. Furthermore, Edward's general popularity was also on the wane in this period with higher taxes and persistent disruptions of law and order.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52829.jpg.htm" title="Middleham Castle"><img alt="Middleham Castle" class="thumbimage" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Middleham_Castle.JPG" src="../../images/528/52829.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52829.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Middleham Castle</div>
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<p>By <!--del_lnk--> 1469 Warwick had formed an alliance with Edward's jealous and treacherous brother George. They raised an army which defeated the King at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Edgecote Moor, and held Edward at <!--del_lnk--> Middleham Castle in <!--del_lnk--> Yorkshire. Warwick had the queen's father, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers, executed. He forced Edward to summon a parliament at York at which it was planned that Edward would be declared illegitimate and the crown would thus pass to <!--del_lnk--> George, Duke of Clarence as Edward's heir apparent. However, the country was in turmoil, and Edward was able to call on the loyalty of his brother <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard, Duke of Gloucester</a>, and the majority of the nobles. Richard arrived at the head of a large force and liberated the king.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52831.jpg.htm" title="Louis XI"><img alt="Louis XI" class="thumbimage" height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Louis11-1.jpg" src="../../images/528/52831.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52831.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Louis XI</div>
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<p>Warwick and Clarence were declared traitors and forced to flee to France, where in <!--del_lnk--> 1470 <!--del_lnk--> Louis XI of France was coming under pressure from the exiled Margaret of Anjou to help her invade England and regain her captive husband's throne. It was King Louis who suggested the idea of an alliance between Warwick and Margaret, a notion which neither of the old enemies would at first entertain but eventually came round to, realising the potential benefits. However, both were undoubtedly hoping for different outcomes: Warwick for a puppet king in the form of Henry or his young son; Margaret to be able to reclaim her family's realm. In any case, a marriage was arranged between Warwick's daughter <!--del_lnk--> Anne Neville and Margaret's son, the former Prince of Wales, <!--del_lnk--> Edward of Westminster, and Warwick invaded England in the autumn of 1470.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52833.jpg.htm" title="Battle of Tewkesbury"><img alt="Battle of Tewkesbury" class="thumbimage" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Battle_tewkesbury.JPG" src="../../images/528/52833.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52833.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Battle of Tewkesbury</div>
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<p>This time it was Edward IV who was forced to flee the country when <!--del_lnk--> John Neville changed loyalties to support his brother Warwick. Edward was unprepared for the arrival of Neville's large force from the north and had to order his army to scatter. Edward and Gloucester fled from Doncaster to the coast and thence to <!--del_lnk--> Holland and exile in Burgundy. Warwick had already invaded from France, and his plans to liberate and restore Henry VI to the throne came quickly to fruition. Henry VI was paraded through the streets of London as the restored king in October and Edward and Richard were proclaimed traitors. Warwick's success was short-lived, however. He overreached himself with his plan to invade Burgundy with the king of France, tempted by King Louis' promise of territory in the Netherlands as a reward. This led <!--del_lnk--> Charles the Bold of Burgundy to assist Edward. He provided funds and an army to launch an invasion of England in <!--del_lnk--> 1471. Edward defeated Warwick at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Barnet in 1471. The remaining Lancastrian forces were destroyed at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Tewkesbury, and Prince Edward of Westminster, the Lancastrian heir to the throne, was killed. <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> was murdered shortly afterwards (<!--del_lnk--> May 14, 1471), to strengthen the Yorkist hold on the throne.<p><a id="Richard_III" name="Richard_III"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Richard III</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52835.jpg.htm" title="Richard III"><img alt="Richard III" class="thumbimage" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Richiii.jpg" src="../../images/528/52835.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52835.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Richard III</div>
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<p>The restoration of Edward IV in 1471 is sometimes seen as marking the end of the Wars of the Roses. Peace was restored for the remainder of Edward's reign, but when he died suddenly in 1483, political and dynastic turmoil erupted again. Under Edward IV, factions had developed between the Queen's Woodville relatives (<!--del_lnk--> Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers and <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset) and others who resented the Woodvilles' new-found status at court and saw them as power-hungry upstarts and <!--del_lnk--> <i>parvenus</i>. At the time of Edward's premature death, his heir, <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_V_of_England.htm" title="Edward V of England">Edward V</a>, was only 12 years old. The Woodvilles were in a position to influence the young king's future government, since Edward V had been brought up under the stewardship of Earl Rivers in <!--del_lnk--> Ludlow. This was too much for many of the anti-Woodville faction to stomach, and in the struggle for the protectorship of the young king and control of the council, Edward's brother <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard, Duke of Gloucester</a>, who had been named by Edward IV on his deathbed as Protector of England, came to be <i>de facto</i> leader of the anti-Woodville faction.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52836.jpg.htm" title="Princes in the Tower"><img alt="Princes in the Tower" class="thumbimage" height="172" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Princes.jpg" src="../../images/528/52836.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52836.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Princes in the Tower</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>With the help of <!--del_lnk--> William Hastings and <!--del_lnk--> Henry Stafford, Gloucester captured the young king from the Woodvilles at <!--del_lnk--> Stony Stratford in <!--del_lnk--> Buckinghamshire. Thereafter Edward V was kept under Gloucester's custody in the <a href="../../wp/t/Tower_of_London.htm" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a>, where he was later joined by his younger brother, the 9-year-old <!--del_lnk--> Richard, Duke of York. Having secured the boys, Richard then alleged that Edward IV's marriage to <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Woodville had been illegal, and that the two boys were therefore illegitimate. Parliament agreed and enacted the <!--del_lnk--> Titulus Regius, which officially named Gloucester as <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">King Richard III</a>. The two imprisoned boys, known as the "<!--del_lnk--> Princes in the Tower", disappeared and were possibly murdered; by whom and under whose orders remains one of the most controversial subjects in English history.<p>Since Richard was the finest general on the Yorkist side, many accepted him as a ruler better able to keep the Yorkists in power than a boy who would have had to rule through a committee of <!--del_lnk--> regents. Lancastrian hopes, on the other hand, now centred on <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a>, whose father, <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, had been a half-brother of Henry VI. However, Henry's claim to the throne was through his mother, <!--del_lnk--> Margaret Beaufort, a descendant of Edward III, derived from <!--del_lnk--> John Beaufort, a grandson of Edward III's as the illegitimate son of <!--del_lnk--> John of Gaunt (at birth though later legitimated on the marriage of his parents).<p><a id="Henry_Tudor" name="Henry_Tudor"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Henry Tudor</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52838.jpg.htm" title="Henry VII"><img alt="Henry VII" class="thumbimage" height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Henry7England.jpg" src="../../images/528/52838.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52838.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Henry VII</div>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52839.jpg.htm" title="Elizabeth of York"><img alt="Elizabeth of York" class="thumbimage" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Elizabeth_of_York.JPG" src="../../images/528/52839.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52839.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Elizabeth of York</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52841.jpg.htm" title="Tudor Rose"><img alt="Tudor Rose" class="thumbimage" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tudor_Rose.jpg" src="../../images/528/52841.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/528/52841.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Tudor Rose</div>
</div>
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<p>Henry Tudor's forces defeated Richard's at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Bosworth Field in <!--del_lnk--> 1485 and Henry Tudor became King <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a>. Henry then strengthened his position by marrying <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and the best surviving Yorkist claimant. He thus reunited the two royal houses, merging the rival symbols of the red and white roses into the new emblem of the red and white <!--del_lnk--> Tudor Rose. Henry shored up his position by executing all other possible claimants whenever he could lay hands on them, a policy his son, <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, continued.<p>Many historians consider the accession of Henry VII to mark the end of the Wars of the Roses. Others argue that the Wars of the Roses concluded only with the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Stoke in <!--del_lnk--> 1487, which arose from the appearance of a <!--del_lnk--> pretender to the throne, a boy named <!--del_lnk--> Lambert Simnel who bore a close physical resemblance to the young <!--del_lnk--> Earl of Warwick, the best surviving male claimant of the House of York. The pretender's plan was doomed from the start, because the young earl was still alive and in King Henry's custody, so no one could seriously doubt Simnel was anything but an imposter. At Stoke, Henry defeated forces led by <!--del_lnk--> John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln — who had been named by Richard III as his heir, but had been reconciled with Henry after Bosworth — thus effectively removing the remaining Yorkist opposition. Simnel was pardoned for his part in the rebellion and sent to work in the royal kitchens. Henry's throne was again challenged with the appearance of the pretender <!--del_lnk--> Perkin Warbeck who, in <!--del_lnk--> 1491 claimed to be Richard, Duke of York. Henry consolidated his power in <!--del_lnk--> 1499 with the capture and execution of Warbeck.<p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h2>
<p>Although historians still debate the true extent of the conflict's impact on medieval English life, there is little doubt that the Wars of the Roses resulted in massive political upheaval and huge changes to the established balance of power. The most obvious effect was the collapse of the Plantagenet dynasty and its replacement with the new <!--del_lnk--> Tudor rulers who were to change England dramatically over the following years. In the following Henrician and post-Henrician times the remnant Plantagenet factions with no direct line to the throne were disabused of their independent positions, as monarchs continually played them off against each other.<p>With their heavy casualties among the <!--del_lnk--> nobility, the wars are thought to have ushered in a period of great social upheaval in feudal England, including a weakening of the feudal power of the nobles and a corresponding strengthening of the merchant classes, and the growth of a strong, centralized monarchy under the <!--del_lnk--> Tudors. It heralded the end of the medieval period in England and the movement towards the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<p>On the other hand, it has also been suggested that traumatic impact of the wars was exaggerated by <!--del_lnk--> Henry VII, to magnify his achievement in quelling them and bringing peace. Certainly, the effect of the wars on the merchant and labouring classes was far less than in the long drawn-out wars of siege and pillage in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and elsewhere in Europe, carried out by mercenaries who profited from the prolongation of the war. Although there were some lengthy sieges, such as at <!--del_lnk--> Harlech Castle and <!--del_lnk--> Bamburgh Castle, these were in remote and sparsely-inhabited regions. In the populated areas, both factions had much to lose by the ruin of the country, and sought quick resolution of the conflict by pitched battle.<p>The war was disastrous for England's already declining influence in France, and by the end of the struggle few of the gains made over the course of the <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> remained, apart from Calais which eventually fell during the reign of Queen Mary. Although later English rulers would continue to campaign on the continent, England's territories were never reclaimed. Indeed, various duchies and kingdoms in Europe played a pivotal role in the outcome of the war; in particular the kings of France and the dukes of Burgundy played the two factions off each other, pledging military and financial aid and offering asylum to defeated nobles to prevent a strong and unified England making war on them.<p>The post-war period was also the death knell for the large standing baronial armies, which had helped fuel the conflict. Henry, wary of any further fighting, kept the barons on a very tight leash, removing their right to raise, arm, and supply armies of retainers so that they could not make war on each other or the king. England would not see another standing army until Cromwell's <!--del_lnk--> New Model Army. As a result the military power of individual barons declined, and the Tudor court became a place where baronial squabbles were decided with the influence of the monarch.<p><a id="In_fiction" name="In_fiction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In fiction</span></h2>
<p><a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>'s plays on <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a>, parts <!--del_lnk--> 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2, and <!--del_lnk--> 3, and his <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_%2528play%2529.htm" title="Richard III (play)"><i>Richard III</i></a> cover the period of the wars. <i><!--del_lnk--> Henry VI, part 1</i> includes a scene in the Temple church where the dispute between the two houses begins, giving the conflict its modern name:<table align="center" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;">
<tr>
<td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:35px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;padding:10px 10px;" valign="top" width="20">“</td>
<td style="padding:4px 10px;" valign="top">
<p>"And here I prophesy: this brawl today,<br /> Grown to this faction in the Temple garden,<br /> Shall send, between the Red Rose and the White,<br /> A thousand souls to death and deadly night."<br /> — <i>Warwick, Henry VI, Part One</i></td>
<td style="color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;text-align:right;padding:10px 10px;" valign="bottom" width="20">”</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/w/Walter_Scott.htm" title="Walter Scott">Sir Walter Scott's</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Anne of Geierstein</i> concerns exiled English Lancastrians in 15th century <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy and <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Louis Stevenson's <!--del_lnk--> The Black Arrow is set during the war; the hero is a young Yorkist nobleman<li>Historical-romantic novel 'The Sunne in Splendour', by <!--del_lnk--> Sharon Kay Penman. This book of more than 900 pages gives a detailed account of the whole war in a historically and chronologically accurate way. The author has made additions and minor adjustments to enrich the story, however.<li>A rich and highly praised account of the Wars of the Roses appears in a recently published multiple-award-winning novel, 'The Rose of York: Love & War' by <!--del_lnk--> Sandra Worth. The book has been noted for its meticulous research by the Richard III Society<li>In "The Warrior Heir" by Cinda WIlliams Chima the main character, Jack, is brought into a battle between modern day Roses: guilds of wizards pitting the lives of Magical Warriors (of which Jack is one) in battle to claim a throne of leader ship over the other Roses<li>In the PS2 game "<!--del_lnk--> Yu-Gi-Oh! The Duelists of the Roses" the characters of the popular Yu-Gi-Oh! series embark on either sides of the red or white roses in a historically accurate quest<li>The dynastic feuding in <i>The Deep</i>, the first novel by <!--del_lnk--> John Crowley, is modeled on the Wars of the Roses.<li>George R.R. Martin's <!--del_lnk--> A Song of Ice and Fire, particularly its first book, is loosely based on the War of the Roses. Martin's Lannister family represents the Lancastrians while the Starks represent the Yorkists<li>In the Playstation game <!--del_lnk--> Final Fantasy Tactics the plot revolves around the Lion War, a war of succession modelled after the Wars of the Roses<li>In "Alice In Wonderland", the Queen's cards are painting white roses with red paint while singing "We're painting the roses red…" (This is an allusion to the Lancastrian victory over the Yorks)<li>In James Joyce's <i>A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man,</i> the character Stephen Dedalus competes with a fellow student, Jack Lawton, in working sums. Stephen wears a white rose and Lawton a red, and their prefect shouts, "Now then, who will win? Go ahead, York! Go ahead, Lancaster!"</ul>
<p><a id="Key_figures" name="Key_figures"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Key figures</span></h2>
<p>The following is a simplified family tree including <!--del_lnk--> members of the English royal family.<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/528/52842.png.htm" title="Image:WarRosesFamilyTree.png"><img alt="Image:WarRosesFamilyTree.png" height="953" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WarRosesFamilyTree.png" src="../../images/528/52842.png" width="830" /></a><p><a id="Articles" name="Articles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Articles</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Kings of England<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VI_of_England.htm" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> (Lancastrian)<li><a href="../../wp/e/Edward_IV_of_England.htm" title="Edward IV of England">Edward IV</a> (Yorkist)<li><a href="../../wp/e/Edward_V_of_England.htm" title="Edward V of England">Edward V</a> (Yorkist)<li><a href="../../wp/r/Richard_III_of_England.htm" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a> (Yorkist)<li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> (Tudor)</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Prominent antagonists 1455–87 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Yorkist<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick ('The Kingmaker')<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury<li><!--del_lnk--> John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu<li><!--del_lnk--> William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent<li><!--del_lnk--> Bastard of Fauconberg</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Lancastrian<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Margaret of Anjou Queen to Henry VI<li><!--del_lnk--> Sir Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland<li><!--del_lnk--> Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick ('The Kingmaker')<li><!--del_lnk--> Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset<li><!--del_lnk--> Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Earl of Pembroke<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Lord Clifford</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Battles" name="Battles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Battles</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> First Battle of St Albans - May 22, 1455 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Blore Heath - September 23, 1459 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ludford Bridge - October 12, 1459 (Lancastrian victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Northampton (1460) - July 10, 1460 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Wakefield - December 30, 1460 (Lancastrian victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Mortimer's Cross - February 2, 1461 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Second Battle of St Albans - February 22, 1461 (Lancastrian victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Ferrybridge - March 28, 1461 (Indecisive)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Towton - March 29, 1461 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Hedgeley Moor - April 25, 1464 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Hexham - May 15, 1464 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Edgecote Moor - July 26, 1469 (Lancastrian victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Lose-coat Field - March 12, 1470 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Barnet - April 14, 1471 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Tewkesbury - May 4, 1471 (Yorkist victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Bosworth Field - August 22, 1485 (Lancastrian victory)<li><!--del_lnk--> Battle of Stoke Field - June 16, 1487 (Lancastrian victory)</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Warsaw</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background-color:#FFFFFF; border:1px solid #aaa; font-size:large;"><b>Warszawa</b></td>
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<td style="text-align:center; width:180px;vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14403.png.htm" title="Flag of Warszawa"><img alt="Flag of Warszawa" height="88" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Warsaw.svg" src="../../images/144/14403.png" width="140" /></a></td>
<td style="text-align:center; width:180px;vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14404.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Warszawa"><img alt="Coat of arms of Warszawa" height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Grand_CoA_Warsaw.png" src="../../images/144/14404.png" width="100" /></a></td>
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<td style="text-align:center; width:180px;">(<!--del_lnk--> Flag)</td>
<td style="text-align:center; width:180px;">(<!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms)</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; border-bottom:3px solid gray; font-size:x-small;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>Contemnit procellas</i> (It defies the storms)<br /><i>Semper invicta</i> (Always invincible)</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14405.png.htm" title="Location of Warszawa"><img alt="Location of Warszawa" height="279" longdesc="/wiki/Image:POL_Warszawa_map.svg" src="../../images/144/14405.png" width="300" /></a></td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;"><a href="../../wp/c/Country.htm" title="Country">Country</a></td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;"><a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;"><!--del_lnk--> Voivodeship</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;"><!--del_lnk--> Masovian</td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;">Municipal government</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;"><i>Rada miasta st. Warszawy</i></td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;">Mayor</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;"><!--del_lnk--> Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz</td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;"><!--del_lnk--> Population<br /> - city<br /> - urban<br /> - <!--del_lnk--> density</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;">
<br /> 1,692,900 (2004)<br /> 2,879,000<br /> 3258/km²</td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;">Founded</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;"><a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a> century</td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;">City rights</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;">turn of the <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a> century</td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;">Latitude<br /> Longitude</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;">52°15' N<br /> 21°00' E</td>
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<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;"><!--del_lnk--> Area code</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;">+48 22</td>
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<tr>
<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;"><!--del_lnk--> Car plates</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB;">WA, WB, WD, WE, WF, WH, WI, WJ, WK, WN, WT, WU, WW, WX, WY</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;"><!--del_lnk--> Twin towns</td>
<td style="background-color:#FBFBFB; font-size:small;"><!--del_lnk--> Astana, <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" title="Budapest">Budapest</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/D%25C3%25BCsseldorf.htm" title="Düsseldorf">Düsseldorf</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Grozny, <!--del_lnk--> Hague, <!--del_lnk--> Hamamatsu, <a href="../../wp/h/Hanoi.htm" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Harbin, <!--del_lnk--> Île-de-France, <a href="../../wp/i/Istanbul.htm" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kiev.htm" title="Kiev">Kyiv</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Riga, <!--del_lnk--> Saint-Étienne, <a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>,<br /><a href="../../wp/s/Saint_Petersburg.htm" title="Saint Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Taipei.htm" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Vilnius</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:small;"><!--del_lnk--> Municipal Website</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Warsaw</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Polish: <span lang="pl" xml:lang="pl"><i>Warszawa</i></span>, <span class="IPA audiolink nounderlines" style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> [varˈʂava]</span> , in full <b>The Capital City of Warsaw</b>, <!--del_lnk--> Polish: <i>Miasto Stołeczne Warszawa</i>) is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> and its largest city. It is located on the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula river roughly 370 km from both the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> coast and the <!--del_lnk--> Carpathian Mountains. Its population as of <!--del_lnk--> 2005 was estimated at 1,697,596, with a <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan area of approximately 2,879,000. The city area amounts to 516.9 km², with an agglomeration of 6100.43 km² (Warsaw Metro Area - <i>Obszar Metropolitalny Warszawy</i>).<p>The city, also the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Masovian Voivodeship, is home to many industries, including manufacturing, steel, electrical engineering, and automotive; it features 66 institutions of higher learning, including <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw University, Stefan Wyszyński University, <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw University of Technology, <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw School of Economics, and a Medical Academy. Warsaw is home to over 30 theatres, including the National Theatre and Opera and the National Philharmonic Orchestra.<p>Warsaw is internationally notable for giving its name to the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Pact, <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Convention and the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Warsaw.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Location" name="Location"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Location</span></h3>
<p>Warsaw <!--del_lnk--> straddles the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula river, approximately 370 kilometres from both the <!--del_lnk--> Carpathian mountains and <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. It is located in the heartland of the <!--del_lnk--> Masovian Plain, and its average <!--del_lnk--> altitude is 100 m above sea level, although there are some hills (mostly artificial) located within the confines of the city.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>Warsaw's climate is <!--del_lnk--> continental humid. The average yearly temperature is 8 degrees <!--del_lnk--> Celsius (-2 <!--del_lnk--> °C in January and 18 °C in July). Temperatures may often reach 30°C in the summer. Yearly rainfall averages at 680 <!--del_lnk--> mm, the most rainy month being July.<p><a id="Districts" name="Districts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Districts</span></h3>
<p>Warsaw is a <i><!--del_lnk--> powiat</i> (<i>county</i>), and is further divided into 18 boroughs, each one known as a <i>dzielnica</i> (<!--del_lnk--> map), each one with its own administrative body. Each of the boroughs is divided into neighborhoods which are not officially recognized by the city but known by most Varsovians. The best known neighborhoods are the <!--del_lnk--> Old Town (<i>Stare Miasto</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> New Town (<i>Nowe Miasto</i>) in the borough of <!--del_lnk--> Śródmieście.<p>
<br clear="all" />
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14406.png.htm" title="Districts of Warsaw (since 2002)"><img alt="Districts of Warsaw (since 2002)" height="318" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_podzial_administracyjny_2002.svg" src="../../images/144/14406.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14406.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Districts of Warsaw (since <!--del_lnk--> 2002)</div>
</div>
</div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center">
<tr>
<th>District</th>
<th>Population</th>
<th>Area</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mokotów</td>
<td align="right">217 651</td>
<td>35,4 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Praga Południe</td>
<td align="right">187 845</td>
<td>22,4 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wola</td>
<td align="right">143 996</td>
<td>19,26 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ursynów</td>
<td align="right">137 716</td>
<td>44,6 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bielany</td>
<td align="right">136 485</td>
<td>32,3 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Śródmieście</td>
<td align="right">135 000</td>
<td>15,6 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Targówek</td>
<td align="right">124 316</td>
<td>24,37 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bemowo</td>
<td align="right">100 588</td>
<td>24,95 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ochota</td>
<td align="right">93 192</td>
<td>9,7 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Praga Północ</td>
<td align="right">74 304</td>
<td>11,4 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Białołęka</td>
<td align="right">64 000</td>
<td>74 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wawer</td>
<td align="right">62 656</td>
<td>79,71 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Żoliborz</td>
<td align="right">50 934</td>
<td>8,5 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ursus</td>
<td align="right">44 312</td>
<td>9,35 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Włochy</td>
<td align="right">36 276</td>
<td>28,63 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rembertów</td>
<td align="right">21 893</td>
<td>19,30 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wesoła</td>
<td align="right">18 482</td>
<td>22,6 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wilanów</td>
<td align="right">14 032</td>
<td>36,73 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Total</b></td>
<td align="right">1 690 821</td>
<td>517,90 km²</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Notable_suburbs_include" name="Notable_suburbs_include"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Notable suburbs include</span></h3>
<p>Notable suburbs include (number of inhabitants given in brackets):<p>
<br clear="all" />
<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center">
<tr>
<th>Notable suburbs include</th>
<th>Population</th>
<th>Area</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pruszków</td>
<td align="right">53 803</td>
<td>19,15 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Legionowo</td>
<td align="right">50 600</td>
<td>13,56 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Otwock</td>
<td align="right">42 736</td>
<td>47 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wołomin</td>
<td align="right">37 000</td>
<td>59,52 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Piaseczno</td>
<td align="right">32 978</td>
<td>16,3 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Piastów</td>
<td align="right">25 170</td>
<td>5,8 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ząbki</td>
<td align="right">23 277</td>
<td>11,13 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Marki</td>
<td align="right">21 150</td>
<td>26,03 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Łomianki</td>
<td align="right">19 463</td>
<td>38,06 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ożarów Mazowiecki</td>
<td align="right">19 137</td>
<td>71,34 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sulejówek</td>
<td align="right">18 414</td>
<td>19,51 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Kobyłka</td>
<td align="right">17 586</td>
<td>20,05 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Józefów</td>
<td align="right">17 117</td>
<td>24 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Zielonka</td>
<td align="right">17 075</td>
<td>79,23 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Konstancin-Jeziorna</td>
<td align="right">23 694</td>
<td>78 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Karczew</td>
<td align="right">10 600</td>
<td>81 km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Total</b></td>
<td align="right">422 541</td>
<td>721,38 km²</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14407.jpg.htm" title="Warsaw in 1770 by Canaletto"><img alt="Warsaw in 1770 by Canaletto" height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warszawa5.jpg" src="../../images/144/14407.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14407.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Warsaw in <!--del_lnk--> 1770 by <!--del_lnk--> Canaletto</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14408.jpg.htm" title="Royal Castle Square"><img alt="Royal Castle Square" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warszawa-pano.jpg" src="../../images/144/14408.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14408.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Royal Castle Square</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14409.jpg.htm" title="Royal Castle as seen from the bank of Vistula"><img alt="Royal Castle as seen from the bank of Vistula" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:37_13.jpg" src="../../images/144/14409.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14409.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Royal Castle as seen from the bank of <!--del_lnk--> Vistula</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14410.jpg.htm" title="Old Town"><img alt="Old Town" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_23.jpg" src="../../images/144/14410.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14410.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Old Town</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14411.jpg.htm" title="Łazienki (Baths) Palace"><img alt="Łazienki (Baths) Palace" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_126.jpg" src="../../images/144/14411.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14411.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Łazienki</i> (Baths) Palace</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14412.png.htm" title="Map of Warsaw from the 1888 edition of the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon"><img alt="Map of Warsaw from the 1888 edition of the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" height="219" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Karte_Warschau_MKL1888.png" src="../../images/144/14412.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14412.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Warsaw from the 1888 edition of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Meyers Konversations-Lexikon</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The first fortified settlements on the site of today's Warsaw were <!--del_lnk--> Bródno (<a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a>/<a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th</a> century) and <!--del_lnk--> Jazdów (<a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th</a>/<a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th</a> century). After Jazdów was raided in <!--del_lnk--> 1281 by <!--del_lnk--> Boleslaus II, the Duke of <!--del_lnk--> Płock, a new similar settlement was lodged on the grounds of a small fishing village called Warszowa. In the beginning of the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a> century it became one of the seats of the <!--del_lnk--> Dukes of Masovia, in <!--del_lnk--> 1413 becoming the capital of Masovia. Upon the extinction of the local ducal line, the duchy was reincorporated into the <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Polish Crown</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1526. In <!--del_lnk--> 1529 Warsaw for the first time became the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> General Sejm, permanent since <!--del_lnk--> 1569. In <!--del_lnk--> 1573 Warsaw gave its name to the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Confederation, an agreement by the <!--del_lnk--> Polish gentry to tolerate different religious faiths in the Kingdom of Poland.<p>Due to its central location between the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>'s capitals of <!--del_lnk--> Vilna and <!--del_lnk--> Cracow, Warsaw became the capital of the Commonwealth and at the same time of the <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Polish Crown</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1596, when King <!--del_lnk--> Sigismund III Vasa moved the capital from Cracow. Warsaw remained the capital of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until <!--del_lnk--> 1795, when it was annexed by the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Prussia to become the capital of the province of <!--del_lnk--> New East Prussia. Liberated by <a href="../../wp/n/Napoleon_I_of_France.htm" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s army in <!--del_lnk--> 1807, Warsaw was made the capital of the newly created <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Warsaw. Following the decisions of the <!--del_lnk--> Congress of Vienna of <!--del_lnk--> 1815, Warsaw became the centre of the <!--del_lnk--> Polish Kingdom, a constitutional monarchy under a personal union with <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia. Following the repeated violations of the Polish constitution by the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russians</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> 1830 <!--del_lnk--> November Uprising broke out. However, the Polish-Russian war of <!--del_lnk--> 1831 ended in the uprising's defeat and in the curtailment of the Kingdom's autonomy. On <!--del_lnk--> 27 February <!--del_lnk--> 1861 a Warsaw crowd protesting the Russian rule over Poland was fired upon by the Russian troops. Five people were killed. Underground <!--del_lnk--> Polish National Government resided in Warsaw during <!--del_lnk--> January Uprising in 1863-1864.<p>Warsaw became the capital of the newly independent <!--del_lnk--> Poland again in <!--del_lnk--> 1918.<p>Warsaw flourished in the late nineteenth century under Mayor <!--del_lnk--> Sokrates Starynkiewicz (<!--del_lnk--> 1875–<!--del_lnk--> 1892), a Russian-born general appointed by Tsar <!--del_lnk--> Alexander III. Under Starynkiewicz Warsaw saw its first water and sewer systems designed and built by the English engineer <!--del_lnk--> William Lindley and his son, <!--del_lnk--> William Heerlein Lindley, as well as the expansion and modernization of <!--del_lnk--> trams, <!--del_lnk--> street lighting and <!--del_lnk--> gas works.<p>In the course of the <!--del_lnk--> Polish-Bolshevik War of <!--del_lnk--> 1920, the huge <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Warsaw_%25281920%2529.htm" title="Battle of Warsaw (1920)">Battle of Warsaw</a> was fought on the Eastern outskirts of the city in which the capital of Poland was successfully defended and the <!--del_lnk--> Red Army defeated.<p>Warsaw is notable among <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>'s capital cities not for its size, age, or beauty, but for its indestructibility. It is a <!--del_lnk--> phoenix that has risen repeatedly from the ashes. Having suffered dreadful damage during the <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Prussian wars of <!--del_lnk--> 1655–<!--del_lnk--> 1656, it was again assaulted in <!--del_lnk--> 1794, when the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> army <!--del_lnk--> massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga. Its most remarkable act of survival, though, was its rebirth following its almost complete destruction during the <!--del_lnk--> Second World War.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Second World War began when <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> invaded western Poland on <!--del_lnk--> 1 September <!--del_lnk--> 1939. On <!--del_lnk--> 17 September eastern Poland was invaded by the <!--del_lnk--> USSR. Poland capitulated after 6 weeks of fighting. Western Poland was incorporated into the <!--del_lnk--> German Reich, eastern Poland into the USSR, while central Poland, including Warsaw, came under the rule of the <!--del_lnk--> General Government, a <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> colonial administration. In the course of the <!--del_lnk--> Invasion of Poland, Warsaw was <!--del_lnk--> severely bombed, and in the course of the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Warsaw approximately 10 to 15% of its buildings were destroyed.<p>Warsaw became an occupied city under the control of the Nazi <!--del_lnk--> SS. All higher education institutions were immediately closed and Warsaw's entire Jewish population — several hundred thousand, some 30% of the city — herded into the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Ghetto. When the order came to liquidate the Ghetto as part of <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Hitler">Hitler</a>'s "<!--del_lnk--> final solution", Jewish fighters launched the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Despite being heavily outgunned and outnumbered, the Ghetto held out for almost a month. When the fighting ended, the survivors were massacred.<p>During <!--del_lnk--> 1943 and <!--del_lnk--> 1944 the tide of the war turned, as the <!--del_lnk--> USSR, which had been at war with Germany since <!--del_lnk--> 1941, inflicted a number of severe defeats on the German army. By July <!--del_lnk--> 1944 the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviets</a> were deep into the Polish territory, pursuing the Germans toward Warsaw. Knowing that <!--del_lnk--> Stalin was hostile to the idea of an independent Poland, the <!--del_lnk--> Polish government-in-exile based in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> gave orders to the underground <a href="../../wp/a/Armia_Krajowa.htm" title="Armia Krajowa">Home Army</a> (AK) to try to seize the control of Warsaw from the Nazis just before the Soviets arrive. Thus, on <!--del_lnk--> 1 August <!--del_lnk--> 1944, as the Soviet army was nearing the city very fast, the <!--del_lnk--> Home Army and the general population started the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Uprising.<p>Despite Stalin's hostility towards Poland, the <!--del_lnk--> Poles had expected that the Soviet troops would assist them against their common German enemy. However, after the Red Army captured the right-bank Warsaw, the Soviet offensive was abruptly stopped, while the Germans went on to ruthlessly suppress the uprising. Although the insurgency, planned to last 48 hours, held out for 63 days, eventually the Home Army fighters were forced to capitulate. They were transported to the <!--del_lnk--> POW camps in Germany, while the entire civilian population was expelled. Hitler, ignoring the negotiated terms of the capitulation, ordered the entire city to be razed to the ground, and the library and museum collections robbed or burned. When on <!--del_lnk--> 17 January <!--del_lnk--> 1945 the Soviets crossed the Vistula and entered through the left-bank, they found a Warsaw that had almost ceased to exist; 85% of the city had been destroyed, including the historic <!--del_lnk--> Old Town and the Royal Castle. The surviving <!--del_lnk--> Home Army fighters were rounded up by the <!--del_lnk--> NKVD and either murdered or deported to <!--del_lnk--> Siberia.<p>The city was once considered a shining metropolis, but due to total destruction, it has lost its <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">baroque</a> tinge. Although many of the destroyed significant historical buildings were restored, little remains of the resplendence of Warsaw baroque.<p>After the war, <!--del_lnk--> Boleslaw Bierut's <!--del_lnk--> puppet regime set up by Stalin made Warsaw the capital of the <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communist">communist</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> People's Republic of Poland</i>, and the city was resettled and rebuilt. Large <!--del_lnk--> prefabricated <!--del_lnk--> housing projects were erected in Warsaw to address the housing shortage. Few of the inhabitants of the pre-war Poland returned: Hundreds of thousands were dead, thousands more in exile from the new regime. Nonetheless, the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of political and economic life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches were restored to their original form. In <!--del_lnk--> 1980, Warsaw's historic Old Town was inscribed onto <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO's <!--del_lnk--> World Heritage list.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1995 the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Metro finally opened, and with the entry of Poland into the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Warsaw is currently experiencing the biggest economic boom of its history.<p><a id="Population" name="Population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14413.jpg.htm" title="Presidential Palace, Warsaw, with equestrian statue of Prince Józef Poniatowski by Bertel Thorvaldsen."><img alt="Presidential Palace, Warsaw, with equestrian statue of Prince Józef Poniatowski by Bertel Thorvaldsen." height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2_Palac_Prezydencki_30.jpg" src="../../images/144/14413.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14413.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Presidential Palace, Warsaw, with equestrian statue of Prince <!--del_lnk--> Józef Poniatowski by <!--del_lnk--> Bertel Thorvaldsen.</div>
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<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1700: 30,000 (estimated)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1792: 120,000<li><!--del_lnk--> 1800: 63,400<li><!--del_lnk--> 1830: 139,700<li><!--del_lnk--> 1850: 163,600<li><!--del_lnk--> 1882: 383,000<li><!--del_lnk--> 1900: 686,000<li><!--del_lnk--> 1925: 1,003,000<li><!--del_lnk--> 1939: 1,300,000<li><!--del_lnk--> 1945: 422,000 <small>(in September)</small><li><!--del_lnk--> 1956: 1,000,000<li><!--del_lnk--> 1960: 1,139,200<li><!--del_lnk--> 1970: 1,315,600<li><!--del_lnk--> 1975: 1,436,100<li><!--del_lnk--> 1980: 1,596,100<li><!--del_lnk--> 1990: 1,611,800<li><!--del_lnk--> 2002: 1,707,100 (after incorporating <!--del_lnk--> Wesoła)<li><!--del_lnk--> 2004: 1,676,600 (urban agglomeration 2,760,000)<li><!--del_lnk--> 2005: 1,694,825 (urban agglomeration 2,880,000)</ul>
<p>There are approximately 30,000-35,000 <!--del_lnk--> Vietnamese people living in the Warsaw Municipal area.<br style="clear: right" />
<p><a id="Municipal_government" name="Municipal_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Municipal government</span></h2>
<div style="float: right; clear: right">
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14414.jpg.htm" title="Belweder in Łazienki Park"><img alt="Belweder in Łazienki Park" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:5_Warszawa_083.jpg" src="../../images/144/14414.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14414.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Belweder in <!--del_lnk--> Łazienki Park</div>
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<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14415.jpg.htm" title="Łazienki Palace"><img alt="Łazienki Palace" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_141.jpg" src="../../images/144/14415.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14415.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Łazienki Palace</div>
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</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/211/21172.jpg.htm" title="Chopin Monument"><img alt="Chopin Monument" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_107.jpg" src="../../images/144/14416.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/211/21172.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" title="Chopin">Chopin</a> Monument</div>
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</div>
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14417.jpg.htm" title="Commission Palace"><img alt="Commission Palace" height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KomisjaPalace.jpg" src="../../images/144/14417.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14417.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Commission Palace</div>
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</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14418.jpg.htm" title="Statue of Adam Mickiewicz"><img alt="Statue of Adam Mickiewicz" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_44.jpg" src="../../images/144/14418.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14418.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue of <!--del_lnk--> Adam Mickiewicz</div>
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</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14419.jpg.htm" title="Ujazdowski Castle"><img alt="Ujazdowski Castle" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Zamek_Ujazdowski_03.jpg" src="../../images/144/14419.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14419.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Ujazdowski Castle</div>
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</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14420.jpg.htm" title="Krasiński Palace"><img alt="Krasiński Palace" height="172" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krasinskich_5.jpg" src="../../images/144/14420.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14420.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Krasiński Palace</div>
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<p><a id="The_mayor_.28the_President_of_Warsaw.29" name="The_mayor_.28the_President_of_Warsaw.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The mayor (the President of Warsaw)</span></h3>
<p>Following the <i>Warsaw Act</i> (<i>Ustawa warszawska</i>) of <!--del_lnk--> October 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, the President of Warsaw carries out the executive duties in the city. His prerogative is, among others, governing the city-owned property that constitutes a major part of the city. The current acting President of Warsaw is <!--del_lnk--> Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz. <!--del_lnk--> Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz was elected in the local elections on <!--del_lnk--> November 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005.<p><a id="Municipal_government_2" name="Municipal_government_2"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Municipal government</span></h3>
<p>The <i>Warsaw Act</i> abolished all the former counties around Warsaw and formed one <i>city <!--del_lnk--> powiat</i> with a unified municipal government.<p>Legislative power in Warsaw is vested in a <!--del_lnk--> unicameral City Council (<i>Rada Miasta</i>), which comprises 60 members. Council members are elected directly every four years. Like most legislative bodies, the City Council divides itself into committees which have the oversight of various functions of the city government. Bills passed by a simple majority are sent to the mayor (the President of Warsaw), who may sign them into law. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a two-thirds majority vote.<p>Each of the 18 separate city districts has its own council (<i>Rada dzielnicy</i>). Their duties are focused on aiding the President and the City Council, as well as supervising various municipal companies, city-owned property and schools. The head of each of the District Councils is named the Mayor (<i>Burmistrz</i>) and is elected by the local council from the candidates proposed by the President of Warsaw.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:226px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14421.jpg.htm" title="Sejm building."><img alt="Sejm building." height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sejm.jpg" src="../../images/144/14421.jpg" width="224" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14421.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Sejm</i> building.</div>
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</div>
<p>As the capital of Poland, Warsaw is the political centre of the country. All state agencies are located there, including the <!--del_lnk--> Polish Parliament, the <!--del_lnk--> Presidential Office and the Supreme Court. In the Polish parliament both the city and the area are represented by 31 <!--del_lnk--> MPs (out of 460). Additionally, two politicians were recently elected <!--del_lnk--> MEPs.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<p>Although Warsaw was heavily damaged during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> and reconstruction in the <!--del_lnk--> fifties widened many streets, the city is currently plagued with traffic problems. Public transportation in Warsaw is as efficient as it is ubiquitous, serving the city with <!--del_lnk--> buses, <!--del_lnk--> tramways, and <!--del_lnk--> metro.<p><a id="Roads_and_highways" name="Roads_and_highways"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roads and highways</span></h3>
<p>Warsaw lacks a good circular road system and most of the East-West traffic goes directly through the city centre. Currently two circular roads are under construction. The first (called OEW, or <i>Obwodnica Etapowa Warszawy</i>) is to lead the traffic approximately 10 kilometres from the city centre through the city streets and two newly-built bridges. The other is to become a part of both the <!--del_lnk--> A-2 <!--del_lnk--> motorway (itself a part of the <!--del_lnk--> European route E30 from <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> to <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>) and the S-7 (<!--del_lnk--> Gdańsk–<!--del_lnk--> Kraków) express road, and will run through a tunnel under the southern area of <!--del_lnk--> Ursynów. It is to become available between <!--del_lnk--> 2008 and <!--del_lnk--> 2010. A lot of <!--del_lnk--> streets are named after famous Polish people or places.<p><a id="Airports" name="Airports"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Airports</span></h3>
<p>Warsaw has one international airport, <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport, located just 10 km away from the city centre. With over 60 international and domestic flights a day and with over 7,070,000 passengers served in 2005, it is by far the biggest airport in Poland. Immediately adjacent to the main Frederic Chopin Airport terminal complex, <i>Terminal 1</i>, is the <i>Etiuda</i> terminal, serving both the domestic and the international routes flown by low-cost carriers. A new terminal, <i>Terminal 2</i> is now under construction in order to alleviate current overcrowding, and to extend the airport's capacity by another 6 million passengers.<p>Also, an ex-military airfield in the town of <!--del_lnk--> Modlin, 20 km north of Warsaw, is currently being redeveloped into an airport for low-cost carriers, cargo and charter traffic. It will not be ready for use before September <!--del_lnk--> 2007.<p>There are also plans to build an entirely new international airport, mostly for service to other <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> countries. Its location has not yet been determined.<p><a id="Mass_transit" name="Mass_transit"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mass transit</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Mass transit in Warsaw consists of four branches (<!--del_lnk--> buses, <!--del_lnk--> streetcars, <!--del_lnk--> metro and <!--del_lnk--> regional rail) united in the <!--del_lnk--> ZTM (<i>Zarząd Transportu Miejskiego</i> or the Warsaw Transport Authority). Additional lines are operated by private companies and the state-owned railways.<p>There are three tourist routes: "T" which is operated by a historic tram in July and August, "100" which runs on weekends and is operated by the only double-decker bus owned by the city, and "180" which follows the Royal Route from the War Cemetery in the North, via The Royal Way to Wilanów, near the palace.<p><a id="Buses" name="Buses"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Buses</span></h4>
<p>Bus service covers the entire city, with 176 routes totalling 2,603 kilometres in length, and with 1,659 vehicles in service. The central bus stop is located next to Warszawa Centralna railway station and the Centrum Metro station. Between midnight and 5 am the city is served by 14 night lines. The first digit of the line's number indicates its type:<ul>
<li>1** - normal line (operates all day, seven days a week, stops at each bus stop on the route)<li>2** - special line (only on special occasions, e.g. the cemetery lines on <!--del_lnk--> November 1, or as a replacement for tram service)<li>3** - period line - normal (operates only at selected hours and on certain days, usually during peak hours, stops at each stop on the route)<li>4** - period line - fast (operates only at selected hours and on certain days, usually during peak hours, stops only at selected stops)<li>5** - fast line (operates all day, seven days a week, stops only at selected stops)<li>6** - night line (operates at night only, all stops are on-demand)<li>7** - suburb line (operates all day, seven days a week, goes outside the borders of Warsaw)<li>8** - suburb period line (operates only at selected hours and on certain days, usually during peak hours, goes outside the borders of Warsaw)<li>E-* - express line (stops only at major stops)<li>Z* - substitute line during breakdowns and temporary suspensions of tram or metro service (buses running instead of metro are also marked with logo of Metro Warszawskie)</ul>
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<p><a id="Streetcars" name="Streetcars"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Streetcars</span></h4>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14422.jpg.htm" title="Sapieha Palace"><img alt="Sapieha Palace" height="211" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SapiehaPalace.jpg" src="../../images/144/14422.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14422.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sapieha Palace</div>
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</div>
<p>The first <!--del_lnk--> tramway in Warsaw was opened on <!--del_lnk--> 11 December <!--del_lnk--> 1866. On <!--del_lnk--> 26 March <!--del_lnk--> 1908, all the lines, previously horse-powered, were electrified. In the period between the world wars, the tramway was nationalized and the net was extended significantly. After the <!--del_lnk--> Defence War of 1939 the service was halted for approximately three months due to war losses. Heavy aerial bombardment during the siege of Warsaw and requisition of all modern <!--del_lnk--> streetcars by the new German authorities postponed the reintroduction of service. However, by <!--del_lnk--> 1940 the trams were back on track. In <!--del_lnk--> 1941 the present colours of the cars were introduced (yellow and red, in the <!--del_lnk--> Flag of Warsaw colours. This was done to demoralize the Poles in the city by attempting to wipe out all traces of the white and red colours of Poland. Up until this point, the trams were painted either in a white and red mixture, or entirely red).<p>Following the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Uprising the tramway was destroyed by the Germans until the liberation of the ruins in January <!--del_lnk--> 1945. The streets were filled with rubble, the tram stations destroyed, and the cars either burnt or transported to Germany. However, the first streetcar line was opened again for the public on <!--del_lnk--> 20 June <!--del_lnk--> 1945.<p>Following the <!--del_lnk--> Second World War the tramway in Warsaw underwent fast development. The tracks reached all the principal parts of the city. However, in the <!--del_lnk--> sixties the official policy of both Polish and <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> authorities promoted the use of Soviet oil and the concomitant exportat of the Polish coal. The availability of coal on the home market decreased, and the tramway net was shortened, while more buses were bought. Until <!--del_lnk--> 1989 only 28 lines were preserved.<p>Currently the <!--del_lnk--> Tramwaje Warszawskie company runs 863 cars on almost 470 kilometres of track. Twenty-nine lines run across the city with additional lines opened on special occasions (such as public holidays or <!--del_lnk--> All-Saints Day).<p><a id="Trolleybuses" name="Trolleybuses"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Trolleybuses</span></h4>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14423.jpg.htm" title="Ostrogski Palace"><img alt="Ostrogski Palace" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZamekOstrogski.jpg" src="../../images/144/14423.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14423.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Ostrogski Palace</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14424.jpg.htm" title="Jabłonowski Palace"><img alt="Jabłonowski Palace" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Teatralny_1862.jpg" src="../../images/144/14424.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14424.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Jabłonowski Palace</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14425.jpg.htm" title="Czapski Palace"><img alt="Czapski Palace" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Krakowskie_5_03.jpg" src="../../images/144/14425.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14425.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Czapski Palace</div>
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<p>After <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> most of the communication network in Warsaw was destroyed. The streets were filled with rubble, and the streetcar infrastructure was either transported to Germany by the <!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht or destroyed.<p>However, the city entered the path of quick reconstruction and was in need of a transport network both cheap and efficient. In <!--del_lnk--> 1946 several dozens of <!--del_lnk--> trolleybuses were brought in from the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and first two lines were soon opened. The trolleybuses were using ex-tramway lines and the lines ran from <!--del_lnk--> Union of Lublin square (<i>Plac Unii Lubelskiej</i>) to Warszawa Gdańska train station, and from Łazienkowska depot to the city centre (Piękna street area).<p>In March <!--del_lnk--> 1946 a second line was opened (<i>Plac Saski</i>–<i>Bonifraterska</i>), but was closed and replaced by streetcars in December. However, the reconstruction of the tramway was halted, mostly for political reasons, and until <!--del_lnk--> 1955 5 new trolleybus lines were opened, covering most of the city centre.<p>See: <!--del_lnk--> trolleybus network map of this period<p><!--del_lnk--> 1967 started a period of fast decline in both the number of trolleybuses and the trolleybus lines in Warsaw. <!--del_lnk--> PZPR policies under <!--del_lnk--> Edward Gierek assumed that as much Polish coal as possible be exported while the oil be imported at very low prices from the <!--del_lnk--> USSR. It was decided that production of electricity should be lowered in order to spare resources and by <!--del_lnk--> 7 July <!--del_lnk--> 1973 all trolleybus lines in Warsaw were closed.<p>The last period of Warsaw trolleybus transportation started in <!--del_lnk--> 1977, when it was decided that the existing cars could be used as a means of mass transit between Warsaw and the southern suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Piaseczno. An additional line was planned through <!--del_lnk--> Wilanów (now part of the city), <!--del_lnk--> Powsin and <!--del_lnk--> Konstancin-Jeziorna. However, economic crisis made construction of the latter line impossible, and only the <!--del_lnk--> Piaseczno line was opened on <!--del_lnk--> 1 July <!--del_lnk--> 1983.<p>After the system transformation of <!--del_lnk--> 1989 it became apparent that the trolleybuses were in dire need of replacement (those used were built in early <!--del_lnk--> 1950s), and that the maintenance costs of running a single line were very high. On <!--del_lnk--> 1 September <!--del_lnk--> 1995 the Warsaw City Council decided that all services on the 51 and 651 lines be halted. In July <!--del_lnk--> 2000 the trolleybus depot in Piaseczno was closed and the remaining cars sold to <!--del_lnk--> Minsk, <!--del_lnk--> Lublin (where most of them languish in a field behind the main area of a trolleybus depot awaiting refurbishment and return to service; a lack of funds prevents this from going ahead) and to various museums.<p>See: <!--del_lnk--> trolleybus line map of this period<p><a id="Metro" name="Metro"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Metro</span></h4>
<p><a id="Railway" name="Railway"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Railway</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14426.jpg.htm" title="St. Anna's Church"><img alt="St. Anna's Church" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_39.jpg" src="../../images/144/14426.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14426.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> St. Anna's Church</div>
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<p>The first railroad reached Warsaw in <!--del_lnk--> 1845 (the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw-Vienna Railway). Nowadays Warsaw is one of the main railway nodes and exchange points in Poland. Cheap and fairly efficient, the PKP (<i>Polskie Koleje Państwowe</i>, or Polish State-owned Railways) are one of the principal means of transport in Poland.<p>The main train station is <b><!--del_lnk--> Warszawa Centralna</b>. Both the domestic and the international connections run from there to almost every major city in Poland and Europe. There are also 5 additional major train stations and a number of smaller stations for suburban lines.<p>The railway crosses under the city through a tunnel (<i>tunel średnicowy</i>). It is approximately 2.2 km long and runs directly under the city centre. It is part of an east-west line connecting the <i>Warszawa Zachodnia</i>, <i>Warszawa Centralna</i> and <i>Warszawa Wschodnia</i> train stations through the tunnel and a railway bridge over the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula River.<p>The principal train stations are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Warszawa Centralna<li><!--del_lnk--> Warszawa Gdańska<li><!--del_lnk--> Warszawa Wileńska<li><!--del_lnk--> Warszawa Zachodnia<li><!--del_lnk--> Warszawa Wschodnia</ul>
<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h2>
<div class="floatleft"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Polonia Warszawa" height="69" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Polonia_Warszawa.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="70" /></span></div>
<div class="floatleft"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Legia Warszawa" height="89" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Legia_Warszawa.gif" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="70" /></span></div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Legia Warszawa - men's <!--del_lnk--> football team (est. <!--del_lnk--> 1916), (Polish Champion: <!--del_lnk--> 1955, <!--del_lnk--> 1956, <!--del_lnk--> 1969, <!--del_lnk--> 1970, <!--del_lnk--> 1994, <!--del_lnk--> 1995, <!--del_lnk--> 2002, <!--del_lnk--> 2006; <!--del_lnk--> Polish Cup winner: <!--del_lnk--> 1955, <!--del_lnk--> 1956, <!--del_lnk--> 1964, <!--del_lnk--> 1966, <!--del_lnk--> 1973, <!--del_lnk--> 1980, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, <!--del_lnk--> 1989, <!--del_lnk--> 1990, <!--del_lnk--> 1995, <!--del_lnk--> 1995, <!--del_lnk--> 1997; <!--del_lnk--> Polish SuperCup winner: <!--del_lnk--> 1989, <!--del_lnk--> 1994, <!--del_lnk--> 1997; 1st league in 2006/2007 season)<li><!--del_lnk--> Polonia Warszawa - men's <!--del_lnk--> football team (est. <!--del_lnk--> 1911), (Polish Champion: <!--del_lnk--> 1948, <!--del_lnk--> 2000; <!--del_lnk--> Polish Cup winner: <!--del_lnk--> 1952, <!--del_lnk--> 2001; <!--del_lnk--> Polish SuperCup winner: <!--del_lnk--> 2000; 2nd league in 2006/2007 season)</ul>
<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:632px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14429.jpg.htm" title="Panorama of the city."><img alt="Panorama of the city." height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Qt24.jpg" src="../../images/144/14429.jpg" width="630" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14429.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Panorama of the city.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14430.jpg.htm" title="Teatr Wielki"><img alt="Teatr Wielki" height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Teatr_Wielki.jpg" src="../../images/144/14430.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14430.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Teatr Wielki</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14431.jpg.htm" title="Old Philharmonic Hall"><img alt="Old Philharmonic Hall" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WarsawFilharmonia.jpg" src="../../images/144/14431.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14431.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Old Philharmonic Hall</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14432.jpg.htm" title="Zachęta Art Gallery"><img alt="Zachęta Art Gallery" height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zacheta.jpg" src="../../images/144/14432.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14432.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Zachęta Art Gallery</div>
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<p>From 1833 to the outbreak of World War II, <b>Teatralny Square</b> <b><i>(Theatre Square)</i></b> was the country's theatrical and cultural hub and home to the following theatres from 1833.<p>The main building housed the <!--del_lnk--> Teatr Wielki from 1833-1834, the Rozmaitości Theatre from 1836 to 1924 and then the National Theatre, the Reduta Theatre from 1919 to 1924, and from 1928 to 1939 - the Nowy Theatre, which staged productions of contemporary poetical drama, including those directed by Leon Schiller.<p>Nearby, in the Saski (Saxon) Garden, the Summer Theatre was in operation from 1870 to September 1939, and in the inter-war period, the theatre complex also included Momus, Warsaw's first artistic literary cabaret at 29 Senatorska St., and Leon Schiller's musical theatre Melodram at 29 Senatorska St. The Wojciech Bogusławski Theatre (1922-1926) at 5 Hipoteczna St., in the former Nowości Theatre building, was the best materialization of "Polish monumental theatre". From the mid-1930's, a Teatr Wielki building at 10 Trębacka St. housed the State Institute of Dramatic Arts - the first state-run academy of dramatic art, with an Acting Department and a Stage Directing Department.<p>Teatralny Square and its environs was the venue for numerous parades, celebrations of state holidays, carnival balls, and concerts. In 1881, the Warsaw Guide wrote:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Warsaw"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/147.png.htm" title="Warsaw"><img alt="Warsaw" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote1.png" src="../../images/1/147.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<td>Teatralny Square unquestionably can be called the soul of Warsaw. It equals the Saski Garden in its liveliness and activity. Here are concentrated the most important organs in a city's life: the Theatre and the Town Hall, a church, the wine-traders Stępkowski and Boquet, a prime restaurant decorated to ensure the greatest comfort, the offices of Warsaw's most popular newspaper Kurier Warszawski, stationery emporiums, tobacco emporiums, pharmacies, perfumeries, jewellers' shops, clothing and shoe shops, the finest pastry-cooks' shops, emporiums offering lamps, samovars, linen, gowns and furs, fruit shops, cab stops, etc. etc. Such hustle and bustle is not to be found elsewhere in the city. Teatralny Square fully deserves the traveller's interest.</td>
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<div style="position:absolute; font-size:20px; overflow:hidden; line-height:20px; letter-spacing:20px;"><strong class="selflink"><span style="text-decoration:none;" title="Warsaw"> </span></strong></div><a class="image" href="../../images/1/148.png.htm" title="Warsaw"><img alt="Warsaw" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cquote2.png" src="../../images/1/148.png" width="20" /></a></div>
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<p><a id="Theatre" name="Theatre"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Theatre</span></h3>
<p>Warsaw is home to over 30 major theatres that are spread throughout the city, including the <!--del_lnk--> National Theatre (founded in <!--del_lnk--> 1765) and the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Theatre in Warsaw (<!--del_lnk--> ) (established <!--del_lnk--> 1778).<p>Warsaw also attracts many young and off-stream directors and <!--del_lnk--> performers who add to the city's theatre culture. Their productions may be viewed mostly in smaller theatres and <i>Houses of Culture</i> (<i>Dom Kultury</i>), mostly outside <i><!--del_lnk--> Śródmieście</i> (downtown Warsaw). One of the most notable stages in Poland is <i><!--del_lnk--> TR Warszawa</i> (formerly <i>Teatr Rozmaitości</i>).<p>Warsaw hosts the <!--del_lnk--> International Theatrical Meetings.<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h3>
<p>Thanks to numerous musical venues, including the <!--del_lnk--> Teatr Wielki, the Polish National Opera, the <!--del_lnk--> Chamber Opera, the <!--del_lnk--> National Philharmonic Hall and the <!--del_lnk--> National Theatre, as well as the music theatres Roma and Buffo and the Congress Hall in the <!--del_lnk--> Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw hosts many renown events and festivals. Among the seasonal events worth particular attention are: the <!--del_lnk--> International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition, the International Contemporary Music Festival <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Autumn, the <!--del_lnk--> Jazz Jamboree, <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Summer Jazz Days, the <!--del_lnk--> International Stanisław Moniuszko Vocal Competition, the <!--del_lnk--> Mozart Festival, and the <!--del_lnk--> Festival of Old Music.<p><a id="Museums_and_art_galleries" name="Museums_and_art_galleries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums and art galleries</span></h3>
<p>There are many museums and art galleries in Warsaw, most notable are the <!--del_lnk--> Muzeum Narodowe, The Polish Aviation Museum, <!--del_lnk--> Zachęta Art Gallery, <!--del_lnk--> Centre for Contemporary Art, <!--del_lnk--> Museum of the Polish Army. The biggest of them, the <!--del_lnk--> National Museum has numerous divisions located in many parts of Warsaw, most notably in the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Castle and the <!--del_lnk--> Wilanów Palace.<p>Since 2004, a <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Uprising Museum <!--del_lnk--> has been open to the public.<p><a id="Film" name="Film"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Film</span></h3>
<p>Since World War II Warsaw has been the second most important centre of film production in Poland. As the capital of Poland it has also been featured in countless movies, both Polish and foreign. Movies such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Kanał</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Korczak</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Andrzej Wajda, <i><!--del_lnk--> Eroica</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Andrzej Munk, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Decalogue</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Krzysztof Kieślowski, <i><!--del_lnk--> Miś</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Bareja or <i><!--del_lnk--> The Pianist</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Roman Polański used Warsaw either as the background, or as the protagonist.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14433.png.htm" title="Main gate of Warsaw University."><img alt="Main gate of Warsaw University." height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Uniwersytet.png" src="../../images/144/14433.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14433.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Main gate of <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw University.</div>
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<p>Warsaw is one of the most important education centers of Poland. It is home to four major <a href="../../wp/u/University.htm" title="University">universities</a> and over 62 smaller schools of higher education. The most important are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> University of Warsaw (<i>Uniwersytet Warszawski</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Warsaw University of Technology (<i>Politechnika Warszawska</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Warsaw School of Economics (<i>Szkoła Główna Handlowa</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Agricultural University (<i>Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University (<i>Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Medical University of Warsaw (<i>Akademia Medyczna w Warszawie</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Military University of Technology (<i>Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Academy of National Defence (<i>Akademia Obrony Narodowej</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Academy of Physical Education in Warsaw (<i>Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Fryderyk Chopin Academy of Music (<i>Akademia Muzyczna im. Fryderyka Chopina</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Theatre Academy (<i>Akademia Teatralna im. Aleksandra Zelwerowicza</i>)</ul>
<p><i>See also:</i> <!--del_lnk--> List of universities in Poland<p>The overall number of students of all grades of education in Warsaw is almost 500,000 (29.2% of the city population; 2002). The number of university students is over 255,000.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14434.jpg.htm" title="Warsaw at night. The Palace of Culture and Science, the city's tallest building and the 4th tallest in the European Union is visible on the right."><img alt="Warsaw at night. The Palace of Culture and Science, the city's tallest building and the 4th tallest in the European Union is visible on the right." height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wawka.jpg" src="../../images/144/14434.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14434.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Warsaw at night. The <!--del_lnk--> Palace of Culture and Science, the city's tallest building and the 4th tallest in the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> is visible on the right.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14435.jpg.htm" title="John Paul II Avenue"><img alt="John Paul II Avenue" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wawka2.jpg" src="../../images/144/14435.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14435.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/p/Pope_John_Paul_II.htm" title="John Paul II">John Paul II</a> Avenue</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14436.jpg.htm" title="Great Synagogue before 1939"><img alt="Great Synagogue before 1939" height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warsawsynagoga.jpg" src="../../images/144/14436.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14436.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Great Synagogue before 1939</div>
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<p><a id="Business_and_commerce" name="Business_and_commerce"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Business and commerce</span></h3>
<p>Warsaw, especially its downtown (<i><!--del_lnk--> Śródmieście</i>), is home not only to many national institutions and government agencies, but also to many domestic and international companies. In <!--del_lnk--> 2003, 268,307 companies were registered in the city. Warsaw is seen as the heart of Poland by foreign investors, whose financial participation in the city's development was estimated in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 at over 650 million <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">euro</a>. Warsaw produces more than 15% of Poland's national income. The GDP (PPP) per capita in Warsaw was about $28,000 in 2005.<p>At the same time the unemployment rate is one of the lowest in Poland, not exceeding 6%, according to the official figures.<p>The city itself collects around 8,740,882,000 <!--del_lnk--> złotys in taxes and direct government grants.<p>It has been said that Warsaw, together with <a href="../../wp/f/Frankfurt.htm" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, is one of the tallest cities in Europe. 11 tallest skyscrapers of Poland, 9 of which are office buildings, are located in Warsaw. The centrally located tallest structure, the <!--del_lnk--> Palace of Culture and Science, is the 4th tallest building in the European Union.<p><a id="Stock_exchange" name="Stock_exchange"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stock exchange</span></h3>
<p>Although Warsaw was home to a stock exchange since <!--del_lnk--> 1817, in <!--del_lnk--> 1945, because of political changes after World War II, it could not be recreated. It only started operating again in April <!--del_lnk--> 1991, after the reintroduction of the free-market economy and democracy. It is now the biggest stock exchange in the country, with more than 250 companies listed. The main indexes of its performance are <!--del_lnk--> WIG and <!--del_lnk--> WIG20.<p>History likes funny twists — it's worth mentioning that from <!--del_lnk--> 1991 until <!--del_lnk--> 2000 the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Stock Exchange was situated in the building previously used as the headquarters of the <!--del_lnk--> Polish Communist Party (<!--del_lnk--> PZPR).<p><a id="Industry" name="Industry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Industry</span></h3>
<p>Following the destruction of the city in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> and its reconstruction, the communist authorities decided that Warsaw be rebuilt as a major industrial centre. Several hundred major factories were built in the city or just outside of it. Most notable were the <i>Huta Warszawa</i> Steel Works and two car factories.<p>However, as the communist economical system deteriorated, most of them lost any significance. In the years following <!--del_lnk--> 1989, in the course of a peaceful transformation of both political and economical system in Poland, most of these went bankrupt. Nowadays, the <!--del_lnk--> Lucchini-Warszawa Steel Mill (formerly <i><!--del_lnk--> Huta Warszawa</i>) is the only major factory remaining.<p><a id="Tourist_attractions" name="Tourist_attractions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tourist attractions</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14437.jpg.htm" title="Aleksander Church before 1939"><img alt="Aleksander Church before 1939" height="285" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AleksanderWarszawa.jpg" src="../../images/144/14437.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14437.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aleksander Church before 1939</div>
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<li>Although Warsaw is a reasonably new city, it has a lot of tourist attractions. Apart from the <!--del_lnk--> Old Town quarter, carefully reconstructed after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, each borough has something to offer. Among the most notable landmarks of the Old Town are the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Castle, <!--del_lnk--> King Zygmunt's Column, and the <!--del_lnk--> barbican.</ul>
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<li>Further south is the so-called Royal Road, with lots of notable <!--del_lnk--> classicist palaces, the <!--del_lnk--> Presidential Palace and the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw University campus. Also the popular <!--del_lnk--> Nowy Świat Street is worth mentioning.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Warsaw's oldest public park, the <!--del_lnk--> Ogród Saski, is located within 10 minutes distance of the old town. Another such oasis of silence and serenity is the <!--del_lnk--> Powązki Cemetery, one of the oldest cemeteries in Europe, filled with hundreds of precious sculptures, some of them by the most renowned artists of the 19th and 20th centuries. Since it serves the religious communities of Warsaw, be it Catholics, Jews, Muslims or Protestants, it is often called a <!--del_lnk--> necropolis. Nearby is the <!--del_lnk--> Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery, one of the largest Jewish cemeteries in Europe.</ul>
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<li>To the north of the city centre the museum of the former <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Ghetto is located, which is also a popular locality often visited by foreign tourists. Also the borough of <!--del_lnk--> Żoliborz is famous for its architecture from the 1920s and 1930s. Between Żoliborz and the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Citadel is located, a priceless monument of <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> military architecture. Also the former royal residencec of king <!--del_lnk--> Jan III Sobieski in <!--del_lnk--> Wilanów and <!--del_lnk--> Belweder are notable for their <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">baroque</a> architecture and beautiful parks.</ul>
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<li>However, Warsaw is perhaps the most famous for several buildings from modern history. Apart from the <!--del_lnk--> Palace of Culture and Science, a <!--del_lnk--> Soc-realist skyscrapper located exactly in the city centre, the <!--del_lnk--> Stadion Dziesięciolecia which is the biggest <a href="../../wp/m/Market.htm" title="Market">market</a> in Europe also attracts many tourists. For those who seek dramatic contrasts the borough of Central <!--del_lnk--> Praga is often the best choice. Called by the Varsovians the <i>Bermuda Triangle</i> for high crime rate, it is a place where almost completely demolished houses stand right next to modern apartment buildings and shopping malls. Also a Constitution square with its monumental socrealistic architecture should be mentioned.</ul>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14438.jpg.htm" title="Palace of Culture and Science"><img alt="Palace of Culture and Science" height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PalacKiN.jpg" src="../../images/144/14438.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14438.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Palace of Culture and Science</div>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Ulica Kubusia Puchatka is a Warsaw street named after <!--del_lnk--> Winnie-the-Pooh.</ul>
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<li>The modern architecture in Warsaw is represented by: <ul>
<li>Metropolitan at Pilsudski's square by <!--del_lnk--> sir Norman Foster<li><!--del_lnk--> Warsaw University Library (BUW) by Marek Budzyński and Zbigniew Badowski with a garden on the roof and beautiful viev on the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula river<li>Rondo 1 office building by <!--del_lnk--> SOM</ul>
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<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
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<li>Every member of <!--del_lnk--> the Queen's Royal Hussars of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> light <!--del_lnk--> cavalry wears the <b>Maid of Warsaw</b>, the crest of the City of Warsaw, on the left sleeve of his No. 2 (Service) Dress.<li>One of <!--del_lnk--> David Bowie’s songs released in the album <!--del_lnk--> Low is called <!--del_lnk--> Warszawa.<li>One of <!--del_lnk--> Joy Division’s songs released in the album <!--del_lnk--> Substance is called <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw. The band itself was previously called "Warsaw" as well.<li>There is a <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Danish</a> <!--del_lnk--> heavy metal band called <!--del_lnk--> Red Warszawa.<li>There are ten towns in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> called <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw</ul>
<p><a id="Famous_people" name="Famous_people"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Famous people</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14439.jpg.htm" title="Seated statue of Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik) by Bertel Thorvaldsen in front of the Polish Academy of Sciences."><img alt="Seated statue of Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik) by Bertel Thorvaldsen in front of the Polish Academy of Sciences." height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:StaszicaPalace.jpg" src="../../images/144/14439.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14439.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Seated statue of <a href="../../wp/n/Nicolaus_Copernicus.htm" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> (<i>Mikołaj Kopernik</i>) by <!--del_lnk--> Bertel Thorvaldsen in front of the <!--del_lnk--> Polish Academy of Sciences.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14440.jpg.htm" title="Bristol Hotel"><img alt="Bristol Hotel" height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BristolHotel2.jpg" src="../../images/144/14440.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14440.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bristol Hotel</div>
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<p>People born in Warsaw who are famous:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mordechai Anielewicz (<!--del_lnk--> 1919–<!--del_lnk--> 1943?), commander of the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Ghetto Uprising<li><!--del_lnk--> Eugeniusz Bodo (<!--del_lnk--> 1899–<!--del_lnk--> 1943?), singer and actor<li><!--del_lnk--> Zbigniew Brzeziński (b. <!--del_lnk--> 1928), political scientist, advisor to <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">US</a> President <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/f/Fr%25C3%25A9d%25C3%25A9ric_Chopin.htm" title="Frédéric Chopin">Fryderyk Chopin</a>, (<!--del_lnk--> 1810–<!--del_lnk--> 1849), the most renowned <!--del_lnk--> Polish composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Maria Skłodowska-Curie, (<!--del_lnk--> 1867–<!--del_lnk--> 1934), pioneer researcher into radioactivity, two-time <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize winner<li><!--del_lnk--> Lucyna Ćwierczakiewiczowa (<!--del_lnk--> 1829–<!--del_lnk--> 1901), the first <!--del_lnk--> Polish cookbook author<li><!--del_lnk--> Abraham Joshua Heschel (<!--del_lnk--> 1907-<!--del_lnk--> 1972), Jewish theologian and philosopher<li><!--del_lnk--> Agnieszka Holland (b. <!--del_lnk--> 1948), internationally acclaimed film director<li><!--del_lnk--> Adam Jarzębski (ca 1590-1649), composer and violinist, author of the first guide to Warsaw<li><!--del_lnk--> Jacek Kaczmarski (<!--del_lnk--> 1957–<!--del_lnk--> 2004), songwriter, poet and author<li><!--del_lnk--> Ryszard Kapuściński (b. <!--del_lnk--> 1932), writer and journalist<li><!--del_lnk--> Krzysztof Kieślowski (<!--del_lnk--> 1941–<!--del_lnk--> 1996), internationally acclaimed film director<li><!--del_lnk--> Krzysztof Komeda, (<!--del_lnk--> 1931–<!--del_lnk--> 1969), free <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">jazz</a> pioneer, composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Janusz Korczak (1878 or 1879-1942), writer, publicist, educator, children's rights advocate.<li><!--del_lnk--> Ryszard Kukliński (<!--del_lnk--> 1930–<!--del_lnk--> 2004), a <!--del_lnk--> CIA spy during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Kazimierz Kuratowski (<!--del_lnk--> 1896–<!--del_lnk--> 1980), mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Janusz Kusociński (<!--del_lnk--> 1907–<!--del_lnk--> 1940), athlete, champion at the <!--del_lnk--> 1932 Summer Olympics<li><!--del_lnk--> Tamara de Lempicka (<!--del_lnk--> 1898–<!--del_lnk--> 1980), painter<li><!--del_lnk--> Witold Lutosławski, (<!--del_lnk--> 1913–<!--del_lnk--> 1994), <!--del_lnk--> composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Benoît Mandelbrot (b. <!--del_lnk--> 1924), <!--del_lnk--> mathematician and creator of <!--del_lnk--> Mandelbrot set<li><!--del_lnk--> Icchok Lejb Perec (<!--del_lnk--> 1851-<!--del_lnk--> 1915), Yiddish novelist, poet and playwright<li><!--del_lnk--> Bolesław Prus (<!--del_lnk--> 1847-<!--del_lnk--> 1912), novelist<li><!--del_lnk--> Władysław Reymont (<!--del_lnk--> 1867–<!--del_lnk--> 1925), novelist, <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize winner<li><!--del_lnk--> Jerzy Rybicki (b. <!--del_lnk--> 1953), boxer, champion at the <!--del_lnk--> 1976 Summer Olympics<li><!--del_lnk--> Wacław Sierpiński (<!--del_lnk--> 1882–<!--del_lnk--> 1969), mathematician<li><!--del_lnk--> Stefan Starzyński (<!--del_lnk--> 1893–<!--del_lnk--> 1943?), heroic mayor of Warsaw, <!--del_lnk--> 1934–<!--del_lnk--> 1939, murdered by the Nazis.<li><!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Staszic (<!--del_lnk--> 1755–<!--del_lnk--> 1826) clergyman, writer, publicist, translator, philosopher and <!--del_lnk--> Enlightenment activist;<li><!--del_lnk--> Władysław Szpilman, (<!--del_lnk--> 1911–<!--del_lnk--> 2000), <!--del_lnk--> composer and author of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Pianist</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz aka <i>Witkacy</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1885–<!--del_lnk--> 1939), writer and painter<li><!--del_lnk--> Janusz A. Zajdel (<!--del_lnk--> 1938–<!--del_lnk--> 1995), science-fiction writer<li><!--del_lnk--> L.L. Zamenhof, (<!--del_lnk--> 1859-<!--del_lnk--> 1917), creator of the international language <a href="../../wp/e/Esperanto.htm" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a></ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Warsaw Uprising (1794)</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;">
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Warsaw Uprising of 1794</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: lightsteelblue;">Part of <!--del_lnk--> Kościuszko's Uprising</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><a class="image" href="../../images/284/28416.jpg.htm" title="Fights at Krakowskie Przedmieście, a contemporary sketch by Jan Piotr Norblin"><img alt="Fights at Krakowskie Przedmieście, a contemporary sketch by Jan Piotr Norblin" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KrakPrzedm1794.JPG" src="../../images/284/28416.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /> Fights at Krakowskie Przedmieście, a contemporary sketch by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Piotr Norblin.</td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 17 to <!--del_lnk--> April 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1794</td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/Warsaw.htm" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></td>
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<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Result</th>
<td>Polish victory</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Combatants</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Commanders</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Mokronowski,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jan Kiliński</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Iosif Igelström</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Strength</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">3,500 soldiers,<br /> ~2,500 militia<sup><a href="#Opposing_forces" title=""></a></sup></td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">7,000 soldiers<sup><a href="#Opposing_forces" title=""></a></sup></td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Casualties</th>
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<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">507 soldiers killed and 437 wounded,<br /> ~700 civilians killed</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">2,000-4,000,<br /> 2000 captured</td>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;">
<tr style="background: lightsteelblue;">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Kościuszko Uprising</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Racławice – <strong class="selflink">Warsaw</strong> – <!--del_lnk--> Wilno – <!--del_lnk--> Greater Poland – <!--del_lnk--> Szczekociny – <!--del_lnk--> Chełm – <!--del_lnk--> Krupczyce – <!--del_lnk--> Terespol – <!--del_lnk--> Maciejowice – <!--del_lnk--> Praga</td>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28417.jpg.htm" title="Centre of Warsaw as seen on a 1831 map"><img alt="Centre of Warsaw as seen on a 1831 map" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Warsaw-map-1831-closeup.jpg" src="../../images/284/28417.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28417.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Centre of Warsaw as seen on a 1831 map</div>
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<p>The <b>Warsaw Uprising of 1794</b> (otherwise called the <i>Warsaw Insurrection</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Polish: <span lang="pl" xml:lang="pl"><i>insurekcja warszawska</i></span>) was an armed <!--del_lnk--> Polish insurrection at the onset of <!--del_lnk--> Kościuszko's Uprising by the people of the city. Supported by the <!--del_lnk--> Polish Army, it aimed to throw off <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> control of <a href="../../wp/w/Warsaw.htm" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a>, the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>. It started on <!--del_lnk--> April 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1794, soon after <!--del_lnk--> Tadeusz Kościuszko's victory at <!--del_lnk--> Racławice. Although the Russian forces were more numerous and better equipped, the Polish regular forces and <!--del_lnk--> militia, armed with rifles and sabres from the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Arsenal, nonetheless inflicted heavy losses on the surprised enemy garrison. Russian soldiers found themselves under crossfire, shot from all sides and buildings, and several units broke early and suffered heavy casualties during the retreat.<p><!--del_lnk--> Tomasz Maruszewski, Kościuszko's envoy, <!--del_lnk--> Ignacy Działyński, and others had been laying the groundwork for the uprising since the spring of 1793. They succeeded in encouraging popular support: the National Militia was formed out of several thousands of volunteers and was led by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Kiliński, a master shoemaker by trade and one of the most notable burghers of the time. Apart from the militia, the most famous units to take part in the liberation of Warsaw were formed of Poles that had previously been forcibly conscripted into the Russian service. An eye-witness of the fights in Warsaw was <!--del_lnk--> Jan Piotr Norblin de la Gourdaine, a French-born Polish painter who created a set of sketches and paintings depicting the struggles.<p>Within hours, the fighting spread from a single street at the western outskirts of <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw's Old Town to the entire city. A part of Russian garrison was able to retreat to <!--del_lnk--> Powązki under the cover of Prussian cavalry, but most of the garrison was trapped inside the city. The isolated Russian forces continued to resist in several parts of the city for two more days.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Prelude" name="Prelude"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Prelude</span></h3>
<p>Following the <!--del_lnk--> Second Partition of Poland of 1793, the presence of <!--del_lnk--> Prussian and <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russian garrisons on Polish soil was almost continuous. Although foreign influence at the Polish court, often in the form of Russian ambassador <!--del_lnk--> Nikolai Repnin, had been strong for many years, it was not until the <!--del_lnk--> partitions of Poland that it started to influence not only the Polish government and <!--del_lnk--> szlachta (nobility), but the entire people. The presence of foreign occupation forces contributed both to economic collapse of the already-weakened state and to growing radicalisation of the population of Warsaw.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28418.png.htm" title="Poland after the Second Partition"><img alt="Poland after the Second Partition" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rzeczpospolita_Rozbiory_2.png" src="../../images/284/28418.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28418.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Poland after the <!--del_lnk--> Second Partition</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28419.jpg.htm" title="Stanisław Mokronowski"><img alt="Stanisław Mokronowski" height="266" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stanislaw_Mokronowski.jpg" src="../../images/284/28419.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28419.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Stanisław Mokronowski</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28420.jpg.htm" title="Portrait of General Igelström by Dmitry Levitsky."><img alt="Portrait of General Igelström by Dmitry Levitsky." height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Levitsky_Igelstrom.jpg" src="../../images/284/28420.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28420.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Portrait of General Igelström by <!--del_lnk--> Dmitry Levitsky.</div>
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<p>Upon receiving news of <!--del_lnk--> Kościuszko's proclamation in <!--del_lnk--> Kraków (March 24) and his subsequent <!--del_lnk--> victory at Racławice (April 4), the tension in Warsaw grew rapidly. Polish king <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław August Poniatowski was opposed to the idea of Kościuszko's uprising, and together with the <!--del_lnk--> Permanent Council issued a declaration on April 2, condemning it. The king dispatched <!--del_lnk--> Hetman <!--del_lnk--> Piotr Ożarowski and marshal of the Permanent Council <!--del_lnk--> Józef Ankwicz to <!--del_lnk--> Iosif Igelström, the Russian ambassador and commander of all Russian occupation forces in Poland, with a proposal to evacuate both the Russian and Polish troops loyal to the king to a military encampment at <!--del_lnk--> Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki. There the king and his court, as well as the members of pro-Russian faction and the leaders of the <!--del_lnk--> Confederation of Targowica could safely await for the tensions to dissipate.<p>However, Igelström disagreed with the plan and saw no need for Russians to evacuate Warsaw. He sent a corps under Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Aleksandr Khrushchev to intercept Kościuszko and prevent him from approaching Warsaw. He also ordered increased surveillance of suspected supporters of the uprising, and <!--del_lnk--> censorship of all <!--del_lnk--> mail passing through Warsaw. Finally, Igelström issued orders for the arrest of those whom he suspected of any connection with the insurrection. Among them were Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Ignacy Działyński, king's chamberlain <!--del_lnk--> Jan Walenty Węgierski and <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Potocki, some of the more prominent political leaders of the time. At the same time Russian forces started preparations to disarm the weak Polish garrison of Warsaw under General <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Mokronowski by seizing the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Arsenal at <!--del_lnk--> Miodowa Street. However, these orders only made the situation worse as they were leaked to the Poles.<p>The Russian forces prepared a plan to seize the most important buildings in the city and secure it until further reinforcements could arrive from Russia. General <!--del_lnk--> Johann Jakob Pistor suggested that the barracks of <i>"unsafe"</i> Polish units be surrounded and the units disarmed, and the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Arsenal captured to prevent the revolutionaries from seizing arms. At the same time bishop <!--del_lnk--> Józef Kossakowski, known for his pro-Russian stance, suggested that on April 19, that is the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Saturday, the churches be surrounded with troops and all suspects attending the mass be arrested.<p>On the Polish side, weakened by the arrests of some of its leaders, both the radical <!--del_lnk--> Polish Jacobins and the centrist supporters of King <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław August Poniatowski began preparing plans for an all-out attack on the Russian forces to drive them from Warsaw, still, in theory, the capital of an independent state. Kościuszko already had supporters in Warsaw, including <!--del_lnk--> Tomasz Maruszewski, his envoy who was sent to Warsaw with a specific mission to prepare the uprising. Maruszewski created the <!--del_lnk--> Revolution Association (<i>Związek Rewolucyjny</i>), organzing the previously independent anti-Russian factions. The Association included among its members various high-ranking officers from the Polish forces stationed in Warsaw. Among them were <!--del_lnk--> Michał Chomentowski, <!--del_lnk--> Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Krystian Godfryd Deybel de Hammerau, <!--del_lnk--> Józef Górski, <!--del_lnk--> Capt. <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Kosmowski, <!--del_lnk--> Fryderyk Melfort, <!--del_lnk--> Dionizy Poniatowski, <!--del_lnk--> Lt. <!--del_lnk--> Grzegorz Ropp and <!--del_lnk--> Józef Zeydlitz. Among the most influential partisans of the uprising was General <!--del_lnk--> Jan August Cichowski, the military commander of the Warsaw's garrison. Together with General <!--del_lnk--> Stepan Stepanovich Apraksin he devised a plan of defence of the city against the revolutionaries, but managed to convince the Russians to leave the Arsenal, the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Castle and the <!--del_lnk--> Gunpowder Depot defended by the Polish units. Cichowski also managed to undermine the Russian plan to reduce the number of soldiers serving in the Polish units, which also added to the later Polish successes. Also, a prominent <!--del_lnk--> burgher, shoemaking master <!--del_lnk--> Jan Kiliński, started gathering support from other townsfolk. The king, however, remained passive, and subsequent events unfolded without any support - or opposition - from him.<p><a id="Opposing_forces" name="Opposing_forces"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Opposing forces</span></h3>
<p>Due to the fact that a large part of the Polish forces consisted of irregular militia, the exact number of the troops fighting on Polish side is hard to estimate. However, there are pay rolls of the Russian garrison preserved, which give a fairly accurate number of regular soldiers available to Igelström.<p>The Polish force consisted of roughly 3000 men at arms and 150 horses, most of them from the <!--del_lnk--> 10th Regiment of Foot and the <!--del_lnk--> 4th Regiment of Front Guard. In addition, in the eastern borough of <!--del_lnk--> Praga there were 680 men and 337 horses of the royal uhlan squadrons. The latter units crossed the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula and took part in the fights, but served as a standard infantry as their horses had to be left on the other side of the river.<p>According to the Russian pay roll found after the uprising in the Russian embassy and published in the <!--del_lnk--> Gazeta Wolna Warszawska newspaper soon afterwards, the Russian garrison had 7948 men, 1041 horses and 34 guns. In addition, Igelström could request assistance from a Prussian unit of Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Fiedrich von Wölcky stationed to the west of the city in the fields between <!--del_lnk--> Powązki and <!--del_lnk--> Marymont. The latter unit had roughly 1500 men and 4 guns.<p><a id="Opening_moves" name="Opening_moves"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Opening moves</span></h3>
<p>After the Russian plan of surrounding the churches on Saturday was discovered by the Poles, it was decided that the uprising start immediately. On <!--del_lnk--> Holy Wednesday the Polish garrison was secretly provided with volleys and artillery charges and overnight was dispatched to various parts of the city. The Russians were conscious of the preparations for the uprising as their troops were also equipped with additional ammunition. Half past 3 o'clock some 20 Polish <!--del_lnk--> dragoons left the <!--del_lnk--> Mirów barracks and headed for the <!--del_lnk--> Saxon Garden. Encountered by a small Russian force equipped with two cannons guarding the <!--del_lnk--> Iron Gate, the squadron charged the Russian positions and captured the guns. Soon afterwards the remainder of the Royal Horse Guard regiment left the barracks on foot and headed in two directions: towards the outer gates of the city at <!--del_lnk--> Wola and towards the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Arsenal, where the Russian forces were preparing an assault. The latter force was also joined by a small troop of <i>National Cavalry</i> under <!--del_lnk--> Col. Gizler, who crossed the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula overnight.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28422.jpg.htm" title="Warsaw Arsenal, on the left, was the scence of heavy fighting during the Uprising, as well as 35 years later, during the November Uprising (pictured)."><img alt="Warsaw Arsenal, on the left, was the scence of heavy fighting during the Uprising, as well as 35 years later, during the November Uprising (pictured)." height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Marcin_Zaleski_Wziecie_Arsenalu_600.jpg" src="../../images/284/28422.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28422.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Arsenal, on the left, was the scence of heavy fighting during the Uprising, as well as 35 years later, during the <!--del_lnk--> November Uprising (pictured).</div>
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<p>At 5 o'clock the planned Russian assault on the Arsenal was indeed started, but was repelled by unexpected opposition from Polish forces. After the first shots, the crew of the Arsenal started giving out arms to the civilian volunteers, who quickly joined the fights. The arsenal was secured, but the Polish plan to catch most of the Russian soldiers on the streets rather than in buildings and barracks failed. One of such groups armed with a cannon broke through the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw's Old Town to <!--del_lnk--> Krasiński Sq., two additional started marching along the Długa Street. Their action spread the uprising to all parts of the city. Until half past 6 o'clock the regular units and the militia clashed with the Russian outposts at <!--del_lnk--> Nalewki, Bonifraterska, Kłopot and Leszno streets.<p>The initial clashes caused much confusion as not all forces involved had been notified of the plans of both sides. Among such units was the Royal Foot Guard unit, which broke through to the <!--del_lnk--> Castle Square, where it was to await further orders. The small troop pledged to defend the monarch as soon as he appeared at the Castle's courtyard, however, on hearing the sounds of a battle nearby, the unit left the king and joined the fights at Miodowa Street; The Russian forces, pushed back after their initial failure at the gates of the Arsenal, withdrew towards Miodowa Street, where they amassed in front of Igelström's palace. There they were shelled by a small Polish force stationed in the gardens of the <!--del_lnk--> Krasiński's Palace, but managed to destroy the Polish unit and successfully reorganize and rally. However, the chaos in the Russian ranks could not be eliminated as Igelström's headquarters had been cut out from the rest of the city and he could not send request for reinforcement to Russian units stationed outside of the city centre and the Russian chain of command had been practically paralysed. By 7 o'clock the confusion was partially cleared and heavy fights at Miodowa street turned into a regular battle in the vicinity of both the Arsenal and Igelström's headquarters, as both sides struggled to secure both buildings. Three Russian assault groups, each of them roughly battalion-strong, attacked the Arsenal from three sides: from <!--del_lnk--> Tłomackie, along Miodowa Street and from <!--del_lnk--> Franciszkańska Street. However, all the Russian assaults were repelled with heavy losses on both sides and the Poles started a counter-attack towards the Russian positions at Miodowa, Senatorska, Leszno and Podwale Streets, but with little success.<p>The assault on Leszno street was aimed at the Russian battalion occupying positions in front of the Carmelite church. In the effect of the heavy, several hours long close quarters struggle, the Russian forces were forced to retreat to the church itself, where the fights continued. Finally the Russian soldiers surrendered and only a small detachment composed primarily of officers continued the fight inside the church, where most of them perished to the last man. Also the Russian battalion under Maj. Titov, stationed at Bonifraterska street, had been attacked around 7 o'clock by the Poles. In the effect of a four hours long fight the Russians retreated towards the western outskirts of the city.<p>Meanwhile, at 6 o'clock the <!--del_lnk--> Polish 10th Regiment of Foot under Col. <!--del_lnk--> Filip Hauman left its barracks at <!--del_lnk--> Ujazdów to the south of the city centre, and started its march towards the Royal Castle. As an effect of the chaos in Russian ranks, it reached <!--del_lnk--> Nowy Świat and <!--del_lnk--> Świętokrzyska Streets unopposed by Russian units stationed there, as the Russian commanders did not know what to do. It was finally stopped by a Russian force at <!--del_lnk--> Krakowskie Przedmieście Street, consisting of no less than 600 men and 5 pieces of artillery, and commanded by Gen. Miłaszewicz. The Russian force was strategically dislocated on both sides of the street, in both the Casimir's Palace (modern rectorate of the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw University) and in front of the Church of the Holy Cross. Col. Hauman started lengthy negotiations with the Russian commander asking him to allow the Polish forces to pass. However, the negotiations were finally broken and at 8 o'clock the Polish regiment assaulted the Russian positions. After a skirmish that ensued the Polish unit was partially dispersed and had to retreat. Parts of the unit under Maj. <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Lipnicki retreated to the Dominican Church, where the fights continued. Other troop under Lt. Sypniewski broke through to <!--del_lnk--> Branicki's Palace, yet others found their way further towards the Old Town, outflanking the Russians. Because of that, the Russian infantry under Gen. Miłaszewicz and a small cavalry force under Prince <!--del_lnk--> Gagarin, though victorious, found themselves under crossfire and surrounded. In addition, a small yet loud militia force under <!--del_lnk--> Jan Kiliński appeared on their rear and all of the Polish units in the area assaulted the Russians from all directions, which resulted in almost complete destruction of the Russian units. General Miłaszewicz himself was wounded as he was trying to retreat with the remnants of his force towards the Casimir's Palace, while Prince Gagarin retreated with some cavalrymen towards the Saxon Garden, where they were ambushed by the civilians and killed almost to the last man. The 10th Regiment then proceeded towards the Castle Square, where it took part in the fights against smaller Russian forces in the Old Town.<p><a id="Fights_in_the_city_centre" name="Fights_in_the_city_centre"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fights in the city centre</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28423.jpg.htm" title="Fighting at Miodowa Street on Krakowskie Przedmieście, sketch by Jan Piotr Norblin."><img alt="Fighting at Miodowa Street on Krakowskie Przedmieście, sketch by Jan Piotr Norblin." height="221" longdesc="/wiki/Image:KrakowskiePrzedmie%C5%9Bcie1794.JPG" src="../../images/284/28423.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28423.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fighting at Miodowa Street on <!--del_lnk--> Krakowskie Przedmieście, sketch by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Piotr Norblin.</div>
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<p>The victory of the 10th Regiment marked a turning point of the uprising, as it broke the morale of the Russian forces. After noon the fights in front of Igelström's headquarters, at Miodowa street and for the Arsenal continued as both sides drew reinforcements from all parts of the town. Russian units there put up the strongest defense and although they were forced to retreat in the direction of the <!--del_lnk--> Franciscan church, they repelled Polish early attacks and captured <!--del_lnk--> Krasiński's Palace which Poles attempted to use to take them under crossfire. At the same time the palace's garden remained in Polish hands and heavy fights spread to that area as well. In other parts of the city smaller Russian forces defended themselves in isolated manors, as was the case of Szanowski's house at the <!--del_lnk--> Vistula in the borough of <!--del_lnk--> Powiśle, where a small Russian troop offered fierce resistance against the 10th Regiment until late afternoon. Nearby, a Russian force under Maj. Mayer, consisting of roughly two companies and armed with two cannons, fortified itself in the Kwieciński's Baths, where it defended itself for several hours. After repeated charges by the 10th Regiment, the Russian commander was left with no more than 80 men, with whom he retreated to the other side of the river.<p>In the meantime, the king, together with some members of the <!--del_lnk--> Targowica Confederation took refuge in the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Castle (among them were <!--del_lnk--> Piotr Ożarowski, <!--del_lnk--> Józef Ankwicz, Great Crown Marshall <!--del_lnk--> Fryderyk Józef Moszyński and king's brother <!--del_lnk--> Kazimierz Poniatowski). From there they tried to restore peace, but without any success. Poniatowski nominated two trusted people to take command of the troops: <!--del_lnk--> Ignacy Wyssogota Zakrzewski became the <!--del_lnk--> mayor of Warsaw, and general <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Mokronowski became the commander-in-chief of the Warsaw troops, but both quickly decided to support the uprising.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28424.jpg.htm" title="Brühl's Palace on an old postcard"><img alt="Brühl's Palace on an old postcard" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:0016.jpg" src="../../images/284/28424.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28424.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Brühl's Palace on an old postcard</div>
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<p>At the same time more than half of the Russian forces were amassed by Gen. <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Novitskiy at the western end of the <!--del_lnk--> Jerusalem Avenue. Roughly 4000 men were withdrawn there without a single shot fired. Among the units rallied there were units that were to secure the entire southern part of Warsaw, including forces under Lt.Col. Kasztoliński and von Klugen, parts of Igelström's personal guard and the remnants of the force to take part in the battle against the 10th Regiment, commanded by Maj. Bago. Novitskiy, after several hours of wavering, finally organized a relief force of roughly 3000 men and 10 cannons, and started a march towards the city centre. The column crossed <!--del_lnk--> Marszałkowska Street unopposed and reached the <!--del_lnk--> Saxon Square. There it was met by a negligible unit of not more than 100 civilians armed with a single <!--del_lnk--> 6 pounder cannon, commanded by Captain of Artillery <!--del_lnk--> Jacek Drozdowski. The Polish unit opened fire from its' single cannon and started gradually retreating across the square towards the <!--del_lnk--> Brühl's Palace on its' northern edge, firing all the way. At the same time the Russian commander did not issue any orders and his column simply stopped under fire. Although much inferior in both numbers, training and equipment, Drozdowski's unit was not attacked by the Russian force, as Novitskiy finally lost control over his troops. The Russian soldiers broke their ranks and seized the undefended <!--del_lnk--> Saxon Palace, where they seized the cellars full of alcohol. The Poles continued to shell them with artillery fire for almost 3 hours, without being attacked. Finally, when a company of the 10th Regiment returning from Powiśle appeared at Królewska Street, the Russians started a disorganized retreat towards the Jerusalem Avenue, leaving Igelström to his own fate.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28425.jpg.htm" title="Assault on the Russian Embassy, sketch by Jan Piotr Norblin."><img alt="Assault on the Russian Embassy, sketch by Jan Piotr Norblin." height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ambasada_rosyjska_1794.JPG" src="../../images/284/28425.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28425.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Assault on the Russian Embassy, sketch by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Piotr Norblin.</div>
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<p>The retreat of the Russian unit allowed the Poles to repel other assaults of Russian forces as well, including the attack of roughly 1000 men from the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw's New Town towards the northern gate of the Old Town. Although the Russian force finally managed to break through to the Old Town, it lost all of its guns and more than 50% of men. Also the repeated assaults on the Arsenal from Miodowa Street, commanded by Gen. Tishchev, were repelled. The Russians, approaching in three columns, did not coordinate their manoeuvres, which allowed the Polish crew to deal with them separately, one by one. The first column under Tishchev approached the Arsenal at 3 o'clock from Miodowa street. Although one of the turrets of the building exploded, the Poles managed to repel the assault in half an hour, before the Russians gathered reinforcements. The second Russian column approached the Arsenal through the Krasińskis' Garden, but was stopped by a massed fire from several cannons, hidden in the bushes. The third Russian battalion commanded by Tishchev personally approached the Arsenal from the West, along the Leszno street, where it was stopped by the Royal Guard. After a fierce fight Tishchev was heavily wounded (a cannon ball ripped his leg off) and died of wounds soon afterwards, while the remainder of his force surrendered to the Poles.<p>Under such circumstances the Poles started a counter-attack aimed at capturing Igelström's palace and the positions of the forces he managed to gather around him. Among them was a battalion of Johann Jakob Pistor, a battalion drawn from <!--del_lnk--> Marywil (commanded by Col. Parfyeniev), a battalion of the famed <!--del_lnk--> Siberian Regiment and some cavalry under Brigadier Baur. All but Parfyenev's men were previously involved in the failed assaults at the Arsenal and towards the Royal Castle, and all were already battle-hardened. However, as the Poles managed to seize several buildings along the Senatorska street (opposite the palace) and started firing at the Russians from the windows, the Russians could not reorganize their ranks and had to hide in the palace and the nearby <!--del_lnk--> Capuchin's Church. Before 4 o'clock the Działyński's Regiment reached Senatorska street and started a frontal assault on the palace, but as bloodily repelled by the Russian defenders. However, constant fire from the windows and roofs of nearby houses prevented them from mounting a counter-attack and both sides reached a stalemate. Because of that Igelström was left with little option but to await reinforcements from the outside, which however did not happen. After dark a small unit under Major Titov broke through to Igelström, but his force was not strong enough to break the stalemate.<p>Unable to reach the palace, the Poles assaulted the Russian positions in front of the Capuchin's church and monastery. The Russians withdrew to the courtyard, from where the fights spread to the entire monastery. The Poles managed to secure the courtyard and place a single cannon there, which allowed them to storm the monastery, but fierce hand to hand fights, with heavy losses on both sides, continued until late evening. In the coming night, some of smaller Russian units lost cohesion and attempted to retreat on their own. Many soldiers engaged in looting at that time, and Krasiński's Palace was among the most prominent buildings looted by the soldiers during the Uprising. This marked the first day of the uprising.<p><a id="Second_day" name="Second_day"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Second day</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28426.jpg.htm" title="Document of accession of the city of Warsaw to Kościuszko Uprising, signed on April 19th"><img alt="Document of accession of the city of Warsaw to Kościuszko Uprising, signed on April 19th" height="514" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Akces_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko.jpg" src="../../images/284/28426.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28426.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Document of accession of the city of Warsaw to <!--del_lnk--> Kościuszko Uprising, signed on April 19th</div>
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<p>Overnight the fights in various parts of the city continued. The isolated Russian units defended themselves in houses in various parts of the city. In the early morning of April 18, Mokronowski decided to concentrate on the main remaining Russian stronghold in the city - the embassy at Miodowa street. The Polish units, reinforced with the civilian volunteers, continued the repeated assaults on the building's courtyard. Although all were bloodily repelled, the Russians suffered significant losses as well, particularly from constant fire from buildings located to the other side of the street. The Russians managed to hold a small area delimited by Miodowa and Długa Streets, as well as the Krasińskis Square and palace. Believing further defence of his palace was futile, Igelström left there only a token force of roughly 400 men and withdrew to the Krasiński Palace. He planned to prepare a sortie in order to break through from the city centre, but all surrounding streets were filled with Polish troops and cannons.<p>Igelström, unable to command most his troops since the uprising started, requested permission to capitulate. After being granted a truce, he withdrew to the <!--del_lnk--> Prussian camp near Warsaw in <!--del_lnk--> Powązki, from were they retreated to <!--del_lnk--> Zakroczym. The exact number of troops that managed to retreat with Igelström is unknown and varies from source to source, but most estimates place it at between 300 and 400 men and 8 cannons. As soon as Igelström's retreat was discovered, the assault on Russian positions was resumed. The remaining troops defending the embassy and covering Igelström's retreat eventually run out of ammunition and their positions were overran by 5 o'clock in the evening by the forces of the 10th Regiment under Kalinowski, aided by Kiliński's militia. Polish forces released <!--del_lnk--> political prisoners held by Russians in the basement and were able to secure most of the embassy's secret archive, covering all of Russian secret operations in Poland since 1763. Among the prominent captives taken during the final fights for the embassy was Colonel Parfyeniev. Among the captured documents were the lists of various Polish officials on Russian payroll; many of them were later executed. This Polish victory marked an end of the uprising, with the last Russian units either routed or in retreat. The last small spots of Russian resistance were eliminated or surrendered on that day.<p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h3>
<p>Several factors contributed to the Russian defeat and losses. Igelström had reduced the size of the garrison, sending some of units to deal with Kościuszko's main forces, and posted his remaining regiments so incompetently that they were easily cut off from each other and overwhelmed by the Polish forces. Finally, from the onset of the insurrection, the Polish forces were aided by the civilian population and had surprise on their side and, as the crowd captured the city Arsenal, Russian soldiers found themselves under attack throughout the city.<p>The uprising in Warsaw marked a significant victory for the entire cause of Kościuszko, as it proved that the Russian forces could be beaten. The echoes of the victory in Warsaw spread across the country. Mokronowski became military commander in Warsaw and <!--del_lnk--> Ignacy Zakrzewski became the city's <!--del_lnk--> president. General Mokronowski repeatedly begged the King, who was at the same time his cousin, to support the uprising. However, the king refused and the power in the city was seized by the Provisional Supreme Council (<!--del_lnk--> Polish: <span lang="pl" xml:lang="pl"><i>Rada Najwyższa Tymczasowa</i></span>) composed of Zakrzewski, Mokronowski, <!--del_lnk--> Józef Wybicki and Kiliński. Mokronowski was soon removed from the council for his opposition to Kościuszko. On <!--del_lnk--> May 27 the council was dissolved and passed the power to Kościuszko's Supreme National Council (<!--del_lnk--> Polish: <span lang="pl" xml:lang="pl"><i>Rada Najwyższa Narodowa</i></span>). On 9 May four prominent supporters of the <!--del_lnk--> Targowica Confederation, including <!--del_lnk--> Józef Ankwicz, <!--del_lnk--> Józef Kossakowski, hetman <!--del_lnk--> Piotr Ożarowski and hetman <!--del_lnk--> Józef Zabiełło, were sentenced to death by the Insurrectionary Court and were hanged in Warsaw. A few weeks later, on 28 June, an angry mob stormed the prisons and hanged other supporters of Targowica, including <!--del_lnk--> bishop <!--del_lnk--> Ignacy Jakub Massalski, prince <!--del_lnk--> Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński-Światopełk, ambassador <!--del_lnk--> Karol Boscamp-Lasopolski and others. The National Militia of Warsaw grew to over 20,000 men at arms and constituted a large part of the Polish Army fighting against Russia.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28428.jpg.htm" title="Hanging of traitors at Warsaw's Old Town Market, a contemporary painting by Jan Piotr Norblin. The supporters of the Targowica Confederation, responsible for the second partition of Poland, became public enemies. If they could not be captured, their portraits were hanged instead."><img alt="Hanging of traitors at Warsaw's Old Town Market, a contemporary painting by Jan Piotr Norblin. The supporters of the Targowica Confederation, responsible for the second partition of Poland, became public enemies. If they could not be captured, their portraits were hanged instead." height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wieszanie_zdrajcow.jpg" src="../../images/284/28428.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28428.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Hanging of traitors at Warsaw's Old Town Market</i>, a contemporary painting by <!--del_lnk--> Jan Piotr Norblin. The supporters of the <!--del_lnk--> Targowica Confederation, responsible for the <!--del_lnk--> second partition of Poland, became <!--del_lnk--> public enemies. If they could not be captured, their portraits were hanged instead.</div>
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<p>The uprising was also openly commented upon in Russia. As a result of this defeat, Igelström was recalled in disgrace, although he would redeem himself in future fighting. In the 19th century the Uprising of 1794 was presented in a bad light in <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russian <!--del_lnk--> historiography, as the fights in Warsaw were referred to as a "<!--del_lnk--> massacre" of unarmed Russian soldiers by the Warsaw's <!--del_lnk--> mob. Russian historian <!--del_lnk--> Platon Zhukovich marked his relation of the events with many horrific, yet counter-factual descriptions of unarmed Russian soldiers being slaughtered in an Orthodox church during the Eucharist, even though there was no Orthodox church in Warsaw at that time, the participation of Kiliński's militia was seriously overrated and no other source confirms the thesis that the Russian garrison was unarmed. The defeat in this battle is sometimes seen as one of the reasons for the <!--del_lnk--> massacre of Praga, in which the Russian forces murdered between 10,000 and 20,000 civilians of Warsaw upon their <!--del_lnk--> reconquest of the city later that year.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising_%281794%29"</div>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14444.jpg.htm" title="Wasabi crop growing on Japan's Izu peninsula"><img alt="Wasabi crop growing on Japan's Izu peninsula" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wasabi_crop_2006-07-29.JPG" src="../../images/144/14444.jpg" width="220" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Wasabi crop growing on Japan's Izu peninsula</small></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brassicales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Brassicaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Wasabia</b></i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>W. japonica</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Wasabia japonica</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Matsum.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Wasabi</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Japanese: ワサビ, 山葵 (originally written 和佐比) ; <i>Wasabia japonica</i>, <i>Cochlearia wasabi</i>, or <i>Eutrema japonica</i>) is a member of the <!--del_lnk--> cabbage family. Known as <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> <!--del_lnk--> horseradish, its root is used as a <!--del_lnk--> spice and has an extremely strong flavour. Its hotness is more akin to that of a hot <!--del_lnk--> mustard than a <!--del_lnk--> chili pepper, producing vapors that burn the <!--del_lnk--> nasal passages rather than the <!--del_lnk--> tongue. The plant grows naturally along stream beds in mountain river valleys in Japan. There are also other species used, such as <i>W. koreana</i>, and <i>W. tetsuigi</i>. The two main <a href="../../wp/c/Cultivar.htm" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a> in the marketplace are <i>W. japonica</i> var. <i>Duruma</i> and <i>Mazuma</i>, but there are many others.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<p>Wasabi is generally sold either in the form of a root, which must be very finely grated before use, or as a ready-to-use paste, usually in tubes approximately the size and shape of travel <!--del_lnk--> toothpaste tubes. Once the paste is prepared it should remain covered until served to protect the flavor from evaporation. For this reason, <!--del_lnk--> sushi chefs usually put the wasabi between the fish and the <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a>.<p>Fresh leaves of wasabi can also be eaten and have some of the hot flavor of wasabi roots. They can be eaten as wasabi salad by pickling overnight with a salt and vinegar based dressing, or by quickly boiling them with a little soy sauce. Additionally, the leaves can be battered and deep-fried into <i>chips</i>.<p>Fortunately for those who mistakenly consume too much of this condiment, the burning sensations it can induce are short-lived compared to the effects of <!--del_lnk--> chili peppers, especially when <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> is used to dissipate the flavor. Wasabi paste bears a superficial resemblance to <!--del_lnk--> guacamole, a popular staple of Mexican-style cuisine, a similarity which can lead to an unpleasant surprise for those unfamiliar with Japanese cuisine.<p>Wasabi is often served with <!--del_lnk--> sushi or <!--del_lnk--> sashimi, usually accompanied with <!--del_lnk--> soy sauce. The two are sometimes mixed to form a single dipping sauce known as Wasabi-joyu. Wasabi <a href="../../wp/p/Pea.htm" title="Pea">peas</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Peanut.htm" title="Peanut">peanuts</a> are growing in popularity, most notably in the United States. These <!--del_lnk--> legumes are roasted or fried, then coated with a wasabi-like mixture (usually <a href="#Wasabi_and_imitations" title="">an imitation</a>). These are then eaten as an eye-watering "in the hand" snack.<p>Wasabi-like flavoring is also used in <!--del_lnk--> Frito-Lay's <!--del_lnk--> Funyuns.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Wasabi_and_imitations" name="Wasabi_and_imitations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wasabi and imitations</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14445.jpg.htm" title="A tube of wasabi"><img alt="A tube of wasabi" height="67" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wasabi_tube.jpg" src="../../images/144/14445.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14445.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A tube of wasabi</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Almost all sushi bars in America, and most in Japan, serve imitation (<i>seiyō</i>) wasabi (see Etymology section, below) because the real product is relatively more expensive. True wasabi is made from the wasabi plant but wasabi is also made from <!--del_lnk--> horseradish, mustard seed, and green food coloring (sometimes <!--del_lnk--> spirulina), often as a powder to be mixed with water to make a paste. Since real wasabi loses its flavor if dried, its presence as an ingredient in some powders is of questionable value. To distinguish between the true variety of wasabi and the imitation product, real wasabi is known in Japan as <i>hon-wasabi</i> (本山葵), meaning original, or true wasabi.<p><a id="Chemistry" name="Chemistry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Chemistry</span></h2>
<p>The chemicals in wasabi that provide its unique flavor are the <!--del_lnk--> isothiocyanates, including:<ul>
<li>6-methylthiohexyl isothiocyanate,<li>7-methylthioheptyl isothiocyanate and<li>8-methylthiooctyl isothiocyanate.</ul>
<p>Research has shown that isothiocyanates have beneficial effects such as inhibiting <!--del_lnk--> microbe growth. This may partially explain why wasabi is traditionally served with <!--del_lnk--> seafood, which spoils quickly. However, if the quality of one's seafood is questionable, one should not eat it raw, with or without wasabi. It is not a treatment for <!--del_lnk--> food poisoning.<p><a id="Cultivation" name="Cultivation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultivation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14446.jpg.htm" title="A drawing of a wasabi plant, published in 1828 by Iwasaki Kanen."><img alt="A drawing of a wasabi plant, published in 1828 by Iwasaki Kanen." height="346" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wasabi%2C_Iwasaki_Kanen_1828.jpg" src="../../images/144/14446.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14446.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A drawing of a wasabi plant, published in 1828 by Iwasaki Kanen.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Since few places are suitable for large-scale wasabi cultivation, and because such cultivation is difficult even in ideal conditions, most of the "wasabi" served today is really just <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> <!--del_lnk--> horseradish <!--del_lnk--> dyed green, or a mix of horseradish with <!--del_lnk--> black mustard and <!--del_lnk--> chlorophyll for the same effect. In Japan, wasabi is cultivated mainly in these regions:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Izu peninsula<li><!--del_lnk--> Nagano prefecture<li><!--del_lnk--> Shimane prefecture<li><!--del_lnk--> Yamanashi prefecture<li><!--del_lnk--> Iwate prefecture</ul>
<p>There are also numerous artificially cultivated facilities as far north as <!--del_lnk--> Hokkaidō and as far south as <!--del_lnk--> Kyūshū. The demand for real wasabi is very high. Japan has to import a large amount of it from:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mainland China and<li><!--del_lnk--> Ali Mountain of <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a><li><a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a><li><a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>.</ul>
<p>Without proper regulation, wasabi cultivation can be a major pollutant to rivers as it usually requires <a href="../../wp/f/Fertilizer.htm" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> such as <a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" title="Chicken">chicken</a> <!--del_lnk--> manure and constantly flowing water.<p><a id="Preparation" name="Preparation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Preparation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14447.jpg.htm" title="Wasabi on metal oroshigane"><img alt="Wasabi on metal oroshigane" height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WasabiOnOroshigane.jpg" src="../../images/144/14447.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14447.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wasabi on metal <!--del_lnk--> oroshigane</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Wasabi is often grated with a metal <!--del_lnk--> oroshigane, but some prefer to use a more traditional tool made of dried <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">sharkskin</a> (鮫皮) with fine skin on one side and coarse skin on the other. A hand-made grater with irregular teeth can also be used. Because fresh wasabi can be rather costly many restaurants prefer to use a powder mix substitute.<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>The two <!--del_lnk--> kanji characters "山" and "葵" do not correspond to their pronunciation: as such it is an example of <!--del_lnk--> gikun. The two characters actually refer to the <i>mountain hollyhock</i>, as the plant's leaves resemble those of a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Malvaceae family, in addition to its ability to grow on shady hillsides. The word, in the form 和佐比, first appeared in <!--del_lnk--> 918 in <i>The Japanese Names of Medical Herbs</i> (本草和名 <i>Honzō Wamyō</i>). Spelled in this way, the particular <!--del_lnk--> kanji are used for their phonetic values only.<p>In Japanese, <!--del_lnk--> horseradish is known as <i>seiyō wasabi</i> <span style="font-weight: normal">(<span class="t_nihongo_kanji" lang="ja" xml:lang="ja">西洋ワサビ</span><span class="t_nihongo_norom" style="display:none"><span class="t_nihongo_comma" style="display:none">,</span> <i><span class="t_nihongo_romaji"><i>seiyō wasabi</i></span></i></span><span class="t_nihongo_help"><sup><!--del_lnk--> <span class="t_nihongo_icon" style="color:#00e;font:bold 80% sans-serif;text-decoration:none;padding:0 .1em;">?</span></sup></span>)</span>, or "Western wasabi".<p><a id="In_popular_culture" name="In_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In popular culture</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Wasabi has inspired a song, <!--del_lnk--> "Wasabi Kiss" ("山葵ＫＩＳＳ!"), by Belgo-Japanese-Vietnamese music project <!--del_lnk--> Awaken.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The line "Hot like Wasabi" was used in the <!--del_lnk--> Barenaked Ladies song "One Week."</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Australian Idol contestant, <!--del_lnk--> Lee Harding's first <!--del_lnk--> CD single was titled "<!--del_lnk--> Wasabi/Eye of the Tiger" and hit #1 in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> in 2005</ul>
<ul>
<li>In <i><!--del_lnk--> Jackass: The Movie</i>, one of <!--del_lnk--> Steve-O's stunts was to snort wasabi, which resulted in <!--del_lnk--> vomiting.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Indie group <!--del_lnk--> Cibo Matto has a song entitled "<!--del_lnk--> Sci-Fi Wasabi."</ul>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Wasabi</i> is a 2001 French movie produced by <!--del_lnk--> Luc Besson and starring <!--del_lnk--> Jean Reno.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Budweiser beer ran a series of advertisements where their slogan "Whazzzzzup" was met with a "Wasabi" in reply.</ul>
<p>That commercial had a small explosion among schools and teens using the word with double Ses instead of implying the food, meaning "What's up?". I.E. Wassabi!<ul>
<li>Wasabi was also referred to in <!--del_lnk--> Lemony Snicket's eleventh book "<!--del_lnk--> The Grim Grotto" in "<!--del_lnk--> A Series of Unfortunate Events". It was used to dilute a powerful poison afflicting <!--del_lnk--> Sunny Baudelaire. Wasabi is also mentioned in the same context in <!--del_lnk--> The End.</ul>
<ul>
<li>In <!--del_lnk--> Good Omens by <!--del_lnk--> Neil Gaiman and <!--del_lnk--> Terry Pratchett, Newt drives a small Japanese car called a Wasabi.</ul>
<ul>
<li>In November 2005, in <!--del_lnk--> Alhambra, <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>, a dog breeder, whose <!--del_lnk--> golden retriever had given birth to a puppy with green fur, named the puppy "Wasabi" in honour of the plant (<!--del_lnk--> http://www.local6.com/news/5290491/detail.html).</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasabi"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Washington, D.C.</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em;"><b>Washington, D.C.</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14448.jpg.htm" title="Skyline of Washington, D.C."><img alt="Skyline of Washington, D.C." height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WashMonument_WhiteHouse.jpg" src="../../images/144/14448.jpg" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding: 0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="width: 100%; background: none; text-align: center;">
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<center><span style="display: inline;"><span style="display: table-cell; border-collapse: collapse; border: solid 1px #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14449.png.htm" title="Official flag of Washington, D.C."><img alt="Official flag of Washington, D.C." height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Washington%2C_D.C..svg" src="../../images/144/14449.png" width="125" /></a></span></span></center>
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<td style="vertical-align: middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14450.png.htm" title="Official seal of Washington, D.C."><img alt="Official seal of Washington, D.C." height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Seal-DC.png" src="../../images/144/14450.png" width="100" /></a></td>
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<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Flag</b></small></td>
<td><small><b><!--del_lnk--> Seal</b></small></td>
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</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Nickname: "<i>DC</i>", "<i>The District</i>"</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: Justitia Omnibus <i>(Justice for All)</i></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; padding: 0.7em 0.8em 0.7em 0.8em;">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14451.png.htm" title="Location of Washington, D.C., in relation to the states Maryland and Virginia."><img alt="Location of Washington, D.C., in relation to the states Maryland and Virginia." height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DC_locator_map_with_state_names_w_usmap.png" src="../../images/144/14451.png" width="260" /></a></span></div><small>Location of Washington, D.C., in relation to the states <!--del_lnk--> Maryland and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia.</small></td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller; padding-bottom: 0.7em;">Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">38°53′42.4″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">77°02′12.0″W</span></span></th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Federal District</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Mayor</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Anthony A. Williams <!--del_lnk--> (D)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> City Council</th>
<td>Chairperson: <!--del_lnk--> Linda W. Cropp (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br />
<p>Ward 1: <!--del_lnk--> Jim Graham (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> Ward 2: <!--del_lnk--> Jack Evans (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> Ward 3: <!--del_lnk--> Kathleen Patterson (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> Ward 4: <!--del_lnk--> Adrian Fenty (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> Ward 5: <!--del_lnk--> Vincent Orange (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> Ward 6: <!--del_lnk--> Sharon Ambrose (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> Ward 7: <!--del_lnk--> Vincent C. Gray (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> Ward 8: <!--del_lnk--> Marion Barry (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> At-Large: <!--del_lnk--> Carol Schwartz (<!--del_lnk--> R)<br /> At-Large: <!--del_lnk--> David Catania (<!--del_lnk--> I)<br /> At-Large: <!--del_lnk--> Phil Mendelson (<!--del_lnk--> D)<br /> At-Large: <!--del_lnk--> Kwame R. Brown (<!--del_lnk--> D)</td>
</tr>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City</th>
<td>177.0 <!--del_lnk--> km² (68.3 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - Land</th>
<td>159.0 km² (61.4 sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - Water</th>
<td>18.0 km² (6.9 sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</th>
<td>0-410 ft / 0-125 <!--del_lnk--> m</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th>Population</th>
<th> </th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - City (2005)</th>
<td>582,049</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td>3,481/km² (9,015/sq mi)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Urban</th>
<td>5,214,666</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Metro</th>
<td>8,026,807</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-5)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EDT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-4)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> http://www.dc.gov/</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Washington, D.C.,</b> is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> <a href="../../wp/c/City.htm" title="City">city</a> of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>. "D.C." is an abbreviation for the <b>District of Columbia</b>, the <!--del_lnk--> federal district coextensive with the city of Washington. The city is named after <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>, military leader of the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution and the first <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>.<p>The District of <!--del_lnk--> Columbia and the city of Washington are coextensive and are governed by a single <!--del_lnk--> municipal <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a>, so for most practical purposes they are considered to be the same entity, though this was not always the case. As late as 1871, when <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown ceased to be a separate city, there were multiple jurisdictions within the District. Although there is a municipal government and a mayor, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Congress.htm" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> has the <!--del_lnk--> supreme authority over the city and district, which results in citizens having a different status and less representation in government than residents of the states.<p>The centers of all three branches of the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. federal government are in the District as well as the headquarters of most <!--del_lnk--> independent agencies. It serves as the headquarters for the <!--del_lnk--> World Bank, the <!--del_lnk--> International Monetary Fund, and the <!--del_lnk--> Organization of American States, and other national and international institutions. Washington is the frequent location of large political <!--del_lnk--> demonstrations and <!--del_lnk--> protests, particularly on the <!--del_lnk--> National Mall. Washington is the site of numerous <!--del_lnk--> national landmarks, monuments, and <!--del_lnk--> museums, and is a popular destination for <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourists</a>.<p>It is commonly known as <b>D.C.</b>, <b>The District</b>, or simply <b>Washington</b>. Historically, it was called the <b>Federal City</b> or <b>Washington City</b>. It is easily confused with the state of <!--del_lnk--> Washington, located in the <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Northwest — to avoid this, the capital city is often called simply <b>D.C.</b>, and the state referred to as "<b>Washington State</b>." The population of the District of Columbia, as of 2005 <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Census Bureau estimates, is 582,049 persons. The <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area surpasses 8 million persons. If Washington, D.C. were a <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">state</a>, it would rank last in area behind <a href="../../wp/r/Rhode_Island.htm" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>, 50th in population ahead of <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming, first in population density ahead of <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey, and 35th in <!--del_lnk--> Gross State Product.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>The District of Columbia, founded on <!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1790, is a federal district as specified by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>. The U.S. Congress has ultimate authority over the District of Columbia, though it has delegated limited local rule to the municipal government. The land forming the original District came from the states of <!--del_lnk--> Maryland and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia. However, the <!--del_lnk--> area south of the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac River (39 square miles or about 100 km²) was returned, or "<!--del_lnk--> retroceded", to Virginia in 1847 and now is incorporated into <!--del_lnk--> Arlington County and the City of <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria. After 1847, the remaining land that formed the area now known as the District of Columbia was formed exclusively from land that once belonged to Maryland.<p><a id="Planning" name="Planning"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Planning</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14452.jpg.htm" title="L'Enfant plan for Washington"><img alt="L'Enfant plan for Washington" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:L%27Enfant_plan.jpg" src="../../images/144/14452.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14452.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> L'Enfant plan for Washington</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14453.png.htm" title="1888 German map of Washington, D.C."><img alt="1888 German map of Washington, D.C." height="238" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Karte_Washington_MKL1888.png" src="../../images/144/14453.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14453.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1888 <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> map of Washington, D.C.</div>
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<p>A <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_United_States.htm" title="Southern United States">Southern</a> site for the new country's capital was agreed upon at a dinner between <!--del_lnk--> James Madison and <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_Hamilton.htm" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>, hosted by <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>. The city was designed by <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Charles L'Enfant, a <!--del_lnk--> Major in the <!--del_lnk--> United States Army. The initial plan for the "Federal District" was a diamond, measuring 10 <!--del_lnk--> miles (16 <!--del_lnk--> km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (256 km²). The actual site on the Potomac River was chosen by <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">President Washington</a>. Washington may have chosen the site for its natural scenery, believing the Potomac would become a great navigable waterway. The city was officially named "Washington" on <!--del_lnk--> September 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1791. Out of modesty, George Washington never referred to it as such, preferring to call it "the Federal City." Despite choosing the site and living nearby at <!--del_lnk--> Mount Vernon, he rarely visited the city. The federal district was named the District of Columbia because <!--del_lnk--> Columbia was a poetic name for the United States used at the time.<p>Initially, the District of Columbia included four distinct sections, of which the city of Washington was only one. The others were <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria County, <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown, and the <!--del_lnk--> County of Washington. Georgetown occupied its current boundaries. Alexandria County included parts of the present-day City of Alexandria, as well as the current <!--del_lnk--> Arlington County, Virginia. Washington City occupied much of its current area but ended at present-day <!--del_lnk--> Rock Creek Park on the west and <!--del_lnk--> Florida Avenue and Benning Road on the north. Florida Avenue was then called "Boundary Street." The remainder of the district was Washington County.<p>In 1791–92, <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Ellicott and the free African-American <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Banneker surveyed the border of the District with both Maryland and Virginia, placing boundary stones at every mile point; many of these still stand.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> cornerstone of the <!--del_lnk--> White House, the first newly constructed building of the new capital, was laid on <!--del_lnk--> October 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1792. That was the day after the first solemn celebrations of <!--del_lnk--> Columbus Day, marking its 300th anniversary.<p><a name="19th_century"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">19th century</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1814, British forces <!--del_lnk--> burned the capital during the most notable raid of the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812 in retaliation for the sacking and burning of York (modern-day <a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>) during the winter months, which had left many Canadians homeless. President <!--del_lnk--> James Madison and U.S. forces fled before the British forces arrived and burned public buildings, including the <!--del_lnk--> Capitol and the <!--del_lnk--> Treasury building. The <!--del_lnk--> White House was burned and gutted. The Navy Yard was also burned—by American sailors. The home of the <!--del_lnk--> Commandant of the Marine Corps, located at the <!--del_lnk--> Marine Barracks, was one of the few government buildings not burned by the raiding British soldiers out of a sign of respect and is now the oldest public building in continuous use in the nation's capital. Civilians were not directly targeted and, initially, the British had approached the city hoping to secure a truce. However, they were fired upon, triggering frustration and anger among the British, which ultimately led to the sacking of government buildings.<p>During the 1830s the District was home to one of the largest slave trading operations in the country (see <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, Virginia).<p>In 1846, the populace of Alexandria County, who resented the loss of business with the competing port of Georgetown and feared greater impact if slavery were outlawed in the capital, voted in a referendum to ask Congress to <!--del_lnk--> retrocede Alexandria back to the state of Virginia. Congress agreed to do so on <!--del_lnk--> July 9 of that year.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14454.jpg.htm" title="Newspaper Row, Washington, D.C., 1874."><img alt="Newspaper Row, Washington, D.C., 1874." height="172" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Washington_dc_1874.jpg" src="../../images/144/14454.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14454.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Newspaper Row, Washington, D.C., 1874.</div>
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<p>Washington remained a small city—the 1860 Census put the population at just over 75,000 persons—until the outbreak of the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> in 1861. The significant expansion of the federal government to administer the war and its legacies such as veterans' pensions led to notable growth in the city's population. By 1870, the District population had grown to nearly 132,000.<p>In July 1864, <!--del_lnk--> Confederate forces under <!--del_lnk--> Jubal Anderson Early made a brief raid into Washington, culminating in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Fort Stevens. The Confederates were repulsed, and Early eventually returned to the <!--del_lnk--> Shenandoah Valley. The <!--del_lnk--> fort is located near present day <!--del_lnk--> Walter Reed Army Medical Centre in northwest Washington. The battle was the only battle where a U.S. president, <a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, was present and under enemy fire while in office. <p>In the early 1870s, Washington was given a territorial government, but Governor <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Robey Shepherd's reputation for extravagance resulted in Congress abolishing his office in favour of direct rule. Congressional governance of the District would continue for a century.<p>In 1878, Congress passed an <!--del_lnk--> Organic Act that made the boundaries of the city of Washington coterminous with those of the District of Columbia. This effectively eliminated Washington County; Georgetown, technically made a part of the city, was allowed to remain nominally separate until 1895 when it was formally combined with Washington.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Washington Monument opened in 1888. Plans were laid to further develop the monumental aspects of the city, with work contributed by such noted figures as <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Law Olmsted and <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Burnham. However, development of the <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Memorial and other structures on the National Mall did not begin until the early 20th century.<p><a name="20th_century"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">20th century</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14455.jpg.htm" title="Pennsylvania Avenue in 1998"><img alt="Pennsylvania Avenue in 1998" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pennsylvania_Avenue%2C_Washington_DC%2C_USA%2C_1998.jpg" src="../../images/144/14455.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14455.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pennsylvania Avenue in 1998</div>
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<p>The District's population peaked in 1950, when the census for that year recorded a record population of 802,178 people. At the time, the city was the ninth-largest in the country, ahead of <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston">Boston</a> and behind <!--del_lnk--> St. Louis. The population declined in the following decades, mirroring the suburban emigration of many of the nation's older urban centers following <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified on <!--del_lnk--> March 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1961, allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to vote for president and have their votes count in the <!--del_lnk--> Electoral College as long as Washington, D.C. does not have more electoral votes than the least populous state.<p>After the assassination of civil rights activist <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther_King%252C_Jr..htm" title="Martin Luther King, Jr.">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a>, in Memphis, Tennessee, on <!--del_lnk--> April 4, 1968, riots broke out in some sections of the city. The violence raged for four days, and buildings were burned. At one point, the rioters came within two blocks of the White House. President <!--del_lnk--> Lyndon Johnson ordered over 13,000 federal troops to occupy the city--the largest occupation of an American city since the Civil War. It took years for the city to recover.<p>One of the most important developments in bringing people back downtown was the building of the subway system. The first 4.6 miles (7.4 km) of the <a href="../../wp/w/Washington_Metro.htm" title="Washington Metro">Washington Metro</a> <!--del_lnk--> subway system opened on <!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1976.<p>In 1973, Congress enacted the District of Columbia Self-Rule and Governmental Reorganization Act, providing for an elected mayor and city council for the District. As a result, <!--del_lnk--> Walter Washington became the first elected mayor of the District in 1975. <!--del_lnk--> Marion Barry became mayor in 1979, but was arrested for <!--del_lnk--> drug use in an <a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" title="FBI">FBI</a> <!--del_lnk--> sting operation on <!--del_lnk--> January 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1990, and served a six-month jail term. His successor, <!--del_lnk--> Sharon Pratt Kelly, became the first black woman to lead a city of that size and importance in the U.S. Barry, however, defeated her in the 1994 primary and was once again elected mayor for his fourth term, during which time the city nearly became <!--del_lnk--> insolvent and was forced to give up some home rule to a congressionally-appointed financial control board. In 1998, <!--del_lnk--> Anthony A. Williams was elected the city's mayor and led the city into a fiscal recovery, which made him a popular figure. Williams was reelected in 2002.<p><a name="21st_century"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">21st century</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, <!--del_lnk--> Major League Baseball officially relocated the <!--del_lnk--> Montreal Expos to Washington for the 2005 season, despite opposition from <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore Orioles owner <!--del_lnk--> Peter Angelos. The new team was christened the Washington Nationals. Controversy between the city council and MLB threatened to scuttle the agreement until <!--del_lnk--> December 21, when a plan for a <!--del_lnk--> new stadium in <!--del_lnk--> Southeast D.C. was finalized. The Nationals will play at <!--del_lnk--> R.F.K. Stadium until the new stadium is ready on the Anacostia River waterfront in 2008.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14456.jpg.htm" title="Washington, D.C. is divided into four quadrants: Northwest, Northeast, Southeast, and Southwest. The axes bounding the quadrants radiate from the U.S. Capitol building."><img alt="Washington, D.C. is divided into four quadrants: Northwest, Northeast, Southeast, and Southwest. The axes bounding the quadrants radiate from the U.S. Capitol building." height="293" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DC_satellite_image.jpg" src="../../images/144/14456.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14456.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Washington, D.C. is divided into four quadrants: <!--del_lnk--> Northwest, <!--del_lnk--> Northeast, <!--del_lnk--> Southeast, and <!--del_lnk--> Southwest. The axes bounding the <!--del_lnk--> quadrants radiate from the U.S. Capitol building.</div>
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<p>Washington, D.C. is located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">38°53′42″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">77°02′11″W</span></span> (the coordinates of the <!--del_lnk--> Zero Milestone, on The Ellipse). According to the <!--del_lnk--> United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 68.3 <!--del_lnk--> square miles (177.0 <!--del_lnk--> km²). 61.4 square miles (159.0 km²) of it is land and 6.9 square miles (18.0 km²) of it (10.16%) is water.<p>Washington is surrounded by the <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">states</a> of <!--del_lnk--> Maryland (on its southeast, northeast, and northwest sides) and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia (on its western side); it interrupts those states' common border, which is the Potomac River's southern shore both upstream and downstream from the District. The Potomac River as it passes Washington is virtually entirely within the District of Columbia border because of colonial <!--del_lnk--> riparian rights between Maryland and Virginia.<p>The District has three major natural flowing streams: the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac River, the <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia River, and <!--del_lnk--> Rock Creek. The Anacostia River and Rock Creek are tributaries of the Potomac River. There are also three man-made <!--del_lnk--> reservoirs: <!--del_lnk--> Dalecarlia Reservoir, which crosses over the northwest border of the District from Maryland; <!--del_lnk--> McMillan Reservoir near <!--del_lnk--> Howard University; and <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown Reservoir upstream of Georgetown.<p>The highest point in the District of Columbia is 410 <!--del_lnk--> feet (125 m) above sea level at <!--del_lnk--> Tenleytown. The lowest point is sea level, which occurs along all of the Anacostia shore and all of the Potomac shore except the uppermost portion (the Little Falls - Chain Bridge area). The sea level Tidal Basin rose eleven feet during <!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Isabel on <!--del_lnk--> September 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2003.<p>The geographic centre of the District of Columbia is located near 4th Street NW, L Street NW, and New York Avenue NW (not under the Capitol Dome, as is sometimes said.)<p>Geographical features of Washington, D.C. include <!--del_lnk--> Theodore Roosevelt Island, <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Island, the <!--del_lnk--> Three Sisters, and <!--del_lnk--> Hains Point.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14457.jpg.htm" title="Washington Monument."><img alt="Washington Monument." height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Washington_Monument_Dusk_Jan_2006.jpg" src="../../images/144/14457.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14457.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Washington Monument.</div>
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<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>Washington has a <!--del_lnk--> humid subtropical climate typical of the <!--del_lnk--> Mid-Atlantic U.S., with four distinct seasons. Summer tends to be hot and humid with daily high temperatures in July and August averaging in the high 80s° to low 90s°<!--del_lnk--> F (about 30° to 33°<!--del_lnk--> C). The combination of heat and humidity makes thunderstorms very frequent in the summer, some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area. Spring and fall are mild with high temperatures in April and October averaging in the high 60s° Fahrenheit (about 20 °C). Winter brings cool temperatures and occasional snowfall. Average highs tend to be in the 40s (4 to 8 °C) and lows in the 20s (-6 to -2 °C) from mid December to mid February. While <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Hurricane">hurricanes</a> (or the remnants of them) occasionally track through the area in the late summer and early fall, they have often weakened by the time they reach Washington. Spring is generally the most favorable time of year, with low humidity, mild temperatures and blooming foliage. This period generally lasts from late March until mid May.<p>The average annual snowfall is 15 <!--del_lnk--> inches (381 <!--del_lnk--> mm) and the average high temperature in January is 43 °F (6 °C); the average low for January is 27 °F (-3 °C). The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on <!--del_lnk--> July 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1930 and <!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1918 and the lowest recorded temperature was -15 °F (-26 °C) on <!--del_lnk--> February 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1899.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>The 2005 Census estimate of the city's population was 582,049, After the city government questioned the original results—an estimate of 550,521—the Census admitted it had made a mistake. The corrected figure marked the biggest increase in the city's population since 1950.<p>As of the 2000 census, there were 572,059 people, 248,338 households, and 114,235 families residing in the city. The <!--del_lnk--> population density was 9,316.4 per square mile (3,597.3/km²). There were 274,845 housing units at an average density of 1,728.3/km² (4,476.1/mi²).<table border="1" style="float:right; margin: 1em;border-collapse:collapse;">
<caption><b>Historical population<br /> of Washington, D.C.</b></caption>
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<table>
<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Year</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Population</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1800</td>
<td align="right">8,144</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1810</td>
<td align="right">15,471</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1820</td>
<td align="right">23,336</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1830</td>
<td align="right">30,261</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1840</td>
<td align="right">33,745</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1850</td>
<td align="right">51,687</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1860</td>
<td align="right">75,080</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1870</td>
<td align="right">131,700</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1880</td>
<td align="right">177,624</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1890</td>
<td align="right">230,392</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1900</td>
<td align="right">278,718</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<table>
<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Year</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Population</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1910</td>
<td align="right">331,069</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1920</td>
<td align="right">437,571</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1930</td>
<td align="right">486,869</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1940</td>
<td align="right">663,091</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1950</td>
<td align="right">802,178</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1960</td>
<td align="right">763,956</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1970</td>
<td align="right">756,510</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td align="right">638,333</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td align="right">606,900</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td align="right">572,059</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2005 estimate</td>
<td align="right">582,049</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="wikitable" style="background:white;">
<tr>
<th colspan="6">Demographics of District of Columbia <small><!--del_lnk--> (csv)</small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>By <!--del_lnk--> race</th>
<th>White</th>
<th>Black</th>
<th>AIAN</th>
<th>Asian</th>
<th>NHPI</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="6"><sub>AIAN is American Indian or Alaskan Native - NHPI is Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2000 (total population)</b></td>
<td align="right">35.34%</td>
<td align="right">61.96%</td>
<td align="right">0.86%</td>
<td align="right">3.17%</td>
<td align="right">0.14%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2000 (Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">6.43%</td>
<td align="right">1.34%</td>
<td align="right">0.17%</td>
<td align="right">0.09%</td>
<td align="right">0.03%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2005 (total population)</b></td>
<td align="right">39.02%</td>
<td align="right">58.04%</td>
<td align="right">0.92%</td>
<td align="right">3.59%</td>
<td align="right">0.14%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2005 (Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">7.05%</td>
<td align="right">1.48%</td>
<td align="right">0.17%</td>
<td align="right">0.10%</td>
<td align="right">0.02%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Growth 2000-2005 (total population)</b></td>
<td align="right">6.25%</td>
<td align="right">-9.85%</td>
<td align="right">2.84%</td>
<td align="right">9.05%</td>
<td align="right">-2.22%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Growth 2000-2005 (non-Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">6.41%</td>
<td align="right">-10.22%</td>
<td align="right">4.41%</td>
<td align="right">9.25%</td>
<td align="right">6.78%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Growth 2000-2005 (Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">5.52%</td>
<td align="right">6.98%</td>
<td align="right">-3.49%</td>
<td align="right">2.58%</td>
<td align="right">-34.66%</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The largest Hispanic group is <!--del_lnk--> Salvadoran, and a plurality of whites are of <!--del_lnk--> British ancestry.<p>There were 248,338 households, out of which 19.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 22.8% were <!--del_lnk--> married couples living together, 18.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.0% were non-families. 43.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 3.07.<p>In the city, the population was spread out with 20.1% under the age of 18, 12.7% from 18 to 24, 33.1% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 89.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.1 males.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14458.jpg.htm" title="Mount Pleasant Farmer's Market"><img alt="Mount Pleasant Farmer's Market" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mount_pleasant_farmers_market.jpg" src="../../images/144/14458.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14458.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Mount Pleasant Farmer's Market</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The median income for a household in the city was $40,127, and the median income for a family was $46,283. Males had a median income of $40,513 versus $36,361 for females. The <!--del_lnk--> per capita income for the city was $28,659. About 16.7% of families and 20.2% of the population were below the <!--del_lnk--> poverty line, including 31.1% of those under age 18 and 16.4% of those over age 65.<p>As of 2000, 83.2% of Washington, D.C. residents age 5 and older speak only <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> at home and 9.2% speak <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>. <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> is the third most spoken language at 1.8%, followed by African languages at 1.0% and <a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> at 0.5%.<p>According to the 2001 American Religious Identification Survey, nearly three out of four District residents identified themselves as <!--del_lnk--> Christian. This breaks down to 72% Christian (27% <!--del_lnk--> Catholic, 19% <!--del_lnk--> Baptist, and 26% other <!--del_lnk--> Protestant churches), 13% stating no religion, 4% <!--del_lnk--> Buddhist, 2% <!--del_lnk--> Muslim, and 1% <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14459.jpg.htm" title=""Friendship Arch" in Chinatown"><img alt=""Friendship Arch" in Chinatown" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Chinatown%2C_DC_gate.jpg" src="../../images/144/14459.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14459.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "Friendship Arch" in <!--del_lnk--> Chinatown</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> Census Bureau, the District's daytime population is estimated at 982,853. The influx of over 410,000 workers into Washington on a normal business day comprises a 72% increase of the capital's normal population. That is the largest increase percentage-wise of any city studied and the second-largest net increase, behind only <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>.<p>The Greater Washington metropolitan area, including contiguous areas of Maryland and Virginia, had an estimated population of 5.8 million in 2003, according to the estimates of the Greater Washington Initiative.<p>As host to over 180 embassies and hundreds of international organizations, Washington, D.C. has a substantial population of foreign residents. There are also many students from abroad studying at the local universities and colleges. This adds a cosmopolitan flavor to the city.<p><a id="Landmarks_and_museums" name="Landmarks_and_museums"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Landmarks and museums</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14460.jpg.htm" title="Jefferson Memorial"><img alt="Jefferson Memorial" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jefferson_Memorial_at_dusk.jpg" src="../../images/144/14460.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14460.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Jefferson Memorial</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Washington is home to numerous national landmarks and is one of the most popular tourist destinations in the United States. The <!--del_lnk--> National Mall is a large, open area in the center of the city featuring many monuments to American leaders; it also serves to connect the White House and the United States Capitol buildings. Located prominently in the centre of the Mall is the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Monument. Other notable points of interest near the Mall include the <!--del_lnk--> Jefferson Memorial (see right), <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Memorial, <!--del_lnk--> Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, <!--del_lnk--> National World War II Memorial, <!--del_lnk--> Korean War Veterans Memorial, <!--del_lnk--> Vietnam Veterans Memorial, the <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia War Memorial and the <!--del_lnk--> Albert Einstein Memorial.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14461.jpg.htm" title="National Museum of the American Indian"><img alt="National Museum of the American Indian" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:National_Museum_of_the_American_Indian.jpg" src="../../images/144/14461.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14461.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> National Museum of the American Indian</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The world famous <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Institution is located in the District. The Smithsonian today is a collection of museums that includes the <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia Museum, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, <!--del_lnk--> Hirshhorn Museum, <!--del_lnk--> National Air and Space Museum, <!--del_lnk--> National Museum of American History, <!--del_lnk--> National Museum of the American Indian, <!--del_lnk--> National Museum of Natural History, <!--del_lnk--> National Portrait Gallery, <!--del_lnk--> National Postal Museum, <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian American Art Museum, <!--del_lnk--> Renwick Gallery, and the <!--del_lnk--> National Zoo.<p>There are many art museums in D.C., in addition to those that are part of the Smithsonian, including the <!--del_lnk--> National Gallery of Art, <!--del_lnk--> National Museum of Women in the Arts, the <!--del_lnk--> Corcoran Gallery of Art, and the <!--del_lnk--> Phillips Collection.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14462.jpg.htm" title="National Archives"><img alt="National Archives" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Archives_DC.jpg" src="../../images/144/14462.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14462.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> National Archives</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/l/Library_of_Congress.htm" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> National Archives house thousands of documents covering every period in American history. Some of the more notable documents in the National Archives include the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence.htm" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Bill_of_Rights.htm" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>.<p>The District of Columbia operates its own <!--del_lnk--> public library system with 27 branches throughout the city. The main branch — which occupies a multi-story glass and steel-framed building at the intersection of 9th and G Streets, N.W., designed by modernist architect <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Mies van der Rohe — is known as the <!--del_lnk--> Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library. It has a large mural in its mail hall depicting the civil rights leader.<p>Other points of interest in the District include <!--del_lnk--> Arena Stage, <!--del_lnk--> Chinatown, <!--del_lnk--> Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception, <!--del_lnk--> Blair House, <!--del_lnk--> Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle, <!--del_lnk--> Folger Shakespeare Library, <!--del_lnk--> Ford's Theatre, <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Douglass National Historic Site, <!--del_lnk--> International Spy Museum, <!--del_lnk--> National Building Museum, <!--del_lnk--> the Awakening at Hains Point, <!--del_lnk--> Old Post Office Building, <!--del_lnk--> Theodore Roosevelt Island, <!--del_lnk--> United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and the <!--del_lnk--> Washington National Cathedral. —<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14463.png.htm" title="Unemployment in the District Columbia, ranging from 1.5% in Upper Northwest to 16.3% in Ward 8, reflects economic disparity that exists across the city."><img alt="Unemployment in the District Columbia, ranging from 1.5% in Upper Northwest to 16.3% in Ward 8, reflects economic disparity that exists across the city." height="211" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dc-unemployment_aug2006.png" src="../../images/144/14463.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14463.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Unemployment in the District Columbia, ranging from 1.5% in Upper Northwest to 16.3% in Ward 8, reflects economic disparity that exists across the city.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>As of 2002, the federal government accounts for 27% of Washington, D.C.'s jobs. The presence of many major government agencies, including the <!--del_lnk--> Department of Defense, <!--del_lnk--> National Institutes of Health, and the <!--del_lnk--> Food and Drug Administration, has led to business development both in the District itself as well as in the National Capital Region of Maryland and northern Virginia. These businesses include federal <!--del_lnk--> contractors (defense and civilian), numerous nonprofit organizations, law firms and lobbying firms, catering and administrative services companies, and several other industries that are sustained by the economic presence of the federal government. This arrangement makes the Washington economy virtually <!--del_lnk--> recession-proof relative to the rest of the country, because the federal government will still operate no matter the state of the general economy, and it often grows during recessions.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> gross state product of the District in 2004 was <!--del_lnk--> $75.264 billion, ranking it #36 when compared with the fifty states. In 2006, <i>Expansion Magazine</i> ranked DC among the top 10 metropolitan areas in the nation for climates favorable to business expansion. In terms of commercial office space, Washington, D.C. has the 3rd largest downtown in America behind <!--del_lnk--> New York and <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>.<p>Of non-government employers, Washington, D.C.'s major universities and hospitals are among the top employers with <!--del_lnk--> George Washington University, <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University and <!--del_lnk--> Washington Hospital Centre as the top three. <!--del_lnk--> Howard University and <!--del_lnk--> Fannie Mae round out the top five employers in Washington, D.C. <p>Washington is also a global media centre. Most major news outlets have bureaus in the city and Washington is home to <!--del_lnk--> Black Entertainment Television, <!--del_lnk--> C-SPAN, the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Post Company, and <!--del_lnk--> XM Satellite Radio. Washington's unique scenery makes it a popular location for film and television production.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Law and government</span></h2>
<p><a id="Local_government" name="Local_government"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Local government</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14467.jpg.htm" title="The U.S. Capitol, seat of the Legislative Branch of the U.S. Federal Government, sits prominently east of the National Mall in Washington, D.C."><img alt="The U.S. Capitol, seat of the Legislative Branch of the U.S. Federal Government, sits prominently east of the National Mall in Washington, D.C." height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_Capitol_Building_at_night_Jan_2006.jpg" src="../../images/144/14467.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14467.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Capitol, seat of the Legislative Branch of the U.S. Federal Government, sits prominently east of the <!--del_lnk--> National Mall in Washington, D.C.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The city is run by an elected mayor (currently <!--del_lnk--> Anthony A. Williams, <!--del_lnk--> Adrian Fenty will take over when inaugurated in January) and a <!--del_lnk--> city council. The city council is composed of 13 members — a representative elected from each of the eight <!--del_lnk--> wards and five members, including the chairman, elected at large. The council conducts its work through standing committees and special committees established as needed. District schools are administered by a <!--del_lnk--> school board that has both elected and appointed members. There are 37 elected <!--del_lnk--> Advisory Neighbourhood Commissions that provide the most direct access for residents to their local government. The commissions serve as local councils, and their suggestions are required to be given "great weight" by the D.C. Council. However, the U.S. Congress has the ultimate plenary power over the district. It has the right to review and overrule laws created locally and has often done so. The <!--del_lnk--> Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution does not apply to the District of Columbia.<p>D.C. residents pay federal <!--del_lnk--> taxes, such as <!--del_lnk--> income tax, as well as local taxes. The mayor and council adopt a budget of local money with Congress reserving the right to make any changes. Much of the valuable property in the District is federally owned and hence exempt from local property taxes; at the same time, the city is burdened with the extraordinary expenses related to its role as the capital, such as police overtime and street cleaning for D.C.'s frequent parades and festivals. These factors are often used to explain why the city's budget is frequently overstretched. However, the federal government also appropriates funds for the city. For instance, according to Public Law 108-7, the federal government provided, among other funds, an estimated 25% of the District's operating budget in 2003.<p>Historically, the city's local government has earned somewhat of a reputation for mismanagement and waste, particularly during the mayoralty of <!--del_lnk--> Marion Barry, who was re-elected despite serving jail time for smoking <!--del_lnk--> crack cocaine. A front page story in the <!--del_lnk--> July 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1997 <i>Washington Post</i> reported that Washington had some of the highest cost, lowest quality services in the region. Prosperity in the late 1990s and early 2000s has lessened public pressure on Mayor Williams, who still faces daunting <!--del_lnk--> urban renewal, public health, and public education challenges.<p><a id="Representation_in_federal_government" name="Representation_in_federal_government"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Representation in federal government</span></h3>
<p>The U.S. Constitution gives Congress direct jurisdiction for Washington, D.C. While Congress has delegated various amounts of this authority to local government, including an elected mayor and city council, Congress still intervenes, from time to time, in local affairs relating to schools, <!--del_lnk--> gun control policy, and other issues.<p>Citizens of the District have no voting representation in Congress. They are represented in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> by a <!--del_lnk--> non-voting delegate (currently <!--del_lnk--> Eleanor Holmes Norton (D-<!--del_lnk--> DC At-Large)) who sits on committees and participates in debate but cannot vote. D.C. has no representation at all in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>. Attempts to change this situation, including the proposed <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment, have been unsuccessful.<p>Citizens of Washington, D.C. are not unique in having diminished representation in their federal legislature, although they are unique in having no voting representation at all. Some nations that have built capital cities from scratch, including <!--del_lnk--> Nigeria, have diminished representation for a federal district. Washington's situation can also be compared to the historical status of <!--del_lnk--> U.S. territories, which had only non-voting delegates to the House. However, unlike U.S. territories today (such as American Samoa and Guam), citizens of the District of Columbia are fully taxed and subject to all U.S. laws, just as the citizens of the fifty states. In recent years, "Taxation Without Representation" has been the ironic motto featured on D.C. license plates.<p>With the passage of the <!--del_lnk--> 23rd Amendment in 1961, citizens of the District became eligible to vote for President. The District has three <!--del_lnk--> electoral votes--the same number as states with the smallest populations, such as Montana, Wyoming, and the Dakotas.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<p><a id="Public_schools" name="Public_schools"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Public schools</span></h3>
<p>The public school system in the city is operated by <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia Public Schools and consists of 167 schools and learning centers, which consist of 101 elementary schools, 11 middle schools, 9 junior high schools, 20 senior high schools, 6 education centers, and 20 special schools. The <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia Public Charter School Board monitors 34 charter schools in Washington, D.C. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Private_schools" name="Private_schools"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Private schools</span></h3>
<p>Private schools in the city include the British School of Washington, <!--del_lnk--> Emerson Preparatory School, <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown Day School, <!--del_lnk--> St. Patrick's Episcopal Day School, Holy Trinity School,<!--del_lnk--> Georgetown Visitation Preparatory School, <!--del_lnk--> Gonzaga College High School, <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Burke School, Field School, German School, <!--del_lnk--> The Maret School, <!--del_lnk--> The Model Secondary School, <!--del_lnk--> National Cathedral School, Our Lady of Victory, Sheridan School, <!--del_lnk--> Sidwell Friends School, <!--del_lnk--> St. Albans School, <!--del_lnk--> St. Anselm's Abbey School, <!--del_lnk--> St. John's College High School, Archbishop Carroll High School, St.Augustine Catholic School, <!--del_lnk--> Parkmont School and the <!--del_lnk--> Washington International School. Many DC students attend nearby schools in <!--del_lnk--> Virginia and <!--del_lnk--> Maryland, these schools include <!--del_lnk--> The Potomac School, <!--del_lnk--> Landon School, <!--del_lnk--> Holton-Arms School, <!--del_lnk--> The St. Andrew's Episcopal School, and <!--del_lnk--> The Bullis School.<p><a id="Colleges_and_universities" name="Colleges_and_universities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colleges and universities</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14468.jpg.htm" title="Georgetown University's Healy Hall"><img alt="Georgetown University's Healy Hall" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Healy_hall_georgetown.jpg" src="../../images/144/14468.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14468.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University's <!--del_lnk--> Healy Hall</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The city is home to several <!--del_lnk--> universities, <!--del_lnk--> colleges, and other institutes of <!--del_lnk--> higher education, both public and private. The <!--del_lnk--> University of the District of Columbia is the city's public university; it is the nation's only urban <!--del_lnk--> land-grant university and is counted among the <!--del_lnk--> historically black colleges. The <!--del_lnk--> Department of Agriculture's Graduate School offers continuing education and graduate-level classes in many disciplines. The Department of Defense maintains the <!--del_lnk--> National Defense University at <!--del_lnk--> Fort McNair.<p>Among private institutions, <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University is older than the District itself, having been founded in 1789 by <!--del_lnk--> John Carroll. It is the nation's oldest <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic affiliated body of higher education. The nation's first African-American university president was at Georgetown. The university is especially well-known for the <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Walsh School of Foreign Service and the <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University Law Centre. It also is home to a medical school.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14469.jpg.htm" title="George Washington University"><img alt="George Washington University" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:George_Washington_University.jpg" src="../../images/144/14469.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14469.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> George Washington University</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> The George Washington University, founded by an act of Congress in 1821, is the largest institution of higher education in the nation's capital with its main campus in <!--del_lnk--> Foggy Bottom and its Mount Vernon campus in the <!--del_lnk--> Foxhall neighbourhood of <!--del_lnk--> Northwest Washington. It is the second-largest landholder and employer in the District, second only to the Federal government.<p><!--del_lnk--> The Catholic University of America (CUA), in the Northeast quadrant of the District is unique as the national university of the Roman Catholic Church and as the only higher education institution founded by <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Roman Catholic bishops. Established in 1887 following approval by <!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo XIII as a graduate and research centre, the university began offering undergraduate education in 1904. In April of 2004, CUA purchased 49 acres (20 ha) of land from the <!--del_lnk--> Armed Forces Retirement Home. The parcel is the largest plot of open space in the District and makes CUA the largest university in D.C. by land area. <!--del_lnk--> Trinity University, a female-only Roman Catholic affiliated institution, is located near CUA.<p><!--del_lnk--> American University, a private institution chartered by an act of Congress in 1893, is situated on an 84 acre (34 ha) campus in upper Northwest Washington and is well known for the <!--del_lnk--> Washington College of Law, the <!--del_lnk--> Kogod School of Business, the School of International Service, the School of Public Affairs, and the School of Communication.<p>Other notable private colleges in the District include <!--del_lnk--> Gallaudet University, the first liberal arts college for the <!--del_lnk--> deaf and <!--del_lnk--> hard-of-hearing; <!--del_lnk--> Howard University, a historically black university dating to the nineteenth century; and <!--del_lnk--> Southeastern University. Both were signed into being by Lincoln.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14471.jpg.htm" title="Howard University's Founders Library"><img alt="Howard University's Founders Library" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Howard_U.jpg" src="../../images/144/14471.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14471.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Howard University's Founders Library</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Furthermore, <!--del_lnk--> The Johns Hopkins University's <!--del_lnk--> Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), dedicated to the graduate study of <!--del_lnk--> international relations and international <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economics</a>, is located near <!--del_lnk--> Dupont Circle, on Massachusetts Avenue's <!--del_lnk--> Embassy Row.<p>The US military's <!--del_lnk--> National Defense University is located in Washington on <!--del_lnk--> Fort McNair. The <!--del_lnk--> Corcoran College of Art and Design has an arts program attached to the Corcoran Museum of Art, adjacent to the White House Complex. The <!--del_lnk--> Reformed Theological Seminary and the Washington Theological Union have graduate programs in theology. <!--del_lnk--> Strayer University, a for-profit career school, has a campus in Washington, D.C.<p>
<br style="clear: left;" />
<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Club</th>
<th>Sport</th>
<th>League</th>
<th>Venue</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washington Redskins</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" title="American Football">Football</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Football League<b>;</b> <!--del_lnk--> NFC, <!--del_lnk--> East Division</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> FedExField (<!--del_lnk--> Landover, Maryland)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washington Nationals</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" title="Baseball">Baseball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Major League Baseball<b>;</b> <!--del_lnk--> NL, <!--del_lnk--> East Division</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> RFK Stadium</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washington Capitals</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ice Hockey</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/National_Hockey_League.htm" title="National Hockey League">NHL</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Conference, <!--del_lnk--> Southeast Division</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Verizon Centre</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> D.C. United</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Soccer">Soccer</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Major League Soccer, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Conference</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> RFK Stadium</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washington Wizards</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">Basketball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NBA<b>;</b> <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Conference, Southeast Division</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Verizon Centre</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washington Mystics</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">Basketball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> WNBA, Eastern Conference</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Verizon Centre</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14472.jpg.htm" title="Verizon Center, home of the Washington Wizards and Washington Capitals"><img alt="Verizon Center, home of the Washington Wizards and Washington Capitals" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mci_center_jan2006b.jpg" src="../../images/144/14472.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14472.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Verizon Centre, home of the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Wizards and <!--del_lnk--> Washington Capitals</div>
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<p>Other professional and semi-professional teams based in D.C. include the <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_rules_football.htm" title="Australian rules football">USAFL</a> <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore Washington Eagles, the <!--del_lnk--> NWFA <!--del_lnk--> D.C. Divas, the <!--del_lnk--> Minor League Football <!--del_lnk--> D.C. Explosion, the <!--del_lnk--> Washington RFC <!--del_lnk--> rugby union team of the <!--del_lnk--> Rugby Super League, as well as a host of others playing in the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac Rugby Union, and the <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">Washington Cricket League</a>. It was also home to the <!--del_lnk--> WUSA <!--del_lnk--> Washington Freedom, from 1987 to 1989 home of the <!--del_lnk--> Major Indoor Lacrosse League's <!--del_lnk--> Washington Wave, and during the <!--del_lnk--> 2000–<!--del_lnk--> 2002 <!--del_lnk--> NLL seasons, the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Power was based in the city. In <!--del_lnk--> rugby league, the <!--del_lnk--> Washington D.C. Slayers play in the <!--del_lnk--> American National Rugby League.<p>There were two <!--del_lnk--> Major League Baseball teams named the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Senators in the early and mid-<a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20<sup>th</sup> century</a>, which left to become respectively the <!--del_lnk--> Minnesota Twins and the <!--del_lnk--> Texas Rangers. In the <!--del_lnk--> 19th century, the town was home to teams called the Washington Nationals, Washington Statesmen, and Washington Senators on and off from the 1870s to the turn of the century.<p>Washington was home to several <!--del_lnk--> Negro League baseball teams, including the <!--del_lnk--> Homestead Grays, <!--del_lnk--> Washington Black Senators, <!--del_lnk--> Washington Elite Giants, <!--del_lnk--> Washington Pilots, and <!--del_lnk--> Washington Potomacs.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Verizon Centre in <!--del_lnk--> Chinatown, home to the Capitals, Mystics, Wizards, and the <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown Hoyas, is also a major venue for concerts, <!--del_lnk--> World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) <!--del_lnk--> professional wrestling, and other events.<p>Washington hosts the annual <!--del_lnk--> Legg Mason Tennis Classic <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a> tournament that takes place at the <!--del_lnk--> Carter Barron Tennis Centre on 17th Street.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Marine Corps Marathon and the <!--del_lnk--> National Marathon are both held annually in Washington.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Pierre L'Enfant's original plan for the city provided for a grid of streets and a diagonal array of avenues, all centered on the Capitol building. The north-south streets are primarily named with numbers and the east-west streets with letters. With the Capitol as the centre, one set of numbered streets sweeps eastward from it (1st Street, 2nd Street, etc.) and another set sweeps westward (1st Street, 2nd Street, etc.) Similarly, sets of lettered streets sweep northward from the Capitol (A Street, C Street, etc.) and southward. The diagonal avenues in L'Enfant's plan are chiefly named after states (e.g., Pennsylvania Avenue). Street addresses are identified by their location in one of the four <!--del_lnk--> quadrants of the city, centered on the Capitol building: <!--del_lnk--> Northeast (NE), <!--del_lnk--> Northwest (NW), <!--del_lnk--> Southeast (SE), and <!--del_lnk--> Southwest (SW). Addresses end with a quadrant suffix to indicate whether the location is, for example, on 4th Street NE, 4th Street NW, 4th Street SE or 4th Street SW. Outside the original city boundaries, street layout and naming practices are less regular. However, the alphabetic order of east-west streets, ending with W Street, is in some areas succeeded by an alphabetic progression of two-syllable names (e.g., Adams, Bryant, Channing), followed by a three-syllable progression (e.g., Allison, Buchanan, Crittenden)<p>Major interstates running through the area include the <!--del_lnk--> Capital Beltway (I-495), <!--del_lnk--> I-66, <!--del_lnk--> I-95, <!--del_lnk--> I-395, <!--del_lnk--> I-295, and <!--del_lnk--> I-270 (which does not reach D.C., terminating at I-495). Other major highways include the <!--del_lnk--> Whitehurst Freeway, and <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia Freeway in D.C., the <!--del_lnk--> George Washington Parkway in D.C. and Virginia, the <!--del_lnk--> Suitland Parkway in D.C. and Maryland, <!--del_lnk--> US Route 50, the <!--del_lnk--> Clara Barton Parkway, and the <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore-Washington Parkway in Maryland, and the <!--del_lnk--> Dulles Toll Road in Virginia.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14473.jpg.htm" title="Columbia Heights Metro station."><img alt="Columbia Heights Metro station." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Columbia_heights.jpg" src="../../images/144/14473.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14473.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Columbia Heights <a href="../../wp/w/Washington_Metro.htm" title="Washington Metro">Metro</a> station.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14474.jpg.htm" title="The Federal Center SW metro station in Washington DC"><img alt="The Federal Center SW metro station in Washington DC" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FederalCenterSWMetoStationWashingtonDC.jpg" src="../../images/144/14474.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14474.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Federal Centre SW metro station in Washington DC</div>
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<p>The Washington area is served by the <a href="../../wp/w/Washington_Metro.htm" title="Washington Metro">Washington Metro</a> public transportation system, which operates public <!--del_lnk--> buses (<!--del_lnk--> Metrobus) and the region's subway system (<!--del_lnk--> Metrorail). A <!--del_lnk--> public-private partnership operates the <!--del_lnk--> DC Circulator buses downtown. Many of the jurisdictions around the region run public buses that interconnect with the Metrobus/Metrorail system. <!--del_lnk--> Union Station is served by <!--del_lnk--> MARC and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Railway Express commuter trains, and <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a> intercity rail. Intercity bus service is available from the <!--del_lnk--> Greyhound Bus Terminal in <!--del_lnk--> Northeast and from <!--del_lnk--> dragon buses leaving from Chinatown.<p>Washington, D.C. is served by three major <!--del_lnk--> airports, one in Maryland and two in Virginia. <!--del_lnk--> Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport (<!--del_lnk--> IATA: <b>DCA</b>, <!--del_lnk--> ICAO: <b>KDCA</b>) is the closest — located in Arlington County, Virginia, just across the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac River from <!--del_lnk--> Hains Point, and accessible via Washington Metro. The airport is conveniently located to the downtown area; however it has somewhat restricted flights to airports within the United States because of noise and security concerns. Most major international flights arrive and depart from <!--del_lnk--> Washington Dulles International Airport (<!--del_lnk--> IATA: <b>IAD</b>, <!--del_lnk--> ICAO: <b>KIAD</b>), located 26.3 miles (42.3 km) west of the city in <!--del_lnk--> Fairfax and <!--del_lnk--> Loudoun counties in Virginia. Dulles is the second busiest international gateway on the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Seaboard. Dulles offers service from several low-cost carriers including <!--del_lnk--> JetBlue, although the low-cost selection decreased greatly when <!--del_lnk--> Independence Air (which was headquartered at Dulles) folded in January 2006. <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (<!--del_lnk--> IATA: <b>BWI</b>, <!--del_lnk--> ICAO: <b>KBWI</b>), is located 31.7 miles (51.0 km) northeast of the city in <!--del_lnk--> Anne Arundel County, Maryland, near Baltimore. BWI has had the highest passenger volume of the three major airports in the Baltimore-Washington Metroplex for several months.<p>General aviation is additionally available at several smaller airfields, including <!--del_lnk--> Montgomery County Airpark (<!--del_lnk--> Gaithersburg, Maryland), <!--del_lnk--> College Park Airport (<!--del_lnk--> College Park, Maryland), <!--del_lnk--> Potomac Airfield (<!--del_lnk--> Friendly CDP of <!--del_lnk--> Prince George's County, Maryland), and <!--del_lnk--> Manassas Regional Airport (<!--del_lnk--> Manassas, Virginia). Since 2003, the general aviation airports closest to Washington, D.C. have had their access strictly limited by the implementation of the <!--del_lnk--> Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ).<p><a id="Crime" name="Crime"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Crime</span></h2>
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<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> violent crime wave of the early 1990s, Washington, D.C. was known as the murder capital of the United States, and often rivaled <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans as the nation's most murderous city. Murders peaked in 1991 at 482, with violence declining drastically since then: murders declined to 198 in 2004, with a slight decline to 195 in 2005. Once plagued with violent crime, many D.C. neighborhoods, such as <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Heights, are becoming safe and vibrant areas as a result of <!--del_lnk--> gentrification. While not as intensely violent, crime hot spots have since displaced farther into the eastern sections of Washington, D.C. and across the border into Maryland. Although the southeastern side of the city has developed a reputation for being unsafe, these crime hot spots are generally concentrated in very specific areas that are associated with <!--del_lnk--> drugs and <!--del_lnk--> gangs. Other areas east of the U.S. Capitol, as well as the city's wealthier <!--del_lnk--> Northwest neighborhoods, experience low levels of crime. Despite the declining trends, Washington D.C. crime rates (2005) remain among the highest of U.S. cities, and it was most recently ranked as the 13th most dangerous city in the nation. Washington D.C. surpasses L.A. and New York in crime.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Metropolitan Police Chief <!--del_lnk--> Charles H. Ramsey declared a "crime emergency" in the city in response to a rising homicide rate (the city had logged 13 murders since July 1st, most notably the killing of a prominent British political activist in <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown. While the declaration allowed for more flexible and increased policing in high-crime neighborhoods, it was temporary and scheduled to be revisited following a 30-day trial period. <p><a id="Nature" name="Nature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nature</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14475.jpg.htm" title="A ring-billed gull flying in front of the Capital"><img alt="A ring-billed gull flying in front of the Capital" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dcnature.jpg" src="../../images/144/14475.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14475.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A ring-billed gull flying in front of the Capital</div>
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<p>DC has many natural areas and birdwatching spots inside the city. DC's parks and natural areas include <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia Park, the National Arboretum, <!--del_lnk--> Rock Creek Park, The <!--del_lnk--> Arlington Cemetery, The <!--del_lnk--> National Zoological Park, Langley Oaks Park, Roosevelt Island, the <!--del_lnk--> C&O Canal, the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac River and <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia River. The <!--del_lnk--> American Forests Report found that "The region Washington DC Metro area is comprised of 187,767 acres of tree canopy (46%), 110,300 acres of impervious surfaces (27%), 70,747 acres of open space (17%), 27,072 acres of bare soil area (7%), and 11,036 acres of water (3%). The total storm water retention capacity of the urban forest on these lands is 949 million cubic feet in avoided storage of water and is valued at $4.7 billion (based on construction costs estimated at $5 per cubic foot to build equivalent retention facilities). The urban forest provides air quality benefits by removing nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide ozone and particulate matter 10 microns or less. The Metro DC areas urban forest removes 20 million pounds of pollutants from the air each year, a benefit worth $49.8 million annually."<p><a id="Sister_cities" name="Sister_cities"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h2>
<p>Washington, D.C.'s <!--del_lnk--> sister cities are:<table border="0">
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<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/790.png.htm" title="Greece"><img alt="Greece" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Greece.svg" src="../../images/7/790.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/601.png.htm" title="Thailand"><img alt="Thailand" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Thailand.svg" src="../../images/6/601.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="People's Republic of China"><img alt="People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1546.png.htm" title="Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Republic of the Congo" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg" src="../../images/15/1546.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Brazzaville, <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_the_Congo.htm" title="Republic of the Congo">Congo</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="People's Republic of China"><img alt="People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Chongqing, <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a></ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1045.png.htm" title="Senegal"><img alt="Senegal" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Senegal.svg" src="../../images/10/1045.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/d/Dakar.htm" title="Dakar">Dakar</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Senegal.htm" title="Senegal">Senegal</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/14/1448.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Pretoria.htm" title="Pretoria">Pretoria</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/590.png.htm" title="South Korea"><img alt="South Korea" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Korea_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/590.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Korea</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Sunderland, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></ul>
</td>
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</table>
<p>Ten of these cities are designated by <!--del_lnk--> Sister Cities International.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> June, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the city signed an Agreement of Friendship with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> city of <!--del_lnk--> Sunderland, signalling the start of increased economic and cultural cooperation between the two cities. <!--del_lnk--> Washington Old Hall, on the outskirts of Sunderland, is the ancestral home of <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>. Both these cities participate in <!--del_lnk--> town twinning instead of <!--del_lnk--> sister cities.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C."</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Washington Metro</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;">
<caption style="font-size: larger;"><big><b>Washington Metro</b></big></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Metro_logo.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="100" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">Locale</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washington, D.C. Metropolitan Area</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Transit type</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rapid transit</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">Began operation</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1976</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">System length</th>
<td>106.3 <!--del_lnk--> mi (171 <!--del_lnk--> km)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">No. of lines</th>
<td>5</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">No. of stations</th>
<td>86</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">Daily ridership</th>
<td>564,000 (FY <!--del_lnk--> 2006)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Track gauge</th>
<td>1435 <!--del_lnk--> mm (4 <!--del_lnk--> ft 8½ <!--del_lnk--> in) (<!--del_lnk--> standard gauge)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="white-space: nowrap;">Operator</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <b>Washington Metro</b>, or simply <b>Metro</b>, is the <!--del_lnk--> rapid transit system of <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and neighboring suburban communities in <!--del_lnk--> Maryland and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, both inside and outside the <!--del_lnk--> Capital Beltway. In Maryland service is provided in <!--del_lnk--> Prince George's County and <!--del_lnk--> Montgomery County; in Virginia, service extends to <!--del_lnk--> Fairfax County, <!--del_lnk--> Arlington County, and the city of <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria.<p>
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</script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22762.jpg.htm" title="A Red Line train services Metro Center, the hub of the system."><img alt="A Red Line train services Metro Center, the hub of the system." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_line_train.jpg" src="../../images/227/22762.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22762.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> Red Line train services <!--del_lnk--> Metro Centre, the hub of the system.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22763.jpg.htm" title="The upper level platforms at Metro Center."><img alt="The upper level platforms at Metro Center." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Metro_Center_upper_level.jpg" src="../../images/227/22763.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22763.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The upper level platforms at Metro Centre.</div>
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<p>The Metrorail (<!--del_lnk--> subway) system and the <!--del_lnk--> Metrobus (<!--del_lnk--> bus) network are owned and operated by the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) — a multijurisdictional, quasi-governmental agency. WMATA also operates a <!--del_lnk--> paratransit service for the <!--del_lnk--> disabled called MetroAccess. However, the expression "Metro" usually refers to Metrorail exclusively.<p>Unlike the <!--del_lnk--> subway systems in cities such as <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston">Boston</a> or <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a>, Metrorail fare is not fixed, but instead varies based on the distance traveled and the time of day. Riders enter and exit the system using a <!--del_lnk--> stored-value card in the form of a <!--del_lnk--> paper <!--del_lnk--> magnetic stripe farecard or a <!--del_lnk--> proximity card known as <!--del_lnk--> SmarTrip. Both methods track the balance paid to Metro, as well as the rider's entry and exit points.<p>Since opening in <!--del_lnk--> 1976, the subway network has grown to five lines, consisting of 86 stations and 106.3 miles (171 km) of track. The original plan of 83 stations on 103 miles (165.5 km) was completed on <!--del_lnk--> January 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2001. There were 206 million trips on Metrorail in fiscal year 2006. The system is the second busiest in the nation, with about 700,000 trips taken on a typical weekday. The only city in the nation with a busier subway system is <!--del_lnk--> New York.<p>Washington's Metrorail is well known for its design by Chicago architect <!--del_lnk--> Harry Weese. Weese's design is an exemplar of late-20th-century <!--del_lnk--> modern architecture. With its heavy use of <!--del_lnk--> concrete, and the repetitive nature of its design motifs, it demonstrates aspects of <!--del_lnk--> Brutalism, which, in Washington, is also exemplified by the FBI's <!--del_lnk--> J. Edgar Hoover Building. Simultaneously, with its <!--del_lnk--> coffered <!--del_lnk--> groin vaults and <!--del_lnk--> barrel vaults, it reflects the <a href="../../wp/n/Neoclassicism.htm" title="Neoclassicism">neoclassical style</a> of architecture that can arguably be described as the closest thing to an "official" federal style in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington</a>, as demonstrated in such buildings as the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the former U.S. Patent Office building (now the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian American Art Museum), by <!--del_lnk--> Robert Mills; the <!--del_lnk--> White House, by <!--del_lnk--> James Hoban; and the <!--del_lnk--> Beaux-Arts <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln Memorial, by <!--del_lnk--> Henry Bacon.<p><a id="Metrorail_network" name="Metrorail_network"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Metrorail network</span></h2>
<p>The network was designed with a <!--del_lnk--> spoke-hub distribution paradigm, which makes the subway ideal for getting from a <!--del_lnk--> suburb to any part of the city, or vice versa, but unattractive for suburb-to-suburb travel; groups have proposed a <!--del_lnk--> Purple Line to remedy this. The system is also noteworthy as a system with a limited number of lines that nevertheless makes extensive use of interlining (running more than one line on the same track).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22764.gif.htm" title="Metrorail system map."><img alt="Metrorail system map." height="312" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WMATA_system_map.gif" src="../../images/227/22764.gif" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22764.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Metrorail system map.</div>
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<p>There are five operating lines and two planned lines:<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0 auto; text-align:left;">
<caption style="margin:inherit; padding-bottom:0.25em"><b>Washington Metro lines</b></caption>
<tr>
<th>
</th>
<th>Line Name</th>
<th>Opened</th>
<th>Stations</th>
<th>Termini</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FF0000"> </td>
<td style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Red Line</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1976</td>
<td>27</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shady Grove - <!--del_lnk--> Glenmont</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FF8000"> </td>
<td style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Orange Line</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td>26</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vienna/Fairfax-GMU - <!--del_lnk--> New Carrollton</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#0000FF"> </td>
<td style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Blue Line</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1977</td>
<td>27</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Franconia-Springfield - <!--del_lnk--> Largo Town Centre</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFF00"> </td>
<td style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Yellow Line</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1983</td>
<td>12</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Huntington - <!--del_lnk--> Mt Vernon Sq/7th St-Convention Centre</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#008000"> </td>
<td style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Green Line</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td>21</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Branch Ave - <!--del_lnk--> Greenbelt</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#800080"> </td>
<td style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Purple Line/Bi-County Transitway (Planned)</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bethesda - <!--del_lnk--> New Carrollton</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#C0C0C0"> </td>
<td style="text-align:left;"><!--del_lnk--> Silver Line (Planned)</td>
<td>
</td>
<td>
</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Route 772 - <!--del_lnk--> Stadium-Armory</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>There are currently stations in the District of Columbia, Prince George's County and Montgomery County in Maryland, and Fairfax County, Arlington County, and city of Alexandria in Virginia. The planned line would add stations in <!--del_lnk--> Loudoun County, Virginia once completed.<p>Half of the system, including most of the stations in the District of Columbia, is underground, but most suburban stations are on elevated rails or at grade. In the case of the western Orange Line, the tracks run in the median of <!--del_lnk--> Interstate 66. However, the deepest stations in the system are not in Washington, but at the northeastern end of the Red Line, with <!--del_lnk--> Wheaton having the longest <!--del_lnk--> escalator in the <!--del_lnk--> western hemisphere at 70 meters long, and <!--del_lnk--> Forest Glen being even deeper than that. It is so deep, the only way to the surface is by elevator.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22765.jpg.htm" title="Smithsonian station."><img alt="Smithsonian station." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DCMetro_Smithsonian.jpg" src="../../images/227/22765.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22765.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian station.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14474.jpg.htm" title="A Breda 4000-series train arrives at the Federal Center SW station"><img alt="A Breda 4000-series train arrives at the Federal Center SW station" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FederalCenterSWMetoStationWashingtonDC.jpg" src="../../images/144/14474.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14474.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Breda 4000-series train arrives at the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Centre SW station</div>
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<p>The system is not centered on any single station, but <!--del_lnk--> Metro Centre is considered the hub, as it is the busiest station, located at the intersection of the three busiest lines, and the Metro Information Centre and Gift Shop are located there. Other notable transfer stations include <!--del_lnk--> Gallery Place/Chinatown, which is located by the <!--del_lnk--> Verizon Centre; <!--del_lnk--> Stadium-Armory, which is located by <!--del_lnk--> RFK Stadium where the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Nationals and <!--del_lnk--> DC United play; and <!--del_lnk--> L'Enfant Plaza, the only station in the system with four lines and which supplies easy access between downtown Washington and Virginia.<p>Numerous colleges and universities are accessible through the Metro, including:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> American University from <!--del_lnk--> Tenleytown-AU<li><!--del_lnk--> Catholic University from <!--del_lnk--> Brookland-CUA<li>The <!--del_lnk--> University of the District of Columbia from <!--del_lnk--> Van Ness-UDC<li><!--del_lnk--> Gallaudet University from <!--del_lnk--> New York Ave-Florida Ave-Gallaudet U<li><!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University from <!--del_lnk--> Rosslyn (via shuttle bus or a long walk across the <!--del_lnk--> Key Bridge) or <!--del_lnk--> Dupont Circle<li><!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University Law Centre from <!--del_lnk--> Judiciary Square and <!--del_lnk--> Union Station<li><!--del_lnk--> The George Washington University from <!--del_lnk--> Foggy Bottom-GWU<li><!--del_lnk--> George Mason University from <!--del_lnk--> Vienna/Fairfax-GMU (Main Campus) and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Square-GMU (Arlington Campus)<li><!--del_lnk--> Howard University from <!--del_lnk--> Shaw-Howard Univ<li><!--del_lnk--> Howard University Law School from <!--del_lnk--> Van Ness-UDC<li>The <!--del_lnk--> University of Maryland, College Park from <!--del_lnk--> College Park-U of Md<li><!--del_lnk--> Marymount University from <!--del_lnk--> Ballston-MU<li><!--del_lnk--> Trinity University from <!--del_lnk--> Brookland-CUA</ul>
<p>Since 1999, Metro has run a special service pattern on <!--del_lnk--> July 4 to accommodate movements into and out of the city for <!--del_lnk--> Independence Day activities on the National Mall. This generally involves switching the southern terminals for the Blue and Yellow Lines (<i>i.e.,</i> Blue Line trains terminate at <!--del_lnk--> Huntington, while Yellow Line trains terminate at <!--del_lnk--> Franconia-Springfield), terminating the Blue Line at the <!--del_lnk--> Rosslyn upper level, and sending Orange Line trains to both <!--del_lnk--> Largo Town Centre and <!--del_lnk--> New Carrollton. Since 2002, Smithsonian station has been closed all day on July 4 due to both of its entrances being located within the secured perimeter established around the Mall.<p><!--del_lnk--> WMATA has a stated goal of integration of its rail and bus networks. In 2004, <!--del_lnk--> SmarTrip readers were installed on all buses, enabling paperless transfers between lines and with the rail system. Metro also offers numerous connections to other transit systems and modes of <!--del_lnk--> transportation in Washington, D.C..<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22766.jpg.htm" title="Intersection of ceiling vaults at Metro Center."><img alt="Intersection of ceiling vaults at Metro Center." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WMATA_metro_center_crossvault.jpg" src="../../images/227/22766.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22766.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Intersection of ceiling vaults at <!--del_lnk--> Metro Centre.</div>
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<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s, there were plans for a massive freeway system in Washington. However, opposition to this freeway system grew. <!--del_lnk--> Harland Bartholomew who chaired the <!--del_lnk--> National Capital Planning Commission thought that a rail transit system would never be self-sufficient because of low density land uses and general transit ridership decline. Finally, a mixed concept of a <!--del_lnk--> Capital Beltway system along with rail line radials was agreed upon. The Beltway received full funding; monies for the ambitious Inner Loop Freeway system were partially reallocated toward construction of the Metro system.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1960, the federal government created the National Capital Transportation Agency to develop a rapid rail system. Then in <!--del_lnk--> 1966, a bill creating <!--del_lnk--> WMATA was passed by the federal government, the District of Columbia, Virginia, and Maryland, with planning power for the system being tranferred to it from the NCTA. WMATA approved plans for a 98-mile regional system in <!--del_lnk--> 1968, and construction on the metro began in <!--del_lnk--> 1969, with groundbreaking on <!--del_lnk--> December 9. The system opened <!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1976 with 4.6 miles (7.4 km) available on the Red Line with five stations from Rhode Island Ave to Farragut North, all in the District of Columbia. <!--del_lnk--> Arlington, Virginia was linked to the system on <!--del_lnk--> July 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1976; <!--del_lnk--> Montgomery County, Maryland on <!--del_lnk--> February 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1978; <!--del_lnk--> Prince George's County, Maryland on <!--del_lnk--> November 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1978; and <!--del_lnk--> Fairfax County, Virginia and <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, Virginia on <!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1983.<p>The final 103 mile (166 km), 83 station system was completed with the opening of the Green Line segment to Branch Ave on <!--del_lnk--> January 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2001. This did not mean the end of the growth of the system, however: a 3.22 mile (5.18 km) extension of the Blue Line to <!--del_lnk--> Largo Town Centre and <!--del_lnk--> Morgan Boulevard stations opened on <!--del_lnk--> December 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, the first in-fill station (<!--del_lnk--> New York Ave-Florida Ave-Gallaudet U on the Red Line between <!--del_lnk--> Union Station and <!--del_lnk--> Rhode Island Ave-Brentwood) opened <!--del_lnk--> November 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, and planning is underway for an extension to <!--del_lnk--> Dulles Airport.<p>The highest ridership for a day was <!--del_lnk--> June 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, with 850,636 trips, as thousands of people went to Washington to view the funeral procession of <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a>, and to the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Capitol to view his body as it lay in state. The previous recordholding day was <!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1993, President <a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Clinton.htm" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>'s first <!--del_lnk--> inauguration. March, April, June and July of 2006 have broken records in terms of ridership, with seven of the ten highest ridership days occurring in these months. June 2006 holds the single-month ridership record with 18,745,046 total riders, and the record for highest average weekday ridership with 747,329 weekday trips. <!--del_lnk--> USA Today attributes the high ridership of the Washington Metro and other transit systems around the country to rapidly rising gasoline costs during that time. <p><a id="Rolling_stock" name="Rolling_stock"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rolling stock</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22767.jpg.htm" title="A train of Rohr cars arrives at Cheverly station."><img alt="A train of Rohr cars arrives at Cheverly station." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rohr_train.jpg" src="../../images/227/22767.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22767.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A train of Rohr cars arrives at <!--del_lnk--> Cheverly station.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Metro's rail fleet consists of 952 75-foot (23 m) rail cars, delivered in five shipments.<p>The original order of 300 rail cars was manufactured by <!--del_lnk--> Rohr Industries, with delivery in 1976. These cars are numbered 1000-1299, and were rehabilitated in the mid-1990's by Breda Costruzioni Ferroviarie and Metro at the Brentwood Shop in Washington. The second order, of 76 cars, was through <!--del_lnk--> Breda Costruzioni Ferroviarie (Breda), with delivery in 1982. These cars are numbered 2000-2075, and were rehabilitated in 2003 and 2004 by <!--del_lnk--> Alstom in <!--del_lnk--> Hornell, New York. The third order consisted of 290 cars, also from Breda, with delivery in 1987. These cars are numbered 3000-3289 as originally delivered, and are currently undergoing rehabilitation by Alstom in Hornell, New York. The fourth order consisted of 100 cars from Breda, numbered 4000-4099. These cars were delivered in 1991. The fifth order consisted of 192 rail cars from a joint venture of <!--del_lnk--> Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) of Spain and AAI Corporation of <!--del_lnk--> Hunt Valley, Maryland. These cars are numbered 5000-5191, with delivery from 2001 through 2004. Most recently, Metro has ordered 184 rail cars from <!--del_lnk--> Alstom, the same company that is rehabilitating the Breda cars. Delivery began in late 2005, with initial service starting in October 2006. The new cars have their body shells built in Barcelona, Spain and assembly completed in Hornell, New York.<p><a id="Metrorail_signaling_and_operation" name="Metrorail_signaling_and_operation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Metrorail signaling and operation</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>During normal operation on revenue tracks (used for passenger services), trains are controlled by an <!--del_lnk--> automatic train operation system (ATO) which accelerates and brakes the train automatically without operator intervention. However, all trains are manned with train operators who close the doors (they can optionally be set to open automatically), make station announcements, and supervise their trains. The operator can switch a train into manual mode and operate the train manually as needed.<p><a id="Safety_and_security" name="Safety_and_security"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Safety and security</span></h2>
<p><a id="Metro_design_and_policy_considerations" name="Metro_design_and_policy_considerations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Metro design and policy considerations</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22768.jpg.htm" title="No Food Or Drink On Metro."><img alt="No Food Or Drink On Metro." height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NoFoodOrDrinkOnMetro.jpg" src="../../images/227/22768.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22768.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> No Food Or Drink On Metro.</div>
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</div>
<p>Metro planners designed the system with customer safety and order maintenance as primary considerations. The open vaulted ceiling design of Metro stations and the limited obstructions on platforms allow few opportunities to conceal criminal activity. Station platforms are also built away from station walls, to limit vandalism and provide for diffused lighting of the station from recessed lights. Metro's attempts to reduce crime, combined with how the station environments were designed with <!--del_lnk--> crime prevention in mind, has contributed to the fact that Washington Metro is among the safest and cleanest subway systems in the United States. <p>Metro is patrolled by its own police force, which strictly enforces laws against criminal activities. Each city and county in the Metro service area has similar ordinances that govern misconduct on Metro, such as evasion of Metro fares or vending on Metro-owned property. Metro also forbids riders from eating, drinking, or smoking in Metro trains, buses, and stations. While arrests are rare, one widely publicized incident occurred in <!--del_lnk--> 2000 when police <!--del_lnk--> arrested a 12-year-old girl for eating <!--del_lnk--> french fries in the <!--del_lnk--> Tenleytown-AU station. In a <!--del_lnk--> 2004 opinion by the <!--del_lnk--> D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals, <!--del_lnk--> John Roberts – now the <!--del_lnk--> chief justice of the United States – upheld the girl's arrest. By then, however, WMATA had answered negative publicity by adopting a policy of first issuing warnings to <!--del_lnk--> juveniles, and arresting them only after three violations within a year.<p>Metro's <!--del_lnk--> zero-tolerance policy on food, trash and other sources of disorder embodies the <!--del_lnk--> broken windows philosophy of crime reduction. This philosophy also extends to the use of station restroom facilities. Under a longstanding policy, Metro allowed only employees to use its restrooms in order to curb unlawful and unwanted activity. Station managers could make exceptions for customers with small children, the elderly, or the disabled. Today, Metro allows the use of restrooms by customers who gain a station manager's permission, except during periods of heightened <!--del_lnk--> terror alerts. <p><a id="Metro_Transit_Police" name="Metro_Transit_Police"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Metro Transit Police</span></h3>
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<p>The Metro Transit Police Department is charged with ensuring the safety of Metro customers and employees. Transit Police officers patrol the Metrorail system and <!--del_lnk--> Metrobuses, and have jurisdiction and <!--del_lnk--> arrest powers throughout the 1,500-square-mile Metro service area for crimes that occur on or against transit authority facilities, or within 150 feet of a Metrobus stop. The <!--del_lnk--> Metro Transit Police Department is the only American police agency that has local police authority in three different "state" jurisdictions (Maryland, Virginia and the District of Columbia).<p><a id="Accidents" name="Accidents"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Accidents</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22769.png.htm" title="The November 3, 2004 accident at Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan station."><img alt="The November 3, 2004 accident at Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan station." height="152" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NTSB-Woodley-Park-Accident.png" src="../../images/227/22769.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22769.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The November 3, 2004 accident at <!--del_lnk--> Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan station.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22770.jpg.htm" title="The accident at Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan station as seen the next day from the station mezzanine. Trains were sharing the same track through the station at this time."><img alt="The accident at Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan station as seen the next day from the station mezzanine. Trains were sharing the same track through the station at this time." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Woodley_Park-Zoo_Accident.jpg" src="../../images/227/22770.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22770.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The accident at Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan station as seen the next day from the station mezzanine. Trains were sharing the same track through the station at this time.</div>
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<p>There have been three collisions reported on the Metrorail system since its opening.<ul>
<li>On <!--del_lnk--> January 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1982, a train backed up and derailed at a malfunctioning interlocking between the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Triangle and <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian stations. In attempting to restore the train to the rails, the supervisors backed it up, but they did not notice that another car had also derailed. In attempting to reverse the train, the other rail car slid off the track and slammed into a tunnel support, killing three people and injuring many others, becoming the worst accident that has ever occurred on the Metrorail system in over 30 years of operation. Coincidentally, this accident occurred at the same time as <!--del_lnk--> Air Florida Flight 90 crashed into the <!--del_lnk--> 14th Street Bridge during a major snowstorm, producing probably the worst transit situation in Washington history. The train accident was compounded by lack of availability of ambulances, which at the time were all trying to reach the 14th Street Bridge disaster. <li>On <!--del_lnk--> January 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1996, during the <!--del_lnk--> Blizzard of 1996, a train operator was killed when a train overran the <!--del_lnk--> Shady Grove station and crashed into a parked train. An <!--del_lnk--> NTSB investigation found the following factors that contributed to the accident: <ul>
<li>at the time of the accident, there was a policy then in effect that prohibited supervisors from granting employees permission to operate trains manually (even in inclement weather), and<li>the parked train was located on the same track that was being used by inbound trains, instead of in a safer location. </ul>
<li>On <!--del_lnk--> November 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, an out-of-service train lost its brakes, rolled backwards into the Woodley Park-Zoo/Adams Morgan Station, and hit a revenue train servicing the station. No one was killed, but 20 people were injured. The 2004 accident reinforced the finding from the 1996 accident of the tendency of Metro rail cars built or rehabilitated prior to 2001 to telescope when involved in a head-on collision. A 14-month investigation on the accident concluded that the train operator was most likely less-than-fully alert as the train rolled backwards into the station, on the grounds that the train had rolled backwards for over 78 seconds and that the train operator was at the end of an overtime shift that had been preceded by a night of interrupted sleep. Safety officials estimated that had the train been full, at least 79 would have died. Since the findings of the investigation, the train operator was dismissed from Metro, and Metro officials plan to add rollback protection to 300 cars.</ul>
<p>In addition to the three collisions, there have been several less-serious derailments of Metrorail trains, such as the <!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, derailment of a Blue Line train near <!--del_lnk--> National Airport.<p><a id="Accountability_and_controversy" name="Accountability_and_controversy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Accountability and controversy</span></h2>
<p>Since the turn of the 21st century, Metrorail has been plagued with deteriorating quality of service and excessive delays, caused in part by the system's aging infrastructure and in part by lack of proper oversight regarding various Metrorail systems. In addition to the November <!--del_lnk--> 2004 accident, other serious incidents included an electrical <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fire</a> on <!--del_lnk--> March 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2004 during morning <!--del_lnk--> rush hour. The fire occurred deep underground, on the Red Line between the <!--del_lnk--> Woodley Park-Zoo and <!--del_lnk--> Dupont Circle stations. This caused a major disruption in service that sent thousands of stranded passengers onto <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut Avenue, with no good plan by authorities to deal with the situation. Occurring just days after the <!--del_lnk--> Madrid train bombings, this incident highlighted Metro's shortcomings when it comes to <!--del_lnk--> emergency preparedness.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 27, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, rainstorms <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flooded</a> a control room located at the <!--del_lnk--> Silver Spring station, damaging electronic equipment used for operating Red Line trains between the <!--del_lnk--> Takoma and <!--del_lnk--> Forest Glen stations. As a result, Red Line trains were manually operated for two weeks, reducing the speed of the trains through the affected area, causing significant delays for passengers.<p>With aging <a href="../../wp/i/Infrastructure.htm" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> and rail cars, the Metrorail system has experienced numerous incidents of rail cracks that have required single-tracking (trains in both directions sharing the same track) during rush hour. Unlike the <!--del_lnk--> New York City Subway and other systems, the original design of the rail system provides just two <!--del_lnk--> rail tracks (one in each direction) throughout the entire system; the Metrorail system has no "sidings" for disabled trains to switch onto. Therefore, when an incident occurs, no matter how minor (such as a sick passenger), there is no way for subsequent trains to go <i>around</i> the affected train, causing trains to back up behind the affected train, resulting in quite significant delays. When this happens, trains are "single-tracked" (trains going in both directions sharing the track on the same side), which, again, results in significant delays. Another cause for delays is the frequent mechanical break-down of Metrorail trains while they are in service (due to the age of some of the rail cars and lack of repairs). This causes the entire train to be offloaded, with passengers attempting to reboard onto subsequent trains, which often become packed with the extra passengers.<p>Further controversy surfaced in 2004, when it became known that employees of Penn Parking, the company contracted by Metro to collect <!--del_lnk--> parking fees at Metrorail stations, had stolen substantial amounts of cash. Metro terminated the contract with Penn Parking, and on <!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, implemented a cashless parking system, where customers are required to pay for parking with <!--del_lnk--> SmarTrip cards.<p>The parking lots typically fill up quickly on weekdays due to the appeal both for tourists and for commuters from outer suburbs to drive their cars to the outlying stations and take the train in. The cashless parking system created a problem because full, unmanned parking lots trapped drivers who were unable to park and leave without paying $10.00 - the minimum intitial cost of a SmarTrip card via the SmarTrip vending machine ($5.00 for the card, and $5.00 initial value). The burden on tourists and single time parkers is highest, because the cost of the card itself is non-refundable and a single time user would be left with an unused balance of $1.50. If drivers plan to purchase the <!--del_lnk--> SmarTrip cards in the station, as signs warn them to, they may not be able to park legally in order to do so. On January 2, 2006, Metro implemented a change in parking lot revenue hours, so that on weekday mornings, the exit gates from the parking lot would remain open until 10:30 AM. <p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2005, then-General Manager <!--del_lnk--> Richard A. White led efforts to improve accountability and dialogue with customers. This included independent <!--del_lnk--> audits, town hall meetings, <!--del_lnk--> online chats with White and other management officials, and improved signage in stations. Despite these efforts, however, the Board of Directors announced White's dismissal on <!--del_lnk--> January 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. <!--del_lnk--> Dan Tangherlini replaced White as interim General Manager, effective <!--del_lnk--> February 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. Tangherlini was considered a leading candidate for Metro's top job on a permanent basis before he resigned to work as City Administrator under mayor <!--del_lnk--> Adrian Fenty. Tangherlini was replaced as interim general manager by <!--del_lnk--> Jack Requa, Metro's chief bus manager. On <!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, it was announced in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Washington Post</i> that <!--del_lnk--> John B. Catoe Jr., the deputy chief executive of the <!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority, and a Washington, D.C. native, had been selected as Metro's new permanent general manager.<p><a id="Fare_structure" name="Fare_structure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fare structure</span></h2>
<p>Metrorail fare is not fixed, but instead varies based on the distance traveled and the time of day. During regular hours (weekdays from opening until 9:30 am, 3-7 pm, and 2 am to closing), fares can be anywhere from $1.35 to $3.90 in fares. During reduced fare hours (all other times), fares can be up to $2.35. Fares can be paid using either farecards or <!--del_lnk--> SmarTrip cards. Under both methods, users need to use the cards both to enter and exit the stations. The fare is deducted from the balance of the card upon exit.<p><a id="Farecards" name="Farecards"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Farecards</span></h3>
<p>Farecards, unlike other forms of payment on Metrorail, are intended to be used once per trip. Farecards can hold anywhere from $1.25 to $45. When using farecards, one must be able to cover the fare upon exiting in order to be able to exit (the gates will not open otherwise). <!--del_lnk--> Exitfare machines allow users to add to the balance of their farecards while inside the system. This allows users to pay the fare and exit the station if they had an insufficient balance when entering.<p><a id="Passes" name="Passes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Passes</span></h3>
<p>There are three different types of passes available to the general population: the One Day Pass, the 7-Day Short Trip Pass, and the 7-Day Fast Pass. In addition, the SmartStudent Pass is designed for use by school-aged children. At the present time, passes are incompatible with SmarTrip.<p>The One Day Pass is used for unlimited travel on Metro from 9:30 AM to closing on weekdays, and all day on weekends and federal holidays. Thus it may not be used during the morning rush period, but may be used during the evening rush period. Riders holding a 7-Day Short Trip Pass are valid for a period of seven consecutive days. The pass may be used during rush periods for trips that would normally cost $2.20 or less. Exitfare machines may be used to pay for any fare over the $2.20 limit. Outside of rush periods, the pass may be used for any rail trip. The 7-Day Fast Pass is similar to the 7-Day Short Trip Pass, but carries no fare restrictions. It is valid for seven consecutive days of unlimited Metrorail usage. These passes are sold in the blue Passes/Farecards machines on station mezzanines.<p>The SmartStudent Pass is available for use by students in Washington, D.C. elementary and secondary schools for unlimited travel on Metrorail and Metrobus for school-related purposes. The pass is not available in farecard machines, but instead are available at Metro sales facilities and some schools within the District of Columbia.<p><a id="Transfers" name="Transfers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transfers</span></h3>
<p>Passengers who enter the Metro system may transfer between trains for free, so long as they remain within fare control areas.<p>Metro offers a discounted rate to passengers transferring from Metrorail to Metrobus of 35¢ on regular routes and $2.10 on express routes. Rail passengers with SmarTrip are automatically charged the reduced transfer fare. Non-Smartrip users, however, must use transfer tickets issued by machines within Metro stations at the station where the rider originated, or else pay the full fare.<p><a id="SmarTrip" name="SmarTrip"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">SmarTrip</span></h3>
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<p>Riders can use SmarTrip – a rechargeable, contactless stored-value <!--del_lnk--> smart card issued by WMATA – for <a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" title="Electronics">electronic</a> payment of fares on Metrorail and Metrobus, as well as the <!--del_lnk--> DC Circulator. In addition, on <!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, SmarTrip became the only way to pay parking fees at Metro-operated lots.<p>At Metro sales facilities, customers can buy SmarTrip cards for a base price of five dollars, with no initial fare value. WMATA also sells cards by vending machine at select transfer stations and at stations with parking facilities; such cards cost ten dollars, and come with an initial five dollars of stored fare value. Customers may add value to SmarTrip at farecard machines equipped with a SmarTrip target.<p>Because the <!--del_lnk--> Exitfare machines installed near station fare gates predate the introduction of SmarTrip, customers whose cards have insufficient value are permitted to leave the system with a negative balance. This negative balance must, however, be paid before the card may be used again to enter the system. One may not exit a Metro parking facility with a negative balance on the SmarTrip card; the card must contain sufficient value to pay the full fee in order to exit the Metro parking lot.<p><a id="Funding" name="Funding"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Funding</span></h2>
<p>While fares and <a href="../../wp/a/Advertising.htm" title="Advertising">advertising</a> provide some revenue for Metro, the bulk of funding is contributed by each jurisdiction that it serves, as well as by the states of <!--del_lnk--> Maryland and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia. Fares and other revenue fund 57.6% of daily operations while state and local governments fund the remaining 42.4%. Washington Metro is unique among major <!--del_lnk--> public transportation systems in having no dedicated source of funding. Instead, each year WMATA must ask each local jurisdiction to contribute funding, which is determined by a formula that equally considers three factors: (1) <!--del_lnk--> population density, as of the <!--del_lnk--> 2000 Census; (2) average weekday ridership; (3) number of stations in each jurisdiction. Under this formula, the <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia contributes the greatest amount (34%), followed by <!--del_lnk--> Montgomery County (18.7%), <!--del_lnk--> Prince George's County (17.9%), <!--del_lnk--> Fairfax County (14.3%), <!--del_lnk--> Arlington County (9.9%), the <!--del_lnk--> City of Alexandria (4.7%), the <!--del_lnk--> City of Falls Church (0.3%), and the <!--del_lnk--> City of Fairfax (0.3%).<p>It is often argued that this formula places disproportionate burden on <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia taxpayers. WMATA and District officials have pleaded that the Federal government should contribute more funding, reflecting the fact that a substantial portion of the <!--del_lnk--> Federal workforce use Metro to commute from the <!--del_lnk--> suburbs. <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">Tourists</a> also comprise a significant portion of ridership and Metro provides an instrumental role in transporting people during special events, such as <!--del_lnk--> presidential inaugurations. As well, a substantial number of stations located in the District serve these purposes rather than serving local residents.<p>In 2005, <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Rep. Tom Davis, <!--del_lnk--> Republican of <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, introduced a <!--del_lnk--> bill in <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Congress.htm" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> that offers WMATA a ten-year federal funding infusion worth $1.5 billion. This offer is contingent upon WMATA implementing more <!--del_lnk--> accountability measures, providing the <!--del_lnk--> Federal government two seats on its <!--del_lnk--> board of directors, and on enactment of <!--del_lnk--> legislation by the <!--del_lnk--> District of Columbia and the states of <!--del_lnk--> Maryland and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia to permanently provide WMATA with dedicated sources of <!--del_lnk--> revenue worth $150 million per year. The bill passed in the House of Representatives on July 2006 but it still needs to pass in the Senate. However, the fate of the proposal hangs in doubt; in February 2006 in the <!--del_lnk--> Virginia House of Delegates, <!--del_lnk--> Republican members of the House Finance Committee opposed to new <!--del_lnk--> taxation blocked WMATA funding <!--del_lnk--> legislation. <p><a id="Future_expansion" name="Future_expansion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Future expansion</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22772.jpg.htm" title="Largo Town Center station, which opened December 18, 2004."><img alt="Largo Town Center station, which opened December 18, 2004." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Washington_DC_metro_station_largo_town_center.jpg" src="../../images/227/22772.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22772.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Largo Town Centre station, which opened <!--del_lnk--> December 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2004.</div>
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<p><a id="Silver_Line" name="Silver_Line"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Silver Line</span></h3>
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<p>Rumors have abounded for years about transit service out to Dulles and points west either by Metro or other systems. There was even a study in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1990s that proposed a series of civil <!--del_lnk--> tiltrotor stations as a possible commuting option from places such as <!--del_lnk--> Reston, <!--del_lnk--> Manassas, <!--del_lnk--> Leesburg, <!--del_lnk--> Columbia, and other points in the greater Washington area. Like many other plans, this stopped at the initial assessment stage for fiscal and political reasons. Light rail systems and express bus lines have also been floated as a possibility within the District or Northern Virginia. Plans to extend Metrorail to <!--del_lnk--> Dulles have been in the works since the beginning of the system's construction. A test station was built at the airport around 1970 and was located some 28 feet below the parking lot area, but until recently, rail transport there was not a reality.<p>Finally, in <!--del_lnk--> 2002, plans were formalized to bring a 23-mile extension to the Orange Line from near the West Falls Church station to Route 772 in <!--del_lnk--> Loudoun County, Virginia. This would mean a mass transit connection from Washington proper to the important business centers of <!--del_lnk--> Reston and <!--del_lnk--> Tysons Corner, and most importantly, provide a link to <!--del_lnk--> Dulles Airport. On <!--del_lnk--> June 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Transit Administration approved the first phase of the project to begin. It is scheduled to reach Wiehle Avenue in <!--del_lnk--> Reston in 2011 and Virginia Route 772, beyond <!--del_lnk--> Dulles Airport, in 2015.<p><a id="Bi-County_Transitway" name="Bi-County_Transitway"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bi-County Transitway</span></h3>
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<p>Controversy has attended proposals to build a Purple Line, now designated the Bi-County Transitway by state planners, linking <!--del_lnk--> Bethesda and <!--del_lnk--> Silver Spring, Maryland, thereby connecting the two branches of the Red Line to the north of Washington by rail. It would later be possibly extended to <!--del_lnk--> New Carrollton, Maryland, thus also connecting branches of the Green and Orange lines, and eventually around the entire <!--del_lnk--> Capital Beltway, linking all the Metro endpoints together, as seen in a proposal from the <!--del_lnk--> Sierra Club. This line has been conceived as a light rail line traveling along a private right-of-way for at least some portion of its length, as an elevated monorail, and also as a rapid bus line. The proposal has met fierce opposition from some of the residents along the certain areas of the line (see <!--del_lnk--> NIMBY). Others have noted difficulties in obtaining the funds to build it.<p><a id="Columbia_Pike_Streetcar" name="Columbia_Pike_Streetcar"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Columbia Pike Streetcar</span></h3>
<p>In conjunction with <!--del_lnk--> Arlington and <!--del_lnk--> Fairfax counties, Metro has proposed to build a <!--del_lnk--> streetcar line on <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Pike in <!--del_lnk--> Arlington. See the project's <!--del_lnk--> website for further details.<p><a id="Corridor_Cities_Transitway" name="Corridor_Cities_Transitway"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Corridor Cities Transitway</span></h3>
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<p>A proposed <!--del_lnk--> light rail or <!--del_lnk--> bus rapid transit line that would run from the <!--del_lnk--> Shady Grove Metro station in <!--del_lnk--> Gaithersburg, Maryland northwest to <!--del_lnk--> Clarksburg, Maryland.<p><a id="District_Streetcars" name="District_Streetcars"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">District Streetcars</span></h3>
<p>Metro broke ground on a <!--del_lnk--> light rail line in the <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia area on <!--del_lnk--> November 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2004. The project is a demonstration to examine the usefulness of building a light rail line that would help people who live too far away from subway stations by ferrying them to the main Metro network. The line consists of 2.7 miles (4.3 km) of track and six stations. Service was expected to begin in autumn <!--del_lnk--> 2006. However, in April 2005, District transportation officials put the project on hold to negotiate with CSX Transportation, the owners of the 2.7 mile railroad right-of-way they had originally planned to run the light rail on. District officials had agreed to pay CSX Transportation Inc. $16 million for the right of way, but city officials discovered that CSX does not own all of the right of way - in fact, the District is among the property owners - raising concerns about what the city was paying for and what it was getting. As a result of this incident, the District has begun to plan an alternate 2.2 mile route to run on city streets. No work has been done since, and no operations start date has been defined. The new plan has been met with neighbourhood opposition. Additionally, the District is planning to expand its network with <!--del_lnk--> additional streetcar lines throughout the rest of the city. On <!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, the District of Columbia Department of Transportation announced that it would begin building a streetcar line on <!--del_lnk--> H Street, NE, from <!--del_lnk--> Union Station to Benning Road as part of its <!--del_lnk--> Great Streets initiative. This is the same route established by the <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Railway Company in 1870.<p><a id="Green_Line_Extension" name="Green_Line_Extension"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Green Line Extension</span></h3>
<p>Maryland has proposed extending the Green line from the current northern terminus in Greenbelt to connect with <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore-Washington International Airport via <!--del_lnk--> Fort Meade, home of the <!--del_lnk--> National Security Agency. The link would be built in the next two decades to accommodate some of the growth expected in the <!--del_lnk--> Howard and <!--del_lnk--> Anne Arundel County regions as jobs move in with the recent <!--del_lnk--> military reorganization.<p><a id="M_Street_Subway" name="M_Street_Subway"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">M Street Subway</span></h3>
<p>To increase travel capacity through downtown DC, a proposal was floated in the early 2000's to reroute the Blue line between Rosslyn and Stadium-Armory, so that it would no longer share tracks with the Orange line. Instead, from Rosslyn, it would pass through a new station in Georgetown, cross the Red line at Dupont Circle and again at Union Station, then rejoin its existing eastward branch at Stadium-Armory. The proposal was eventually rejected for being too expensive.<p><a id="Southern_Maryland_Transitway" name="Southern_Maryland_Transitway"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Southern Maryland Transitway</span></h3>
<p>A light rail system for the Southern Maryland counties of <!--del_lnk--> Charles and <!--del_lnk--> St. Mary's is being discussed, growing out of the southern terminus of the Green Line (Branch Avenue) and connecting to the rapidly growing area of <!--del_lnk--> Waldorf and other towns along <!--del_lnk--> MD Route 5.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Huntington is the only station equipped with an "inclinator," an elevator-like device that travels diagonally up and down what would have been an escalator in order to allow people with disabilities to use both sides of the station.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Wheaton station has longest single-span uninterrupted <!--del_lnk--> escalator (70 meters) in the Western Hemisphere. It takes 2 minutes and 43 seconds to ascend or descend. This record has been held by Metro since 1977, by (in order of opening) the <!--del_lnk--> Rosslyn, <!--del_lnk--> Woodley Park-Zoo, <!--del_lnk--> Bethesda, and now <!--del_lnk--> Wheaton stations. The longest escalator in Europe is in the <!--del_lnk--> Park Pobedy station in the <!--del_lnk--> Moscow Metro. There are several escalator "systems" of greater length in <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>.<li>The automated messages of "doors opening," "doors closing," and the more insistent "please stand clear of the doors, thank you" were recorded in <!--del_lnk--> 1996 by District resident Sandy Carroll. In February <!--del_lnk--> 2006, following an open contest, Metro officials chose Randi Miller, a car dealership employee from <!--del_lnk--> Woodbridge, Virginia, to record new announcements.</ul>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22773.jpg.htm" title="No passing between cars on Metro"><img alt="No passing between cars on Metro" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Breda_4063_Door.jpg" src="../../images/227/22773.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22773.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> No passing between cars on Metro</div>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Forest Glen Station is so deep (196 feet) that it has no escalators to its platform and is serviced only by elevators. Because of the depth of the Forest Glen Station and lack of escalators, it is the only station equipped with a special trackbed fire supression system and smoke doors to protect customers during a train fire and evacuation.<li>Huntington is the only station in the system whose name contains none of the letters in the word 'mackerel', just as there is only one station in the <a href="../../wp/l/London_Underground.htm" title="London Underground">London Underground</a> whose name contains no letters in 'mackerel', <!--del_lnk--> St John's Wood.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Metro"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Road_transport.htm">Road transport</a></h3>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22775.gif.htm" title="Horsecar crossing Rock Creek"><img alt="Horsecar crossing Rock Creek" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Horsecar_on_M_Street_Bridge.gif" src="../../images/227/22775.gif" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22775.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Horsecar crossing Rock Creek</div>
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<p>For just under 100 years, between 1862 and 1962, <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> <!--del_lnk--> streetcars and <!--del_lnk--> interurbans transported people across the city and region. The first streetcars in D.C. were drawn by horses, but later <!--del_lnk--> cable cars were used. By the beginning of the 20th Century, the streetcar system was fully electrified. A number of the District's streetcar lines were extended into Maryland, and a separate system was established for Northern Virginia. Over the years, the various companies were party to numerous mergers and bankruptcies, until all of the streetcars were part of one company, <b>Capitol Transit</b>. Labor strife, the popularity of the automobile and pressure to replace the streetcars with buses led to the demise of streetcars in Washington, D.C. In January of 1962 the last car went on it's last run. Elements of the system remain as roads, bus barns, Metrobus depots, rail trails and unused abandoned infrastructure.<p>
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</script><a id="District_of_Columbia_Network" name="District_of_Columbia_Network"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">District of Columbia Network</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22776.jpg.htm" title="Horsecars on Pennsylvania Avenue"><img alt="Horsecars on Pennsylvania Avenue" height="327" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Penn_Ave_horsecars.jpg" src="../../images/227/22776.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22776.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Horsecars on Pennsylvania Avenue</div>
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<p><a id="Washington_and_Georgetown_Railroad_Company" name="Washington_and_Georgetown_Railroad_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Washington and Georgetown Railroad Company</span></h3>
<p>Chartered on <!--del_lnk--> May 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1862, during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, to build three street <!--del_lnk--> horsecar lines using the same <!--del_lnk--> track gauge as the <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (<!--del_lnk--> Standard gauge). The first streetcars were installed on <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania Avenue from <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown to the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Navy Yard.<p>The first day of operation was <!--del_lnk--> July 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1862, and the entire system was completed on November 15. Later, lines were built along <!--del_lnk--> 7th Street and <!--del_lnk--> 14th Street. The system was so successful, that the initial three lines were extended and new lines were built.<p>In 1865, <!--del_lnk--> Sojourner Truth successfully led the fight to allow <!--del_lnk--> blacks to ride freely on Washington's streetcars. The streetcars were one of the few places in Washington free from <!--del_lnk--> racial segregation.<p>After switching to cable cars in 1890 it was acquired by the Rock Creek Railway in 1895 and the new company was named the <b>Capital Traction Company</b>.<p>In 1897 Capital Traction built the Georgetown Car Barn ("Capital Traction Company" is still written above the main door).<p>Remnants of the line<ul>
<li>The Georgetown Car Barn at 3600 M Street, <!--del_lnk--> NW. Like the East Capital Street Car Barn it was designed by <!--del_lnk--> Waddy B. Wood. The "<!--del_lnk--> Exorcist Steps" were built as part of the car barn's construction. They connect Prospect Street to M Street. The building is now owned by <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Development and leased to <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> facade of the Washington & Georgetown car barn at <!--del_lnk--> 3222 M Street, NW, now the main entrance to <!--del_lnk--> The Shops at Georgetown Park The car barn was previously the stables for <!--del_lnk--> Gilbert Vanderwerken's <!--del_lnk--> omnibus line. It was purchased by the Washington & Georgetown line and used first as stables.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The "<!--del_lnk--> Blue Castle" or Navy Yard Car Barn at 770 M Street, <!--del_lnk--> SE. It's now the home of the <!--del_lnk--> KEY Academy, <!--del_lnk--> Washington Math Science Technology Public Charter School, and the <!--del_lnk--> Eagle Academy. See photo on this <!--del_lnk--> page. The building was purchased in January 2006 by <!--del_lnk--> Preferred Real Estate Investments who intend to change its colour and turn it into retail space. Further information in <!--del_lnk--> <i>Washington Post</i> story.</ul>
<p><a id="Metropolitan_Railroad_Company" name="Metropolitan_Railroad_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Metropolitan Railroad Company</span></h3>
<p>Incorporated in 1864. Its first line ran from the <!--del_lnk--> Capitol to the <!--del_lnk--> War Department via F Street, NW. Later lines ran along Connecticut Ave; 7th St, NW; E. Capitol St; from Dupont Circle to Georgetown via the P Street Bridge and along O & P Streets in Georgetown. In 1896 Metropolitan built the <!--del_lnk--> Waddy B. Wood designed <!--del_lnk--> East Capitol Street Car Barn and in 1899 merged with the <b>Washington Traction and Electric Company</b>, which quickly went bankrupt. It was then purchased by the <b>Washington Railway and Electric Company</b>.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22777.jpg.htm" title="Columbia Railway Company Car Barns, Fifteenth Street & Benning Road Northeast"><img alt="Columbia Railway Company Car Barns, Fifteenth Street & Benning Road Northeast" height="281" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Columbia_Car_barn.jpg" src="../../images/227/22777.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22777.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Columbia Railway Company Car Barns, Fifteenth Street & Benning Road Northeast</div>
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<p>Remnants of the line<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The East Capitol Street (or Lincoln Park) Car Barn at 1400 <!--del_lnk--> East Capitol Street, <!--del_lnk--> NE, now a condominium.</ul>
<p><a id="Columbia_Railway_Company" name="Columbia_Railway_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Columbia Railway Company</span></h3>
<p>Founded in 1870. It started opearations in 1872 at <!--del_lnk--> New York Avenue NW and 15th St NW, and ran east along New York Avenue NW to K Street NW, along <!--del_lnk--> K Street NW t o <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Avenue NW, along Massachusetts Avenue NW to <!--del_lnk--> H Street, NW, and along H Street to Benning Road NE (formerly Columbia Pike). On <!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1895, it converted to a cable car system. In 1898, the route was extended out Benning Road, NE, to the <!--del_lnk--> Deanwood neighbourhood. This extension was built as an electric line, and in 1899, the rest of the cable car line was converted to <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. From Deanwood, passengers could transfer to the <!--del_lnk--> Chesapeake Beach Railroad or the <!--del_lnk--> Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis Railroad both of which stopped at <!--del_lnk--> Seat Pleasant just outside the District. It eventually became part of the <b>Washington Railway and Electric Company</b>.<p><a id="Anacostia_and_Potomac_River_Railroad_Company" name="Anacostia_and_Potomac_River_Railroad_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anacostia and Potomac River Railroad Company</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Incorporated in 1872. In 1875, it constructed a streetcar line across the Anacostia River. The line ran from 7th Street and M Street SW, along M Street and 11th across the Navy Yard Bridge (now the <!--del_lnk--> 11th Street Bridge) to <!--del_lnk--> Uniontown (now historic <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia). The route then ran down Nichols Avenue (now Martin Luther King Avenue) to V Street SE. A car barn and stables were maintained by the company at Nichols Avenue and V Street SE. It eventually became part of the <b>Washington Railway and Electric Company</b>.<p><a id="Capitol.2C_North_O_Street_and_South_Washington_Railway_Company" name="Capitol.2C_North_O_Street_and_South_Washington_Railway_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Capitol, North O Street and South Washington Railway Company</span></h3>
<p>Incorporated and opened in 1875. It operated streetcar lines primarily on NW 4th St. and NW 11th St. In 1893 it was renamed the <b>Belt Railway Company</b>, and in 1899 it was acquired by the <b>Anacostia and Potomac River Railroad Company</b>. See a photo <!--del_lnk--> here.<p><i>These lines were later converted to electric operation. The last horsecar ran on <!--del_lnk--> May 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1900</i>.<p><a id="Eckington_and_Soldiers.E2.80.99_Home_Railway_Company" name="Eckington_and_Soldiers.E2.80.99_Home_Railway_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Eckington and Soldiers’ Home Railway Company</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22778.jpg.htm" title="Opening day, Eckington & Soldiers’ Home Railway at the terminus of the line at Seventh Street and New York Avenue, NW"><img alt="Opening day, Eckington & Soldiers’ Home Railway at the terminus of the line at Seventh Street and New York Avenue, NW" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Eckington_and_Soldiers_Home.jpg" src="../../images/227/22778.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22778.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Opening day, Eckington & Soldiers’ Home Railway at the terminus of the line at Seventh Street and New York Avenue, NW</div>
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<p>The first electric streetcar in D.C. was run by the <!--del_lnk--> Eckington and Soldiers' Home Railway. It was chartered on June 19, 1888 and started operation later that year. It started at 7th & New York Ave. NW, east of <!--del_lnk--> Mount Vernon Square and travelled a distance of 2 ½ miles to the Eckington Car barn at 4th and T NE via <!--del_lnk--> Boundary Street, Eckington Place, R Street, 3rd and T Street. A one week pass cost $1.25. In 1889 it was extended to Glenwood Cemetery and in 1895 to Soldiers' Home. The Glenwood Cemetery extension was shut down in 1894. In 1898, it merged with the <b>City and Suburban Railway</b>.<p>Remnants of the line<ul>
<li>The Eckington Car Barn at T Street, NE, between 4th and 5th Streets; now a <!--del_lnk--> postal facility</ul>
<p><a id="Brightwood_Railway_Company" name="Brightwood_Railway_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Brightwood Railway Company</span></h3>
<p>On October 18, 1888, Congress authorized the Brightwood Railway Company to build a streetcar line on <!--del_lnk--> Georgia Avenue (then known as Seventh Street Extended or Brightwood Avenue) from <!--del_lnk--> Boundary Street to the District line at Silver Spring. Four of the five founders were partners in the Petworth subdivision, including the line's president, A. A. Thomas.<p>The Metropolitan Railroad Company had run a horse-drawn line on Georgia Avenue to Rock Creek Church Road since about 1873. The Metropolitan was authorized to run the streetcar line all the way to the District boundary, but the area was sparsely developed and the horsedrawn cars offered a long, slow trip to and from the city. Business was slow. So the Brightwood Railway Company bought the Metropolitan's Georgia Avenue line in 1890 and electrified it. Because all wiring in the city was required to be underground the line used storage battery cars. Maximum fare was 5 cents/passenger or 6 tickets for 25 cents.<p>The Brightwood line was extended to Takoma Park in 1892. In 1895 the <b>Washington, Woodside and Forest Glen Railway and Power Company</b> was organized to carry the Brightwood line into Montgomery County.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22779.jpg.htm" title="The former powerplant on the Georgetown waterfront"><img alt="The former powerplant on the Georgetown waterfront" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Georgetown_powerplant.jpg" src="../../images/227/22779.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22779.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The former powerplant on the Georgetown waterfront</div>
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</div>
<p>Remnants of the line<ul>
<li>The Brightwood Car Barn, 5929 Georgia Avenue, NW; parts were incorporated into <!--del_lnk--> Curtis Chevrolet</ul>
<p><a id="Georgetown_and_Tenallytown_Railway_Company" name="Georgetown_and_Tenallytown_Railway_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Georgetown and Tenallytown Railway Company</span></h3>
<p>The Georgetown and Tenallytown Railway Company was chartered in 1888 and had electric lines running along <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin Avenue to the District line in 1890. In 1897, the line merged with the Tenallytown and Rockville Railroad, which ran to Alta Vista and Rockville. Together they formed the <b>Washington and Rockville Electric Railway Company</b>.<p><a id="Rock_Creek_Railway" name="Rock_Creek_Railway"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rock Creek Railway</span></h3>
<p>Starting in 1890 it ran between the <!--del_lnk--> Cardoza/Shaw neighbourhood and <!--del_lnk--> Chevy Chase Lake in Maryland. It started at 7th & <!--del_lnk--> Boundary Street, traveled east on Florida, <!--del_lnk--> U Street, north on 18th Street, west on Calvert Street, and north on <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut Avenue to Chevy Chase Lake. It was built by the Chevy Chase Land Company, whose principal owner was <!--del_lnk--> Francis G. Newlands. On September 21, 1895, the Rock Creek Railway acquired the <b>Washington and Georgetown Railroad Company</b>. The new company was named the <b>Capital Traction Company</b>.<p>Remnants of the line<ul>
<li>The Decatur Street Car Barn at 4701 14th Street, NW. Also known as the <!--del_lnk--> Capital Traction Company Car Barn, it is now a <!--del_lnk--> Metrobus barn.</ul>
<p><a id="The_Washington_.26_Great_Falls_Electric_Railway" name="The_Washington_.26_Great_Falls_Electric_Railway"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Washington & Great Falls Electric Railway</span></h3>
<p>Incorporated in 1892 and opened in 1895, The Washington & Great Falls Electric Railway began in Georgetown at 36th and Prospect Streets and ran in a private <!--del_lnk--> right-of-way along the lands of the <!--del_lnk--> Washington Aqueduct to <!--del_lnk--> Glen Echo and from there along the old tracks of the Glen Echo Railroad to Cabin John. Because the railroad never reached Great Falls, but instead terminated at Cabin John, it was often referred to as the "Cabin John Trolley". It was acquired in 1902 by the <b>Washington Railway and Electric Company</b>. The railway was dismantled in the 1960s, but the former roadbed is still discernable in <!--del_lnk--> The Palisades and in <!--del_lnk--> Montgomery County, Maryland. More details and photos are available at this <!--del_lnk--> website.<p>Remnants of the line in Washington, D.C.<p><a id="Capital_Railway_Company" name="Capital_Railway_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Capital Railway Company</span></h3>
<p>The Capital Railway Company was the first electric railway line to cross the <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia. It was incorporated in 1895 and ran over the newly constructed bridge at Pennsylvania Avenue and along Nichols (now Martin Luther King) Avenue past St. Elisabeths. In 1900 it was sold to the <b>Anacostia and Potomac River Railroad</b>. By 1902, the streetcar line had been extended along Nichols Avenue to <!--del_lnk--> Congress Heights, ending at Upsal Street. In 1935 it was converted to buses.<p><a id="The_East_Washington_Heights_Traction_Railroad" name="The_East_Washington_Heights_Traction_Railroad"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The East Washington Heights Traction Railroad</span></h3>
<p>Opened sometime after 1900 and ran on Pennsylvania Avenue, SE, across the <!--del_lnk--> Anacostia River on the bridge that was replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> John Philip Sousa Bridge. In 1923, it became the first streetcar in D.C. to convert to buses.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22780.jpg.htm" title="Token"><img alt="Token" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WRy_token.JPG" src="../../images/227/22780.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22780.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Token</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Washington_Railway_and_Electric_Company_.26_Capital_Traction_Company" name="Washington_Railway_and_Electric_Company_.26_Capital_Traction_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Washington Railway and Electric Company & Capital Traction Company</span></h3>
<p>In 1900, Congress passed the Reorganization Act. This paved the way for an extensive series of mergers and acquisitions, through which ownership of all streetcars in Washington was divided between two companies: the Washington Railway and Electric Company' and the Capital Traction Company. The Washington Railway and Electric Company had been formed in 1900 for just this purpose. The combined system reached its greatest size in 1915.<p>In 1925, the <!--del_lnk--> North American Company acquired, through stock purchase, a <!--del_lnk--> controlling interest in the Washington Railway and Electric Company and a <!--del_lnk--> minority interest in Capital Traction. At about this time, the system (as in other cities) began to decline in quality and ridership because of competition from the private automobile and buses. At the time, streetcars were viewed by many as old fashioned, impractical and less desirable than buses. With the coming of the <!--del_lnk--> Depression, revenues and maintenance suffered. Unlike today, most transit systems were privately owned and received no government subsidy.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22781.jpg.htm" title="Capital Transit weekly passes"><img alt="Capital Transit weekly passes" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Capital_Transit_passes.jpg" src="../../images/227/22781.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22781.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Capital Transit weekly passes</div>
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<p><a id="Capital_Transit_Company" name="Capital_Transit_Company"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Capital Transit Company</span></h3>
<p>In December 1933, the <b>Washington Railway and Electric Company</b> merged with <b>Capital Traction</b> forming the Capital Transit Company. For the first time, all street railways in the Washington were under the same management.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1937, the first <!--del_lnk--> PCC streetcar entered service in Washington on 14th Street. Over the next two years, Capital Transit would replace all cars with the PCC model.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1949, <!--del_lnk--> Louis Wolfson purchased from North American 45.61% of the company's stock for $20 per share. The sale allowed North American to comply with the <!--del_lnk--> Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, which prevented North American from owning other businesses along with the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac Electric Power Company. This came about after a decision by the <!--del_lnk--> United States Supreme Court in <!--del_lnk--> <i>North American Company v. Security and Exchange Commission</i> in 1946.<p>On December 14, 1949, the Connecticut Avenue trolley stop and tunnel were built under <!--del_lnk--> Dupont Circle as a step in moving the entire streetcar system underground. The idea never caught on.<p><a id="DC_Transit" name="DC_Transit"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">DC Transit</span></h3>
<p>In 1956, in response to a carmen's <!--del_lnk--> strike, <!--del_lnk--> Congress and the District Commissioner revoked Capital Transit's <!--del_lnk--> franchise. <!--del_lnk--> The franchise was sold to <!--del_lnk--> O. Roy Chalk, a New York financier who owned controlling interest in <!--del_lnk--> Trans Caribbean Airways. He purchased the assets of Capital Transit under the corporate title of <b>DC Transit</b>. Part of the agreement was that he would eliminate the streetcars and <!--del_lnk--> replace them with buses. Streetcar service ended on <!--del_lnk--> January 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1962, and most of the cars were sold to <a href="../../wp/b/Barcelona.htm" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Sarajevo.htm" title="Sarajevo">Sarajevo</a>.<p>Most of DC Transit's assets were purchased by the <b><!--del_lnk--> Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority</b> (WMATA) in 1973.<br style="clear:both;" />
<p><a id="Suburban_Maryland" name="Suburban_Maryland"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Suburban Maryland</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Northern_Virginia" name="Northern_Virginia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Northern Virginia</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Interurbans" name="Interurbans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Interurbans</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Washington, Baltimore and Annapolis Electric Railroad, 1908 – 1935</ul>
<p><a id="Technology" name="Technology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Technology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22783.jpg.htm" title="Underground conduit system at 14th & G Streets, NW"><img alt="Underground conduit system at 14th & G Streets, NW" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DC_Streetcar_construction.JPG" src="../../images/227/22783.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22783.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Underground conduit system at 14th & G Streets, NW</div>
</div>
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<p>The first streetcars were pulled by horses. Later, <!--del_lnk--> cable cars were used. By 1900, all trains were powered by electricity.<p><a id="Horsecars_.281862.E2.80.931900.29" name="Horsecars_.281862.E2.80.931900.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Horsecars (1862–1900)</span></h3>
<p><a id="Cable_cars_.281890.E2.80.931899.29" name="Cable_cars_.281890.E2.80.931899.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cable cars (1890–1899)</span></h3>
<p>As was true in many <!--del_lnk--> US cities at the end of the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, <!--del_lnk--> cable cars briefly ran down D.C. streets. They were run by two existing streetcar companies. In 1890, the <b>Washington and Georgetown Railroad Company</b> converted to cable cars and built the Navy Yard Car Barn for that purpose, but on September 29, 1897, the company's powerhouse at 14th St. and Pennsylvania Avenue NW burned down. An electric <!--del_lnk--> conduit car system replaced the cable cars the next year. The <b>Columbia Railway Company</b> also operated cable cars before converting to electrical operation. It ran them between <!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1895 and <!--del_lnk--> 1899.<p><a id="Electric_cars" name="Electric_cars"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Electric cars</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22784.jpg.htm" title="Thomas Circle, 1943"><img alt="Thomas Circle, 1943" height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Thomas_circle_December_1943.JPG" src="../../images/227/22784.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22784.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Thomas Circle, 1943</div>
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</div>
<p>In the downtown area <!--del_lnk--> overhead wires were forbidden on the streets, so standard <!--del_lnk--> trolley cars could not be used. But outside of downtown an underground conduit system was too expensive to build. To meet both needs, an unusual dual system of power supply was utilized.<p>In downtown, the cars acted as <!--del_lnk--> conduit cars. Electrical power was delivered to the cars by way of an underground delivery system. This is similar to a "<!--del_lnk--> third rail" system though it's technologically different. A conduit slot was located between the two riding rails and the streetcar drew power from this mechanism through a <!--del_lnk--> plow. The plow was an electrical contact which was attached to the underside of the carriage and extended more than one foot beneath the surface of the street through a slot running down the middle of the track. This technology was initially used in Blackpool, but later only in Washington, <!--del_lnk--> Manhattan, and <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>.<p>In the outer areas and for interurban travel, the streetcars acted as trolley cars. At the outskirts of downtown, the cars would stop at a <b>plow pit</b>, a manned space under the tracks, where the plow could be removed by the pitman. At the same time, the conductor would attach the <!--del_lnk--> trolley pole to the overhead wires and switch to overhead power. See photo of a plow pit <!--del_lnk--> here.<p><a id="Trolley_parks" name="Trolley_parks"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trolley parks</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Suburban Gardens<li>Luna Park</ul>
<p><a id="Appearances_in_motion_pictures" name="Appearances_in_motion_pictures"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Appearances in motion pictures</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Day the Earth Stood Still</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mr. Smith Goes to Washington</i><li><i>Sherlock Holmes in Washington</i></ul>
<p><a id="Remnants_of_the_system" name="Remnants_of_the_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Remnants of the system</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22785.jpg.htm" title="Georgetown car barn"><img alt="Georgetown car barn" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Georgetown_car_barn.JPG" src="../../images/227/22785.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22785.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Georgetown car barn</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22786.jpg.htm" title="Station at 14th and Colorado, NW"><img alt="Station at 14th and Colorado, NW" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DC_Transit_14th%26Colo.jpg" src="../../images/227/22786.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22786.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Station at 14th and Colorado, NW</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22787.jpg.htm" title="Abandoned Trestle of the Cabin John Trolley over Foundry Branch"><img alt="Abandoned Trestle of the Cabin John Trolley over Foundry Branch" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WGFTrestle.JPG" src="../../images/227/22787.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22787.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Abandoned Trestle of the Cabin John Trolley over Foundry Branch</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22788.jpg.htm" title="P Street NW, in Georgetown, features streetcar tracks installed in the 1890s."><img alt="P Street NW, in Georgetown, features streetcar tracks installed in the 1890s." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Georgetown_p_street.jpg" src="../../images/227/22788.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22788.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> P Street NW, in <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown, features streetcar tracks installed in the 1890s.</div>
</div>
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<ul>
<li>Stations <ul>
<li>14th and Colorado, NW, now a Metrobus depot<li>1900 block of Calvert Street, NW, now a Metrobus depot. The white building now standing was a <!--del_lnk--> Toddle House restaurant. See further information <!--del_lnk--> here.<li>Connecticut Avenue and Northampton, NW, now a Metrobus depot</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Tunnels <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Connecticut Avenue under <!--del_lnk--> Dupont Circle and abandoned underground station<li>C Street between New Jersey Avenue, NW, and Delaware Avenue, NE<li>Turnaround loop under 14th Street, SW, south of C Street</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Trestles<ul>
<li>Over Arizona Avenue, NW, between Dorsett Place and Sherier Place<li>Over Foundry Branch in Glover Archibald Park, near Georgetown University</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>Visible train tracks in the centre of O and P Streets in Georgetown<li><!--del_lnk--> Potomac Electric Power Company<li>Manhole covers like <!--del_lnk--> this one from the Anacostia & Potomac River Railroad</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_streetcars"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Wasps</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14476.jpg.htm" title="Aleiodes indiscretusparasitizing gypsy moth caterpillar"><img alt="Aleiodes indiscretusparasitizing gypsy moth caterpillar" height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aleiodes_indiscretus_wasp_parasitizing_gypsy_moth_caterpillar.jpg" src="../../images/144/14476.jpg" width="180" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><i>Aleiodes indiscretus</i><br /> parasitizing <!--del_lnk--> gypsy moth caterpillar</small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insecta</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Hymenoptera.htm" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a><br />
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<th>
<center>Suborder</center>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Symphyta<br /><!--del_lnk--> Apocrita<br /> See text for families.</td>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14477.jpg.htm" title="Polistes dominulus building nest in California"><img alt="Polistes dominulus building nest in California" height="184" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WaspBuildingNest_wb.jpg" src="../../images/144/14477.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14477.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Polistes dominulus building nest in California</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14478.jpg.htm" title="Wasp drinking syrup"><img alt="Wasp drinking syrup" height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wasp_pho.jpg" src="../../images/144/14478.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14478.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wasp drinking <!--del_lnk--> syrup</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14479.png.htm" title="The basic morphology of a female yellowjacket wasp"><img alt="The basic morphology of a female yellowjacket wasp" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wasp_morphology.png" src="../../images/144/14479.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14479.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The basic morphology of a female <!--del_lnk--> yellowjacket wasp</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14480.jpg.htm" title="Wasp stinger, with droplet of venom"><img alt="Wasp stinger, with droplet of venom" height="177" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Waspstinger1658-2.jpg" src="../../images/144/14480.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14480.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wasp <!--del_lnk--> stinger, with droplet of <!--del_lnk--> venom</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14481.jpg.htm" title="The wasp's fine hairs are visible in this photograph."><img alt="The wasp's fine hairs are visible in this photograph." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DSCF9684.JPG" src="../../images/144/14481.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14481.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The wasp's fine hairs are visible in this photograph.</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14482.jpg.htm" title="Wasp ocelli (simple eyes) and dorsal part of the compound eyes"><img alt="Wasp ocelli (simple eyes) and dorsal part of the compound eyes" height="97" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wasp_ocelli.JPG" src="../../images/144/14482.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14482.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wasp <!--del_lnk--> ocelli (simple eyes) and <!--del_lnk--> dorsal part of the compound eyes</div>
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</div>
<p>A <b>wasp</b> is any <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insect</a> of the order <a href="../../wp/h/Hymenoptera.htm" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a> and suborder <!--del_lnk--> Apocrita that is <i>not</i> a <a href="../../wp/b/Bee.htm" title="Bee">bee</a> or an <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ant</a>. Less familiar, the suborder <!--del_lnk--> Symphyta includes the <!--del_lnk--> sawflies and <!--del_lnk--> wood wasps, which differ from the Apocrita by having a broad connection between the <a href="../../wp/t/Thorax.htm" title="Thorax">thorax</a> and <!--del_lnk--> abdomen. Also, Symphyta <!--del_lnk--> larvae are mostly <a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" title="Herbivore">herbivorous</a> and "<!--del_lnk--> caterpillarlike", whereas those of Apocrita are largely <!--del_lnk--> predatory or <!--del_lnk--> parasitic.<p>Most familiar wasps belong to the Aculeata, a <i>division</i> of the Apocrita, whose <!--del_lnk--> ovipositors are modified into a <!--del_lnk--> venomous stinger. Aculeata also contains ants and bees. In this sense, the species called "velvet ants" (<!--del_lnk--> Mutillidae) are actually wasps.<p>A narrower meaning of the term wasp is any member of the Aculeate family <!--del_lnk--> Vespidae, which includes the <!--del_lnk--> yellowjackets (<i>Vespula, Dolichovespula spp.</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> hornets (<i>Vespa spp.</i>).<p>
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</script><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2>
<p>The following characteristics are present in most wasps:<ul>
<li>Two pairs of <!--del_lnk--> wings (exceptions: all female <!--del_lnk--> Mutillidae, <!--del_lnk--> Bradynobaenidae, many male <!--del_lnk--> Agaonidae, many female <!--del_lnk--> Ichneumonidae, <!--del_lnk--> Braconidae, <!--del_lnk--> Tiphiidae, <!--del_lnk--> Scelionidae, <!--del_lnk--> Rhopalosomatidae, <!--del_lnk--> Eupelmidae, and various other families).<li>An <!--del_lnk--> ovipositor or <!--del_lnk--> stinger (only present in females because it derives from the ovipositor).<li>Few or no <!--del_lnk--> hairs (in contrast to <a href="../../wp/b/Bee.htm" title="Bee">bees</a>); exceptions: <!--del_lnk--> Mutillidae, <!--del_lnk--> Bradynobaenidae, <!--del_lnk--> Scoliidae. Though less efficient than bees, some wasp species are significant <a href="../../wp/p/Pollinator.htm" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a>.<li>Nearly all terrestrial; only a few specialized parasitic groups are aquatic.<li><!--del_lnk--> Predators or <!--del_lnk--> parasitoids, mostly on other terrestrial insects; some species of <!--del_lnk--> Pompilidae, such as the <!--del_lnk--> tarantula hawk, specialize in using <a href="../../wp/s/Spider.htm" title="Spider">spiders</a> as prey, and various <!--del_lnk--> parasitic wasps use spiders or other arachnids as hosts.</ul>
<p>Wasps are critically important in natural <!--del_lnk--> biocontrol. Almost every pest insect species has a wasp species that is predator or parasite upon it. Parasitic wasps are also increasingly used in agricultural <!--del_lnk--> pest control.<p><a id="Reproduction_in_wasps" name="Reproduction_in_wasps"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction in wasps</span></h2>
<p>Generally wasps do not have a <!--del_lnk--> mating flight. Instead they reproduce between a single <!--del_lnk--> queen and a male <!--del_lnk--> drone in the vicinity of their nesting area. After successfully mating, the drone's <!--del_lnk--> sperm cells are stored in a tightly packed ball inside the queen. The sperm are kept stored in a dormant state until the following spring. At a certain time of year (often around autumn time) the bulk of the wasp colony dies away, leaving only the young mated queens alive. During this time they leave the nest and find a suitable area to <!--del_lnk--> hibernate for the winter.<p>After emerging from hibernation during early spring, the young queens search for a suitable nesting site. Upon finding an area for her future colony, the queen usually constructs a basic paper nest into which she will begin to lay <!--del_lnk--> eggs. This varies from species to species in specifics, as not all wasps live in paper nests.<p>The sperm that was stored earlier and kept dormant over winter is now used to <!--del_lnk--> fertilize the eggs being laid. The storage of sperm inside the female queen allows her to lay a considerable number of fertilized eggs without the need for repeated <!--del_lnk--> mating with a male wasp. For this reason a single female queen is quite capable of building an entire colony from only herself. The eggs laid initially are sterile female workers who will begin to construct a more elaborate nest around their queen and take over her role of feeding the larvae.<p>In wasps, <!--del_lnk--> sexes are significantly <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetically</a> different. Females have a <!--del_lnk--> diploid (2n) number of <!--del_lnk--> chromosomes and come about from fertilized eggs. Males, in contrast, have a <!--del_lnk--> haploid (n) number of chromosomes and develop from an unfertilised egg.<p>Towards the end of the summer, the female wasps begin to run out of stored sperm to fertilize more eggs. These eggs develop into <!--del_lnk--> fertile males and fertile female queens. The male drones then fly out of the nest and find a mate thus perpetuating the wasp <!--del_lnk--> reproductive cycle. The queens will then leave the colony to hibernate for the winter once the other wasps begin to die off. After successfully mating with a young queen, the male drones die off. Generally young queens and drones from the same nest do not mate with each other.<p>Unlike most species of <!--del_lnk--> bee queens, the wasp queens only live for one year although exceptions are possible. Contrary to popular belief, the queen wasp does not organize the wasp colony or have any raised status amongst the social group. She is rather the reproductive element of the colony as all members of the colony are theoretically direct genetic descendants of the queen.<p><a id="Wasp_parasitism" name="Wasp_parasitism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wasp parasitism</span></h2>
<p>With most species, adult parasitic-wasps themselves do not take any nutrients from their prey. Indeed, adult parasitic-wasps, much like bees, <!--del_lnk--> butterflies, and <!--del_lnk--> moths, derive all of their nutrition from <!--del_lnk--> nectar or the sweet secretions from their brood. Parasitic-wasps paralyze their prey by injecting it with venom through their stingers. They then inject the prey with eggs; when the eggs hatch, the larvae eat the prey alive, saving the vital organs for last. They <!--del_lnk--> pupate inside the prey's body, and upon becoming adults, cut a hole in the prey's skin and fly out.<p><a id="Nests" name="Nests"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nests</span></h2>
<p>The nests of social wasps are first constructed by the queen and are initially about the size of a walnut. The size of the nest increases as more workers are propogated. Unlike <!--del_lnk--> honeybees, wasps have no <!--del_lnk--> wax producing gland. They manufacture a paper-like material from wood pulp. Wood fibers are gathered from weathered wood, softened by chewing and mixing with saliva. The paper is then used to make combs with cells for brood rearing.<p><a id="Common_families" name="Common_families"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Common families</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Agaonidae - <!--del_lnk--> fig wasps<li><!--del_lnk--> Chalcididae<li><!--del_lnk--> Chrysididae - <!--del_lnk--> cuckoo wasps<li><!--del_lnk--> Crabronidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Cynipidae - <!--del_lnk--> gall wasps<li><!--del_lnk--> Encyrtidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Eulophidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Eupelmidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Ichneumonidae, and <!--del_lnk--> Braconidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Mutillidae - <!--del_lnk--> velvet ants<li><!--del_lnk--> Mymaridae - <!--del_lnk--> fairyflies<li><!--del_lnk--> Pompilidae - <!--del_lnk--> spider wasps<li><!--del_lnk--> Pteromalidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Scelionidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Scoliidae - <!--del_lnk--> scoliid wasps<li><!--del_lnk--> Sphecidae - <!--del_lnk--> digger wasps, e.g. the <!--del_lnk--> Cicada killer wasp<li><!--del_lnk--> Tiphiidae - <!--del_lnk--> flower wasps<li><!--del_lnk--> Torymidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Trichogrammatidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Vespidae - <!--del_lnk--> yellowjackets, <!--del_lnk--> hornets, <!--del_lnk--> paper wasps.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasp"</div>
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<th align="center" style="background:#44cc44"><b><a href="../../wp/e/Environmental_science.htm" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></b></th>
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<td><u><i><!--del_lnk--> Environmental technology</i></u></td>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Air pollution control<li><!--del_lnk--> Alternative energy<li><a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Composting<li><!--del_lnk--> Conservation biology<li><!--del_lnk--> Conservation ethic<li><!--del_lnk--> Ecoforestry<li><!--del_lnk--> Energy conservation<li><!--del_lnk--> Energy development<li><!--del_lnk--> Environmental design<li><!--del_lnk--> Future energy development<li><!--del_lnk--> Green building<li><!--del_lnk--> Hydrogen technologies<li><a href="../../wp/r/Recycling.htm" title="Recycling">Recycling</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Renewable energy<li><!--del_lnk--> Remediation<li><!--del_lnk--> Solid waste treatment<li><!--del_lnk--> Sustainable energy<li><!--del_lnk--> Waste water treatment<li><a href="../../wp/w/Water_purification.htm" title="Water purification">Water purification</a><li><strong class="selflink">Waste management</strong></ul>
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<p><b>Waste management</b> is the collection, <a href="../../wp/t/Transport.htm" title="Transport">transport</a>, processing (<!--del_lnk--> waste treatment), <a href="../../wp/r/Recycling.htm" title="Recycling">recycling</a> or disposal of <!--del_lnk--> waste materials, usually ones produced by human activity, in an effort to reduce their effect on human <a href="../../wp/h/Health.htm" title="Health">health</a> or local <a href="../../wp/a/Aesthetics.htm" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> or amenity. A subfocus in recent decades has been to reduce waste materials' effect on the <!--del_lnk--> natural world and the <!--del_lnk--> environment and to recover <!--del_lnk--> resources from them.<p>Waste management can involve <!--del_lnk--> solid, <!--del_lnk--> liquid or <a href="../../wp/g/Gas.htm" title="Gas">gaseous</a> substances with different methods and fields of expertise for each.<p>Waste management practices differ for <!--del_lnk--> developed and <!--del_lnk--> developing nations, for <!--del_lnk--> urban and <!--del_lnk--> rural areas, and for <!--del_lnk--> residential, <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industrial</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> commercial producers. Waste management for non-<!--del_lnk--> hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of <!--del_lnk--> local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator.<p>
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</script><a id="History_of_waste_management" name="History_of_waste_management"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of waste management</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Waste_management_concepts" name="Waste_management_concepts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Waste management concepts</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14483.png.htm" title="The waste hierarchy"><img alt="The waste hierarchy" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Waste-hierarchy.png" src="../../images/144/14483.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14483.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The waste hierarchy</div>
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<p>There are a number of <!--del_lnk--> concepts about waste management, which vary in their usage between countries or regions.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> waste hierarchy:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> reduce<li><!--del_lnk--> reuse<li><!--del_lnk--> recycle</ul>
<p>classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability. The waste hierarchy has taken many forms over the past decade, but the basic concept has remained the cornerstone of most waste minimisation strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste.<p>Some waste management experts have recently incorporated a 'fourth R': "Re-think", with the implied meaning that the present system may have fundamental flaws, and that a thoroughly effective system of waste management may need an entirely new way of looking at waste. Some "re-think" solutions may be counter-intuitive, such as cutting fabric patterns with slightly <i>more</i> "waste material" left -- the now larger scraps are then used for cutting small parts of the pattern, <i>resulting in a decrease in net waste</i>. This type of solution is by no means limited to the clothing industry.<p><i>Source reduction</i> involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials by modifying industrial production. Source reduction methods involve changes in manufacturing technology, raw material inputs, and product formulation. At times, the term "pollution prevention" may refer to source reduction.<p>Another method of source reduction is to increase incentives for recycling. Many communities in the United States are implementing variable rate pricing for waste disposal (also known as Pay As You Throw - <!--del_lnk--> PAYT) which has been effective in reducing the size of the municipal waste stream.<p>Source reduction is typically measured by efficiencies and cutbacks in waste. <i><!--del_lnk--> Toxics use reduction</i> is a more controversial approach to source reduction that targets and measures reductions in the upstream use of toxic materials. Toxics use reduction emphasises the more preventive aspects of source reduction but, due to its emphasis on toxic chemical inputs, has been opposed more vigorously by chemical manufacturers. <i>Toxics use reduction</i> programs have been set up by legislation in some states, e.g., <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey and <a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>.<p><a id="Resource_recovery" name="Resource_recovery"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recycling</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14484.jpg.htm" title="A materials recovery facility, where different materials are separated for recycling"><img alt="A materials recovery facility, where different materials are separated for recycling" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Material_recovery_facility_2004-03-24.jpg" src="../../images/144/14484.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14484.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> materials recovery facility, where different materials are separated for recycling</div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/r/Recycling.htm" title="Recycling">Recycling</a> means to recover for other use a material that would otherwise be considered waste. The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries has come to refer to the widespread collection and reuse of various everyday waste materials. They are collected and sorted into common groups, so that the raw materials from these items can be used again (recycled).<p>In developed countries, the most common consumer items recycled include <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> beverage cans, <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a>, food and aerosol cans, <!--del_lnk--> HDPE and <!--del_lnk--> PET <!--del_lnk--> plastic bottles, <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, <!--del_lnk--> newspapers, magazines, and <!--del_lnk--> cardboard. Other types of plastic (<!--del_lnk--> PVC, <!--del_lnk--> LDPE, <!--del_lnk--> PP, and <!--del_lnk--> PS: see <!--del_lnk--> resin identification code) are also recyclable, although not as commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products.<p>The recycling of obsolete computers and electronic equipment is important, but more costly due to the separation and extraction problems. Much electronic waste is sent to Asia, where recovery of the gold and copper can cause environmental problems (monitors contain lead and "heavy metals" such as selenium and cadmium are commonly found in electronic items).<p>Recycled or used materials have to compete in the marketplace with new (virgin) materials. The cost of collecting and sorting the materials often means that they are equally or more expensive than virgin materials. This is most often the case in developed countries where industries producing the raw materials are well-established. Practices such as trash picking can reduce this value further, as choice items are removed (such as aluminium cans). In some countries, recycling programs are subsidised by deposits paid on beverage containers (see <!--del_lnk--> container deposit legislation).<p>The economics of recycling junked automobiles also depends on the <!--del_lnk--> scrap metal market except where recycling is mandated by legislation (as in Germany).<p>However, most economic systems do not account for the benefits to the environment of recycling these materials, compared with extracting virgin materials. It usually requires significantly less energy, water and other resources to recycle materials than to produce new materials. For example, recycling 1000 kg of aluminium cans saves approximately 5000 kg of <!--del_lnk--> bauxite ore being mined (source: ALCOA Australia) and 97% of the energy required to refine it; recycling steel saves about 95% of the energy used to refine virgin ore (source: U.S. Bureau of Mines).<p>In many areas, material for recycling is collected separately from general waste, with dedicated bins and collection vehicles. Other waste management processes recover these materials from general waste streams. This usually results in greater levels of recovery than separate collections of consumer-separated beverage containers, but are more complex and expensive.<p><a id="Waste_management_techniques" name="Waste_management_techniques"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Waste management techniques</span></h2>
<p>Managing <!--del_lnk--> municipal waste, <!--del_lnk--> industrial waste and <!--del_lnk--> commercial waste has traditionally consisted of <!--del_lnk--> collection, followed by <!--del_lnk--> disposal. Depending upon the type of waste and the area, a level of processing may follow collection. This processing may be to reduce the <!--del_lnk--> hazard of the waste, <!--del_lnk--> recover material for recycling, produce <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> from the waste, or reduce it in volume for more efficient disposal.<p>Collection methods vary widely between different countries and regions, and it would be impossible to describe them all. For example, in Australia most urban domestic households have a 240 litre (63.4 gallon) bin that is emptied weekly by the local council. Many areas, especially those in less developed areas, do not have a formal waste-collection system in place.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Canadian urban centres <!--del_lnk--> curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste, and or recyclables, and or organics on a scheduled basis from residential areas. In rural areas people dispose of their waste at transfer stations. Waste collected is then transported to a regional <!--del_lnk--> landfill.<p>Disposal methods also vary widely. In <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, the most common method of disposal of solid waste is to landfills, because it is a large country with a low-density population. By contrast, in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> it is more common for waste to be <!--del_lnk--> incinerated, because the country is smaller and land is scarce.<p><a id="Landfill" name="Landfill"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Landfill</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14485.jpg.htm" title="A landfill compaction vehicle in operation"><img alt="A landfill compaction vehicle in operation" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Landfill_compactor.jpg" src="../../images/144/14485.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14485.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> landfill compaction vehicle in operation</div>
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<p>Disposing of waste in a landfill is the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a common practice in most countries. Historically, landfills were often established in disused <!--del_lnk--> quarries, <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a> voids or <!--del_lnk--> borrow pits. Running a landfill that minimises <!--del_lnk--> environmental problems can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials; however, a more efficient method of disposal will be needed in time as less land becomes available for such purposes.<p>Older or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental impacts, including wind-blown <!--del_lnk--> litter, attraction of vermin and <!--del_lnk--> pollutants such as <!--del_lnk--> leachate, which can leach into and <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollute</a> <!--del_lnk--> groundwater and <!--del_lnk--> rivers. Another product of landfills containing harmful wastes is <!--del_lnk--> landfill gas, mostly composed of <!--del_lnk--> methane and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, which is produced as the waste breaks down <!--del_lnk--> anaerobically.<p>Characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate, such as lining clay or plastic liners. Disposed waste should be compacted and covered to prevent attracting <!--del_lnk--> mice and <!--del_lnk--> rats and preventing wind-blown litter. Many landfills also have a landfill gas extraction system installed after closure to extract the gas generated by the decomposing waste materials. This gas is often burnt in a <!--del_lnk--> gas engine to generate <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. Even flaring the gas off is a better environmental outcome than allowing it to escape to the atmosphere, as this consumes the methane, which is a far stronger <!--del_lnk--> greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Some of it can be tapped for use as a <!--del_lnk--> fuel.<p>Many local authorities, especially in urban areas, have found it difficult to establish new landfills due to opposition from owners of adjacent land. Few people want a landfill in their local neighbourhood. As a result, solid waste disposal in these areas has become more expensive as material must be transported further away for disposal.<p>Some oppose the use of landfills in <i>any</i> way, anywhere, arguing that the logical end result of landfill operations is that it will eventually leave a drastically <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">polluted</a> planet with no canyons, and no wild space. Some <!--del_lnk--> futurists have stated that landfills will be the "mines of the future": as some resources become more scarce, they will become valuable enough that it would be necessary to 'mine' them from landfills where these materials were previously discarded as valueless.<p>This fact, as well as growing concern about the impacts of excessive materials consumption, has given rise to efforts to minimise the amount of waste sent to landfill in many areas. These efforts include taxing or levying waste sent to landfill, recycling the materials, converting material to energy, designing products that require less material, and legislation mandating that manufacturers are responsible for final packaging and materials disposal costs (as in the manufacturers setting up and funding the "Grüne Punkt" in Germany to achieve that end). A related subject is that of <!--del_lnk--> industrial ecology, where the material flows between industries is studied. The by-products of one industry may be a useful commodity to another, leading to reduced materials wastestream.<p><a id="Incineration" name="Incineration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Incineration</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14486.jpg.htm" title="A waste-to-energy plant in Saugus, Massachusetts, the first plant in the United States."><img alt="A waste-to-energy plant in Saugus, Massachusetts, the first plant in the United States." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Saugus_plant.jpg" src="../../images/144/14486.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14486.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A waste-to-energy plant in <!--del_lnk--> Saugus, Massachusetts, the first plant in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Incineration is the process of destroying waste material by burning it. Incineration is often alternatively named "Energy-from-waste" (EfW) or "waste-to-energy"; this is misleading as there are other ways of recovering energy from waste that do not involve directly burning it (see <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic digestion, <!--del_lnk--> pyrolysis & <!--del_lnk--> gasification).<p>Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals, and on a large scale by industry. It is recognised as a practical method of disposing of <!--del_lnk--> hazardous waste materials, such as biological <!--del_lnk--> medical waste. Many entities now refer to disposal of wastes by exposure to high temperatures as <!--del_lnk--> thermal treatment (however this also includes gasification and pyrolysis). This concept encompasses recovery of metals and energy from <!--del_lnk--> municipal solid waste (MSW) as well as safe disposal of the remaining ash and reduction of the volume of waste.<p>Though classic incineration is still widely used in many areas, especially developing countries, incineration as a waste management tool is becoming controversial for several reasons.<p>First, it may be a poor use of many waste materials because it destroys not only the raw material, but also all of the energy, water, and other <!--del_lnk--> natural resources used to produce it. Some energy can be reclaimed as electricity by using the <!--del_lnk--> combustion to create steam to drive an <!--del_lnk--> electrical generator, but even the best incinerator can only recover a fraction of the caloric value of fuel materials.<p>Second, incineration of municipal solid wastes does produce significant amounts of <!--del_lnk--> dioxin and <!--del_lnk--> furan emissions to the atmosphere. Dioxins and furans are considered by many to be serious health hazards. However, advances in emission control designs and very stringent new governmental regulations have caused large reductions in the amount of dioxins and furans produced by waste-to-energy plants. The <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> have taken the lead in mandating very strict emission standards for incineration of wastes.<p>Incineration also produces large amounts of <!--del_lnk--> ash requiring safe disposal so as not to contaminate underground <!--del_lnk--> aquifers. Until recently, safe disposal of incinerator ash was a major problem. In the mid-1990s, experiments in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> used electric <!--del_lnk--> plasma torches to melt incinerator ash into inert glassy pebbles, valuable in concrete production. Incinerator ash has also been chemically separated into <!--del_lnk--> lye and other useful chemicals. This process, <!--del_lnk--> plasma arc waste disposal, is now operated commercially, and is used to convert existing waste and landfill into <!--del_lnk--> power generating gas and <!--del_lnk--> construction <!--del_lnk--> rubble.<p>An incineration technique that avoids ash disposal problems is the incorporation of the ash in portland cement furnaces, saving fuel otherwise burned for cement kilns. It is important to note that using incinerrator ash in concerete or block work may carry a risk of spreading dioxins and furans concentrated in the incinerator ash.<p><a id="Composting_and_anaerobic_digestion" name="Composting_and_anaerobic_digestion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Composting and anaerobic digestion</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14487.jpg.htm" title="An active compost heap"><img alt="An active compost heap" height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Compost_Heap.jpg" src="../../images/144/14487.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14487.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An active <!--del_lnk--> compost heap</div>
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<p>Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, are increasingly being recycled. These materials are put through a composting and/or digestion system to control the biological process to <!--del_lnk--> decompose the organic matter and kill <!--del_lnk--> pathogens. The resulting stabilized organic material is then recycled as <!--del_lnk--> mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes.<p>There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies, varying in complexity from simple windrow composting of shredded plant material, to automated enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste. These methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being <!--del_lnk--> aerobic in composting methods or <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic in digestion methods, although hybrids of the two methods also exist.<p><a id="Examples_of_composting_and_anaerobic_digestion_programs" name="Examples_of_composting_and_anaerobic_digestion_programs"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Examples of composting and anaerobic digestion programs</span></h4>
<p>The Green Bin Program, a form of organic recycling used in <a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ontario and surrounding municipalities including <!--del_lnk--> Markham, Ontario, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, makes use of anaerobic digestion to reduce the amount of garbage shipped to <!--del_lnk--> Michigan, in the United States. This is the newest facet of the 3-stream waste management system has been implemented in the town and is another step towards the goal of diverting 70% of current waste away from the landfills. Green Bins allow any organic waste that in the past would have formed landfill waste to be composted and turned into nutrient rich soil. Examples of waste products for the Green Bin are food products and scraps, soiled papers and sanitary napkins. Currently Markham, like the other municipalities in the Greater Toronto Area, ships all of its waste to Michigan at a cost of $22 CAN per tonne (metric ton, 1000 kg).<p>The Green Bin Program is currently being studied by other Municipalities in the province of Ontario as a way of diverting waste away from the landfills. Notably, Toronto and Ottawa are in the preliminary stages of adopting a similar program.<p>The City of <!--del_lnk--> Edmonton, Alberta, Canada has adopted large-scale composting to deal with its urban waste. Its composting facility is the largest of its type in the world, representing 35 per cent of Canada's centralised composting capacity. The $100-million co-composter allows Edmonton to recycle 65 per cent of its residential waste. The co-composter itself is 38,690 square metres in size, equivalent to 8 football fields. It's designed to process 200,000 tonnes of residential solid waste per year and 22,500 dry tonnes of biosolids, turning them into 80,000 tonnes of compost annually.<p><a id="Mechanical_biological_treatment" name="Mechanical_biological_treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mechanical biological treatment</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14488.jpg.htm" title=" ArrowBiowet material recovery facility, Hiriya, Tel Aviv, Israel"><img alt=" ArrowBiowet material recovery facility, Hiriya, Tel Aviv, Israel" height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MBT_sorting.jpg" src="../../images/144/14488.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14488.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> ArrowBiowet <!--del_lnk--> material recovery facility, <!--del_lnk--> Hiriya, <a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Mechanical biological treatment (MBT) is a technology category for combinations of <!--del_lnk--> mechanical sorting and <!--del_lnk--> biological treatment of the organic fraction of municipal waste. MBT is also sometimes termed BMT- Biological Mechanical Treatment- however this simply refers to the order of processing.<p>The "mechanical" element is usually a <!--del_lnk--> bulk handling mechanical <!--del_lnk--> sorting stage. This either removes <!--del_lnk--> recyclable elements from a mixed waste stream (such as metals, plastics and glass) or processes it in a given way to produce a high calorific fuel given the term <!--del_lnk--> refuse derived fuel (RDF) that can be used in cement kilns or power plants. Systems which are configured to produce RDF include Herhofand Ecodeco. It is a common misconception that all MBT processes produce RDF. This is not the case. Some systems such as <!--del_lnk--> ArrowBio simply recover the recyclable elements of the waste in a form that can be sent for recycling.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14489.jpg.htm" title="ArrowBio UASB anaerobic digesters, Hiriya, Tel Aviv, Israel"><img alt="ArrowBio UASB anaerobic digesters, Hiriya, Tel Aviv, Israel" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MBT_anaerobicdigesters.jpg" src="../../images/144/14489.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14489.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ArrowBio <!--del_lnk--> UASB <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic digesters, Hiriya, Tel Aviv, Israel</div>
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<p>The "biological" element refers to either anaerobic digestion or composting. Anaerobic digestion breaks down the biodegradable component of the waste to produce <!--del_lnk--> biogas and soil conditioner. The biogas can be used to generate renewable energy. More advanced processes such as the ArrowBio Process enable high rates of gas and green energy production without the production of RDF. This is facilitated by processing the waste in water. Biological can also refer to a composting stage. Here the organic component is treated with aerobic microorganisms. They break down the waste into carbon dioxide and compost. There is no green energy produced by systems simply employing composting.<p>MBT is gaining increased recognition in countries with changing waste management markets such as the <!--del_lnk--> UK and Australia where <!--del_lnk--> WSN Environmental Solutions has taken a leading role in developing MBT plants.<p><a id="Pyrolysis_.26_gasification" name="Pyrolysis_.26_gasification"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pyrolysis & gasification</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where materials are heated with high <!--del_lnk--> temperatures and limited <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. The process typically occurs in a sealed vessel under high <!--del_lnk--> pressure. Converting material to energy this way is more efficient than direct <!--del_lnk--> incineration, with more energy able to be recovered and used.<p>Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid <!--del_lnk--> oil and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other products. The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as <!--del_lnk--> activated carbon.<p>Gasification is used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (<!--del_lnk--> syngas) composed of <!--del_lnk--> carbon monoxide and <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and <!--del_lnk--> steam. Gasification is used in <!--del_lnk--> biomass power stations to produce renewable energy and heat.<p><!--del_lnk--> Plasma gasification is the gasification of matter in an oxygen-starved environment to decompose waste material into its basic molecular structure. Plasma gasification does not combust waste as incinerators do. It converts organic waste into a fuel gas that still contains all the chemical and heat energy from the waste. It converts inorganic waste into an inert vitrified glass.<p>Plasma is considered as a 4th state of matter, the other three being gas, liquid, and solid. Electricity is fed to a torch, which has two electrodes, creating an arc. Inert gas is passed through the arc, heating the process gas to internal temperatures as high as 13,000 °C (25,000 °F). The temperature a metre from the torch can be as high as ~4000 °C (~8,000 °F). Because of these high temperatures the waste is completely destroyed and broken down into its basic elemental components. There are no tars or furans. At these high temperatures all metals become molten and flow out the bottom of the reactor. Inorganics such as silica, soil, concrete, glass, gravel, etc. are vitrified into glass and flow out the bottom of the reactor. There is no ash remaining to go back to a landfill.<p>The plasma reactor does not discriminate between types of waste. It can process any type of waste. The only variable is the amount of energy that it takes to destroy the waste. Consequently, no sorting of waste is necessary and any type of waste, other than nuclear waste, can be processed.<p>The reactors are large and operate at a slightly negative pressure, meaning that the feed system is simplified because the gas does not want to escape. The gas has to be pulled from the reactor by the suction of the compressor. Each reactor can process 20 tonnes per hour (t/h) compared to 3 t/h or typical gasifiers. Because of the size and negative pressure, the feed system can handle bundles of material up to 1 metre in size. This means that whole drums or bags of waste can be fed directly into the reactor making the system ideal for large scale production.<p>The gas coming out of a plasma gasifier is lower in trace contaminants than with any kind of incinerator or other gasifier. Because the process starts with lower emissions out of the reactor, it is able to achieve significantly lower stack emissions. The gasifier doesn't care about the amount of moisture in the waste. The moisture consumes energy to vaporise and can impact the capacity and economics; however, it will not affect the process.<p>Gas from the plasma reactor can be burned to produce electricity or can be synthesised into ethanol to contribute to automotive fuel.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Watch</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Engineering.htm">Engineering</a></h3>
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<dd><i>In <!--del_lnk--> naval parlance, <!--del_lnk--> watches are a timekeeping convention. The term in general use can mean any period of duty or responsibility, such as a <!--del_lnk--> hurricane watch.</i></dl>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14490.jpg.htm" title="A wrist watch"><img alt="A wrist watch" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Montinari_Milano.jpg" src="../../images/144/14490.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>A <b>watch</b> is a small portable <!--del_lnk--> timepiece or <a href="../../wp/c/Clock.htm" title="Clock">clock</a> that displays the <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a> and sometimes the <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">day</a>, <!--del_lnk--> date, <!--del_lnk--> month and <!--del_lnk--> year. In past centuries, these often took the form of <!--del_lnk--> pocket watches, which today are seldom carried or worn. In modern usage, <i>watch</i> is usually a contraction of <i>wristwatch,</i> a designation for the most popular style of timekeeping device worn on the wrist.<p>Because most watches lack a striking mechanism, such as a bell or gong to announce the passage of time, they are properly designated as <!--del_lnk--> timepieces, rather than clocks.<p>
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</script><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<p>Today, the most common type of watch is the <i>wristwatch,</i> worn on the <!--del_lnk--> wrist and fastened with a <i>watch strap</i> or <i>watchband,</i> a bracelet made of real or synthetic <!--del_lnk--> leather, <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metal</a>, <!--del_lnk--> nylon, or even <!--del_lnk--> ceramic. Before the inexpensive <!--del_lnk--> miniaturization that became possible in the 20th century, most watches were <i><!--del_lnk--> pocket watches,</i> which had covers and were carried separately, often in a pocket and attached to a watch chain.<p>Most inexpensive and medium-priced watches used mainly for timekeeping are electronic watches with quartz movements, powered by electricity. Expensive, <!--del_lnk--> collectible watches valued more for their workmanship and aesthetic appeal than for simple timekeeping often have purely mechanical movements and are powered by springs, even though mechanical movements are many times less accurate than quartz movements. The most accurate watches have radio-controlled movements that are miniaturized, portable versions of <!--del_lnk--> radio clocks <i>(q.v.).</i><p><a id="Watch_cases" name="Watch_cases"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Watch cases</span></h2>
<p><a id="Pocket_timepieces" name="Pocket_timepieces"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pocket timepieces</span></h3>
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<p>The earliest need for portability in timekeeping was <!--del_lnk--> navigation and <!--del_lnk--> mapping in the <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th century</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> latitude could be measured by looking at the stars, but the only way a ship could measure its <!--del_lnk--> longitude was by comparing the midday (high noon) time of the local longitude to that of a European <!--del_lnk--> meridian (usually <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Greenwich)—a time kept on a shipboard clock. However, the process was notoriously unreliable until the introduction of <!--del_lnk--> John Harrison's <!--del_lnk--> chronometer. For that reason, most maps from the 15th century through the 19th century have precise latitudes but distorted longitudes.<p>The first reasonably accurate mechanical clocks measured time with weighted <!--del_lnk--> pendulums, which are useless at sea or in watches. The invention of a spring mechanism was crucial for portable clocks. In <!--del_lnk--> Tudor <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, the development of “pocket-clockes” was enabled through the development of reliable springs and <!--del_lnk--> escapement mechanisms, which allowed clockmakers to compress a timekeeping device into a small, portable compartment.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1524, <!--del_lnk--> Peter Henlein created the first pocket watch. It is rumoured that <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> (the portrait of Henry VIII at this link shows the medallion thought to be the back of his watch) had a pocket clock which he kept on a chain around his neck. However, these watches only had an hour hand—a minute hand would have been useless considering the inaccuracy of the watch mechanism. Eventually, miniaturization of these spring-based designs allowed for accurate portable timepieces which worked well even at sea.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1850, <!--del_lnk--> Aaron Lufkin Dennison founded <!--del_lnk--> Waltham Watch Company, which was the pioneer of the industrial manufacturing of pocket watches with interchangeable parts, the <!--del_lnk--> American System of Watch Manufacturing.<p>Breguet developed the first self-winding watch known as the perpetuelle in 1780[From the Breguet History Book].<p><a id="Wristwatches" name="Wristwatches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wristwatches</span></h3>
<p>The wristwatch was invented by <!--del_lnk--> Patek Philippe at the end of the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>. At the time, it was considered a woman's accessory. It was not until the beginning of the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> that the Franco-<a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> inventor <a href="../../wp/a/Alberto_Santos-Dumont.htm" title="Alberto Santos-Dumont">Alberto Santos-Dumont</a>, who had difficulty checking the time while in his first aircraft (Dumont was working on the invention of the aeroplane), asked his friend <!--del_lnk--> Louis Cartier for a watch he could use more easily. Cartier gave him a leather-band wristwatch from which Dumont never separated. Being a popular figure in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, Cartier was soon able to sell these watches to other men. During the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a>, officers in all armies soon discovered that in battlefield situations, quickly glancing at a watch on their wrist was far more convenient than fumbling in their jacket pockets for an old-fashioned pocket watch. In addition, as increasing numbers of officers were killed in the early stages of the war, <!--del_lnk--> NCOs promoted to replace them often did not have pocket watches (traditionally a middle-class item out of the reach of ordinary working-class soldiers), and so relied on the army to provide them with timekeepers. As the scale of battles increased, <!--del_lnk--> artillery and <!--del_lnk--> infantry officers were required to synchronize watches in order to conduct attacks at precise moments, whilst artillery officers were in need of a large number of accurate timekeepers for rangefinding and gunnery. Army contractors began to issue reliable, cheap, mass-produced wristwatches which were ideal for these purposes. When the war ended, demobilized European and American officers were allowed to keep their wristwatches, helping to popularize the items amongst <!--del_lnk--> middle-class Western civilian culture.<p>Today, many Westerners wear watches on their wrists, a direct result of World War I. The trend has since spread to other parts of the world, wherever accurate and convenient time references are required.<p><a id="Watch_movements" name="Watch_movements"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Watch movements</span></h2>
<p>A <i>movement</i> in watchmaking is the mechanism that measures the passage of time and displays the current time (and possibly other information including date, month, day et cetera) to the wearer of the watch. Movements may be entirely mechanical, entirely electronic (potentially with no moving parts), or a blend of the two. Most watches intended mainly for timekeeping today have electronic movements, with mechanical hands on the face of the watch indicating the time.<p><a id="Mechanical_movements" name="Mechanical_movements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mechanical movements</span></h3>
<p>Purely mechanical watches are still popular, although they are most commonly seen among expensive, collectible watches. The best of these are among the most precisely engineered mechanisms in existence, and this superb craftsmanship accounts for much of the attraction of purely mechanical watches.<p>Compared to electronic movements, mechanical watches keep very poor time, often with errors of seconds per day. They are frequently sensitive to position and temperature, they are costly to produce, they require regular maintenance and adjustment, and they are more prone to failure. For this reason, inexpensive and moderately priced timepieces with electronic movements now provide most users with superbly accurate timekeeping and have almost entirely supplanted older watch designs with mechanical movements.<p><a id="Tuning-fork_movements" name="Tuning-fork_movements"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Tuning-fork movements</span></h4>
<p>Tuning fork watches (introduced by Bulova in 1960) use a 360 <!--del_lnk--> hertz tuning fork to drive a mechanical watch. Since the fork is used in place of a typical balance wheel, these watches naturally hum instead of ticking.<p>The inventor, Max Hetzel, was born in Basel, Switzerland, and joined the Bulova Watch Company of Bienne, Switzerland, in 1948. Hetzel was the first to use an electronic device, a transistor, in a wristwatch. Thus, he developed the first watch that could be qualified as electronic. However, fork movements are actually more "electrical", like an old electrical wall clock, than electronic. The sweep second hand moves fluidly like that of an old electrical wall clock.<p>Such watches were also sold by Swiss watch companies under license of Bulova. In 1974, after leaving Bulova, Hetzel developed a different tuning fork drive for Omega Watches. The watch featured a cal. 1220 micromotor, and a tuning fork frequency of 720 hertz. This development was obsolete compared to the newer electronic quartz watch which had become cheaper to produce and even more accurate.<p>Tuning fork movements are electromechanical. The task of converting electronically pulsed fork vibration into rotary movement is done via two tiny jeweled fingers that are connected to one of the tuning fork's tines. As the fork vibrates, the jeweled fingers precisely ratchet a tiny index wheel. This index wheel has over 300 barely visible teeth and spins more than 38 million times per year. The tiny electric coils that drive the tuning fork have 8000 turns of insulated copper wire with a diameter of 0.015 mm and a length of 90 meters. This amazing feat of engineering was prototyped in the 1950s.<p><a id="Electronic_movements" name="Electronic_movements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Electronic movements</span></h3>
<p>Electronic movements have few or no moving parts. Essentially, all modern electronic movements use the <!--del_lnk--> piezoelectric effect in a tiny quartz crystal to provide a stable time base for a mostly electronic movement: the crystal resonates at a specific, highly stable frequency that can be used to accurately pace a timekeeping mechanism. For this reason, electronic watches are often called <i>quartz watches.</i> Most quartz movements are primarily electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the watch in order to provide a traditional analog display of the time, which is still preferred by most consumers.<p>The first prototypes of electronic quartz watches were made by the CEH research laboratory in Switzerland in <!--del_lnk--> 1962. The first quartz watch to enter production was the <!--del_lnk--> Seiko 35 SQ Astron, which appeared in <!--del_lnk--> 1969. Modern quartz movements are produced in very large quantities, and even the cheapest wristwatches typically have quartz movements.<p>The best quartz movements are significantly more accurate than the worst, but the difference is much smaller than that found between mechanical movements and quartz movements. Quartz movements, even in their most inexpensive forms, are an order of magnitude more accurate than purely mechanical movements. Whereas mechanical movements can typically be off by several seconds a day, an inexpensive quartz movement in a child's wristwatch may still be accurate to within 500 milliseconds per day—ten times better than a mechanical movement.<p><a id="Radio-controlled_movements" name="Radio-controlled_movements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Radio-controlled movements</span></h3>
<p>Some electronic quartz watches are able to synchronize themselves with an external time source. These sources include radio time signals directly driven by atomic clocks, time signals from GPS navigation satellites, and others. These watches are free-running most of the time, but periodically align themselves with the chosen external time source automatically, typically once a day.<p>Because these watches are regulated by an external time source of extraordinarily high accuracy, they are never off by more than a small fraction of a second a day (depending on the quality of their quartz movements), as long as they can receive the external time signals that they expect. Additionally, their long-term accuracy is comparable to that of the external time signals they receive, which in most cases (such as GPS signals and special radio transmissions of time based on atomic clocks) is better than one second in three million years. For all practical purposes, then, radio-controlled wristwatches keep perfect time.<p>Movements of this type synchronize not only the time of day but also the date, the <!--del_lnk--> leap-year status of the current year, and the current state of <!--del_lnk--> daylight saving time (on or off). They obtain all of this information from the external signals that they receive. Because of this continual automatic updating, they never require manual setting or resetting.<p>A disadvantage of radio-controlled movements is that they cannot synchronize if radio reception conditions are poor. Even in this case, however, they will simply run autonomously with the same accuracy as a normal quartz watch until they are next able to synchronize.<p><a id="Power_sources" name="Power_sources"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Displaying the time</span></h2>
<p>There are two main ways in which watches display the time to their owners: analog and digital.<p><a id="Analog_display" name="Analog_display"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analog display</span></h3>
<p>Traditionally, watches have displayed the time in analog form, with a numbered dial upon which are mounted at least a rotating hour hand and a longer, rotating minute hand. Many watches also incorporate a third hand that shows the current second of the current minute. Watches powered by quartz have second hands that snap every second to the next marker. Watches powered by a mechanical movement have a "sweeping second hand", the name deriving from its uninterrupted smooth (sweeping) movement across the markers. All of the hands are normally mechanical, physically rotating on the dial, although a few watches have been produced with “hands” that are simulated by a <!--del_lnk--> liquid-crystal display.<p>Analog display of the time is nearly universal in watches sold as jewelry or collectibles, and in these watches, the range of different styles of hands, numbers, and other aspects of the analog dial is very broad. In watches sold for timekeeping, analog display remains very popular, as many people find it easier to read than digital display; but in timekeeping watches the emphasis is on clarity and accurate reading of the time under all conditions (clearly marked digits, easily visible hands, large watch faces, etc.).<p><a id="Digital_display" name="Digital_display"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Digital display</span></h3>
<p>Since the advent of electronic watches that incorporate small computers, digital displays have also been available. A digital display simply shows the time as a number, <i>e.g.,</i> <b>10:30 AM</b> instead of a short hand pointing towards the number 10 and a long hand pointing towards the number 6 on a dial.<p>Cheaper electronics permitted the popularization of the digital watch in the second half of the 20th century. They were seen as the great new thing. <a href="../../wp/d/Douglas_Adams.htm" title="Douglas Adams">Douglas Adams</a>, in the introduction of his novel <a href="../../wp/t/The_Hitchhiker%2527s_Guide_to_the_Galaxy.htm" title="The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy">The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</a>, would say that humans were "so amazingly primitive that they still think digital watches are a pretty neat idea."<p>The first digital watch, a <!--del_lnk--> Pulsar prototype in <!--del_lnk--> 1970, was developed jointly by <!--del_lnk--> Hamilton Watch Company and Electro-Data. A retail version of the Pulsar was put on sale on April 4th <!--del_lnk--> 1972. It had a red <!--del_lnk--> light-emitting diode (LED) display. Another early digital watch innovator, Roger Riehl's Synchronar Mark 1, provided an LED display and used solar cells to power the internal nicad batteries. Most watches with LED displays required that the user press a button to see the time displayed for a few seconds, because LEDs used so much power that they could not be kept operating continuously. Watches with LED displays were popular for the next few years, but soon the LED displays were superseded by <!--del_lnk--> liquid crystal displays (LCDs), which used less battery power. The first LCD watch with a six-digit LCD was the <!--del_lnk--> 1973 <!--del_lnk--> Seiko 06LC, although various forms of early LCD watches with a four-digit display were marketed as early as <!--del_lnk--> 1972 including the 1972 Gruen Teletime LCD Watch.<p>Digital watches did not replace analog watches. In fact, after a number of years of great popularity, digital watches fell somewhat out of fashion, and today most watches display the time in analog form, with mechanical hands, even if all the internal parts of the watch are electronic.<p>Almost all watches with digital displays today are in the category of simple timekeeping watches, and they are particularly popular with “geek watches” that incorporate a very large number of features besides simply showing the date and time. Watches sold as jewelry or collectibles almost never have digital displays.<p>Expensive watches for collectors rarely have digital displays due to there being little demand for them. Less craftsmanship is required to make a digital face of a watch and most collectors find that analog dials (especially with <!--del_lnk--> complications)vary in quality more than digital dials due to the details and finishing of the parts that make up the dial (thus making the differences between a cheap and expensive watch more evident).<p><a id="Watch_functions" name="Watch_functions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Watch functions</span></h2>
<p>All watches provide the time of day, giving at least the hour and minute, and usually the second. Most also provide the current date, and often the day of the week as well. However, many watches also provide a great deal of information beyond the basics of time and date.<p>Some elaborate and more expensive watches, both pocket and wrist models, also incorporate <!--del_lnk--> striking mechanisms or <!--del_lnk--> repeater functions, so that the wearer could learn the time by the sound emanating from the watch. This announcement or striking feature is an essential characteristic of true <a href="../../wp/c/Clock.htm" title="Clock">clocks</a> and distinguishes such watches from ordinary <a href="../../wp/c/Clock.htm" title="Clock">timepieces</a>.<p><a id="Complicated_watches" name="Complicated_watches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Complicated watches</span></h3>
<p>A <i>complicated watch</i> has one or more functionalities beyond the basic function of displaying the time and the date; such a functionality is called a <!--del_lnk--> complication. Two popular complications are the <b><!--del_lnk--> chronograph</b> complication, which is the ability of the watch movement to function as a <!--del_lnk--> stopwatch, and the <b>moonphase</b> complication, which is a display of the <!--del_lnk--> lunar phase. Among watch enthusiasts, complicated watches are especially collectible.<p><a id="Chronographs_and_chronometers" name="Chronographs_and_chronometers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Chronographs and chronometers</span></h3>
<p>The similar-sounding terms <b>chronograph</b> and <b><!--del_lnk--> chronometer</b> are often confused, although they mean altogether different things. A chronograph is a type of complication, as explained above. A chronometer is an all-mechanical watch or clock whose movement has been tested and certified to operate within a certain standard of accuracy by the <!--del_lnk--> COSC (Contrôle Officiel Suisse des Chronomètres). The concepts are different but not mutually exclusive; a watch can be a chronograph, a chronometer, both, or neither.<p><a id="Fashionable_watches" name="Fashionable_watches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fashionable watches</span></h2>
<p>At the end of the 20th century, Swiss watch makers were seeing their sales go down as analog clocks were considered obsolete. They joined forces with designers from many countries to reinvent the Swiss watch.<p>The result was that they could considerably reduce the pieces and production time of an analog watch. In fact it was so cheap that if a watch broke it would be cheaper to throw it away and buy a new one than to repair it. They founded the <!--del_lnk--> Swiss Watch company (<!--del_lnk--> Swatch) and called graphic designers to redesign a new annual collection.<p>This is often used as a case study in design schools to demonstrate the commercial potential of industrial and graphic design.<p><a id="Collectible_and_jewelry_watches" name="Collectible_and_jewelry_watches"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Collectible and jewelry watches</span></h3>
<p>Wristwatches are often treated as jewelry or as collectible works of art rather than as timepieces. This has created several different markets for wristwatches, ranging from very inexpensive but accurate watches intended for no other purpose than telling the correct time, to extremely expensive watches that serve mainly as personal adornment or as examples of high achievement in miniaturization and precision mechanical engineering, without any pretense at being accurate for telling the time. Still another market is that of “geek watches”—watches that not only tell the time, but incorporate computers, satellite navigation, complications of various orders, and many other features that may be quite removed from the basic concept of timekeeping.<p>Most companies that produce watches specialize in one of these markets. Companies such as <!--del_lnk--> Rolex or <!--del_lnk--> Chopard specialize in watches as jewelry or fine mechanical devices. Companies such as <!--del_lnk--> Casio specialize in watches as timepieces or multifunctional computers. Since watches are considered by many to be both functional and attractive, there are many types and manufacturers to choose from.<p>Important collectible American made watches from the early 20th Century were the best available at any price. Leading watchmakers included Elgin, Gruen, Hamilton, and Illinois. Hamilton is generally considered as having the finest early American movements, while the art deco styling of The Illinois Watch Company was unsurpassed worldwide. Early Gruen Curvex models remain very desired for how they entwined form and function, and Elgin made more watches than anyone else.<p><a id="Advanced_watches" name="Advanced_watches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Advanced watches</span></h2>
<p>Many technological enhancements to wristwatches have been explored but most of them remained unnoticed. In <!--del_lnk--> 2005 for example, one company marketed an alarm wristwatch with an accelerometer inside that monitors the user's sleep and rings during one of his almost-awake phases.<p>A number of functionalities not directly related to time have also been inserted into watches. As miniaturized electronics became cheaper, watches have been developed containing <!--del_lnk--> calculators, <!--del_lnk--> video games, <!--del_lnk--> digital cameras, <!--del_lnk--> keydrives, <!--del_lnk--> GPS receivers and <!--del_lnk--> cellular phones. In the early 1980s <!--del_lnk--> Seiko marketed a watch with a <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> receiver in it, although at the time television receivers were too bulky to fit in a wristwatch, and the actual receiver and its power source were in a book-sized box with a cable that ran to the wristwatch. In the early 2000s, a self-contained wristwatch television receiver came on the market, with a strong enough power source to provide one hour of viewing.<p>These watches have not had sustained long-term sales success. As well as awkward <!--del_lnk--> user interfaces due to the tiny screens and buttons possible in a wearable package, and in some cases short battery life, the functionality available has not generally proven sufficiently compelling to attract buyers. Such watches have also had the reputation as ugly and thus mainly <!--del_lnk--> geek toys. Now with the ubiquity of the <!--del_lnk--> mobile phone in many countries, which have bigger screens, buttons, and batteries, interest in incorporating extra functionality in watches seems to have declined.<p>Several companies have however attempted to develop a <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computer</a> contained in a wristwatch (see also <!--del_lnk--> wearable computer). As of <!--del_lnk--> 2005, the only programmable computer watches to have made it to market are the Seiko <!--del_lnk--> Ruputer, the Matsucom onHand, and the <!--del_lnk--> Fossil, Inc. <!--del_lnk--> Wrist PDA, although many digital watches come with extremely sophisticated data management software built in.<p><a id="Spacewatches" name="Spacewatches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Spacewatches</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14492.jpg.htm" title="The Omega Speedmaster, selected by both Soviet and US space agencies."><img alt="The Omega Speedmaster, selected by both Soviet and US space agencies." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:OMEGA-Speedmaster-Professional-Front.jpg" src="../../images/144/14492.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14492.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Omega <!--del_lnk--> Speedmaster, selected by both Soviet and US space agencies.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Zero gravity environment and other extreme conditions encountered by <!--del_lnk--> astronauts in deep space requires the use of specially tested watches. During the 60s, a large range of watches were tested for durability and precision under extreme temperature changes and vibrations. The <!--del_lnk--> Omega Speedmaster was selected by both Soviet and US space agencies.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Breitling Navitimer Cosmonaute was designed with a 24-hour dial to avoid confusion between AM and PM, which are meaningless in space. It was first worn in space by astronaut Scott Carpenter on May 24th, 1962 in the Aurora 7 capsule. <p>More recently, Soviet and Russian cosmonauts have used the <!--del_lnk--> Fortis B-42.<p>Chinese <!--del_lnk--> taikonauts wear the <!--del_lnk--> Fiyta spacewatches.<p><a id="Mobile_phones_as_pocket_watches" name="Mobile_phones_as_pocket_watches"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mobile phones as pocket watches</span></h2>
<p>In the early <!--del_lnk--> 2000s, the carrying of <!--del_lnk--> mobile telephones has become ubiquitous in many affluent and even some developing countries. As these phones typically display the time on their screens when not in use, it has become common to rely on them for time-keeping, effectively making the mobile phone serve the function of a pocket watch.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watch"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Watchmen</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Cartoons.htm">Cartoons</a></h3>
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<th style="text-align:center; background:#69A0F3"><i>Watchmen</i></th>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Watchmencovers.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="250" /></span></div>
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<br /> Cover art for the 1987 <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> (left) and <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> (right) collected editions of <i>Watchmen</i>, published by <!--del_lnk--> DC Comics and <!--del_lnk--> Titan Books.</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Publisher</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> DC Comics</td>
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<td>Monthly</td>
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<td><b>Format</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Limited series</td>
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<td><b>Publication dates</b></td>
<td>September 1986 – October 1987</td>
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<td><b>Number of issues</b></td>
<td>Twelve</td>
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<td><b>Main character(s)</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Nite-Owl<br /><!--del_lnk--> Dr. Manhattan<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rorschach<br /><!--del_lnk--> Silk Spectre<br /><!--del_lnk--> Ozymandias<br /><!--del_lnk--> The Comedian</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#69A0F3; text-align:center">Creative team</th>
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<td><b>Writer(s)</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alan Moore</td>
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<td><b>Artist(s)</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dave Gibbons</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> John Higgins</td>
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<p><i><b>Watchmen</b></i> is a twelve-issue <a href="../../wp/g/Graphic_novel.htm" title="Graphic novel">graphic novel</a> written by <!--del_lnk--> Alan Moore and illustrated by <!--del_lnk--> Dave Gibbons. Originally published by <!--del_lnk--> DC Comics as a monthly <!--del_lnk--> limited series from 1986 to 1987, it was later republished as a <!--del_lnk--> trade paperback. It was one of the first <!--del_lnk--> superhero comics to present itself as serious literature, and it also popularized the "<a href="../../wp/g/Graphic_novel.htm" title="Graphic novel">graphic novel</a>" format. <i>Watchmen</i> is the only graphic novel to win a <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Award, and is also the only graphic novel to appear on <i><!--del_lnk--> Time</i> magazine's 2005 list of "the 100 best English-language novels from 1923 to the present."<p><i>Watchmen</i> is set in 1985, in an <!--del_lnk--> alternative history <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> where costumed adventurers are real and the country is edging closer to a <!--del_lnk--> nuclear war with the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. It tells the story of a group of past and present superheroes and the events surrounding the mysterious murder of one of their own. In <i>Watchmen</i>, superheroes are depicted as real people who must confront ethical and personal issues, who have <!--del_lnk--> neuroses and failings, and who--with one notable exception--completely lack anything recognizable as a <!--del_lnk--> "super power". <i>Watchmen</i>'s <!--del_lnk--> deconstruction of the conventional superhero archetype, combined with its innovative adaptation of <!--del_lnk--> cinematic techniques and heavy use of <!--del_lnk--> symbolism and multi-layered dialogue, has changed both comics and film.<p>
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</script><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
<p>Alan Moore, who wanted to transcend the perceptions of the comic book medium as something juvenile, created <i>Watchmen</i> as an attempt to make "a superhero <i><!--del_lnk--> Moby-Dick</i>; something that had that sort of weight, that sort of density." Moore also named <!--del_lnk--> William S. Burroughs as one of his "main influences" during the conception of <i>Watchmen</i> and admired Burroughs' use "of repeated symbols that would become laden with meaning" in Burroughs's one and only comic strip, which appeared in the British underground magazine <i>Cyclops</i>.<p>Moore and Gibbons originally conceived of a story that would take "familiar old-fashioned superheroes into a completely new realm." Initially, Moore looked towards the defunct <!--del_lnk--> MLJ Comics line of superheroes for inspiration. "I’d just started thinking about using the MLJ characters—the Archie super-heroes—just because they weren’t being published at that time, and for all I knew, they might’ve been up for grabs. The initial concept would’ve had the 1960s-’70s rather lame version of the Shield being found dead in the harbour, and then you’d probably have various other characters, including <!--del_lnk--> Jack Kirby’s Private Strong, being drafted back in, and a murder mystery unfolding. I suppose I was just thinking, “That’d be a good way to start a comic book: have a famous super-hero found dead.” As the mystery unraveled, we would be lead deeper and deeper into the real heart of this super-hero’s world, and show a reality that was very different to the general public image of the super-hero. So, that was the idea." <p><!--del_lnk--> Dick Giordano, who had worked for <!--del_lnk--> Charlton Comics, suggested using a cast of old Charlton characters that had recently been acquired by DC; but since Moore and Gibbons wanted to do a serious storyline in which some of the newly acquired characters would die, this was not feasible. Giordano then suggested that Moore and Gibbons simply start from scratch and create their own characters. So while certain characters in <i>Watchmen</i> are loosely based upon the Charlton characters (such as <!--del_lnk--> Dr. Manhattan, who was inspired by <!--del_lnk--> Captain Atom; <!--del_lnk--> Rorschach, who was loosely based upon <!--del_lnk--> the Question; and <!--del_lnk--> Nite Owl, who was loosely based on the <!--del_lnk--> Blue Beetle), Moore decided to create characters that ultimately would scarcely resemble their Charlton counterparts.<p>Originally, Moore and Gibbons only had enough plot for six issues, so they compensated "by interspersing the more plot-driven issues with issues that gave kind of a biographical portrait of one of the main characters." During the process, Gibbons had a great deal of autonomy in developing the visual look of <i>Watchmen</i> and inserted details that Moore admits he did not notice until later, as <i>Watchmen</i> was written to be read and fully understood only after several readings.<p><a id="Composition" name="Composition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Composition</span></h2>
<p><a id="Title" name="Title"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Title</span></h3>
<p>The title <i>Watchmen</i> is derived from the phrase <i><!--del_lnk--> Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?</i>, from <!--del_lnk--> Juvenal's <i><!--del_lnk--> Satire VI,</i> "Against women" (c. AD 60-127), often translated as "Who watches the watchmen?"<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="" style="background-color: transparent; width: 100%">
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<dd><i>noui consilia et ueteres quaecumque monetis amici,</i><dd><i>"pone seram, cohibe".</i><dd><i>sed <b>quis custodiet ipsos custodes</b></i><dd><i>cauta est et ab illis incipit uxor</i></dl>
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<dd>"I hear always the admonishment of my friends:<dd>'Bolt her in, and constrain her!'<dd>But <b>who will watch the watchmen</b>?<dd>The wife arranges accordingly, and begins with them."</dl>
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<p>Juvenal was credited with exposing the vice of <!--del_lnk--> Roman society through his <!--del_lnk--> satires, and in a similar fashion, <i>Watchmen</i> examines the trope of the costumed adventurer or <!--del_lnk--> superhero by examining the human flaws of its "superhero" characters in lieu of the traditional comic book focus on its characters' strengths. In <i>Watchmen</i>, Moore shows a "grittier" side to the conceived notion of the superhero.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> graffiti "WHO WATCHES THE WATCHMEN" appears scrawled upon walls throughout <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> during the story (though the complete phrase is never seen; the sentence is always partially obscured or cut out of the panel). The graffito occurs following the proposition of legislation which would require superhero registration, depicting the change of public opinion towards the practice of <!--del_lnk--> vigilantism. This viewpoint is exemplified by the character of the second Nite Owl, who asks, during an anti-vigilantism riot, "Who are we protecting [society] from?" As if to illustrate the many problems with vigilantes who sometimes serve as judge, jury and executioner, the Comedian glibly replies, "From themselves."<p>The title, therefore, refers to the <i>idea</i> of superheroes, police, the government, or any group of people who assume the responsibility of protecting others from themselves. It does not refer to any group of characters within the <i>Watchmen</i> universe. The heroes belong to either the 30's-era supergroup <!--del_lnk--> The Minutemen or the short-lived 60's group The Crime-Busters.<p><a id="Structure" name="Structure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Structure</span></h3>
<p>The graphic novel <i>Watchmen</i> is composed of twelve chapters. These chapters were originally separate issues of the <!--del_lnk--> comic book series, which were released sequentially starting in 1986. Each chapter begins with a <!--del_lnk--> close-up of the first panel, originally the cover to each issue. Each chapter has an <!--del_lnk--> epigraph from classical or pop literature, which appears in abbreviated form early on, and acts as the chapter's heading or title. The quote is given in its entirety at the end of the chapter, summarizing the events that have just occurred.<p><i>Watchmen</i> also contains many <!--del_lnk--> fictional primary documents, which are appended to the end of every chapter (except the final one), and represented as being a part of the <i>Watchmen</i> universe's media. Biographies of retired costumed adventurers, such as the retrospective <i>Under the Hood</i> by the retired first Nite Owl, are used to help the reader understand the chronology of events, and also the changes in public opinion and representation of costumed adventurers through the decades. These documents are also used to reveal personal details of the costumed adventurers' private lives, such as Rorschach's arrest record and psychiatric report. Other documents used in this way include military reports and newspaper and magazine articles.<p><i>Watchmen'</i>s structure has been analyzed by many reviewers, with <i>The Friday Review</i> calling <i>Watchmen</i> "a complex, multi-layered narrative, populated with well-realized characters and set against a background that is simultaneously believable and unfamiliar".<p><a id="Perspective" name="Perspective"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Perspective</span></h3>
<p>When reading <i>Watchmen</i>, the reader is mostly presented with only an <!--del_lnk--> objective Point of View, able to see all the characters' actions, facial expressions, and body language; but, in a move unusual for comic books of its time, Moore did not rely much upon <!--del_lnk--> thought balloons to clarify his characters' thoughts, although several sections consist of long episodes that replay the characters' memories. The documents that are appended to the end of each chapter except the last, as well as media such as Rorschach's diary, help to elucidate characters' thoughts and feelings throughout the novel, without mentioning them explicitly. This is in keeping with <i>Watchmen'</i>s largely cinematic presentation.<p><!--del_lnk--> First person perspective is also used, albeit more infrequently. <!--del_lnk--> Flashbacks are employed to help facilitate the reader's understanding of events occurring in the present, but also as a means of chronicling the differences in history between the <i>Watchmen</i> universe and our own. Thus, Dr. Manhattan's flashback to the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> highlights how both his and the Comedian's existence altered their world's history in comparison to our own.<p>"Watchmen Observations" notes that Watchmen uses a three by three panel structure and that there is little variation in this format. The effect is to "reduce the scope for authorial voice--the reader has fewer clues how she should react to each scene; also, they heighten the feeling of realism and distance the novel from standard action comics."<p><a id="Story" name="Story"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Story</span></h2>
<p><a id="Characters" name="Characters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Characters</span></h3>
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<p>The cast of <i>Watchmen</i> was initially based upon old <!--del_lnk--> MLJ Comics characters<!--del_lnk--> . Moore and Gibbons agreed that <i>Watchmen</i> required a cast of characters that had continuity and a history upon which a story could be based. DC Comics had recently acquired the rights to some old <!--del_lnk--> Charlton Comics characters. This prompted former DC Editing Manager <!--del_lnk--> Dick Giordano to suggest that Moore use some of these characters. However, to avoid continuity issues with the recently acquired characters, and due to the fact that some of them would have become useless for future series, Moore decided to create new characters, using the recently acquired Charlton Comics characters as templates. This allowed for a more dynamic and unique set of characters. <!--del_lnk--> The Comedian (Edward Blake) is based on <!--del_lnk--> Peacemaker with elements of <!--del_lnk--> Marvel Comics' <!--del_lnk--> Nick Fury. <!--del_lnk--> Doctor Manhattan (Jon Osterman) is derived from <!--del_lnk--> Captain Atom, while the first and second <!--del_lnk--> Nite Owls (Hollis Mason and Dan Dreiberg) are based upon <!--del_lnk--> Blue Beetle. <!--del_lnk--> Thunderbolt serves as the inspiration for <!--del_lnk--> Ozymandias (Adrian Veidt), while the <!--del_lnk--> Question and <!--del_lnk--> Mr. A do the same for <!--del_lnk--> Rorschach (Walter Kovacs). Finally, the first and second <!--del_lnk--> Silk Spectres (Sally Jupiter and Laurie Juspeczyk) are based on <!--del_lnk--> Nightshade with elements of <!--del_lnk--> Black Canary and <!--del_lnk--> Phantom Lady.<p>Although the cast of Watchmen are commonly called "superheroes," the only superhuman character in the principal cast is Dr. Manhattan — the others are normal human beings with no special abilities aside from peak physical condition and access to high-class technology and weapons. In the comic, they refer to themselves as "costumed adventurers."<p><a id="Plot_summary" name="Plot_summary"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Plot summary</span></h3>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>In October 1985, Walter Kovacs (Rorschach) investigates the murder of <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New Yorker</a> Edward Blake and discovers that Blake was the "Comedian," a veteran costumed adventurer and government agent. Forming a theory that Blake's murder is part of a greater plot to eliminate costumed adventurers (or "masks," as Rorschach calls them), Kovacs warns others: Jon Osterman (Dr. Manhattan), Laurel Jane Juspeczyk (the second Silk Spectre), Daniel Dreiberg (the second Nite Owl) and Adrian Veidt (Ozymandias). Veidt, Juspeczyk and Dreiberg are long retired from crime-fighting, the latter two because of the 1977 passage of the Keene Act, which had banned costumed vigilantes (a law that Kovacs, deeply immersed in his Rorschach identity and uncompromising moral code, ignores). Veidt retired voluntarily in 1975, disclosing his identity publicly and using his reputation and intelligence to build a successful commercial enterprise and a large personal fortune. Like Blake, Osterman remained exempt from the Keene Act as an agent of the U.S. government. He no longer engages in crime fighting, having become an important element of the ongoing <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<p>The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> have been edging toward a <!--del_lnk--> nuclear showdown since the 1959 nuclear accident that transformed Osterman into the super-powered Dr. Manhattan. Due to Osterman's near-godlike powers and allegiance to the American government, the U.S. has enjoyed a distinct strategic advantage, allowing it to defeat the Soviet Union in a series of <!--del_lnk--> proxy wars. In this timeline, it won the Vietnam War. Moreover, <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> suppressed the existence of the <!--del_lnk--> Watergate scandal in this world, and apparently engineered a constitutional amendment enabling more than two consecutive presidential terms<p>This imbalance accelerated the nuclear arms race, and dramatically increased global tension. In seeming anticipation of global war, American society has assumed a general sense of <!--del_lnk--> fatalism about the future. Signs of this in daily life range from "Meltdowns" candy to <!--del_lnk--> graffiti inspired by the <!--del_lnk--> Hiroshima bombing to the designation of many buildings in New York as <!--del_lnk--> fallout shelters.<p>Veidt, observing Osterman's increasing emotional detachment from humanity, forms a theory that military expenditures and environmental damage will lead to global catastrophe no later than the mid-1990s. As part of an elaborate plot to avert this, Veidt acts to accelerate Osterman's isolation by secretly exposing more than two dozen of Osterman's former associates to harmful radiation, inflicting a variety of <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancers</a> on them. Meanwhile, Veidt manipulates the press into speculating that Osterman himself was the cause of these cancers.<p>Now hounded by media allegations and <!--del_lnk--> quarantined as a result, Osterman <!--del_lnk--> teleports himself to the planet <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> to contemplate the events of his life. His break with the U.S. government prompts Soviet opportunism in the form of an invasion of <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> (a delayed version of the <!--del_lnk--> real-life event), greatly aggravating the global crisis; as the situation continues to escalate, the U.S. government and public alike realize that nuclear war could be only days away. Investigating the calamities that have befallen other heroes, Dreiberg and Kovacs discover information incriminating Veidt; Kovacs, Juspeczyk, Osterman and Dreiberg confront Veidt at his <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctic</a> retreat, but too late to prevent the final phase of his plan. Using a teleportation device, Veidt moves a massive, <!--del_lnk--> genetically-engineered, <!--del_lnk--> psionic creature into the heart of New York City, knowing that the teleportation process will kill it. In its death-throes, the creature releases a "psychic shockwave" containing imagery designed to be so violent and alien as to kill half the residents of the city and drive many survivors insane. With the world convinced that the creature is the first of a potential alien invasion force, the United States and Soviet Union withdraw from the brink of war and form an accord to face this apparent extraterrestrial threat.<p>The murderer of Blake is revealed to be Veidt himself, acting after Blake had accidentally discovered details of Veidt's plot. Veidt has also eliminated numerous employees and minions. At the end, the only people aware of the truth are Veidt, Dreiberg, Juspeczyk, Kovacs and Osterman. Dreiberg, Juspeczyk and Osterman agree to keep silent out of concern that revealing the plot could re-ignite U.S.–Soviet tensions, but Kovacs refuses to compromise and is killed by Osterman in what is almost the equivalent of a "cop-assisted suicide".<p>The ending is deliberately ambiguous about the long-term success of Veidt's plan to lead the world to <!--del_lnk--> utopia. After killing Kovacs, Osterman talks briefly to Veidt. Professing his guilt and doubt, Veidt asks the <!--del_lnk--> omniscient Osterman for closure: "I did the right thing, didn't I? It all worked out in the end." Osterman, standing within Veidt's <!--del_lnk--> mechanical model of the solar system, replies cryptically: "In the end? Nothing ends, Adrian. Nothing ever ends." He then disappears, leaving Earth forever and leaving the entire <!--del_lnk--> orrery framed by a residue appearing distinctly similar to an atomic <!--del_lnk--> mushroom cloud.<p>However, before confronting Veidt, Kovacs had mailed his journal detailing his suspicions to <i>The New Frontiersman</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> far right-wing magazine he frequently read. The final frame of the series shows a <i>New Frontiersman</i> editor contemplating which item from the "<!--del_lnk--> crank file" (to which Kovacs's journal had been consigned) to use as filler for the upcoming issue.<p><a id="Tales_of_the_Black_Freighter" name="Tales_of_the_Black_Freighter"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Tales of the Black Freighter</i></span></h3>
<p><i>Tales of the Black Freighter</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> comic book within the <i>Watchmen</i> universe, an example of <!--del_lnk--> post-modern <!--del_lnk--> metafiction that also serves as a <!--del_lnk--> foil for the main plot. The specific issues shown in <i>Watchmen</i> chronicle a <!--del_lnk--> castaway's increasingly desperate attempts to return home to warn his family of the impending arrival of the Black Freighter, a phantom <!--del_lnk--> pirate ship which houses the souls of the dead. As the man's journey progresses, he becomes more and more unscrupulous, attempting to justify his increasingly irrational, <!--del_lnk--> paranoid disposition, and his criminal acts.<p>A pirate comic book was conceived by Moore because he and Gibbons thought that since the inhabitants of the <i>Watchmen</i> universe experience superheroes in real life, then "they probably wouldn't be at all interested in superhero comics." A pirate theme was suggested by Gibbons, and Moore agreed because he is "a big <!--del_lnk--> Brecht fan."<p>The comic is being read by a teenage boy whilst he sits beside a <!--del_lnk--> newsstand, whose proprietor, meanwhile, contemplates the latest news headlines and discusses them with his customers. This juxtaposition of text and images from the <!--del_lnk--> story within a story and its <!--del_lnk--> framing sequence uses the former to act as a parallel commentary to the latter — which is the plot of <i>Watchmen</i> itself. Specifically, Moore has said that the story of <i>The Black Freighter</i> ends up describing "the story of <!--del_lnk--> Adrian Veidt" (who admits, in his final scene, to having a recurring nightmare resembling a prominent image from <i>The Black Freighter</i>. In addition, the comic can also be seen to relate "to Rorschach and his capture; it relates to the self-marooning of Dr. Manhattan on Mars; it can be used as a counterpoint to all these different parts of the story." Moore also intended the opening panel in Chapter III to reinforce the reader's identification with the <!--del_lnk--> radioactive warning <!--del_lnk--> trefoil; <!--del_lnk--> Moore thought that the close-up of the trefoil in the first panel looked like a "stylised picture of a black ship". The trefoil then came to represent "a black ship against a yellow sky."<p>It is done in more prominent <!--del_lnk--> Benday Dots than the rest of the comic.<p><a id="Artwork" name="Artwork"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Artwork</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Penciller and <!--del_lnk--> inker Dave Gibbons and <!--del_lnk--> colorist <!--del_lnk--> John Higgins are credited with giving life to the various characters in <i>Watchmen</i>. They employed a variety of innovative techniques, a style that contained elements of the <!--del_lnk--> Golden Age of Comics and a deliberate attempt to inject cinematic realism, uncommon in comic-books in the 1980s. Gibbons, who had worked with Moore on previous occasions, including a notable 1985 <i><!--del_lnk--> Superman</i> story (Annual 11, "For the Man Who Has Everything"), avoided convention in his work and developed a storyboard-like style to present the dialogue written by Moore. Nearly every panel includes significant details of the story-line or visual motifs (such as triangles and pyramids) with themes important to the plot. Gregory J. Golda describes the artwork as "both a tribute to the Gold and Silver Age style[s] of super hero comics." He also writes that there "are symbols embedded in this work that require a book to fully discover." Gibbons used other cinematic techniques such as having two main characters somewhat obscured by their surroundings and background characters in order to avoid the usual extreme focus upon the primary characters prevalent in most comicbook art. Moreover, <i>Watchmen</i> rarely uses <!--del_lnk--> motion lines to indicate motion, another technique often utilised in the comic book industry. In <i>Watchmen</i>, motion lines are only used to indicate small actions, and are not utilised in fight scenes. Instead, Gibbons uses "posture and blood" to highlight the motion and movement of the characters, which "[adds] to the feel of realism and [limits the] authorial voice" Also missing are the written, <!--del_lnk--> onomatopoetic sound effects that are a traditional comic book storytelling technique.<p>Gibbons described his design of the characters as his own, derived from Moore's character notes. Moore credits Gibbons with coming up with many of the signature symbols in <i>Watchmen</i>, including the iconic <!--del_lnk--> smiley face, which was "derived from behavioural psychology tests. They tried to find the simplest abstraction that would make a baby smile." The "smile" often appears in the body of the work, either on the Comedian's actual button or displayed in a subtle fashion (such as red smoke rising across the Nite Owl's Owlship while passing by the moon, Hollis Mason's jack-o-lantern, or the damaged spark hydrant in the apocalyptic scene). It often appears when something important is being discussed or when something important is soon to happen. Contrary to popular opinion, Gibbons contends that Rorschach's subtle body language and not his <!--del_lnk--> Rorschach test-inspired mask are the real indications of his mood. In addition, John Higgins' colouring technique was to rely upon primary colors, again indicative of the Golden Age style, rather than a wider colour selection.<p>Gibbons, who had no formal art training, notes among his inspirations <!--del_lnk--> Norman Rockwell, who was sometimes described as an illustrator with an idealized portraiture style, and <!--del_lnk--> Jack Kirby. The art, while deriving inspiration from various predecessors including <!--del_lnk--> Will Eisner and <!--del_lnk--> Wally Wood (also named by Gibbons as major influences), is at once original in its execution and can be seen as a precursor to later 'realistic' comic book artists such as <!--del_lnk--> Alex Ross.<p><a id="Themes" name="Themes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Themes</span></h2>
<p>Realism is a primary mode in <i>Watchmen</i>, which features themes that relate superheroes to the <!--del_lnk--> human condition. Moore explores the fantastic world of costumed adventurers by raising various social issues that begin with the perception of <!--del_lnk--> authority. The novel's examination of trust in authority can be summed up in the phrase, "Who watches the Watchmen?" In a <a href="../../wp/m/Max_Weber.htm" title="Max Weber">Weberian</a> sense, authority is seldom endorsed morally by those who do not have it, with institutionalized authority being unchallenged simply due to intrinsic aspects of <!--del_lnk--> social power. The vigilantes in <i>Watchmen</i>, before the Keene Act, represent superheroes as an institution, generally unquestioned until the issues of responsibility and <!--del_lnk--> culpability are raised. This questioning of authority mirrors the <!--del_lnk--> Opposition to the Vietnam War and the <!--del_lnk--> Civil Rights Movement, both of which are discussed in <i>Watchmen</i>.<p>These ideas are also apparent in what post-modernist Gregory J. Golda calls the "anti-veneration" throughout the novel, illustrated by depicting superheroes as "cranky and inept old timers". Golda's anti-veneration "treats destructive societal norms as the direct responsibility of the viewer by attacking the principles society holds most dear. This lack of respect for the past is the crux of the <i>Watchmen</i>."<p>The subject of anti-veneration explores superheroes who are treated as veritable gods to be worshipped at one point (with Dr. Manhattan taking on the literal manifestation of a <a href="../../wp/d/Deity.htm" title="Deity">deity</a>) and then are deconstructed in order to reveal flaws, which makes them less worthy of <!--del_lnk--> hero worship in the eyes of the public. Nonetheless, heroes can still be worthy within the <i>valetism</i> form of hero worship as theorised by <!--del_lnk--> essayist and <!--del_lnk--> historian <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Carlyle and expressed in <i>Watchmen</i>. Carlyle, who was influential on early <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">fascist</a> philosophy, developed a concept of hero worship that was meant to overlook human flaws, as he contended that there was no need for "moral perfection." Along these lines, Rorschach even belittles what he terms as "moral lapses" when discussing the Comedian's past acts of violence. These Carlyle-inspired ideas are depicted throughout <i>Watchmen</i>, as Ozymandias, during a discussion with Rorschach, refers to the Comedian as "a Nazi." To further exemplify this issue of superheroes as fascists, the <!--del_lnk--> extreme right-wing publication <i>New Frontiersman</i> appears to be the most ardent supporter of masked vigilantism with one headline reading, "Honour is like the Hawk: Sometimes it must go Hooded."<p><!--del_lnk--> Apocalypticism and <!--del_lnk--> conspiracy theory are elements of both plot and mood in the series. The threat of nuclear annihilation is ever-present throughout the novel. According to an interpretation by director <!--del_lnk--> Darren Aronofsky, "the whole motivation for Ozymandias is the impending doom of the world." The plot is based around a conspiracy. Rorschach is obsessed with conspiracy theories, and appears to derive much of his thinking from the <i>New Frontiersman</i>. Aronofsky argues that <i>Watchmen'</i>s treatment of the subject was pioneering, but has since "become so 'pop' because of <i><!--del_lnk--> JFK</i> and <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_X-Files.htm" title="The X-Files">The X-Files</a></i>, it’s entered pop culture consciousness, and Rorschach’s vision is not that wacky any more."<p>Conspiracy theories invoke a lack of control on the part of characters like Rorschach and lead to the examination of other themes in <i>Watchmen</i>, such as <!--del_lnk--> determinism. Gregory J. Golda describes the relationship between the philosophy of determinism and Dr. Manhattan, who "lives his now immortal life with a perception of time and events as unchangeable. He becomes the symbol of Determinism" and "lives his own life under this illusion of determinism[,] failing to see that there was a superior intellect that could outsmart even an 'all knowing' being." As a reference to the <!--del_lnk--> Watchmaker Analogy <!--del_lnk--> Determinists use to describe God, Dr. Manhattan--who will become a kind of God--initially grows up as a watchmaker.. It is often Dr. Manhattan who discusses issues of determinism and free will, as when he explains to the second Silk Spectre, "We're all puppets, Laurie. I'm just a puppet who can see the strings."<p><i>Watchmen</i> also explores issues dealing with <!--del_lnk--> memory by utilizing flashbacks, which define the characters and how they are remembered by their peers. For example, the past actions of the Comedian are all selectively recalled by Dr. Manhattan, Ozymandias, and the second Nite Owl as each recalls some significant event that defined who the Comedian was to them and how he influenced them. Further flashbacks by Dr. Manhattan and the first and second Silk Spectres also relate to the power of memories as they serve to provide epiphanies or an idealised past. "Even the grimy parts of it, well, it just keeps on getting brighter all the time," as the retired first Silk Spectre explains to her daughter. It is Rorschach, though, who constructs the most idyllic past, with a father he never knew and an idealized portrayal of <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" title="Harry S. Truman">President Truman</a>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Megalomania is also addressed in <i>Watchmen</i>, but not with conventional "villains". Instead, Ozymandias is presented as an idealist who looks to the past for inspiration so that he may better utilise his prodigious intellect to help mankind. At first idolising <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, he later relates himself to <a href="../../wp/r/Ramesses_II.htm" title="Ramesses II">Ramses II</a> (and adopts his Greek name <i><!--del_lnk--> Ozymandias</i>) and the golden age of the <!--del_lnk--> Pharaohs. This has parallels with the Golden Age superhero <!--del_lnk--> Hawkman, who believed himself to be the reincarnation of an Egyptian prince as well.<p>Many of the themes in <i>Watchmen</i> are explored in Moore's other works, including <i><!--del_lnk--> V for Vendetta</i>, which also dealt with issues relating to fascism and hero worship. In addition, <!--del_lnk--> Nietzchian themes are often evidenced: the <i><!--del_lnk--> Übermensch</i> (literally, "Overman," but more colloquially and to the point, "<a href="../../wp/s/Superman.htm" title="Superman">Superman</a>") recurs throughout much of Moore's work, including Dr. Manhattan in <i>Watchmen</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Miracleman, and <!--del_lnk--> Tom Strong. Likewise, Osterman's final words in regards to the nature of the universe, "Nothing ever ends," are a succinct expression of Nietzsche's philosophy of <!--del_lnk--> eternal recurrence.<p><a id="Significance" name="Significance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Significance</span></h2>
<p><a id="Reception_and_criticism" name="Reception_and_criticism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reception and criticism</span></h3>
<p>In 2005, <i>Time</i> magazine placed <i>Watchmen</i> on its list of the 100 Greatest English Language Novels from 1923 to the Present, stating that it was "told with ruthless psychological realism, in fugal, overlapping plotlines and gorgeous, cinematic panels rich with repeating motifs...a heart-pounding, heartbreaking read and a watershed in the evolution of a young medium." <i>Watchmen</i> was the only graphic novel to be listed. <i>Watchmen</i> has also received several awards spanning different categories and genres including: <!--del_lnk--> Kirby Awards for <i>Best Finite Series</i>, <i>Best New Series</i>, <i>Best Writer</i>, and <i>Best Writer/Artist</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Eisner Awards for <i>Best Finite Series</i>, <i>Best Graphic Album</i>, <i>Best Writer</i>, and <i>Best Writer/Artist</i>, and a <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Award for <i>Special Achievement</i>.<p><i>Watchmen</i> received praise from those working within the comic book industry, as well as external reviewers, for its <!--del_lnk--> avant-garde portrayal of the traditional <!--del_lnk--> superhero. <i>Watchmen</i> became known as a novel which allowed the comic book to be recognised as "great art," rather than a <!--del_lnk--> low brow or unsophisticated <!--del_lnk--> genre. Don Markstein of <i>Toonopedia</i> wrote that, "What <i><!--del_lnk--> The Maltese Falcon</i> did for <!--del_lnk--> detective stories and <i><!--del_lnk--> Shane</i> did for <!--del_lnk--> Westerns, <i>Watchmen</i> did for superheroes. It transcended its origins in what was previously considered a <!--del_lnk--> low brow form of <a href="../../wp/f/Fiction.htm" title="Fiction">fiction</a>."<p><i>Watchmen'</i>s status as a seminal book in the comic book field was recently boosted when acclaimed comic book author <!--del_lnk--> Stan Lee called it his "all-time favorite comic book outside of <!--del_lnk--> Marvel." A review by <i>"Revolution SF"</i> goes on to say that <i>Watchmen</i> is "one of the most important stories in comic book history..."<p>There has also been criticism of <i>Watchmen</i>. In terms of the artwork, the colours have been characterized as "flat" and too "contrasting" by one reviewer. Others question the complexity of <i>Watchmen</i>, as well as Gibbons' involvement in it, and criticize both the long-term influence of the work and Alan Moore generally, asking "did the comic book have to 'grow up'?"<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Editions</span></h2>
<p>Originally published as twelve individual issues, <i>Watchmen</i> was later reprinted as a graphic novel (<!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-930289-23-4). A special hardcover edition was produced by Graphitti Designs in 1987, containing 48 pages of bonus material, including the original proposal and concept art. On <!--del_lnk--> 5 October <!--del_lnk--> 2005, DC released <i>Absolute Watchmen</i> (<!--del_lnk--> ISBN 1-4012-0713-8), a hardcover edition of <i>Watchmen</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> Absolute Edition series, to celebrate its upcoming 20th anniversary. The book features a slipcase as well as restored and recoloured art by John Higgins at <!--del_lnk--> Wildstorm FX, under the direction of Dave Gibbons. The new book also includes the bonus material from the Graphitti edition, marking the first time this material has been widely available.<p><a id="Merchandising_and_adaptations" name="Merchandising_and_adaptations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Merchandising and adaptations</span></h2>
<p><a id="Roleplaying_Game" name="Roleplaying_Game"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roleplaying Game</span></h3>
<p>In 1987, <!--del_lnk--> Mayfair Games produced two adventure modules based on <i>Watchmen</i> for its <i><!--del_lnk--> DC Heroes</i> <!--del_lnk--> role-playing game. These modules, entitled "Who Watches the Watchmen?" and "Taking out the Trash", included background information about the fictional <i>Watchmen</i> universe, approved by <!--del_lnk--> Alan Moore. His approval made these publications valuable to fans as the only outside source of supplemental information about the characters in the story (especially minor characters, such as the Minutemen and <!--del_lnk--> Moloch).<p><a id="Limited_Edition_Tie-Ins" name="Limited_Edition_Tie-Ins"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Limited Edition Tie-Ins</span></h3>
<p>DC Comics also released a limited edition badge set featuring characters and images from the series, including a replica of the blood-stained smiley face badge worn by The Comedian that was featured so prominently in the story. It is claimed that this badge set caused friction between Moore and DC Comics — DC claimed that they were a "promotional item" and not merchandising, and therefore the company did not have to pay Moore or Gibbons royalties on the sets.. In addition to the badge set, DC also produced a Watchmen "Smiley" logo watch, as well.<p><a id="DC_Direct_Figures" name="DC_Direct_Figures"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">DC Direct Figures</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> DC Direct was going to produce a line of Watchmen based action figures, which made it to the prototype stage before being canceled. Neither party has stated the exact reason for the withdrawal of the figures, DC Comics did say in a press release that they would not go forward without the author's approval. <a id="Film" name="Film"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Film</span></h3>
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<p>A film adaptation has been attempted several times, with none reaching even the casting phase. At one point <a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" title="Arnold Schwarzenegger">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a> was approached about starring in a <i>Watchmen</i> film, specifically for the role of Dr. Manhattan. When <!--del_lnk--> Terry Gilliam was attached to direct in the late 1980s he met with Moore and after Gilliam asked "How would you make a film of 'Watchmen'?" Moore responded "Don't." Gilliam eventually abandoned the project declaring it "unmakeable." While Moore said that he felt <!--del_lnk--> David Hayter's screenplay to be "as close as I could imagine anyone getting to Watchmen", he stated that he would not have gone to see the final film version, had it ever been made. Alan Moore "refuses to have his name attached to any...films." On <!--del_lnk--> June 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 it was confirmed by <!--del_lnk--> Warner Bros. Studios that <!--del_lnk--> Zack Snyder would direct the big screen adaptation of <i>Watchmen</i>.<p>In April 2005, film writer and director <!--del_lnk--> Darren Aronofsky revealed in an interview that singer <!--del_lnk--> David Bowie was at one point working on a rock opera adaptation of <i>Watchmen</i>. Little else is known about the project. <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchmen"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Climate_and_the_Weather.htm">Climate and the Weather</a></h3>
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<p><b>Water</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> tasteless, <!--del_lnk--> odourless substance that is essential to all known forms of <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a> and is known as the <i>universal <!--del_lnk--> solvent</i>. It appears <a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">colorless</a> to the naked eye in small quantities. It covers nearly 70% of Earth's surface. The <!--del_lnk--> UN Environment Program estimates there are 1.4 billion cubic <!--del_lnk--> kilometres (330 million mi<sup>3</sup>) available on <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>, and it exists in many forms. It appears mostly in the <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">oceans</a> (<a href="../../wp/s/Seawater.htm" title="Seawater">saltwater</a>) and polar <!--del_lnk--> ice caps, but it is also present as <a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" title="Cloud">clouds</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">rain water</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">freshwater</a> <!--del_lnk--> aquifers, <!--del_lnk--> lakes, and <!--del_lnk--> sea ice. Water in these bodies perpetually moves through a <!--del_lnk--> cycle of <!--del_lnk--> evaporation, <!--del_lnk--> precipitation, and <!--del_lnk--> runoff to the <a href="../../wp/s/Sea.htm" title="Sea">sea</a>. Clean water is essential to human life. In many parts of the world, it is in short supply. Significant quantities exist on the moons <!--del_lnk--> Europa and <a href="../../wp/e/Enceladus_%2528moon%2529.htm" title="Enceladus (moon)">Enceladus</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Thales of Miletus, an early Greek philosopher, known for his analysis of the scope and nature of the term "<!--del_lnk--> landscaping", believed that "all is water."<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22789.jpg.htm" title="Impact of a drop of water."><img alt="Impact of a drop of water." height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_droplet_blue_bg05.jpg" src="../../images/227/22789.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22789.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Impact of a drop of water.</div>
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<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22790.jpg.htm" title="Trillium Lake in the Mt. Hood National Forest"><img alt="Trillium Lake in the Mt. Hood National Forest" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Trilliumlake.jpg" src="../../images/227/22790.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22790.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Trillium Lake in the <!--del_lnk--> Mt. Hood National Forest</div>
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</script><a id="Chemical_and_physical_properties" name="Chemical_and_physical_properties"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Chemical and physical properties</span></h2>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;"><big><!--del_lnk--> Water</big></th>
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<td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/227/22791.png.htm" title="This shows the basic geometric structure of a molecule of water."><img alt="This shows the basic geometric structure of a molecule of water." height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_molecule_dimensions.svg" src="../../images/227/22791.png" width="135" /></a><a class="image" href="../../images/227/22792.png.htm" title="This space-filled model shows the molecular structure of water."><img alt="This space-filled model shows the molecular structure of water." height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_molecule.svg" src="../../images/227/22792.png" width="110" /></a></td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Information and properties</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Systematic name</td>
<td>water</td>
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<td>Alternative names</td>
<td>aqua, dihydrogen monoxide,<br /> hydrogen hydroxide</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Molecular formula</td>
<td>H<sub>2</sub>O</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Molar mass</td>
<td>18.0153 g/mol</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density and <a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">phase</a></td>
<td>1.000 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid<br /> 0.917 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, solid</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>0 <!--del_lnk--> °C (273.15 <!--del_lnk--> K) (32 <!--del_lnk--> ºF)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>100 °C (373.15 K) (212ºF)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Specific heat capacity <small>(liquid)</small></td>
<td>4184 J/(kg·K)</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;"><!--del_lnk--> Supplementary data page</th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;"><small><!--del_lnk--> Disclaimer and references</small></td>
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<p>Water has the <!--del_lnk--> chemical formula <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">H</a><sub>2</sub><a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">O</a> meaning that one <!--del_lnk--> molecule of water is composed of two <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" title="Atom">atoms</a> and one <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> atom. It can be described ionically as HOH, with a hydrogen <!--del_lnk--> ion (H<sup>+</sup>) that is bonded to a <!--del_lnk--> hydroxide ion (OH<sup>-</sup>). It is in <!--del_lnk--> dynamic equilibrium between the <!--del_lnk--> liquid and <!--del_lnk--> vapor states at <!--del_lnk--> standard temperature and pressure. Water alone is a <!--del_lnk--> colourless, <!--del_lnk--> tasteless, and <!--del_lnk--> odourless liquid, but upon standing it takes on the traces of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> in the air and tends toward a sour solution of <!--del_lnk--> carbonic acid that is unpleasant-tasting and more inhospitable to life.<p>Water is often referred to in the sciences as <i>the universal <!--del_lnk--> solvent</i> and the only pure substance found naturally in all three <!--del_lnk--> states of matter; however, "found" should not mean that water is the only such natural substance that <i>can</i> be in three states at regular Earthly conditions, as its two elements are much more abundant than those of at least ten other molecules that share water's range but that are often found dissolved in water or shale. Examples are <a href="../../wp/a/Acetic_acid.htm" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Formic_acid.htm" title="Formic acid">formic acid</a>, <!--del_lnk--> hydrazine, <!--del_lnk--> dioxane, and <a href="../../wp/b/Benzene.htm" title="Benzene">benzene</a>.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22793.jpg.htm" title="High concentrations of dissolved lime make the water of Havasu Falls appear turquoise."><img alt="High concentrations of dissolved lime make the water of Havasu Falls appear turquoise." height="330" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Havasu_Falls_2_md.jpg" src="../../images/227/22793.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22793.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> High concentrations of dissolved <!--del_lnk--> lime make the water of <!--del_lnk--> Havasu Falls appear turquoise.</div>
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<p><a id="Color" name="Color"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colour</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22794.jpg.htm" title="Iron-rich rocks have turned this river red."><img alt="Iron-rich rocks have turned this river red." height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:IronInRocksMakeRiverRed.jpg" src="../../images/227/22794.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22794.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">Iron</a>-rich rocks have turned this river red.</div>
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<p>Water strongly absorbs <!--del_lnk--> infrared radiation. As infrared radiation is next to red-colored light on the <!--del_lnk--> EM spectrum, a small amount of visible red light is absorbed as well. This results in <i>pure</i> water appearing slightly blue when seen in mass quantities such as a lake or ocean. The blue color can easily be seen as one sees the blue color of the sea or a clear lake under an overcast sky, which means that it is not a reflection of the sky. In practice, the colour of water can vary greatly, depending on impurities. <!--del_lnk--> Limestone turns bodies of water turquoise, while <!--del_lnk--> iron compounds turn it red/brown and <!--del_lnk--> copper compounds create an intense blue. <!--del_lnk--> Algae commonly colors water green.<p><a id="Solvation" name="Solvation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Solvation</span></h3>
<p>Water is a very good <!--del_lnk--> solvent, dissolving many types of substances. The substances that will mix well and dissolve in water (e.g. <a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" title="Salt">salts</a>) are known as "<!--del_lnk--> hydrophilic" (water-loving) substances, and those that do not mix well with water (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> fats and oils), are known as "<!--del_lnk--> hydrophobic" (water-fearing) substances. The ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether or not the substance can match or better the strong <!--del_lnk--> attractive forces that water molecules generate between themselves. If the ability of a substance to dissolve in water cannot, the molecules are "<!--del_lnk--> pushed out" from amongst the water and do not dissolve.<p><a id="Cohesion_and_adhesion" name="Cohesion_and_adhesion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cohesion and adhesion</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22795.jpg.htm" title="Dew drops adhering to a spider web."><img alt="Dew drops adhering to a spider web." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_drops_on_spider_web.jpg" src="../../images/227/22795.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22795.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Dew drops adhering to a <!--del_lnk--> spider web.</div>
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<p>Water sticks to itself (<!--del_lnk--> cohesion) because it is <!--del_lnk--> polar, meaning one end of the molecule has slightly more negative charge than the other, which has slightly more positive charge. In water, this happens because the oxygen atom is more <!--del_lnk--> electronegative—that is, it has a stronger "<!--del_lnk--> pulling power" on the molecule's <a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">electrons</a>, drawing them closer (along with their negative charge) and making the area around the oxygen atom more negative than the area around both the hydrogen atoms.<p>Water also has high <!--del_lnk--> adhesion properties because of its polar nature.<p><a id="Surface_tension" name="Surface_tension"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Surface tension</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22796.jpg.htm" title="This daisy is under the water level, which has risen gently and smoothly. Surface tension prevents the water from submerging the flower."><img alt="This daisy is under the water level, which has risen gently and smoothly. Surface tension prevents the water from submerging the flower." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dscn3156-daisy-water_1200x900.jpg" src="../../images/227/22796.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22796.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This <!--del_lnk--> daisy is under the water level, which has risen gently and smoothly. Surface tension prevents the water from submerging the flower.</div>
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<p>Water has a high <!--del_lnk--> surface tension caused by the strong cohesion between water molecules. This can be seen when small quantities of water are put onto a nonsoluble surface such as <!--del_lnk--> polythene: the water stays together as drops. On extremely clean/smooth <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a> the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces.<p>In biological cells and <!--del_lnk--> organelles, water is in contact with membrane and protein surfaces that are <!--del_lnk--> hydrophilic; that is, surfaces that have a strong attraction to water. <!--del_lnk--> Irving Langmuir observed a strong repulsive force between hydrophilic surfaces. To dehydrate hydrophilic surfaces—to remove the strongly held layers of water of hydration—requires doing substantial work against these forces, called hydration forces. These forces are very large but decrease rapidly over a nanometer or less. Their importance in biology has been extensively studied by <!--del_lnk--> V. Adrian Parsegian of the <!--del_lnk--> National Institute of Health. They are particularly important when cells are dehydrated by exposure to dry atmospheres or to extracellular freezing.'<p><a id="Capillary_action" name="Capillary_action"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Capillary action</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Capillary action refers to the process of water moving up a narrow tube against the force of <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. It occurs because water adheres to the sides of the tube, and then more water is pulled on top of that water through cohesion, which sticks to the sides of the tube. The process is repeated as the water flows up the tube until there is enough water that gravity can counteract the adhesive force.<p><a id="Heat_capacity_and_heat_of_vaporization" name="Heat_capacity_and_heat_of_vaporization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Heat capacity and heat of vaporization</span></h3>
<p>Water has the second highest <!--del_lnk--> specific heat capacity of any known chemical compound, after <a href="../../wp/a/Ammonia.htm" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, as well as a high <!--del_lnk--> heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol), both of which are a result of the extensive <!--del_lnk--> hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> by buffering large swings in temperature.<p><a id="Freezing_point" name="Freezing_point"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Freezing point</span></h3>
<p>A simple but environmentally important and unusual property of water is that its common solid form, <a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" title="Ice">ice</a>, floats on its liquid form. This solid phase is not as dense as liquid water because of the geometry of the strong hydrogen bonds which are formed only at lower temperatures. For almost all other substances and for all other 11 uncommon phases, the solid form is denser than the liquid form. Fresh water at standard atmospheric pressure is most dense at 3.98 °C, and will sink by <!--del_lnk--> convection as it cools to that temperature, and if it becomes colder it will rise instead. This reversal will cause deep water to remain warmer than shallower freezing water, so that ice in a body of water will form first at the surface and progress downward, while the majority of the water underneath will hold a constant 4 °C. This effectively insulates a lake floor from the cold. Almost all other chemicals are denser as solids than they are as liquids and freeze from the bottom up.<p><a id="Triple_point" name="Triple_point"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Triple point</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> triple point of water (the single combination of pressure and temperature at which pure liquid water, ice, and water vapour can coexist in a stable equilibrium) is used to define the <!--del_lnk--> kelvin, the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature. As a consequence, water's triple point temperature is an exact value rather than a measured quantity : 273.16 kelvins (0.01 °C) and a pressure of 611.73 pascals (0.0060373 <!--del_lnk--> atm).<p><a id="Electrical_conductivity" name="Electrical_conductivity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Electrical conductivity</span></h3>
<p>A common misconception about water is that it is a powerful conductor of <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, with risks of <!--del_lnk--> electrocution explaining this popular belief. Any electrical properties observable in water are from the <!--del_lnk--> ions of mineral salts and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> dissolved in it. <!--del_lnk--> Water does self-ionize where two water molecules become one <!--del_lnk--> hydroxide anion and one <!--del_lnk--> hydronium cation, but not enough to carry enough <!--del_lnk--> electric current to do any work or harm for most operations ((In "pure" water, sensitive equipment can detect a very slight electrical <!--del_lnk--> conductivity of 0.055 <!--del_lnk--> µS). Pure water can also be <!--del_lnk--> electrolyzed into oxygen and hydrogen gases but without any dissolved ions; this is a very slow process and thus very little current is conducted.<p><a id="Forms" name="Forms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Forms</span></h3>
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<div style="width:237px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/67/6732.jpg.htm" title="Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902."><img alt="Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg" src="../../images/67/6732.jpg" width="235" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/67/6732.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Snowflakes</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Wilson Bentley, 1902.</div>
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<p>Water takes many different forms on Earth: <!--del_lnk--> water vapor and clouds in the sky; seawater and <!--del_lnk--> icebergs in the ocean; <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> and rivers in the <!--del_lnk--> mountains; and aquifers in the ground, to name but a few. Through <!--del_lnk--> evaporation, <!--del_lnk--> precipitation, and <!--del_lnk--> runoff, water is continuously flowing from one form to another, in what is called the <b>water cycle</b>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22797.jpg.htm" title="Rainbows like this one are formed by rain drops acting as a natural prism."><img alt="Rainbows like this one are formed by rain drops acting as a natural prism." height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WhereRainbowRises.jpg" src="../../images/227/22797.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22797.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Rainbows like this one are formed by rain drops acting as a natural <!--del_lnk--> prism.</div>
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<p>Because of the importance of precipitation to <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, and to <!--del_lnk--> mankind in general, different names are given to its various forms: <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">rain</a> is common in most countries, and <!--del_lnk--> hail, <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fog and <!--del_lnk--> dew are other examples. When appropriately lit, water drops in the air can <!--del_lnk--> refract <a href="../../wp/s/Sunlight.htm" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> to produce <a href="../../wp/r/Rainbow.htm" title="Rainbow">rainbows</a>.<p>Similarly, water runoffs have played major roles in human history as rivers and <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> brought the water needed for agriculture. Rivers and seas offered opportunity for <!--del_lnk--> travel and <!--del_lnk--> commerce. Through <!--del_lnk--> erosion, runoffs played a major part in shaping the environment providing river <!--del_lnk--> valleys and <!--del_lnk--> deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers.<p>Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This <!--del_lnk--> groundwater later flows back to the surface in <!--del_lnk--> springs, or more spectacularly in <!--del_lnk--> hot springs and <!--del_lnk--> geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in <!--del_lnk--> wells.<p>Water can dissolve many different substances imparting upon it different tastes and odours. In fact, humans and other animals have developed senses to be able to evaluate the drinkability of water: animals generally dislike the taste of <a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" title="Salt">salty</a> <!--del_lnk--> sea water and the putrid <!--del_lnk--> swamps and favour the purer water of a mountain spring or aquifer. The taste advertised in <!--del_lnk--> spring water or <!--del_lnk--> mineral water derives from the minerals dissolved, while pure H<sub>2</sub>O is tasteless. As such, <!--del_lnk--> purity in spring and mineral water refers to purity from <!--del_lnk--> toxins, <!--del_lnk--> pollutants, and <!--del_lnk--> microbes.<p><a id="Position_of_the_Earth_relating_to_water" name="Position_of_the_Earth_relating_to_water"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Position of the Earth relating to water</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22798.jpg.htm" title="Over two thirds of the earth's surface is covered with water, 97.2% of which is contained in the five oceans. The Antarctic ice sheet, containing 90% of all fresh water on the planet, is visible at the bottom. Atmospheric water vapour can be seen as clouds, contributing to the earth's albedo."><img alt="Over two thirds of the earth's surface is covered with water, 97.2% of which is contained in the five oceans. The Antarctic ice sheet, containing 90% of all fresh water on the planet, is visible at the bottom. Atmospheric water vapour can be seen as clouds, contributing to the earth's albedo." height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" src="../../images/227/22798.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22798.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Over two thirds of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">earth</a>'s surface is covered with water, 97.2% of which is contained in the five <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">oceans</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic ice sheet, containing 90% of all fresh water on the planet, is visible at the bottom. Atmospheric water vapour can be seen as <a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" title="Cloud">clouds</a>, contributing to the earth's <!--del_lnk--> albedo.</div>
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<p>Scientists theorize that most of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of <!--del_lnk--> star formation. Gary Melnick, a scientist at the <!--del_lnk--> Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics, explains: "For reasons that aren't entirely understood, when stars are born, their birth is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflowing material eventually impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water we observe is rapidly produced in this warm dense gas." <p>The coexistence of the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of water on Earth is vital to existence of life on Earth. However, if the Earth's location in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a> were even marginally closer to or further from the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> (a million miles or so), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.<p>Earth's mass allows <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a> to hold an <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a <a href="../../wp/g/Greenhouse_effect.htm" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were less massive, a thinner atmosphere would cause temperature extremes preventing the accumulation of water except in <a href="../../wp/p/Polar_ice_cap.htm" title="Polar ice cap">polar ice caps</a> (as on <!--del_lnk--> Mars).<p>It has been proposed that life itself may maintain the conditions that have allowed its continued existence. The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through <!--del_lnk--> geologic time despite varying levels of incoming solar radiation (<!--del_lnk--> insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric <!--del_lnk--> albedo. This proposal is known as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Gaia hypothesis</i>.<p><a id="Effects_on_life" name="Effects_on_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Effects on life</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22799.jpg.htm" title="A lion drinking water."><img alt="A lion drinking water." height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lion_drinking.jpg" src="../../images/227/22799.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/227/22799.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A lion drinking water.</div>
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<p>From a <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biological</a> standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a> that set it apart from other substances. It carries out this role by allowing <!--del_lnk--> organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allows <!--del_lnk--> replication. All known forms of life depend on water. Water is vital both as a <!--del_lnk--> solvent in which many of the body's solutes dissolve and as an essential part of many <!--del_lnk--> metabolic processes within the body. Metabolism is the sum total of anabolism and catabolism. In anabolism, water is removed from molecules (through energy requiring enzymatic chemical reactions)in order to grow larger molecules (e.g. startches, triglycerides and proteins for storage of fuels and information). In catabolism, water is used to break bonds in order to generate smaller molecules (e.g. glucose, fatty acids and amino acids to be used for fuels for energy use or other purposes). Water is thus essential and central to these metabolic processes.<p>Water is also central to photosynthesis and respiration. Photosynthetic cells use the sun's energy to split off water's hydrogen from oxygen. Hydrogen is combined with CO2 (absorbed from air or water) to form glucose and release oxygen. All living cells use such fuels and oxidize (burn) the hydrogen and carbon to capture the sun's energy and reform water and CO2 in the process (cellular respiration).<p>Water is also central to acid-base neutrality and enzyme function. An acid, a hydrogen ion (H<sup>+</sup>, that is, a proton) donor, can be neutralized by a base, a proton acceptor such as hydroxide ion (OH<sup>-</sup>)to form water. Water is considered to be neutral, with a <!--del_lnk--> pH (the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration) of 7. <!--del_lnk--> Acids have pH values less than 7 while <!--del_lnk--> bases have values greater than 7. Stomach acid (HCl) is useful to digestion. However, its corrosive effect on the esophagus during reflux can temporarily be neutraled by ingestion of a base such as aluminum hydroxide to produce the neutral molecules water and the salt aluminium chloride. Human biochemistry that involves enzymes usually performs optimally at water's neutral ph of 7.<p><a id="Aquatic_life_forms" name="Aquatic_life_forms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aquatic life forms</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22800.jpg.htm" title="Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef."><img alt="Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" src="../../images/228/22800.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22800.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Some of the <a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of a <!--del_lnk--> coral reef.</div>
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<p>Earth's waters are filled with life. Nearly all <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> live exclusively in water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Whale.htm" title="Whale">whales</a> that also live in the water. Some kinds of animals, such as <!--del_lnk--> amphibians, spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Plants such as <!--del_lnk--> kelp and <!--del_lnk--> algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems. <!--del_lnk--> Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22801.jpg.htm" title="Some marine diatoms - a key phytoplankton group."><img alt="Some marine diatoms - a key phytoplankton group." height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg" src="../../images/228/22801.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22801.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Some marine <!--del_lnk--> diatoms - a key <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton group.</div>
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<p>Different water creatures have found different solutions to obtaining oxygen in the water. Fish have <!--del_lnk--> gills instead of <!--del_lnk--> lungs, though some species of fish, such as the <!--del_lnk--> lungfish, have both. <!--del_lnk--> Marine mammals, such as dolphins, whales, <a href="../../wp/o/Otter.htm" title="Otter">otters</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> seals need to surface periodically to breathe air.<p>
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<p><a id="Effects_on_human_civilization" name="Effects_on_human_civilization"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Effects on human civilization</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22802.jpg.htm" title="A manual water pump in China."><img alt="A manual water pump in China." height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TapWater-china.JPG" src="../../images/228/22802.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22802.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A manual water <!--del_lnk--> pump in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>.</div>
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<p>Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; <a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the so-called cradle of civilization, was situated between the major rivers <a href="../../wp/t/Tigris.htm" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Euphrates.htm" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>. Large <!--del_lnk--> metropolises like <a href="../../wp/r/Rotterdam.htm" title="Rotterdam">Rotterdam</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Montreal.htm" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <!--del_lnk--> New York, and <a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> owe their success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, have flourished for the same reason. In places such as <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, where water is more scarce, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.<p><a id="Health_and_pollution" name="Health_and_pollution"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Health and pollution</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22820.jpg.htm" title="Drinking water from a tap."><img alt="Drinking water from a tap." height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Drinking_water.jpg" src="../../images/40/4090.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22820.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/d/Drinking_water.htm" title="Drinking water">Drinking water</a> from a <!--del_lnk--> tap.</div>
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<p>Water fit for <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a> consumption is called <a href="../../wp/d/Drinking_water.htm" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> or "potable water". Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful for humans when used for food preparation is called <a href="../../wp/d/Drinking_water.htm" title="Safe water">safe water</a>.<p>This natural resource is becoming scarcer in certain places, and its availability is a major social and economic concern. Currently, about 1 billion people around the world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most countries accepted the goal of halving by 2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to safe water and <!--del_lnk--> sanitation during the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 G8 Evian summit. Even if this difficult goal is met, it will still leave more than an estimated half a billion people without access to safe drinking water supplies and over 1 billion without access to adequate sanitation facilities. Poor water quality and bad sanitation are deadly; some 5 million deaths a year are caused by polluted drinking water.<p>In the developing world, 90% of all <!--del_lnk--> wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and streams. Some 50 countries, with roughly a third of the world’s population, also suffer from medium or high water stress, and 17 of these extract more water annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles . The strain affects surface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater resources.<p>
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<p><a id="Human_uses" name="Human_uses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Human uses</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22803.jpg.htm" title="Water under pressure from a sprinkler."><img alt="Water under pressure from a sprinkler." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sprinkler03.jpg" src="../../images/228/22803.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22803.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Water under pressure from a sprinkler.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22804.gif.htm" title="A leaking tap."><img alt="A leaking tap." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_drop_animation_enhanced_small.gif" src="../../images/228/22804.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22804.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A leaking tap.</div>
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<p><a id="For_drinking" name="For_drinking"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">For drinking</span></h4>
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<p>About 70% of the fat free mass of the <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a> body is made of water. To function properly, the body requires between one and seven <!--del_lnk--> litres of water per <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">day</a> to avoid <!--del_lnk--> dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people. For those who do not have kidney problems, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of <!--del_lnk--> water intoxication, which can be fatal. The "fact" that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to a scientific source. There are other myths such as the effect of water on weight loss and constipation that have been dispelled.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22805.jpg.htm" title="A shower."><img alt="A shower." height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water.jpg" src="../../images/228/22805.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22805.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A shower.</div>
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<p>The latest dietary reference intake report by the <!--del_lnk--> United States National Research Council recommended (including food sources): 2.7 litres of water total for women and 3.7 litres for men. Water is lost from the body in <!--del_lnk--> urine and <!--del_lnk--> feces, through <!--del_lnk--> sweating, and by exhalation of <!--del_lnk--> water vapor in the breath.<p>Humans require water that does not contain too many impurities. Common impurities include metal salts and/or harmful <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> vibrio</i>. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for taste enhancement and to provide needed <!--del_lnk--> electrolytes.<p><a id="As_a_solvent" name="As_a_solvent"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">As a solvent</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Dissolving (or <!--del_lnk--> suspending) is used to wash everyday items such as the human body, clothes, floors, cars, food, and pets. Sometimes water is not enough, and many chemicals can be added in order to improve the solvating power of water. These chemicals include saliva, soap, shampoo, alcohol, vinegar and various surfactants; these are all examples of <!--del_lnk--> emulsifying agents. When water will not do (to remove a nonwater-soluble substance such as paint), other solvents are used, such as <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> (in meths) or <a href="../../wp/a/Acetone.htm" title="Acetone">acetone</a> (in nail varnish remover).<p><a id="As_a_thermal_transfer_agent" name="As_a_thermal_transfer_agent"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">As a thermal transfer agent</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Boiling, <!--del_lnk--> steaming, and <!--del_lnk--> simmering are popular <!--del_lnk--> cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or its gaseous state, steam. Water is also used in industrial contexts as a <!--del_lnk--> coolant, and in almost all powerstations as a coolant and to drive steam <!--del_lnk--> turbines to generate electricity. In the nuclear industry, water can also be used as a <!--del_lnk--> neutron moderator.<p><a id="Recreation" name="Recreation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Recreation</span></h4>
<p>Humans use water for many recreational purposes, as well as for exercising and for sports. Some of these include <!--del_lnk--> swimming, <!--del_lnk--> waterskiing, <!--del_lnk--> boating, <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> diving. In addition, some sports, like <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" title="Ice hockey">ice hockey</a> and <!--del_lnk--> ice skating, are played on ice.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22807.jpg.htm" title="Some boats in a harbor in Miami Beach, Florida."><img alt="Some boats in a harbor in Miami Beach, Florida." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BoatsonMiamiBeach.jpg" src="../../images/228/22807.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22807.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Some boats in a <!--del_lnk--> harbour in <!--del_lnk--> Miami Beach, Florida.</div>
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<p>Lakesides and beaches are popular places for people to go to relax and enjoy recreation. Many find the sound of flowing water to be calming, too. Some keep fish and other life in <a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" title="Aquarium">water tanks</a> or <a href="../../wp/p/Pond.htm" title="Pond">ponds</a> for show, fun, and companionship. People may also use water for <!--del_lnk--> play fighting such as with <!--del_lnk--> water guns or <!--del_lnk--> water balloons.<p><a id="Industrial_applications" name="Industrial_applications"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Industrial applications</span></h4>
<p>Pressurized water is used in <!--del_lnk--> water blasting and <!--del_lnk--> water jet cutters.<p><a id="Food_Processing" name="Food_Processing"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Food Processing</span></h4>
<p>Water plays many critical roles within the field of <!--del_lnk--> food science. It is important for a food scientist to understand the roles that water plays within food processing to insure the success of their products.<p>Solutes such as salts and sugars found in water affect the physical properties of water. The boiling and freezing points of water is affected by solutes. One mole of sucrose (sugar) raises the boiling point of water by 0.52 degrees C, and one mole of salt raises the boiling point by 1.04 degrees while lowering the freezing point of water in a similar way (Vaclacik and Christian, 2003). Solutes in water also affect water activity which affects many chemical reactions and the growth of microbes in food (DeMan, 1999). Water activity can be described as a ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a solution to the vapor pressure of pure water (Vaclacik and Christian, 2003). Solutes in water lower water activity. This is important to know because most bacterial growth ceases at low levels of water activity (DeMan, 1999). Not only does microbial growth affect the safety of food but also the preservation and shelf life of food. Figure 2 shows a slice of moldy bread, an example of microbial growth.<p>Water hardness is also a critical factor in food processing. It can dramatically affect the quality of a product as well as playing a role in sanitation. Water hardness is classified based on the amounts of removable calcium carbonate salt it contains per gallon. Water hardness is measured in grains; 0.064 gm calcium carbonate is equivalent to one grain of hardness (Vaclacik and Christian, 2003). Water is classified as soft if it contains 1 to 4 grains, medium if it contains 5 to 10 grains and hard if it contains 11 to 20 grains (Vaclacik and Christian, 2003). The hardness of water may be altered or treated by using a chemical ion exchange system. The hardness of water also affects its pH balance which plays a critical role in food processing. For example, hard water prevents successful production of clear beverages. Water hardness also affects sanitation; with increasing hardness, there is a loss of effectiveness for its use as a sanitizer (Vaclacik and Christian, 2003).<p>
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<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22808.jpg.htm" title="People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo."><img alt="People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo." height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Evstafiev-bosnia-sarajevo-water-line.jpg" src="../../images/228/22808.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22808.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> People waiting in line to gather water during the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Sarajevo.</div>
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<p>Because of <!--del_lnk--> overpopulation in many regions of the world, <!--del_lnk--> mass consumption, misuse, and <!--del_lnk--> water pollution, the availability of drinking water <!--del_lnk--> per capita is inadequate and shrinking as of the year 2006. For this reason, water is a strategic resource in the globe and an important element in many political conflicts. Some have predicted that clean water will become the "next oil", making <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, with this resource in abundance, possibly the richest country in the world. There is a long history of conflict over water, including efforts to gain access to water, the use of water in wars started for other reasons, and tensions over shortages and control. <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO's World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from its <!--del_lnk--> World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal <!--del_lnk--> hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from <!--del_lnk--> diseases related to the consumption of contaminated water or <a href="../../wp/d/Drought.htm" title="Drought">drought</a>. In 2004, the UK charity <!--del_lnk--> WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases. Fresh water—now more precious than ever in our history for its extensive use in agriculture, high-tech manufacturing, and energy production—is increasingly receiving attention as a resource requiring better management and sustainable use.<p><a id="OECD_countries" name="OECD_countries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">OECD countries</span></h3>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22809.jpg.htm" title="Hopetoun Falls near Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia."><img alt="Hopetoun Falls near Otway National Park, Victoria, Australia." height="233" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hopetoun_falls.jpg" src="../../images/228/22809.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22809.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hopetoun Falls near <!--del_lnk--> Otway National Park, <!--del_lnk--> Victoria, Australia.</div>
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<p>With nearly 2,000 <!--del_lnk--> cubic metres (70,000 ft<sup>3</sup>) of water per person and per year, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> leads the world in water consumption per capita (a large quantity of <!--del_lnk--> golf fields and <!--del_lnk--> car washing partly explain this massive consumption). In the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (<!--del_lnk--> OECD) countries, the U.S. is first for water consumption, then <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> with 1,600 cubic metres (56,000 ft<sup>3</sup>) of water per person per year, which is about twice the amount of water used by the average person from <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, three times as much as the average <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a>, and almost eight times as much as the average <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Dane</a>. Since 1980, overall water use in Canada has increased by 25.7%. This is five times higher than the overall OECD increase of 4.5%. In contrast, nine OECD nations were able to decrease their overall water use since 1980 (<a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, the United States, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, the <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a> and Denmark). <p><a id="United_States" name="United_States"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">United States</span></h3>
<p>Ninety-five percent of the United States' fresh water is underground. One crucial source is a huge underground reservoir, the 1,300-kilometer (800 mi) <!--del_lnk--> Ogallala aquifer which stretches from <!--del_lnk--> Texas to <!--del_lnk--> South Dakota and waters one fifth of U.S. irrigated land. Formed over millions of years, the Ogallala aquifer has since been cut off from its original natural sources. It is being depleted at a rate of 12 billion cubic metres (420 billion ft<sup>3</sup>) per year, amounting to a total depletion to date of a volume equal to the annual flow of 18 <a href="../../wp/c/Colorado_River.htm" title="Colorado River">Colorado Rivers</a>. Some estimates say it will dry up in as little as 25 years. Many farmers in the <!--del_lnk--> Texas High Plains, which rely particularly on the underground source, are now turning away from <!--del_lnk--> irrigated agriculture as they become aware of the hazards of overpumping.<p><a id="Mexico" name="Mexico"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mexico</span></h3>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_City.htm" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, an estimated 40% of the city's water is lost through leaky pipes built at the turn of the 20th century. Many people advise that it is not safe to drink and may cause sickness.<p><a id="Middle_East" name="Middle_East"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Middle East</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> region has only 1% of the world's available fresh water, which is shared among 5% of the world's population. Thus, in this region, water is an important strategic resource. By 2025, it is predicted that the countries of the Arabian peninsula will be using more than double the amount of water naturally available to them. According to a report by the <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, two-thirds of Arab countries have less than 1,000 cubic meters (35,000 ft<sup>3</sup>) of water per person per year available, which is considered the limit.<p><a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, for example, has little water, and <a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" title="Dam">dams</a> in other countries have reduced its available water over the years. The 1994 <!--del_lnk--> Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace stated that Israel would give 50 million cubic meters of water (1.7 billion ft<sup>3</sup>) per year to Jordan, which it refused to do in 1999 before backtracking. The 1994 treaty stated that the two countries would cooperate in order to allow Jordan better access to water resources, notably through dams on the <!--del_lnk--> Yarmouk River. Confronted by this lack of water, Jordan is preparing new techniques to use non-conventional water resources, such as second-hand use of irrigation water and <!--del_lnk--> desalinization techniques, which are very costly and are not yet used. A desalinization project will soon be started in <!--del_lnk--> Hisban, south of <!--del_lnk--> Amman. The <!--del_lnk--> Disi <!--del_lnk--> groundwater project, in the south of Jordan, will cost at least $250 million to bring out water. Along with the <!--del_lnk--> Unity Dam on the Yarmouk River, it is one of Jordan's largest strategic projects. Born in 1987, the "Unity Dam" would involve both Jordan and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>. This "Unity Dam" still has not been implemented because of <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>'s opposition, Jordan and Syrian conflictual relations and refusal of world investors. However, Jordan's reconciliation with Syria following the death of <!--del_lnk--> King Hussein represents the removal of one of the project's greatest obstacles.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22810.jpg.htm" title="The Jordan River."><img alt="The Jordan River." height="147" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hayarden.jpg" src="../../images/228/22810.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22810.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan_River.htm" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a>.</div>
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<p>Both <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> and Jordan rely on the <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan_River.htm" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a>, but Israel controls it, as well as 90% of the water resources in the region. Water is also an important issue in the <!--del_lnk--> conflict with the Palestinians - indeed, according to former Israeli prime minister <a href="../../wp/a/Ariel_Sharon.htm" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a> quoted by Abel Darwish in the BBC, it was one of the causes of the <!--del_lnk--> 1967 Six-Day War. In practice the access to water has been a <!--del_lnk--> casus belli for Israel. The <!--del_lnk--> Israeli army prohibits <!--del_lnk--> Palestinians from pumping water, and <!--del_lnk--> settlers use much more advanced pumping equipment. Palestinians complain of a lack of access to water in the region. Israelis in the <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a> use four times as much water as their Palestinian neighbours. According to the <!--del_lnk--> World Bank, 90% of the <a href="../../wp/w/West_Bank.htm" title="West Bank">West Bank</a>'s water is used by Israelis . Article 40 of the appendix B of the <!--del_lnk--> September 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1995 <!--del_lnk--> Oslo accords stated that "Israel recognizes Palestinians' rights on water in the West Bank".<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Golan Heights provide 770 million cubic meters (27 billion ft<sup>3</sup>) of water per year to Israel, which represents a third of its annual consumption. The Golan's water goes to the <a href="../../wp/s/Sea_of_Galilee.htm" title="Sea of Galilee">Sea of Galilee</a>—Israel's largest reserve&dash;which is then redistributed throughout the country by the <!--del_lnk--> National Water Carrier. The Golan, which Israel annexed, represents a strategic territory for Israel because of its water resources. . However, the level on the Sea of Galilee has dropped over the years, sparking fears that Israel's main water reservoir will become salinated. On its northern border, Israel threatened military action in 2002 when <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> opened a new pumping station taking water from a river feeding the Jordan. To help ease the crisis, Israel has agreed to buy water from <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and is investigating the construction of desalination plants.<p><a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> watched with apprehension the construction of the <!--del_lnk--> Atatürk Dam in Turkey and a projected system of 22 dams on the <a href="../../wp/t/Tigris.htm" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Euphrates.htm" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> rivers. According to the BBC, the list of 'water-scarce' countries in the region grew steadily from three in 1955 to eight in 1990 with another seven expected to be added within 20 years, including three <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a> nations (the Nile is shared by nine countries).<p><a id="Asia" name="Asia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Asia</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22811.jpg.htm" title="Three Gorges Dam, receiving, upstream side, 26 July 2004."><img alt="Three Gorges Dam, receiving, upstream side, 26 July 2004." height="90" longdesc="/wiki/Image:200407-sandouping-sanxiadaba-4.med.jpg" src="../../images/228/22811.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22811.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Three Gorges Dam, receiving, upstream side, <!--del_lnk--> 26 July <!--del_lnk--> 2004.</div>
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<p>In <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Cambodia.htm" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> are concerned by <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>'s and <a href="../../wp/l/Laos.htm" title="Laos">Laos</a>' attempts to control the flux of water. China is also preparing the <a href="../../wp/t/Three_Gorges_Dam.htm" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> project on the <a href="../../wp/y/Yangtze_River.htm" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a>, which would become the world's largest dam, causing many social and environmental problems. It also has a project to divert water from the Yangtze to the dwindling <a href="../../wp/y/Yellow_River.htm" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a>, which feeds China's most important farming region.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22812.jpg.htm" title="Ganges river delta, Bangladesh and India."><img alt="Ganges river delta, Bangladesh and India." height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ganges_River_Delta%2C_Bangladesh%2C_India.jpg" src="../../images/228/22812.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22812.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ganges <!--del_lnk--> river delta, Bangladesh and India.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ganges is disputed between <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>. The water reserves are being quickly depleted and polluted, while the <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glacier</a> feeding the sacred <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> river is retreating hundreds of feet each year because of <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a> and <!--del_lnk--> deforestation in the <a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>, which is causing subsoil streams flowing into the Ganges river to dry up. Downstream, India controls the flow to <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> with the <!--del_lnk--> Farakka Barrage, 10 kilometers (6 mi) on the Indian side of the border. Until the late 1990s, India used the barrage to divert the river to <!--del_lnk--> Calcutta to keep the city's port from drying up during the dry season. This denied Bangladeshi farmers water and <!--del_lnk--> silt, and it left the <!--del_lnk--> Sundarban wetlands and <!--del_lnk--> mangrove forests at the river's delta seriously threatened. The two countries have now signed an agreement to share the water more equally. Water quality, however, remains a problem, with high levels of <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and untreated sewage in the river water. ASIA.<p><a id="South_America" name="South_America"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">South America</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Guaraní Aquifer, located between the <!--del_lnk--> Mercosur countries of <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Paraguay.htm" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, with a volume of about 40,000 km³, is an important source of fresh potable water for all four countries.<p><a id="Privatization" name="Privatization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Privatization</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Privatization of water companies has been contested on several occasions because of bad quality of the water, increasing prices, and ethical concerns. In <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> for example, the proposed privatization of water companies by the <!--del_lnk--> IMF were met by <!--del_lnk--> popular protests in Cochabamba in 2000, which ousted <!--del_lnk--> Bechtel, an American engineering firm based in <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco. <!--del_lnk--> SUEZ has started retreating from South America because of similar protests in <a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Santa Fe, and <!--del_lnk--> Córdoba, Argentina. Consumers took to the streets to protest water rate hikes of as much as 500% mandated by SUEZ. In South and Central America, SUEZ has water concessions in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and Mexico. "Bolivian officials fault SUEZ for not connecting enough households to water lines as mandated by its contract and for charging as much as $455 a connection, or about three times the average monthly salary of an office clerk", according to the <i><!--del_lnk--> Mercury News</i>.<p><a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> also made moves to privatize water, provoking an outbreak of cholera killing 200.<p><a id="Regulation" name="Regulation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Regulation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:257px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/53/5369.jpg.htm" title="Two people reflected in the water of a fish pond."><img alt="Two people reflected in the water of a fish pond." height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Photo_of_two_people_reflected_in_a_fish_pond.JPG" src="../../images/53/5369.jpg" width="255" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/53/5369.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Two people <!--del_lnk--> reflected in the water of a <!--del_lnk--> fish pond.</div>
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<p>Drinking water is often collected at <!--del_lnk--> springs, extracted from artificial <!--del_lnk--> borings in the ground, or wells. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources are rainwater and river or lake water. This surface water, however, must be <a href="../../wp/w/Water_purification.htm" title="Water purification">purified</a> for human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful <!--del_lnk--> microbes. Popular methods are <!--del_lnk--> filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material, while <!--del_lnk--> chlorination and <!--del_lnk--> boiling kill harmful microbes. <!--del_lnk--> Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as <!--del_lnk--> reverse osmosis. <!--del_lnk--> Desalination of abundant <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">ocean</a> or <a href="../../wp/s/Seawater.htm" title="Seawater">seawater</a> is a more expensive solution used in coastal <!--del_lnk--> arid <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climates</a>.<p>The distribution of drinking water is done through <!--del_lnk--> municipal water systems or as <!--del_lnk--> bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. Others argue that the <a href="../../wp/m/Market.htm" title="Market">market</a> mechanism and <!--del_lnk--> free enterprise are best to manage this rare resource and to finance the boring of wells or the construction of dams and <!--del_lnk--> reservoirs.<p>Reducing waste by using drinking water only for human consumption is another option. In some cities such as <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources. Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as <!--del_lnk--> externalities for which the market cannot account. Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population victim of this pollution. <!--del_lnk--> Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on <!--del_lnk--> aquatic life if they <!--del_lnk--> bioaccumulate and if they are not <!--del_lnk--> biodegradable.<p><a id="Religion.2C_philosophy.2C_and_literature" name="Religion.2C_philosophy.2C_and_literature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religion, philosophy, and literature</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22813.jpg.htm" title="A Hindu ablution as practiced in Tamil Nadu."><img alt="A Hindu ablution as practiced in Tamil Nadu." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hindu_water_ritual.jpg" src="../../images/228/22813.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22813.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Hindu ablution as practiced in <!--del_lnk--> Tamil Nadu.</div>
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<p>Water is considered a purifier in most religions. Major faiths that incorporate ritual washing (<!--del_lnk--> ablution) include <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Shinto.htm" title="Shinto">Shinto</a>. Water <!--del_lnk--> baptism is a central <!--del_lnk--> sacrament of Christianity; it is also a part of the practice of other religions, including Judaism (<i><!--del_lnk--> mikvah</i>) and <a href="../../wp/s/Sikhism.htm" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Amrit Sanskar</i>). In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the five daily prayers can be done in <!--del_lnk--> most cases after completing washing certain parts of the body using clean water (<i><!--del_lnk--> wudu</i>). In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area (e.g., in the ritual of <i><!--del_lnk--> misogi</i>). Water is mentioned in the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a> 442 times in the <!--del_lnk--> New International Version and 363 times in the <!--del_lnk--> King James Version: 2 Peter 3:5(b) states, "The earth was formed out of water and by water" (NIV).<p>Some faiths use water especially prepared for religious purposes (<!--del_lnk--> holy water in some Christian denominations, <i><!--del_lnk--> Amrit</i> in Sikhism and Hinduism). Many religions also consider particular sources or bodies of water to be sacred or at least auspicious; examples include <!--del_lnk--> Lourdes in <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism, the <!--del_lnk--> Zamzam Well in Islam and the River <!--del_lnk--> Ganges (among many others) in Hinduism.<p>Water is often believed to have spiritual powers. In <a href="../../wp/c/Celtic_mythology.htm" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Sulis is the local <!--del_lnk--> goddess of thermal springs; in <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Ganges is also personified as a goddess, while <!--del_lnk--> Saraswati have been referred to as goddess in <!--del_lnk--> Vedas. Also water is one of the "panch-tatva"s (basic 5 elements, others including <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fire</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">earth</a>, <!--del_lnk--> space, <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Air">air</a>). Alternatively, gods can be patrons of particular springs, rivers, or lakes: for example in <a href="../../wp/g/Greek_mythology.htm" title="Greek mythology">Greek</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_mythology.htm" title="Roman mythology">Roman</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mythology.htm" title="Mythology">mythology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Peneus was a river god, one of the three thousand <!--del_lnk--> Oceanids.<p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> <!--del_lnk--> Empedocles held that water is one of the four <!--del_lnk--> classical elements along with <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fire</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">earth</a> and <!--del_lnk--> air, and was regarded as the <!--del_lnk--> ylem, or basic substance of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist. In the theory of the four <!--del_lnk--> bodily humors, water was associated with <!--del_lnk--> phlegm. <!--del_lnk--> Water was also one of the <!--del_lnk--> five elements in traditional <!--del_lnk--> Chinese philosophy, along with <!--del_lnk--> earth, <!--del_lnk--> fire, <!--del_lnk--> wood, and <!--del_lnk--> metal.<p>Water also plays an important role in <a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">literature</a> as a <!--del_lnk--> symbol of <!--del_lnk--> purification. Examples include the critical importance of a <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">river</a> in <i><!--del_lnk--> As I Lay Dying</i> by <!--del_lnk--> William Faulkner and the <!--del_lnk--> drowning of Ophelia in <i><!--del_lnk--> Hamlet</i>.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Water Buffalo</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Water Buffalo</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/144/14493.jpg.htm" title="A family of Water Buffalo bathing in a sinkhole, Taiwan"><img alt="A family of Water Buffalo bathing in a sinkhole, Taiwan" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_buffalo_bathing.jpg" src="../../images/144/14493.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>A family of Water Buffalo bathing<br /> in a sinkhole, <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></small></div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovinae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Bubalus</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>B. bubalis</b></i></span><br />
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<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Bubalus bubalis</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Kerr, <!--del_lnk--> 1792)</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Water Buffalo</b> is a very large <!--del_lnk--> ungulate and a member of the <!--del_lnk--> bovine subfamily. The <b>Arni</b> or Wild Buffalo survives in the wild in <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nepal.htm" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bhutan.htm" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> domestic Buffalo are very widespread in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. They are <!--del_lnk--> feral in northern <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>. Wild-living populations also exist in much of <!--del_lnk--> South-east Asia but their origins are uncertain. They may be descendants of wild Water Buffalo, formerly domesticated ferals or a mixture. In Asia, the population of wild Water Buffalo has become sparse, and there is fear that no pure-bred wild water buffalo exists. Adult Water Buffalo range in size from 300 kg to 600 kg for the domestic bred, but true wild water buffaloes can grow larger. Adult females typically weigh around 800 kg, and males up to 1200 kg. The average weight of an adult male is 900 kg, and the average height at the shoulder is about 1.7m. One distinction between wild buffaloes and domesticated version is that the wild species lacks the round belly found in domesticated buffalo. Due to interbreeding with feral and domestic species, weights can vary greatly even in populations which are in in close proximity. Interbreeding with domesticated buffaloes is the major cause of extinction of wild buffaloes. Buffaloes are believed to have originated in <!--del_lnk--> South Asia.<p>The classification of the Water Buffalo is uncertain. Some authorities list a single <!--del_lnk--> species, <i>Bubalus bubalis</i> with three <!--del_lnk--> subspecies, the River Buffalo (<i>B. bubalis bubalis</i>) of South Asia and the <!--del_lnk--> Carabao or Swamp Buffalo (<i>B. bubalis carabanesis</i>) of the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and Southeast Asia, and the Arni, or Wild Buffalo, (<i>B. bubalis arnee</i>). Others regard these as closely-related, but separate, species. The Swamp Buffalo is primarily found in the eastern half of Asia and has 48 chromosomes. The River Buffalo is mostly found in western half of Asia, and has 50 chromosomes. Fertile offspring occur between the two. It does not readily hybridise with <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a> which have 60 chromosomes.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">Milk</a> from both of these animals is used by many human populations, and is the traditional raw material for <!--del_lnk--> mozzarella cheese and <!--del_lnk--> curd due to its higher fat content. The chief dairy breed of Buffalo is the <!--del_lnk--> Murrah breed. Buffalo meat, sometimes called "Carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions and is also a major source of export revenue for India which has the largest population of buffaloes in the world. However, in many Asian regions, buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness. Water buffalo hide provides a tough and useful <!--del_lnk--> leather often used for shoes and <!--del_lnk--> motorcycle <!--del_lnk--> helmets.<p>
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</script><a id="Asia" name="Asia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Asia</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14494.jpg.htm" title="Water Buffalo in Indonesia"><img alt="Water Buffalo in Indonesia" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Indonesia-Bull.jpg" src="../../images/144/14494.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Asia is the native home of the water buffalo, with 95% of the world population of water buffalo. Many Asian countries depend on the water buffalo as its primary bovine species. It is valuable for its meat and milk as well as the labour it performs. As of <!--del_lnk--> 1992 the Asian population was estimated at 141 million. The fat content of buffalo milk is the highest amongst farm animals and the butterfat is a major source of <!--del_lnk--> ghee in some Asian countries. Its success in Asia is evident by its extensive range. Both variants occur in Asia. River Buffalo are found in elevations of 2,800 m in Nepal, and Swamp Buffalo are found throughout the lowland tropics. Part of their success is due to their ability to thrive on poor foodstuffs and yet be valuable economically. Moreover they are much better suited to plough the muddy <!--del_lnk--> paddy fields as they are better adapted than common cattle (<i><!--del_lnk--> Bos taurus</i>) to move in swamps.<p>In the wild, very few pockets of buffalo exist. The Indian wild buffalo is found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Thailand. This buffalo has the largest horns of any living animal. The average spread is about 1 m (3 ft 3 in), but one bull shot in <!--del_lnk--> 1955 had horns measuring 4.24 m (13 ft 11 in) from tip to tip along the outside curve across the forehead. These massive battering rams protect the beast in the wild efficiently enough that even its predator seldom attacks a fully grown male. Tiger is their only predator, which can kill a full-grown male weighing 1000-1200kg, but only an experienced tiger will take them on, often by hamstringing their hind legs first. When faced by a tiger, they form a line facing the predator and charge with noses out and horns laid back. Like its other family members, the <!--del_lnk--> tamaraw and the <!--del_lnk--> anoa, the wild buffalo is a very dangerous animal known to charge without being provoked. Together with its large size, this bad temper makes wild water buffalo the most dangerous bovine on earth to humans. It is generally found in swamplands and grass jungles and moves in herds.<p>Today, the estimated population of wild water buffaloes are about 4000, but, this number takes into account all wild population, including feral herds and hybrid buffaloes. In fact, it is possible that no true wild specimens exist anymore.<p>The water buffalo, or "<!--del_lnk--> Carabao," is the national animal of the Philippines.<p><a id="Australia" name="Australia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Australia</span></h2>
<p>Introduced into the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Territory early in the 19th century as a beast of burden, it quickly escaped and is now <!--del_lnk--> feral. As a result of its feral status it may be hunted. <!--del_lnk--> Melville Island is a popular hunting location, where a steady population of up to 4,000 individuals exist. Buffaloes are also found in <!--del_lnk--> Arnhem Land and the Top End. Safari outfits run out of <!--del_lnk--> Darwin to Melville Island and other locations in the <!--del_lnk--> Top End often with the use of <!--del_lnk--> bush pilots. The government has unsuccessfully attempted several eradication programs.<p>The buffaloes live mainly in freshwater marshes and <!--del_lnk--> billabongs, and their range can be quite expansive during the <!--del_lnk--> Wet season. They have developed a different appearance from the Indonesian buffaloes from which they descend.<p><a id="Europe_and_Middle_East" name="Europe_and_Middle_East"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Europe and Middle East</span></h2>
<p>Introduced into North Africa and the Near East by <!--del_lnk--> 600 AD, the water buffalo was brought to Europe with returning <!--del_lnk--> Crusaders in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, and herds can be found in <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>. As in Asia, buffaloes of the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> live on coarse vegetation on the marginal land traditionally available to <!--del_lnk--> peasants. They are an economic asset by serving as a protein source, draft animal, and storage of family or household wealth. In some areas, they also provide occasional recreation at annual racing festivals. These buffalo are mostly River Buffaloes; due to genetic isolation have adopted a distinct appearance. Buffalo milk is used in Italy and elsewhere for the production of <a href="../../wp/c/Cheese.htm" title="Cheese">cheese</a>, including <!--del_lnk--> mozzarella.<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<p>Buffaloes, apart from its use as <!--del_lnk--> draught and <!--del_lnk--> milch animals, are also used to pull bullock carts in developing world. Their dung is used as a fertilizer and as a fuel when dried. Sometimes, people will also race on buffaloes, though riding them can be very difficult. A few have also found use as pack animals carrying loads even for special forces.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>American <a href="../../wp/b/Bison.htm" title="Bison">bison</a> are often called buffalo; however, this is technically incorrect as they are not true buffalo. The bison group includes both the American bison and the European bison or <!--del_lnk--> wisent. They are a related group of wild <!--del_lnk--> bovines, close to the <a href="../../wp/y/Yak.htm" title="Yak">yak</a> and more distantly related to <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Gaur.htm" title="Gaur">gaur</a>, <!--del_lnk--> banteng, etc. The buffalo family includes water buffaloes, <!--del_lnk--> tamarau and <!--del_lnk--> anoas in Asia and the <!--del_lnk--> African buffalo (or Cape buffalo) in Africa.<li>Legend has it that the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese philosophical sage <!--del_lnk--> Lao Tzu left China through the Han Gu Pass riding a water buffalo.<li>According to <!--del_lnk--> Hindu mythology, the god of death <!--del_lnk--> Yama, rides on a buffalo.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_Buffalo"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Water polo</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Sports.htm">Sports</a></h3>
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<p><b>Water polo</b> is a team water <a href="../../wp/s/Sport.htm" title="Sport">sport</a>, which can be best described as a combination of <!--del_lnk--> swimming, <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football (soccer)</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" title="Ice hockey">ice hockey</a>, <!--del_lnk--> rugby and <a href="../../wp/w/Wrestling.htm" title="Wrestling">wrestling</a>. A team consists of six field players and one goalkeeper. The goal of the game resembles that of football (soccer): to score as many goals as possible, each goal being worth one point.<p>A perfect water polo athlete can be best described as having the over-arm accuracy of a <a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" title="Baseball">baseball</a> <!--del_lnk--> pitcher, the vertical leap of a <a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a> player, the toughness of a rugby player, the endurance of a cross-country runner and the strategy of a <a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">chess</a> player.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14496.jpg.htm" title="Greece-Hungary in Naples, Italy"><img alt="Greece-Hungary in Naples, Italy" height="262" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WaterPolo.JPG" src="../../images/144/14496.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14496.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a>-<a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Naples, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></div>
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</script><a id="Basic_skills" name="Basic_skills"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Basic skills</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Swimming: Water polo is a team water sport, so swimming is a necessary skill. Field players must swim end to end of a 30 meter pool non-stop many times during a game. The <!--del_lnk--> freestyle stroke used in water polo differs from the usual swimming style in that water polo players swim with the head out of water at all times to observe the field. Backstroke is also needed to see the ball and who has it if the players are behind you. the goalkeeper also uses backstroke as a way of keeping track of the ball after passing it.</ul>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14497.jpg.htm" title="Goalie eggbeatering up to block a shot."><img alt="Goalie eggbeatering up to block a shot." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_Polo_Eggbeater.jpg" src="../../images/144/14497.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14497.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Goalie eggbeatering up to block a shot.</div>
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<ul>
<li><a href="#Ball_handling_skills" title="">Ball handling skills</a>: As all field players are only allowed to touch the ball with one hand at a time, they must develop the ability to catch and throw the ball with either hand. Experienced water polo players can catch and release a pass or shot with a single motion. The goalkeeper gets to use two hands on the ball. However, it is very important for them to know how to throw and catch with one hand.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Treading water: The most common form of water treading is generally referred to as the "egg-beater", named because the circular movement of the legs resembles the motion of an egg-beater. The advantage of the egg-beater is that it allows the player to maintain a constant position to the water level, as opposed to <!--del_lnk--> other forms of treading water such as the <!--del_lnk--> scissor kick, which result in the player bobbing up and down. Egg beater also uses less energy than the scissor kick does. Also, by kicking faster for a brief period the player can get high out of the water (as high as their suit—below their waistline) for a block, pass, or shot.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Reflexes and <!--del_lnk--> Awareness: At higher levels of the sport the pace of play rapidly increases and it is imperative that athletes keep up. Not only is swimming and fitness a necessity but mental preparation is a must. The most accomplished water polo players are constantly aware of their surroundings and can change tempo. Furthermore, awareness is a major advantage in scoring, even if a player lacks the speed of his opponent.</ul>
<p><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<p>Seven players from each team (six field players and a <!--del_lnk--> goalkeeper) are allowed in the playing area of the pool during game play. Visiting team field players wear numbered white caps, and home team field players wear dark caps; both goalies wear quartered red caps, numbered "1". Both teams may substitute players. During game play, players enter and exit in front of their team bench; when play is stopped, they may enter or exit anywhere.<p>The game is divided into four periods; the length depends on the level of play:<table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center">
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#E5E5E5">Level of play</th>
<th bgcolor="#E5E5E5">Team level</th>
<th bgcolor="#E5E5E5">Time each period</th>
<th bgcolor="#E5E5E5">Authority</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> FINA Water Polo World League</td>
<td>National</td>
<td>8 minutes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> FINA</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Olympics</td>
<td>National</td>
<td>8 minutes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> IOC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>US College</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Varsity</td>
<td>8 minutes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NCAA</td>
</tr>
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<td>US High School</td>
<td>Varsity</td>
<td>7 minutes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NFHS</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>US High School</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Junior Varsity</td>
<td>6 minutes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NFHS</td>
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<tr>
<td>US High School</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Freshman/<!--del_lnk--> Sophomore</td>
<td>5 minutes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NFHS</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The game clock is stopped when the ball is not 'in play' e.g. between a foul being committed and the free throw being taken and between a goal being scored and the restart. This causes the average quarter to last around 12 minutes 'real time'. A team may not have possession of the ball for longer than 30 seconds (35 in high school level)without shooting for the goal or an opponent being ejected. After this time, possession passes to the other team. However, if a team shoots the ball within the allotted 30 seconds, and regains control of the ball, the shot clock is reset to 30 seconds. Each team may call two one minute timeouts in the four periods of regulation play, and one timeout if the game goes into overtime. During game play, only the team in possession of the ball may call a timeout.<p>Dimensions of the water polo pool are not fixed and can vary between 20 x 10 and 30 x 20 meters. Minimum water depth must be least 1.8 meters (6 feet), but this is often waived for age group or high school games if such a facility is unavailable. The goals are 3 meters wide and 90 centimetres high. <!--del_lnk--> Water polo balls are generally yellow and of varying size and weight for juniors, women and men. The middle of the pool (analogous to the 50 yard line in football) is designated by a white line. In the past, the pool was divided by 7 and 4 meter lines (distance out from the goal line). This has been merged into one 5 meter line since the 2005-2006 season. Along the side of the pool, the centre area between the 5 meter lines is marked by a green line. The "five meters" line is where penalties are shot and it is designated by a yellow line. The "two meters" line is designated with a red line and no player of the attacking team can be inside this line without the ball.<p>One player on each team is designated the goalkeeper, assigned to deflect or catch any shots at goal. The goalkeeper is the only player who can touch the ball with both hands at any time, and, in a shallow pool, the only player allowed to stand on the bottom.<p>Players can move the ball by throwing it to a teammate or swimming while pushing the ball in front of them. Players are not permitted to push the ball underwater when being tackled, or push or hold an opposition player unless that player is holding the ball. Fouls are very common, and result in a free throw during which the player cannot shoot at the goal unless beyond the "5 meter" line. Water polo players need remarkable stamina due to the considerable amount of holding and pushing that occurs during the game, some allowed, some unseen or ignored by the referees (usually underwater). Water polo is one of the most physically demanding of all sports; action is continuous, and players commonly swim 3 kilometers or more during four periods of play.<p>Water polo is a game requiring excellent eye-hand coordination. The ability to <a href="#Ball_handling_skills" title="">handle and pass the ball</a> flawlessly separates the good teams from the great teams. A pass thrown to a field position player is preferably a "dry pass" (meaning the ball does not touch the water) and allows for optimal speed when passing from player to player with fluid motion between catching and throwing. A "wet pass" is a deliberate pass into the water, just out of reach of the offensive player nearest the goal (the "hole set") and his defender. The hole-set can then lunge towards the ball and out of the water to make a shot or pass. A backhanded shot from the hole set is very common. This is a very effective offensive strategy if a team has a strong hole-set.<p><a href="#Shooting" title="">Scoring</a> in water polo can be quite unique compared to other sports. For example, a "skip" shot is fired intentionally at the water with considerable force so it will bounce back up. The ball usually hits the water within a metre of the net, where the goalie cannot anticipate and block the shot. Another shot, called a "lob" is thrown with a large vertical arc. Often these shots are more difficult to stop than a faster shot, as they are usually thrown across a net at such an angle the goalie must not only shift position from one side of the net to the other quickly, but also at the same time propel out of the water more than for other shots. Pump faking is effective when using any kind of shot. The player gets in the position to shoot but stops halfway through his motion, causing the defending goalkeeper to commit too early to block the subsequent shot.<p>The referee's whistle for a <a href="#Fouls" title="">foul</a> is heard much more in water polo than in other sports. A defender will often foul the player with the ball as a tactic to disrupt the opponent's ball movement. Play continues uninterrupted in most cases, but the attacker must now pass the ball instead of advancing or taking a shot. However, as in <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" title="Ice hockey">ice hockey</a>, a player caught committing a <a href="#Fouls" title="">major foul</a>, is sent out of the playing area with his team <a href="#Man_up_.286_on_5.29" title="">a man-down</a> for 20 seconds, but may return sooner if a goal is scored or his team regains possession. If the foul is an unsportsmanlike act, however, the player is ejected for the remainder of the game with substitution by another teammate. A player can also be ejected for arguing with the referees. During a <a href="#Man_up_.286_on_5.29" title="">man up</a> situation resulting from an ejection foul, the attacking team can expect to score, by adopting a 4-2 or 3-3 formation and passing around to move the goalkeeper out of position. A player that has been ejected three times must sit out the whole match with substitution.<p><a id="Positions" name="Positions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Positions</span></h2>
<p>There are six field player positions and a goalkeeper on each team. Unlike most common team sports, there is no positional play; field players often will fill several positions throughout the game as situations demand. In high school most teams assign positions to certain players and it is less likely for the situations to switch due to the lower level of competitiveness. Players who are skilled at several offensive or defensive roles are called <i>utility players</i>. Utility players tend to come off of the bench, though this isn't absolute. An example is <!--del_lnk--> Thalia Munro, who played for <!--del_lnk--> UCLA and the US National Team, among the team leaders in goals, steals and assists. Certain body types are more suited for particular positions, and left-handed players are especially coveted, allowing teams to launch 2-sided attacks.<p><a id="Offense" name="Offense"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Offense</span></h4>
<p>The offensive positions include: 1 center forward (a.k.a. hole set, 2-meter offense or pit-man), 2 wings, 2 drivers (also called "flats"), and 1 "point" man. The point man directs the attack, and on defense is known as hole D or 2-meter defense, defending the opposing team's centre forward. The wings, drivers and point are often called the <i>perimeter players</i>. The most basic positional set up is known as a 3-3, due to the fact that there are two lines both containing 3 players. Another set up is known as a <i>umbrella</i>, or <i>mushroom</i>, because the perimeter players form the shape of an umbrella or mushroom around the goal with the center forward as the handle or stalk. The center forward, known by players as hole set or 2-meter is the centre player in the middle of the umbrella who is closest to the opposing teams goal. This player sets up in front of the opposing team's goalie and usually scores the most individually or contributes most often to initiating plays. The five perimeter players often swim the most and interchange their positions several times during a single offensive play. They contribute to the actual execution of plays, and cumulatively score the most points for the team. The point player's position provides opportunities to pass to teammates and communicate among the offense, like the <!--del_lnk--> point guard in <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>. The centre forward also plays a big role offensively because they sit closest to the goal and usually attempt "backhands" as frequently as possible.<p><a id="Defense" name="Defense"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Defense</span></h4>
<p>Defensive positions are often the same, but just switched from offense to defense. Defense can be played man-to-man or zone. The opposing center forward (hole set) is often double-teamed because of his position closest to the goal. From the centre forward position, a backhand shot is difficult to defend because these shots are explosive and directed into the corners of the goal. In zone defense, players defend an area of the pool. A strong shooter or good passer can be double-teamed by the defense, known as "sloughing".<p><a id="Goalie" name="Goalie"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Goalie</span></h4>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> goalkeeper is given several privileges above those of the other players, but only if he or she is within the five meter area in front of his goal:<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>
<ul>
<li>The ability to touch the ball with two hands.<li>The ability to strike the ball with a clenched fist.<li>The ability to touch the bottom of the pool. (pool depth permitting)</ul>
</dl>
</dl>
<p>The goalkeeper also has one limitation that other players do not have: he or she cannot cross the half-distance line.<p><a id="Offense_strategy" name="Offense_strategy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Offense strategy</span></h2>
<p><a id="Starting_play" name="Starting_play"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Starting play</span></h4>
<p>At the start of each period, teams line up on their own goal line. At the referee's whistle, both teams swim to midpoint of the field (known as the sprint or the swim-off); the referee drops the ball near the side of the pool. The first team to recover the ball becomes the attacker until a goal is scored or the defenders recover the ball. After a goal is scored, the teams line up anywhere within their halves of play, but usually along the midpoint of the pool. Play resumes when the team not scoring the goal puts the ball in play by passing it to a teammate.<p><a id="Advancing_the_ball" name="Advancing_the_ball"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Advancing the ball</span></h4>
<p>When the offense takes possession of the ball, the strategy is to advance the ball down the field of play and to score a goal. Players can move the ball by throwing it to a teammate or swimming while pushing the ball in front of them ("<!--del_lnk--> dribbling"). If an attacker uses his arm to push away a defending player and free up space for a pass or shot, the referee will rule a turnover and the defense will take possession of the ball. If an attacker advances inside the 2-meter line without the ball or before the ball is inside the 2-meter area, he is ruled off side and the ball is turned over to the defense. This is often overlooked if the attacker is well to the side of the pool or when the ball is at the other side of the pool.<p><a id="Setting_the_ball" name="Setting_the_ball"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Setting the ball</span></h4>
<p>The key to the offense is to accurately pass (or "set") the ball into the centre forward or hole set, positioned directly in front of the goal (<i>the hole</i>). The point player normally starts with the ball and throws the hole set a ""wet pass"" that hits the water just outside of the hole set's reach. The hole set attempts to take possession of the ball, to shoot at the goal, or to draw a foul from his defender. A <a href="#Defense_strategy" title="">minor foul</a> is called if his defender (called the "hole D") attempts to impede movement before the hole set has possession. The referee indicates the foul with one short whistle blow and points one hand to the spot of the foul and the other hand in the direction of the attack of the team to whom the free throw has been awarded. The hole set then has a "reasonable amount of time" (typically a three seconds) to re-commence play by making a free pass to one of the other players. The defensive team cannot hinder the hole set until the free throw has been taken, but the hole set cannot shoot a goal once the foul has been awarded until the ball has been played by at least one other player. If the hole set attempts a goal without the free throw, the goal is not counted and the defense takes possession of the ball, unless the shot is made outside the 5-meter line. As soon as the hole set has a free pass, the other attacking players attempt to swim or <i>drive</i> away from their defenders towards the goal. The players at the flat position will attempt to set a screen (also known as a pick) for the driver. If a driver gets free from a defender, the player calls for the pass from the hole set and attempts a shot at the goal.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14498.jpg.htm" title="A classic 4-2 man-up situation. The attacking white team has 4 players positioned on 2 metres, and 2 players positioned on 4 metres. The 5 outfield defending blue players try to block shots and prevent a goal being scored for the 20 seconds of man-down play. In the top left corner, the shot clock can be seen, showing 28 seconds remaining in the white attack."><img alt="A classic 4-2 man-up situation. The attacking white team has 4 players positioned on 2 metres, and 2 players positioned on 4 metres. The 5 outfield defending blue players try to block shots and prevent a goal being scored for the 20 seconds of man-down play. In the top left corner, the shot clock can be seen, showing 28 seconds remaining in the white attack." height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Waterpolo_man_up.jpg" src="../../images/144/14498.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14498.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A classic 4-2 man-up situation. The attacking white team has 4 players positioned on 2 metres, and 2 players positioned on 4 metres. The 5 outfield defending blue players try to block shots and prevent a goal being scored for the 20 seconds of man-down play. In the top left corner, the shot clock can be seen, showing 28 seconds remaining in the white attack.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Man_up_.286_on_5.29" name="Man_up_.286_on_5.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Man up (6 on 5)</span></h4>
<p>If a defender interferes with a free throw, holds or sinks an attacker who is not in possession or splashes water into the face of an opponent, the defensive player is excluded from the game for twenty seconds (informally called 'kicked out' or a <a href="#Defense_strategy" title="">major foul</a>). The attacking team typically positions 4 players on the 2 meter line, and 2 players on 5 meter line (4-2), passing the ball around until an open player attempts a shot. The 5 defending players try to pressure the attackers, block shots and prevent a goal being scored for the 20 seconds while they are a player down. The other players can only block the ball with one hand to help the goalie. The defensive player is allowed to return immediately if the offense scores or if the defense recovers the ball before the twenty seconds expires.<p><a id="Five_meter_penalty" name="Five_meter_penalty"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Five meter penalty</span></h4>
<p>If a defender commits a foul within the five meter area that prevents a likely goal, the attacking team is awarded a penalty <i>throw</i> or shot. An attacking player lines up on the five meter line in front of the opposing goal. No other player may be in front of him or within 2 meters of his position. The defending goalkeeper must be between the goal posts. The referee signals with a whistle and by lowering his arm, and the player taking the penalty shot must immediately throw the ball with an uninterrupted motion toward the goal. Penalty shots are often successful, but the goalkeeper who blocks a "five meter" can expect a chorus of cheers from the stands.<p><a id="Scoring" name="Scoring"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Scoring</span></h4>
<p>A shot is successful if the ball <i>completely</i> passes between the goal posts and underneath the crossbar. If a shot bounces off a goal post back into the field of play, the ball is rebounded by the players and the shot clock is reset. If the shot goes outside the goal and on to the deck (outside the field of play) then the ball is automatically recovered by the defense. If the goalie, however, is the last to touch the ball before it goes on to the deck then the offense receives the ball at the two meter line for a free throw much like a <!--del_lnk--> corner kick in soccer. The defense sometimes "counterattacks" when the goalie blocks a shot, gains control of the ball, and makes a long pass to a teammate at the opposite end of the pool. If a player stays on his offensive end of the pool when the rest of his team is defending, he is said to be <i>cherry-picking</i> or <i>sea gulling</i>.<p><a id="Overtime" name="Overtime"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Overtime</span></h4>
<p>If the score is tied at the end of regulation play, two <!--del_lnk--> overtime periods of three minutes each are played. If the tie is not broken after two overtime periods, a <!--del_lnk--> penalty shootout will determine the winner. Five players and a goalkeeper are chosen by the coaches of each team. Players shoot from the 5 meter line alternately at either end of the pool in turn until all five have taken a shot. If the score is still tied, the same players shoot alternately until one team misses and the other scores. Overtime periods are common in tournament play due to the high level of skill of these superior teams; Team USA defeated Hungary in the 2004 Women's Water Polo World League Super Final when US goalie <!--del_lnk--> Jackie Frank made 2 stops on penalty shots.<p><a id="Defense_strategy" name="Defense_strategy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Defense strategy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14499.jpg.htm" title="Water Polo Defense: A defender may only hold, block or pull an opponent who is touching or holding the ball. "><img alt="Water Polo Defense: A defender may only hold, block or pull an opponent who is touching or holding the ball. " height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_Polo_Defense.jpg" src="../../images/144/14499.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/144/14499.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Water Polo Defense: A defender may only hold, block or pull an opponent who is touching or holding the ball.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On defense, the players work to regain possession of the ball and prevent a goal. The defense attempts to knock away or steal the ball from the offense or commit a foul in order to stop an offensive player from taking a goal shot. The defender attempts to stay between the attacker and the goal, a position known as <i>inside water</i>.<p><a id="Fouls" name="Fouls"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Fouls</span></h4>
<p>If an offensive player, such as the hole set (center forward), has possession of the ball in front of the goal, the defensive player tries to steal the ball or keep the centre from shooting or passing. If the defender cannot, he may intentionally commit a foul. The hole set then has a free throw but must pass the ball off to another offensive player, rather than making a shot at the goal. Defensive perimeter players may also intentionally cause a minor foul and then move toward the goal, away from their attacker, who must take a free throw. This technique, called <!--del_lnk--> sloughing, allows the defense an opportunity to double-team the hole set and possibly steal the inbound pass. The referee may refrain from declaring a foul, if in his judgment this would give the advantage to the offender's team. This is known as the <i>Advantage Rule</i>.<p><b>Minor fouls</b> (ordinary fouls) occur when a player impedes or otherwise prevents the free movement of an opponent who is not holding the ball, including swimming on the opponent’s shoulders, back or legs. The most common is when a player reaches over the shoulder of an opponent in order to knock the ball away while in the process hindering the opponent. Offensive players may be called for a foul by pushing off a defender to provide space for a pass or shot. The referee indicates the foul with one short whistle blow and points one hand to the spot of the foul and the other hand in the direction of the attacking team, who retain possession. The attacker must make a free pass without undue delay to another offensive player. If the foul has been committed outside the 5-meter line, the offensive player may also attempt a direct shot on goal, but the shot must be a clean one. If the offensive player fakes a shot and then shoots the ball, it is considered a turnover. If the same defender repetitively makes minor fouls, referees will exclude that player for 20 seconds. To avoid an ejection, the hole defender may foul twice, and then have a wing defender switch with him so that the defense can continue to foul the hole man without provoking an exclusion foul. The rule was altered to allow repeated fouls without exclusions, but is often still enforced by referees.<p><b>Major fouls</b> (exclusion fouls) are committed when the defensive player pulls the offensive player away from the ball before the offensive player has had a chance to take possession of the ball. This includes dunking (<i>sinking</i> in FINA rules), intentional splashing, pulling back, or otherwise preventing the offensive player from preserving his advantage. A referee signals a major foul by two short whistle bursts and indicates that the player must leave the field of play and move to the penalty area for twenty seconds. The referee will first point to the player who commits the foul and will blow the whistle. then they will point to the ejection corner and blow the whistle again. The player must move to the penalty area without impacting the natural game play. If the player does not leave the field of play, the player will be kicked out for the remaining time of the game with substitution. The remaining five defenders, to cover the six attackers on a <i>man up</i> situation, usually set up in a zone defense in front of their goal. The attacking team can expect to score, by adopting a 4-2 or 3-3 formation, and moving the goalkeeper out of position. A player that has been ejected three times must sit out the whole match with substitution, much like the six personal fouls in <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a>.<p>A <b>misconduct foul</b> is a unsportsmanlike act. For unacceptable language, violent or persistent fouls, taking part in the game after being excluded or showing disrespect, a player is ejected for the remainder of the game with substitution after 20 seconds have elapsed. This type of foul is often called a <i>roll</i> because the referee signals the foul by rolling his hands around one another. If a player commits a violent foul with intention to harm, the player is ejected from the game without substitution. The opponents are awarded a penalty shot, and the ejected player's team plays one man down for the next four minutes of game time. This type of foul is called a <i>brutality</i> and is signaled by the referee by crossing the arms in the form of an <i>X</i>.<p>A <b>penalty shot</b> is awarded when a major foul is committed inside the 5-meter line and the offensive player had an opportunity to score, or a goal was prevented by the foul. This usually means that the offensive player is in front of and facing the goal. The penalty shot is attempted from 5 meters. Any defenders flanking the player taking the shot must be no closer than 2 meters. The goalkeeper must be on the goal line. In high school rules, the goalie must keep their hips even with the goal line. They are allowed to lean their upper body over in order to kick up higher. the referee blows the whistle and the player must shoot immediately.<p><a id="Goalkeeper" name="Goalkeeper"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Goalkeeper</span></h4>
<p>Even with good backup from the rest of the defenders, stopping attacks can prove very difficult if the goalkeeper remains in the middle of the goal. The most defensible position is along a semicircular line connecting the goalposts and extending out in the centre. Depending on the ball carrier's location, the goalie is positioned along that semicircle roughly a meter out of the goal to reduce the attacker's shooting angle. The goalkeeper stops using his or her hands to tread water once the opponent enters the 7 metre mark and starts treading water much harder, elevating the body, arms ready for the block. Finally the goalie tries to block the ball down, which is often hard for the longer reaches, but prevents an offensive rebound and second shot. As is the case with other defensive players, a goalkeeper who aggressively fouls an attacker in position to score can be charged with a penalty shot for the other team. The goalkeeper can also be ejected for twenty seconds if a major foul is committed.<p><a id="Ball_handling_skills" name="Ball_handling_skills"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ball handling skills</span></h2>
<p><a id="Passing" name="Passing"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Passing</span></h4>
<p>There are two basic passes in waterpolo: the "dry" pass and the "wet" pass. When passing to a field position player, a <b>dry pass</b> (meaning the ball doesn't touch the water) is thrown a few inches above the head of the catching player and to the left or right side depending on the receiver's dominant hand. The dry pass allows for optimal speed when passing from player to player, who do not have to pick the ball up out of the water to throw. A fluid motion between catching and throwing is the goal. An expert thrower's hand creates no spin, making the ball easier to catch. In order for the player to catch the ball above their head, they must egg beater harder which brings their body higher out of the water.<p>The <b>wet pass</b> is a deliberate pass into the water. This is usually done when making a pass into the hole set. To make a successful wet pass, the ball lands just out of reach of the offensive player and defensive team. The hole set can then lunge towards the ball and out of the water to make a shot or pass. This is a very effective offensive strategy if a team has a strong hole set. The only thing the passer must look out for is a possible double-team on the hole set. If that happens the player must look for an open player or pass the ball closer to the hole set to avoid a turnover.<p><a id="Shooting" name="Shooting"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Shooting</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14500.jpg.htm" title="The Lob Shot"><img alt="The Lob Shot" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_Polo_Lob.jpg" src="../../images/145/14500.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14500.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Lob Shot</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Shots usually succeed when the goalie is out of position. At long range from the goal, shots are easy for goalkeepers to stop, but closer ones are very difficult. Close-range shots tend to be harder to come by (since players close to the goalpost are usually under very great pressure), but in these situations usually a soft tap-in is enough to beat the goalkeeper. Close-range shots may come from the centre-forward in open play, utilizing either quick backhand-shots, sweep-shots, layout or other creative shooting positions.<p>There are three basic <b>outside water</b> shooting techniques. The first is a straight forward <b>power shot</b>. Top level water polo players can generate ball speeds between 50-90 km/h (30-56 mph). The player propels his body out of the water and uses his momentum to shoot the ball into the net. Though very powerful, this shot requires the precise targeting. If the shot is off the mark, the ball will either be blocked by the goalie or rebound off the goal post. Another shooting technique is the <b>bounce shot</b> or <b>skip shot</b>. Instead of shooting directly into the net, the player throws the ball at an angle directly into the water. If done properly and with enough force, the ball will bounce off the water and into the goal. The bounce shot usually takes the goalie by surprise. But, if done from far enough away the goalie can plan to block the ball low on the water instead of bringing the hands up in the air. The <b>lob shot</b> is high arching shot intended to pass over the goalie's hands and under the crossbar. It is most effective taken from an angle on either side of the goal post; this provides a large area behind the goalie into which the lob can drop on its downward arc. This shot confuses the goalie and usually forces the goalie to kick up out of the water too early and miss the block.<p>Outside water shots require a player to cease swimming, and usually occur outside the 2 meter zone. A player who has inside water and has a defender approaching may not want to pause and let his defender catch up. In these situations, which can often result from driving after a foul has been committed on the hole set or during a close fast break counterattack, players may perform an <b>inside water</b> shot. The <b>t-shot</b> or <b>bat shot</b> is executed by scooping the ball with the non-dominant hand, "loading" the ball to the dominant hand, and propelling the ball forward. The <b>pop shot</b> is a quick shot executed by cupping the ball with the dominant hand from underneath the ball and releasing it, usually into a corner of the goal. This shot is timed with a player's swimming stroke, and should flow comfortably from the dribble. Other inside water shots include the <b>screw shot</b>, which can likewise be executed directly from the stroke, and a <b>spring shot</b> where the player pushes the ball slightly into the water (but avoiding a "ball under" foul) and then allows a sudden release. While beginning players will have difficulty integrating these shots into their stroke, resulting in weaker shots as compared to outside water shots, inside water shots by experienced players have sufficient force to skip past the goalkeeper. One thing the shooter must watch is how close they get to the goalie because they can come out of the goal and take the ball.<p><b>Baulking</b> (a kind of pump fake) is effective when using an outside water shot. The player gets in the position to shoot but stops halfway through. This puts the defense on edge and partially immobilizes the goalie by wasting his blocking lunge. This can be repeated until the player decides to release the ball. A good baulk takes a great amount of hand strength to palm the ball while mimicking the movement of a shot.<p><a id="Game_variations" name="Game_variations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Game variations</span></h2>
<p>Inner tube water polo is a style of water polo with the important difference that players, excluding the <!--del_lnk--> goalkeeper, are required to <!--del_lnk--> float in <!--del_lnk--> inner tubes. By floating in an inner tube players expend less energy than traditional water polo players, not having to tread water. This allows casual players to enjoy water polo without undertaking the intense <!--del_lnk--> conditioning required for conventional water polo. This sport is predominantly played at universities by <!--del_lnk--> intramural <!--del_lnk--> coed teams. The sport's <!--del_lnk--> rules resemble those of water polo, however, with no governing body the rules vary across different leagues. For example, while the winner is determined by the team which scores the most <!--del_lnk--> goals, some leagues award one point for a male goal, and two points for a female goal, while others award one for either.<p>The game was invented in 1969 by now retired <!--del_lnk--> UC Davis associate athletic director of intramural sports and sport clubs, Gary Colberg. Noticing how much fun the water polo team was having, Mr. Colberg thought up the idea of using tubes so that people with no experience in water polo could still enjoy the game.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The modern game originated as a form of rugby football played in rivers and lakes in England and Scotland with a <!--del_lnk--> ball constructed of Indian rubber. This "water rugby" came to be called "water polo" based on the English pronunciation of the <!--del_lnk--> Balti word for ball, <i>pulu</i>,<p>Men's <!--del_lnk--> water polo at the Olympics was the among the first team sports introduced at the <!--del_lnk--> 1900 games (along with cricket, rugby, football (soccer), polo (with horses), rowing and tug of war). Women's water polo became an Olympic sport at the <!--del_lnk--> 2000 Sydney Olympic Games after political protests from the Australian women's team.<p>Every 2 to 4 years since 1973, a men's <!--del_lnk--> Water Polo World Championship is played together with the World <!--del_lnk--> Swimming Championship, under the auspices of <!--del_lnk--> FINA. Women's water polo was added in 1986. A second tournament series, the FINA Water Polo World Cup, has been held every other year since 1979. In 2002, FINA organized the sport's first international league, the <!--del_lnk--> FINA Water Polo World League.<p><a id="Water_polo_federations.2C_teams.2C_.26_clubs" name="Water_polo_federations.2C_teams.2C_.26_clubs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Water polo federations, teams, & clubs</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_polo"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Water purification</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Drink.htm">Drink</a></h3>
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<p><b>Water purification</b> is the removal of contaminants from <!--del_lnk--> raw water to produce <a href="../../wp/d/Drinking_water.htm" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a> that is <!--del_lnk--> pure enough for human consumption or for industrial use. Substances that are removed during the process include parasites ( such as <!--del_lnk--> Giardia or <!--del_lnk--> Cryptosporidium) , <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, <!--del_lnk--> algae, <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Virus">viruses</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fungi, <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">minerals</a> (including toxic metals such as <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">Lead</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">Copper</a> etc.), and man-made chemical <!--del_lnk--> pollutants. Many contaminants can be dangerous—but depending on the quality standards, others are removed to improve the water's smell, taste, and appearance. A small amount of disinfectant is usually intentionally left in the water at the end of the treatment process to reduce the risk of re-contamination in the distribution system.<p>Many environmental and cost considerations affect the location and design of water purification plants. Groundwater is cheaper to treat, but <!--del_lnk--> aquifers usually have limited output and can take thousands of years to recharge. Surface water sources should be carefully monitored for the presence of unusual types or levels of microbial/disease causing contaminants. The treatment plant itself must be kept secure from <!--del_lnk--> vandalism and <a href="../../wp/t/Terrorism.htm" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a>.<p>It is not possible to tell whether water is safe to drink just by looking at it. Simple procedures such as <!--del_lnk--> boiling or the use of a household <!--del_lnk--> charcoal filter are not sufficient for treating water from an unknown source. Even natural <!--del_lnk--> spring water—considered safe for all practical purposes in the <!--del_lnk--> 1800s—must now be tested before determining what kind of treatment is needed.<p>
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</script><a id="Sources_of_drinking_water" name="Sources_of_drinking_water"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Stages in typical municipal water treatment</span></h2>
<p>There are three principal stages in water purification:-<ol>
<li><b>Primary treatment</b> - Collecting and screening including pumping from rivers and initial storage<li><b>Secondary treatment</b> - removal of fine solids and the majority of contaminants using filters, coagulation, flocculation and membranes<li><b>Tertiary treatment</b> - polishing, pH adjustment, carbon treatment to remove taste and smells, disinfection, and temporary storage to allow the disinfecting agent to work.</ol>
<p><a id="Primary_Treatment" name="Primary_Treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Primary Treatment</span></h3>
<ol>
<li><b>Pumping and containment</b> - The majority of water must be pumped from its source or directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate materials and constructed so that accidental contamination does not occur.<li><b>Screening</b> (<i>see also <!--del_lnk--> Screen filter</i>) - The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as sticks, leaves, trash and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent purification steps. Most deep <!--del_lnk--> Groundwater does not need screening before other purification steps.<li><b>Storage</b> - Water from rivers may also be stored in <!--del_lnk--> bankside reservoirs for periods between a few days and many months to allow natural biological purification to take place. This is especially important if treatment is by <!--del_lnk--> slow sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a buffer against short periods of <a href="../../wp/d/Drought.htm" title="Drought">drought</a> or to allow water supply to be maintained during transitory <!--del_lnk--> pollution incidents in the source river.<li><b>Pre-conditioning</b> - Many waters rich in hardness salts are treated with soda-ash (<!--del_lnk--> Sodium carbonate)to precipitate <!--del_lnk--> calcium carbonate out utilising the <!--del_lnk--> common ion effect.<li><b>Pre-chlorination</b> - In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimise the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse quality effects (see Chlorine below), this has largely been discontinued.</ol>
<p><a id="Secondary_treatment" name="Secondary_treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Secondary treatment</span></h3>
<p>There are a wide range of techniques that can be used to remove the fine solids, micro-organisms and some dissolved inorganic and organic materials. The choice of method will depend on the quality of the water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the quality standards expected of the processed water.<ol>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> pH adjustment</b> - If the water is acidic, <!--del_lnk--> lime or <!--del_lnk--> soda ash is added to raise the <!--del_lnk--> pH. Lime is the more common of the two additives because it is cheaper, but it also adds to the resulting water hardness. Making the water slightly alkaline ensures that coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimise the risk of <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a> being dissolved from lead pipes and lead <!--del_lnk--> solder in pipe fittings.<li><b>Coagulation and flocculation</b> - Together, coagulation and <!--del_lnk--> flocculation are purification methods that work by using chemicals which effectively "glue" small suspended particles together, so that they settle out of the water or stick to sand or other granules in a granular media filter. Many of the suspended water particles have a negative <!--del_lnk--> electrical charge. The charge keeps particles suspended because they repel similar particles. Coagulation works by eliminating the natural electrical charge of the suspended particles so they attract and stick to each other. The joining of the particles so that they will form larger settleable particles is called flocculation. The larger formed particles are called <!--del_lnk--> floc. The coagulation chemicals are added in a tank (often called a rapid mix tank or flash mixer), which typically has rotating paddles. In most treatment plants, the mixture remains in the tank for 10 to 30 seconds to ensure full mixing. The amount of coagulant that is added to the water varies widely due to the different source water quality.<br /> One of the more common coagulants used is <!--del_lnk--> aluminium sulfate, sometimes called <b>filter <!--del_lnk--> alum</b>. Aluminium sulfate reacts with water to form flocs of <!--del_lnk--> aluminium hydroxide.<br /> Coagulation with aluminium compounds may leave a residue of aluminium in the finished water. This is normally about 0.1 to 0.15 mg/L. It has been established that Aluminium can be toxic to humans at high concentrations.<br /><!--del_lnk--> Iron(II) sulfate or <a href="../../wp/i/Iron%2528III%2529_chloride.htm" title="Iron(III) chloride">iron (III) chloride</a> are other common coagulants. Iron(III) coagulants work over a larger pH range than aluminium sulfate but are not effective with many source waters. Other benefits of iron(III) are lower costs and in some cases slightly better removal of natural organic contaminants from some waters. Coagulation with iron compounds typically leaves a residue of iron in the finished water. This may impart a slight taste to the water, and may cause brownish stains on porcelain fixtures. The trace levels of iron are not harmful to humans, and indeed provide a needed trace mineral. Because the taste and stains may lead to customer complaints, aluminium tends to be favoured over iron for coagulation.<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cationic and other <!--del_lnk--> polymers can also be used. They are often called coagulant aids used in conjunction with other inorganic coagulants. The long chains of positively charged polymers can help to strengthen the floc making it larger, faster settling and easier to filter out. The main advantages of polymer coagulants and aids are that they do not need the water to be alkaline to work and that they produce less settled waste than other coagulants, which can reduce operating costs. The drawbacks of polymers are that they are expensive, can blind sand filters and that they often have a very narrow range of effective doses.<li><b>Flocculation</b> - In flocculation coagulants are used but the resultant floc is settled out rather than filtered through sand filters. The chosen coagulant and the raw water is slowly mixed in a large tank called a flocculation basin. Unlike a rapid mix tank, the flocculation paddles turn very slowly to minimise turbulence. The principle involved is to allow as many particles to contact other particles as possible generating large and robust floc particles. Generally, the retention time of a flocculation basin is at least 30 minutes with speeds between 0.5 feet and 1.5 feet per minute (15 to 45 cm / minute). Flow rates less than 0.5 ft/mian cause undesirable floc settlement within the basin.<li><b>Sedimentation</b> -Water exiting the flocculation basin enters the <!--del_lnk--> sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between does not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins can be in the shape of a rectangle, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a <!--del_lnk--> weir so only a thin top layer-furthest from the sediment-exits.The amount of floc that settles out of the water is dependent on the time the water spends in the basin and the depth of the basin. The retention time of the water must therefore be balanced against the cost of a larger basin. The minimum clarifier retention time is normally 4 hours. A deep basin will allow more floc to settle out than a shallow basin. This is because large particles settle faster than smaller ones, so large particles bump into and integrate smaller particles as they settle. In effect, large particles sweep vertically though the basin and clean out smaller particles on their way to the bottom.<br /> As particles settle to the bottom of the basin a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is significant, often 3%-5% of the total volume of water that is treated. The cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can be a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment plant. The tank may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the bottom of the tank or the tank can be taken out of service when the bottom needs to be cleaned.<br /> An increasingly popular method of floc removal is by dissolved air flotation. A proportion of clarified water, typical 5-10% of throughput, is recycled and air is dissolved in it under pressure. This is injected into the bottom of the clarifier tank where tiny air bubbles are formed which attach themselves to the floc particles and float them to the surface. A sludge blanket is formed which is periodically removed using mechanical scrapers. This method is very efficient at floc removal and reduces loading on filters, however it is unsuitable for water sources with a high concentration of sediment.<li><b>Filtration</b> - After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of <!--del_lnk--> activated carbon or <!--del_lnk--> anthracite coal above the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds including taste and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.<br /> To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal direction (called <i>backflushing</i> or <i>backwashing</i>) to remove embedded particles. Prior to this, compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as <i>air scouring</i>. This contaminated water can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mixing with the raw water entering the plant.<br /> Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These work on the same principle as rapid gravity filters differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Slow sand filters</b> may be used where there is sufficient land and space. These rely on biological treatment processes for their action rather than physical filtration. Slow sand filters are carefully constructed using graded layers of sand with the coarsest at the base and the finest at the top. Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the development of a thin biological layer on the surface of the filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months if the pre-treatment is well designed and produces an excellent quality of water which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ultrafiltration <!--del_lnk--> membranes</b> are a relatively new development; they use polymer film with chemically formed microscopic pores that can be used in place of granular media to filter water effectively without coagulants. The type of membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out.</ol>
<p><a id="Tertiary_treatment" name="Tertiary_treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tertiary treatment</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Disinfection is normally the last step in purifying drinking water. Water is disinfected to destroy any <!--del_lnk--> pathogens which passed through the filters. Possible pathogens include <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Viruses">viruses</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Escherichia coli</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Campylobacter</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Shigella</i>, and <!--del_lnk--> protozoans, including <i><!--del_lnk--> G. lamblia</i> and other <!--del_lnk--> Cryptosporidia. In most developed countries, public water supplies are required to maintain a residual disinfecting agent throughout the distribution system, in which water may remain for days before reaching the consumer. Following the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage - often called a <b>contact tank</b> or <b>clear well</b> to allow the disinfecting action to complete.<ol>
<li><b>Chlorine</b>- The most common disinfection method is some form of <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> or its compounds such as <!--del_lnk--> chloramine or <!--del_lnk--> chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that kills many micro-organisms.<br /> Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively inexpensive solid that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Handling the solid, however, requires greater routine human contact through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders which are more easily automated. Both disinfectants are widely used despite their respective drawbacks. A major drawback to using chlorine gas or sodium hypochlorite is that they react with organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful levels of the chemical by-products <!--del_lnk--> trihalomethanes (THMs) and <!--del_lnk--> haloacetic acids, both of which are <!--del_lnk--> carcinogenic and regulated by the U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The formation of THMs and haloacetic acids is minimised by effective removal of as many organics from the water as possible before disinfection. Although chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against protozoans that form cysts in water. (<i>Giardia lamblia</i> and <i>Cryptosporidium</i>, both of which are pathogenic).<li>Chlorine dioxide is another fast-acting disinfectant. It is, however, rarely used, because it may create excessive amounts of chlorate and chlorite, both of which are regulated to low allowable levels. Chlorine dioxide also poses extreme risks in handling: not only is the gas toxic, but it may spontaneously detonate upon release to the atmosphere in an accident.<li><i>Chloramines</i> are another chlorine-based disinfectant. Although chloramines are not as effective as disinfectants, compared to chlorine gas or sodium hypochlorite, they are less prone to form THMs or haloacetic acids. It is possible to convert chlorine to chloramine by adding ammonia to the water along with the chlorine: The chlorine and ammonia react to form chloramine. Water distribution systems disinfected with chloramines may experience <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrification.htm" title="Nitrification">nitrification</a>, wherein ammonia is used a nitrogen source for bacterial growth, with nitrates being generated as a byproduct.<li><a href="../../wp/o/Ozone.htm" title="Ozone">Ozone</a> (O<sub>3</sub>) is a relatively unstable molecule of oxygen which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidising agent which is toxic to most water borne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoans that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the advantages of ozone include the production of relatively fewer dangerous by-products (in comparison to <!--del_lnk--> chlorination) and the lack of taste and odour produced by ozonation. Although fewer by-products are formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that the use of ozone produces a small amount of the suspected carcinogen <!--del_lnk--> Bromate. Another one of the main disadvantages of ozone is that it leaves no disinfectant residual in the water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since 1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was built in Nice, France. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has accepted ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods.<li><!--del_lnk--> UV radiation is very effective at inactivating cysts, as long as the water has a low level of colour so the UV can pass through without being absorbed. The main drawback to the use of UV radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water.<br /> Because neither ozone nor UV radiation leaves a residual disinfectant in the water, it is sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after they are used. This is often done through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very little of the negative aspects of chlorination.</ol>
<p><a id="Additional_treatment_options" name="Additional_treatment_options"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Additional treatment options</span></h3>
<ol>
<li><b>Fluoridation</b> -in many areas <!--del_lnk--> fluoride is added to water for the purpose of preventing <!--del_lnk--> tooth decay. This process is referred to as <!--del_lnk--> water fluoridation. Fluoride is usually added after the disinfection process. In the United States, fluoridation is usually accomplished by the addition of <!--del_lnk--> dihydrogen hexafluorosilicate, which decomposes in water, yielding fluoride ions.<li><b>Water conditioning</b>: This is a method of reducing the effects of hard water. Hardness salts are deposited in water systems subject to heating because the decomposition of bicarbonate ions creates carbonate ions which crystalise out of the saturated solution of calcium or magnesium carbonate. Water with high concentrations of hardness salts can be treated with soda ash (<!--del_lnk--> sodium carbonate) which precipitates out the excess salts, through the common ion effect, as calcium carbonate of very high purity. The preciptated calcium carbonate is traditionally sold to the manufacturers of <!--del_lnk--> toothpaste. Several other methods of industrial and <!--del_lnk--> residential water treatment are claimed (without general scientific acceptance) to include the use of magnetic or/and electrical fields reducing the effects of hard water.<li><b>Plumbo-solvency reduction</b>: In areas with naturally acidic waters of low conductivity (i.e surface rainfall in upland mountains of <!--del_lnk--> igneous rocks), the water is capable of dissolving <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a> from any lead pipes that it is carried in. The addition of small quantities of <!--del_lnk--> phosphate ion and increasing the <!--del_lnk--> pH slightly both assist in greatly reducing plumbo-solvency by creating insoluble lead salts on the inner surfaces of the pipes.<li><b>Radium Removal</b>: Some groundwater sources contain <a href="../../wp/r/Radium.htm" title="Radium">radium</a>, a radioactive chemical element, including many groundwater sources north of the <!--del_lnk--> Illinois River in <!--del_lnk--> Illinois. Radium can be removed by ion exchange, or by water conditioning. The back flush or sludge that is produced is, however, a low-level <!--del_lnk--> radioactive waste.<li><b>Fluoride Removal</b>: Although fluoride is added to water in many areas, some areas of the world have excessive levels of natural fluoride in the source water. Excessive levels can be <!--del_lnk--> toxic. One method of reducing fluoride levels is through treatment with <!--del_lnk--> activated alumina.</ol>
<p><a id="Other_water_purification_techniques" name="Other_water_purification_techniques"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other water purification techniques</span></h2>
<p>Other popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private supplies are listed below. In some countries some of these methods are also used for large scale municipal supplies. Particularly important are distillation (de-salination of seawater) and reverse osmosis.<ol>
<li><b>Boiling</b>: Water is heated hot enough and long enough to inactivate or kill <!--del_lnk--> microorganisms that normally live in water at room temperature. Near sea level, a vigorous rolling boil for at least one minute is sufficient. At high altitudes (greater than two kilometers or 5000 feet) three minutes is recommended. <!--del_lnk--> US EPA emergency disinfection recomendations In areas where the water is "hard" (that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts), boiling decomposes the <!--del_lnk--> bicarbonate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as <!--del_lnk--> calcium carbonate. This is the "fur" that builds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the exception of calcium, boiling does not remove solutes of higher boiling point than water and in fact increases their concentration (due to some water being lost as vapour). Boiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that has been boiled and then stored for any length of time may have acquired new pathogens.<li><!--del_lnk--> Carbon filtering: <!--del_lnk--> Charcoal, a form of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a> with a high surface area, absorbs many compounds including some toxic compounds. Water passing through <!--del_lnk--> activated charcoal is common in household water filters and fish tanks. Household filters for drinking water sometimes contain <a href="../../wp/s/Silver.htm" title="Silver">silver</a> to release silver ions which have a bactericidal effect.<li><!--del_lnk--> Distillation involves boiling the water to produce water <!--del_lnk--> vapour. The vapour contacts a cool surface where it condenses as a liquid. Because the solutes are not normally vaporised, they remain in the boiling solution. Even distillation does not completely purify water, because of contaminants with similar boiling points and droplets of unvaporised liquid carried with the steam. However, 99.9% pure water can be obtained by distillation. Distillation does not confer any residual disinfectant and the distillation apparatus may be the ideal place to harbour <!--del_lnk--> Legionnaires' disease.<li><!--del_lnk--> Reverse osmosis: Mechanical pressure is applied to an impure solution to force pure water through a <!--del_lnk--> semi-permeable membrane. Reverse osmosis is theoretically the most thorough method of large scale water purification available, although perfect semi-permeable membranes are difficult to create. Unless membranes are well-maintained, algae and other life forms can colonise the membranes.<li><!--del_lnk--> Ion exchange: Most common ion exchange systems use a <!--del_lnk--> zeolite resin bed to replace unwanted <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">Ca<sup>2+</sup></a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">Mg<sup>2+</sup></a> <!--del_lnk--> ions with benign (soap friendly) <a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">Na<sup>+</sup></a> or <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">K<sup>+</sup></a> ions. This is the common water softener.<li><b>Electrodeionization</b>: Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion selective membranes allow the positive ions to separate from the water toward the negative electrode and the negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionized water results. The water is usually passed through a <!--del_lnk--> reverse osmosis unit first to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.</ol>
<p><a id="Portable_water_purification" name="Portable_water_purification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Portable water purification</span></h2>
<dl>
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<p>Portable techniques for purifying water are used for hiking, camping etc. or for use in rural areas or emergency situations. Common techniques include boiling, disinfection with tablets or ultra-filtration using a small hand pump.<p><a id="Water_purification_for_hydrogen_production" name="Water_purification_for_hydrogen_production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Water purification for hydrogen production</span></h2>
<p>For small scale <!--del_lnk--> production of hydrogen water purifiers are installed to prevent formation of minerals on the surface of the electrodes and to remove organics and chlorine from utility water. First the water passes through a 20 micrometre interference (<!--del_lnk--> mesh or <!--del_lnk--> screen filter) filter to remove sand and dust particles, second, a <!--del_lnk--> charcoal filter (<!--del_lnk--> activated carbon) to remove organics and <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a>, third stage, a <!--del_lnk--> de-ionizing filter to remove metallic ions. A test can be done before and after the filter for proper functioning on <a href="../../wp/b/Barium.htm" title="Barium">barium</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Calcium.htm" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sodium.htm" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Silicon.htm" title="Silicon">silicon</a>.<p>Another used method is <!--del_lnk--> reverse osmosis.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Water resources</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geology_and_geophysics.htm">Geology and geophysics</a></h3>
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<p><b>Water resources</b> are sources of <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> that are useful or potentially useful to humans. It is important because it is needed for life to exist. Many uses of water include <!--del_lnk--> agricultural, <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industrial</a>, <!--del_lnk--> household, <!--del_lnk--> recreational and <!--del_lnk--> environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a>. Only 2.5% of water on the Earth is fresh water, and over two thirds of this is frozen in <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> and <!--del_lnk--> polar <!--del_lnk--> ice caps. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world, and many more areas are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as <!--del_lnk--> water rights.<p>
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</script><a id="Water_and_conflict" name="Water_and_conflict"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Water and conflict</span></h2>
<p>Throughout history, water resources have occasionally been the source of conflict. Examples include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Well poisoning<li>Privatization and Water Pricing in India <!--del_lnk--> ,<li>Privatization and Water Pricing <!--del_lnk--> protests in Cochabamba, Bolivia in 2000</ul>
<p>Nevertheless, some claim that the issue does not get the attention it deserves, in particular with regard to security.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Threats to fresh water</span></h2>
<p>There are many things that are a threat to the Earths fresh water supply. Here are a few of them.<p><a id="Climate_change" name="Climate_change"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate change</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> will have significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the close connections between the climate and <!--del_lnk--> hydrologic cycle. Rising temperatures will increase <!--del_lnk--> evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation, though there will be regional variations in rainfall. Overall, the global supply of freshwater will increase. Both <!--del_lnk--> droughts and <!--del_lnk--> floods may become more frequent in different regions at different times, and dramatic changes in snowfall and snowmelt are expected in mountainous areas. Higher temperatures will also affect water quality in ways that are not well understood. Possible impacts include increased <!--del_lnk--> eutrophication. Climate change could also mean an increase in demand for farm irrigation, garden sprinklers, and perhaps even swimming pools.<p><a id="Depletion_of_aquifers" name="Depletion_of_aquifers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Depletion of aquifers</span></h3>
<p>Since competition for water is growing, underground aquifers are becoming depleted. This is mainly due to irrigation by groundwater. Millions of small pumps are currently taking water out of aquifers to irrigate crops. Irrigation in dry areas such as <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> is supplied by groundwater.<p><a id="Pollution_and_water_protection" name="Pollution_and_water_protection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pollution and water protection</span></h3>
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<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22817.jpg.htm" title="Polluted Water"><img alt="Polluted Water" height="87" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Water_pollution.jpg" src="../../images/228/22817.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22817.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Polluted Water</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Water pollution is one of the many concerns of the world today. World governments have strived to find solutions to eliminate this problem. Many programs strive to protect our water resources. They are usually funded by donations from generous people.<br style="clear:both;" />
<p><a id="Uses_of_fresh_water" name="Uses_of_fresh_water"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses of fresh water</span></h2>
<p>Uses of fresh water can be categorized as consumptive and non-consumptive (sometimes called "renewable"). A use of water is consumptive if that water is not immediately available for another use. Losses to sub-surface seepage and evaporation are considered consumptive, as is water incorporated into a product (such as farm produce). Water that can be <!--del_lnk--> treated and returned as surface water, such as <!--del_lnk--> sewage, is generally considered non-consumptive if that water can be put to additional use.<p><a id="Agricultural" name="Agricultural"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Agricultural</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22818.jpg.htm" title="A farm in Ontario"><img alt="A farm in Ontario" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ontario_farm.jpg" src="../../images/228/22818.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22818.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A farm in <!--del_lnk--> Ontario</div>
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<p>It is estimated that 70% of world-wide water use is for <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>. In some areas of the world irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all, in other areas it permits more profitable crops to be grown or enhances crop yield. Various irrigation methods involve different trade-offs between crop yield, water consumption and capital cost of equipment and structures. <a href="../../wp/i/Irrigation.htm" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> methods such as most furrow and overhead <!--del_lnk--> sprinkler irrigation are usually less expensive but also less efficient, because much of the water evaporates or runs off. More efficient irrigation methods include <!--del_lnk--> drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and some types of sprinkler systems where the sprinklers are operated near ground level. These types of systems, while more expensive, can minimize runoff and evaporation. Any system that is improperly managed can be wasteful. Another trade-off that is often insufficiently considered is salinization of sub-surface water.<p><!--del_lnk--> Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water. Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation (see <a href="../../wp/a/Aral_Sea.htm" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Pyramid Lake).<p>As global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a world with a fixed water supply, there are efforts underway to learn how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in irrigation methods and technologies, agricultural water management, crop types, and water monitoring.<p><a id="Industrial" name="Industrial"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Industrial</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22819.jpg.htm" title="A power plant in Poland"><img alt="A power plant in Poland" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Poland_Solina_dam.jpg" src="../../images/228/22819.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22819.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A power plant in <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a></div>
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<p>It is estimated that 15% of world-wide water use is industrial. Major industrial users include power plants, which use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e. <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric plants), <!--del_lnk--> ore and <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.<p>The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive varies widely, but as a whole is lower than agricultural use.<br style="clear:both;" />
<p><a id="Household" name="Household"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Household</span></h3>
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<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22820.jpg.htm" title="Drinking water"><img alt="Drinking water" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Drinking_water.jpg" src="../../images/228/22820.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22820.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Drinking water</div>
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<p>It is estimated that 15% of world-wide water use is for household purposes. These include <a href="../../wp/d/Drinking_water.htm" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>, bathing, cooking, sanitation, and gardening. Basic household water requirements <!--del_lnk--> have been estimated by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens.<p>Most household water is treated and returned to surface water systems, with the exception of water used for landscapes. Household water use is therefore less consumptive than agricultural or industrial uses.<br style="clear:both;" />
<p><a id="Recreation" name="Recreation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recreation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22821.jpg.htm" title="Whitewater rapids"><img alt="Whitewater rapids" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Whitewater.jpg" src="../../images/228/22821.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22821.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Whitewater rapids</div>
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<p>Water has a lot of recreational value.<p>Recreational water use is a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation, then the water retained could be categorized as recreational usage. Release of water from a few reservoirs is also timed to enhance <!--del_lnk--> whitewater boating, which also could be considered a recreational usage. Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature enthusiasts and swimmers.<p>Recreational usage is non-consumptive. However it may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not available to farmers during the spring planting season. Water released for whitewater rafting may not be available for hydroelectric generation during the time of peak electrical demand.<br style="clear:both;" />
<p><a id="Environmental" name="Environmental"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:502px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22822.jpg.htm" title="A natural wetland"><img alt="A natural wetland" height="55" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sinclair_Wetlands.jpg" src="../../images/228/22822.jpg" width="500" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22822.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A natural wetland</div>
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<p>Explicit environmental water use is also a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Environmental water usage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, <!--del_lnk--> fish ladders around <a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" title="Dam">dams</a>, and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn.<p>Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream.<br style="clear:both;" />
<p><a id="World_water_supply_and_distribution" name="World_water_supply_and_distribution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">World water supply and distribution</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22823.jpg.htm" title="Projected water distribution in 2025"><img alt="Projected water distribution in 2025" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Iwimi.jpg" src="../../images/228/22823.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22823.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Projected water distribution in 2025</div>
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<p>Food and water are two basic human needs. As the picture shows, in 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia. By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate sanitation. This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by humans.<p>Generally speaking the more developed countries of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> will not see a serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources. North Africa, the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and northern <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> will face very severe water shortages due to physical scarcity and a condition of <!--del_lnk--> overpopulation relative to their <!--del_lnk--> carrying capacity with respect to water supply. Most of <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> will face water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes of scarcity will be economic constraints to developing safe drinking water, as well as <!--del_lnk--> excessive population growth.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resources"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Watercolor painting</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Art.Art.htm">Art</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15823.jpg.htm" title="Carl Larsson, Crayfishing, watercolor, 1897."><img alt="Carl Larsson, Crayfishing, watercolor, 1897." class="thumbimage" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kr%C3%A4ftf%C3%A5ngst_av_Carl_Larsson_1897.jpg" src="../../images/158/15823.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15823.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Carl Larsson, <i>Crayfishing</i>, watercolor, 1897.</div>
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<p><b>Watercolor</b> (or <b>watercolour</b>, also known as <b>aquarelle</b>) is a <a href="../../wp/p/Painting.htm" title="Painting">painting</a> technique using <!--del_lnk--> paint made of <!--del_lnk--> colorants suspended or dissolved in water. Although the grounds used in watercolor painting vary, the most common is paper. Others include <!--del_lnk--> papyrus, bark papers, <!--del_lnk--> plastics, <!--del_lnk--> vellum or <!--del_lnk--> leather, <a href="../../wp/t/Textile.htm" title="Textile">fabric</a>, wood, and <!--del_lnk--> canvas.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History_of_watercolor_painting" name="History_of_watercolor_painting"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History of watercolor painting</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15825.jpg.htm" title="Albrecht Dürer, A Young Hare, 1502, Watercolor with bodycolour, Albertina, Vienna."><img alt="Albrecht Dürer, A Young Hare, 1502, Watercolor with bodycolour, Albertina, Vienna." class="thumbimage" height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hase.jpg" src="../../images/158/15825.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15825.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>, <i>A Young Hare</i>, 1502, Watercolor with bodycolour, <!--del_lnk--> Albertina, Vienna.</div>
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<p>One early form of watercolor painting, that is not normally included in the category, is <!--del_lnk--> buon fresco painting — wall-painting using pigments in a water medium on wet <!--del_lnk--> plaster , which goes back to Egyptian and Roman antiquity. One well-known example of buon fresco is the <!--del_lnk--> Sistine Chapel by <a href="../../wp/m/Michelangelo.htm" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, begun in <!--del_lnk--> 1508 and completed in <!--del_lnk--> 1514.<p>Watercolour painting, usually referred to as brush painting in Asian contexts, has a long history in many parts of the world. In <!--del_lnk--> Chinese and <!--del_lnk--> Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, often in monochrome black or brown, when it tends to be called <!--del_lnk--> ink. <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and other countries also have long traditions.<p>Watercolour has also been used for manuscript illumination since at least Egyptian times, and was a major part of European manuscript painting on <!--del_lnk--> vellum (often mixed with <!--del_lnk--> tempera). Paper spread from the Islamic world, via <!--del_lnk--> Islamic Spain, to Europe, where it was being manufactured in Germany and Italy before 1400. From the introduction of the <!--del_lnk--> old master print around 1400, most prints were coloured after printing until at least the latter part of the century, although the practice continued in some cases, such as English <!--del_lnk--> satirical prints , until the nineteenth century (<!--del_lnk--> JMW Turner and <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Girtin were both employed at this as teenagers).<p>Watercolor painting was also used in cartoons and large paintings. In <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 1471-<!--del_lnk--> 1528) painted watercolors, including the earliest pure landscape studies. An important school of watercolor painting in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> was led by <!--del_lnk--> Hans Bol (<!--del_lnk--> 1534-<!--del_lnk--> 1593) as part of the <a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" title="Dürer Renaissance">Dürer Renaissance</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15835.jpg.htm" title="JMW Turner, Alpine Scene, 1802, Tate Britain."><img alt="JMW Turner, Alpine Scene, 1802, Tate Britain." class="thumbimage" height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_017.jpg" src="../../images/158/15835.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15835.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> JMW Turner, <i>Alpine Scene</i>, 1802, <!--del_lnk--> Tate Britain.</div>
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<p>Other famous artists have used watercolor painting, including <!--del_lnk--> Van Dyck, <!--del_lnk--> Claude, <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, and many <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Flemish artists, including several who worked in Britain, and originated the British school.<p>From the seventeenth century to the present, the British school of watercolour, which especially features landscape subjects, has been perhaps the most continuous and widely followed tradition in Europe. Among the most famous of the artists are: <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Cozens,<!--del_lnk--> William Gilpin, <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Gainsborough.htm" title="Thomas Gainsborough">Thomas Gainsborough</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Francis Towne, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Sandby, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Girtin, <!--del_lnk--> John Sell Cotman, <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Palmer, <!--del_lnk--> William Blake, <a href="../../wp/j/John_Constable.htm" title="John Constable">John Constable</a> , <!--del_lnk--> JMW Turner, and <!--del_lnk--> Richard Parkes Bonnington.<p>The beginnings of the "California Style" of watercolor painting began in the 1920s and is described in <i>California Watercolors 1850-1970</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Milford Zornes is recognized as a leader in the California Style watercolor movement. His style differed from the traditional use of watercolors in which color was added to detailed pencil drawings. His work is characterized by the application of transparent washes of colour to large sheets of paper, allowing the white to show through and define shapes.<p><a id="Watercolor_paint" name="Watercolor_paint"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Watercolor paint</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15844.jpg.htm" title="A set of watercolors."><img alt="A set of watercolors." class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Watercolours.jpg" src="../../images/158/15844.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15844.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A set of watercolors.</div>
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<p>The broader term for water-based painting media is <i><!--del_lnk--> watermedia</i>. The term <i>watercolor</i> most often to refers to traditional transparent watercolor or <!--del_lnk--> gouache (an opaque form of the same paint), but also includes the use of thinned <!--del_lnk--> acrylic paint.<p>Traditional watercolor paint is made of finely-ground <a href="../../wp/p/Pigment.htm" title="Pigment">pigment</a> mixed with <!--del_lnk--> gum arabic for body, and <!--del_lnk--> glycerin or <a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" title="Honey">honey</a> for <!--del_lnk--> viscosity and to bond the colorant to the painting surface. Unpigmented filler is added to gouache to lend opacity to the paint. <!--del_lnk--> Oil of clove is used to prevent mold.<p>Watercolor paints vary in their transparency, some being less transparent (more covering) than others. The more transparent paints allow the paper (or an undercolor) to show through while others allow less of the undercolor to be seen.<p>As there is no transparent white watercolor, the white parts of a watercolor painting are most often areas of the paper "reserved" (left unpainted) and allowed to be seen in the finished work. White paint might be used to indicate snow on a fence or the foam in the sea, as examples, by using Chinese White or White Gouache. These are not transparent. Traditionally, such non-transparent paint is used sparingly so as not to lose the light and airy look of the work.<p>Some watercolor pigments are "Fugitive", meaning they fade over time when exposed to light. An example is Alizarin Crimson. Some paint makers offer a different formulation of pigment as a less-fugitive alternative. These often have the word "Hue" as part of the name. "Alizarin Crimson Hue" can be expected to be less "Fugitive" than "Alizarin Crimson".<p>"Staining" is another characteristic of certain watercolor pigments. A Staining colour is difficult to remove and persists on the paper. Less staining colors can be lightened or removed almost entirely when wet or when re-wetted by "lifting" with a wet brush, paper towel, tissue, sponge, or similar.<p>Commercial watercolor paints come in two grades: "Artist" (or "Professional") and "Student". Artist quality paints are usually formulated using a single pigment, which results in richer colour and vibrant mixes. Student grade paints have less pigment, and often are formulated using two or more less expensive pigments. Artist and Professional paints are more expensive but many consider the quality worth the higher cost.<p>Paint pigments and formulation vary among manufacturers. Paints with the same colour name from different makers can vary in hue, staining, and other characteristics.<p><a id="Techniques" name="Techniques"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Techniques</span></h2>
<p>Traditionally, watercolor paint is applied with brushes, but it may be applied with other implements in experimental approaches or mixed with other materials (usually <!--del_lnk--> acrylic or <!--del_lnk--> collage).<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15846.jpg.htm" title="Carl Larsson, The Christmas Eve, watercolor, (1904-1905)."><img alt="Carl Larsson, The Christmas Eve, watercolor, (1904-1905)." class="thumbimage" height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Julaftonen_av_Carl_Larsson_1904.jpg" src="../../images/158/15846.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15846.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Carl Larsson, <i>The <!--del_lnk--> Christmas Eve</i>, watercolor, (<!--del_lnk--> 1904-<!--del_lnk--> 1905).</div>
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<p>The paint is thinned before application to allow for lighter areas within the painting. This transparency provides watercolor its characteristics of brightness, <i>sparkle</i>, freshness, and clarity of colour since light has passed through the film of paint and is reflected back to the viewer through the film.<p>According to a tradition, dating from at least the early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, the white of the paper is the only white used in transparent watercolor. Opaque paint is seldom used for whites or to <i>overpaint</i>.<p>Watercolor techniques have the reputation of being quite demanding; it is more accurate to say that watercolor techniques are unique to watercolor. Maintaining a high quality of value differences and <a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">colour</a> clarity are typically the most difficult properties to achieve and maintain.<p>The medium is effective in <!--del_lnk--> portraiture, <!--del_lnk--> figurative art, and <!--del_lnk--> photorealism.<p>Watercolor proponents prize it as a studio medium for its lack of odour and ease of cleanup, and also as a <!--del_lnk--> plein air medium for its portability and quick drying.<p><!--del_lnk--> Fingerpainting originated in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> with watercolor paints.<p><b>Washes and Glazes</b><p>Basic watercolor technique involves washes and glazes. A wash refers to the application of a uniform color over an area of the painting. Typically this might be a light blue wash for the sky, a uniform color on a field or other area. Washes can be "graded" or "graduated" if they gradually become lighter or darker in parts such the fading of color to show the lighter sky near the horizon. A "variegated" wash blends more than one colour such as a wash with areas of blue and perhaps some red or orange for a sky at sunrise or sunset.<p><b>Painting "Wet-in-Wet"</b><p>Two methods of applying paint to the surface for special effect are "wet-in-wet" (or "wet-on-wet") and "dry brush". Wet-in-wet is used to avoid a hard edge at the margin of the paint. Wet-in-wet paint flows on a wet surface. The paint is wet (diluted) and the surface of the medium is wet.<p>The surface of the paper or other medium is first "painted" with water, thinned paint is then dripped or lightly applied to the wet surface. The colour flows along the wet area. More paint can be added to increase the area covered.<p>After the first wet application has dried, additional wet layers can be applied. The flow is controlled to some extent by the wetness of the surface; the amount, consistency, and placement of the paint; and by tilting the surface to encourage the paint to flow in the desired direction. The somewhat unpredictable results of the wet-in-wet technique can lead to some surprising but welcome affects.<p><b>Dry Brush</b><p>Dry Brush is used to obtain a rough, textured appearance for the edges of beach grass, a rocky exposed hill surface, tree bark, sunlight skipping on the surface of water, are some examples. A brush is loaded with relatively thick paint then lightly pulled over the dry surface of the medium. Some artists hold the brush with just two or three fingers at the very end of the handle so just the weight of the brush glides along the surface.<p>The paint adheres and covers only the higher points and ridges of the surface but stays out of the deeper areas. The method is especially effective on Rough and Cold Press (medium rough) paper. It is not very useful on smooth surfaces.<p><b>Painting Light-to-Dark</b><p>Watercolors are typically made darker on the paper by repeated application of the same color. These coats of paint are called "glazes. A glaze of a different color can also be used to create a combined color. It is also possible to achieve various lightness and darkness of a colour (value) by diluting the paint in the mixing area before application.<p><b>Limited Palette</b><p>An artist might use a limited set of colors in his or her palette creating other colors by mixing two or three colors from the limited set. Mixing more than three colors can result in a muddy, unacceptable colour.<p>The "Palette" refers to the array of colors used in a painting and also refers to the tray, dish, or other implement used to hold and mix the paints.<p><b>Other Considerations</b><p>When using watercolors it is a good idea to think of using the medium in the consistency as it comes from the tube. Using dried out "cake" watercolors will prevent the user from being able to take full advantage of the medium. When the colors are tube fresh one can go from totally thinned with water to create the most elusive effects and in an instant to very dense full bodied mixtures for deep dark passages. The best way to keep colors from drying out would be to use a covered palette such as the "John Pike Watercolor Palette" which has plenty of colors "wells" and sufficient mixing space. A great tip for squeezing paint from the tube is as follows: Squeeze an amount about the size of a lima bean or slightly larger. Don't leave the paint in a "mound" but rather spread it through the area of the designated color well. The logic behind this method is that since watercolors are resoluble with water, one can simply spray water on the surface of dried color to refresh it as it came from the tube. If the colors are left in a mound the water will roll off but if the colors are spread evenly the water has no place to go but into the color bringing it back to life. Do this twenty minutes or so before painting if your colors are dried out or if time does not allow just squeeze a little fresh color over the exsisting dried out color and spread. The new color will interact with the old making all the colour usable. Don't put a damp sponge in the palette for storage as this can lead to mildew and mold. The primary thing to remember is to take full advantage of the wide range of consistentcies watercolor has to offer.<p>Though there seem to be endless colors available in tubes, one need only a very limited palette. Consider a primary color palette to include: Lemon Yellow; Cadmium Yellow; Cadmium Red; Alizarin Crimson; Cerulean Blue; French Ultramarine Blue; Phtalo Blue; and perhaps Burnt Sienna and Raw Sienna. These nine colors will give you the ability to mix virtually any color possible. A brief summary of color mixing is: A red and a yellow make orange; yellow and blue make green; blue and red make violet. A red, yellow and blue make gray and if mixed dense enough, black. It's simple color theory of primary color mixing. Primary colors being: red - yellow - blue. Secondary colors (mixing any two colors): orange - green - violet. and Tertiary colors (three colour mixes): any gray imaginable and black. When mixing three colors avoid muddy mixtures by "undermixing" on the palette. Pull the colors into the mixing space and simply "swish" the colors together. Your darkest darks can be very exciting so long as you are sure to not "overmix." Another reason for muddiness comes from excessive brushing. Apply the washes with conviction being sure to limit your brushstrokes.<p><a id="Equipment" name="Equipment"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Equipment</span></h2>
<p>Brushes for watercolor are made to hold water and softer as compared to the stiffer brushes used for acrylic and oil paint.<p>Watercolor brushes come in various shapes including flat, round, mop, and fan. There are numerous specialty brushes; for example, a long thin brush originally designed to paint the lines of rope (rigging) on a seascape is called a "Rigger".<p>Artists typically have a few favorites and do most work with just one or two brushes. A single brush can produce many lines and shapes. A "round" for example, can create thin and thick lines, wide or narrow strips, curves, and other painted effects. A flat brush when used on end can produce thin lines or dashes in addition to the wide swath typical with these brushes.<p>Brush hairs come from a variety of sources including the very expensive hair of the Kolinsky Sable, the ear hair of the Ox or other cattle, and others. "Camel" is used to describe hairs from several sources, none of which is from a camel.<p>Brush hairs can be natural, synthetic, or a combination. Brush prices vary considerably depending on the type of hair and the quality of the manufacture. A good brush will hold a fair amount of water and will keep and return to its original shape even after much use.<p>Brushes are numbered to indicate the size of the brush, the larger numbers for the larger brushes. A typical manufacturer's offering of brushes might go from a very small "0" to the larger size "20" or more. Flat, wide brushes are usually described by the width of the brush such as "1/2 inch" or "1 inch". There are no common standards for brush sizes. A "10" Round from two manufacturers might be slightly different in size.<p>Watercolor Paper is designed to properly support the paint and be sturdy enough to withstand the painting action. Painting on thin paper such as used for computer printers, for example, is possible but the paper will buckle (if not dissolve entirely), the paint will remain on the surface, running off in an uncontrolled manner.<p>The surface of watercolor paper can vary in its smoothness from very smooth to very rough. A watercolor painting on rough paper will result in quite a different look than a similar painting on smoother paper. The artist selects paper with a finish to give the desired effect.<p>Rough-surfaced paper is called "Rough", a smoother surface but still slightly rough is called "Cold Press" (aka "Not"), the smoothest surface is "Hot Press."<p>Watercolor paper is typically made of 100% cotton rag. Papers of lesser quality might be mixtures of rag (cotton) and other materials. Some artists use only better grade papers to get the effects they desire. The quality of paper can make a significant difference in the result.<p>The thickness of commercial watercolor paper varies from 90 pounds to 300 pounds (the weight of a ream of about 500 sheets of the paper.) A middle weight, common thickness, is 140 pound paper. While almost any paper of any thickness will buckle when wet, paper less than 140 pound thickness will buckle severely from the water and should be "stretched" before using. Even 140 pound paper will show some stress when wet watercolor is applied over large areas. 300 pound weight paper does not buckle severely and does not have to be stretched.<p>When using individual sheets one might consider "stretching" the paper to prevent severe moisture-based buckling of the paper. Using this method, the paper is soaked in a tub of cool water. The amount of time to soak will depend on the weight of the paper (fifteen minutes maximum for the heaviest sheet). Once the paper is at its full saturation, lay the sheet on a drawing board and use gummed tape or staples to secure the paper to the board. Be sure all air bubbles are pressed out before affixing to the board. Lay the board flat and let dry before the painting is begun. Any drawing can be done before the soaking. The term "stretching" is actually a little deceiving since the paper is in reality, "shrinking", tension applied to the paper as it dries, much like a drum head.<p>A watercolor "block" is a pad of paper bound on all four sides, which prevents buckling in a similar way as stretching. There are usually 20 sheets of paper in a block. After the top sheet is used, it is peeled off and the next sheet is exposed.<p>Besides commerical watercolor paper, <!--del_lnk--> arches paper is also commonly used and preferred.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watercolor_painting"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Watling Street</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14501.jpg.htm" title="The modern Watling Street crossing the Medway at Rochester near the Roman and Celt crossings"><img alt="The modern Watling Street crossing the Medway at Rochester near the Roman and Celt crossings" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:A2RochesterBridgeClip.jpg" src="../../images/145/14501.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14501.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The modern Watling Street crossing the Medway at Rochester near the Roman and Celt crossings</div>
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<p><b>Watling Street</b> is the name given to an <!--del_lnk--> ancient trackway in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> that was first used by the <!--del_lnk--> Celts mainly between the modern cities of <a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury.htm" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a> and <!--del_lnk--> St Albans. The Romans later paved the route, part of which is identified on the <!--del_lnk--> Antonine Itinerary as Inter III: "Item a Londinio ad portum Dubris" - from <!--del_lnk--> London to the port of <!--del_lnk--> Dover. The name derives from the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon <i>Wæcelinga Stræt</i>, which has come to be understood as the <!--del_lnk--> A2 road from Dover to London, and then the <!--del_lnk--> A5 road from London to <!--del_lnk--> Wroxeter.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Roman" name="Roman"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roman</span></h3>
<p>A <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_road.htm" title="Roman road">Roman road</a> known as Inter III went from London to Dover. The last section of the long Inter II route from <a href="../../wp/h/Hadrian%2527s_Wall.htm" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> travelled through <!--del_lnk--> Viroconium (now <!--del_lnk--> Wroxeter in <!--del_lnk--> Shropshire), past <!--del_lnk--> Letocetum (modern day <!--del_lnk--> Wall), <!--del_lnk--> Manduessedum (modern day <!--del_lnk--> Mancetter - possible site of <a href="../../wp/b/Boudica.htm" title="Boudica">Boudica</a>'s last <!--del_lnk--> battle), <!--del_lnk--> Venonis (modern day <!--del_lnk--> High Cross), Lactotorum (modern day <!--del_lnk--> Towcester - near another possible site of Boudica's last battle)), then through <!--del_lnk--> Stony Stratford and Magiovinium (<!--del_lnk--> Fenny Stratford) in modern day <a href="../../wp/m/Milton_Keynes.htm" title="Milton Keynes">Milton Keynes</a>, Durocobrivis (modern day <!--del_lnk--> Dunstable), <!--del_lnk--> Verulamium (near modern-day <!--del_lnk--> St Albans in <!--del_lnk--> Hertfordshire) and London (including the modern <!--del_lnk--> Old Kent Road) to <!--del_lnk--> Rutupiae (now <!--del_lnk--> Richborough in <!--del_lnk--> Kent) on the southeast coast of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. While another section of Inter II linked Wroxeter to <!--del_lnk--> Chester, and other roads went into north <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> and central Wales, these are not generally considered to be part of Watling Street. Thus the Roman routes which comprise Watling Street are all of Inter III and the middle southern section of Inter II.<p><a id="Main_section" name="Main_section"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Main section</span></h4>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14502.jpg.htm" title="Roman Britain, with the route of Watling Street in red"><img alt="Roman Britain, with the route of Watling Street in red" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Watling_Street.JPG" src="../../images/145/14502.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14502.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Roman Britain, with the route of Watling Street in red</div>
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<p>The main section of the road is that from Dover to Wroxeter. It was <!--del_lnk--> named <i>Wæcelinga Stræt</i> by the Anglo-Saxons, literally "the street of the people of Wæcel". Wæcel could possibly be a variation of the Anglo-Saxon word for 'foreigner' which was applied to the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic people inhabiting what is now Wales. This source also gave us the name for <i>Wæclingacaester</i> (the Anglo-Saxon name for <i>Verulamium</i>) and it seems likely that the road-name was originally applied first to the section between that town and London before being applied to the entire road.<p><a id="Subsidiary_routes" name="Subsidiary_routes"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Subsidiary routes</span></h4>
<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Stone Street</b> ran south for some 12 miles from <strong class="selflink">Watling Street</strong> at <!--del_lnk--> Canterbury (the Roman Durovernum) to <!--del_lnk--> Lympne (Lemanis) at the western edge of the <!--del_lnk--> Romney Marsh. Most of it is now the current <b>B2068</b> road that runs from the <!--del_lnk--> M20 motorway to <a href="../../wp/c/Canterbury.htm" title="Canterbury">Canterbury</a>.<p>Another <b>Stone Street</b> from <!--del_lnk--> Magnae (<!--del_lnk--> Kenchester) to <!--del_lnk--> Caerleon.<p><a id="Battle_of_Watling_Street" name="Battle_of_Watling_Street"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Battle of Watling Street</span></h4>
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<p>Part of the route was the site of the Roman victory at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Watling Street in 61 AD between the Roman governor <!--del_lnk--> Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and the <!--del_lnk--> Briton leader <a href="../../wp/b/Boudica.htm" title="Boudica">Boudica</a>.<p><a id="Danelaw" name="Danelaw"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Danelaw</span></h3>
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<p>In the <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a>, Watling Street was used as the demarcation line between the Anglo-Saxon and Danish-ruled parts of England. The <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Wedmore required the defeated Danes to withdraw to an area north and east of Watling Street, thus establishing the <!--del_lnk--> Danelaw.<p><a id="Pilgrims_Way" name="Pilgrims_Way"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pilgrims Way</span></h3>
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<p>Like most of the Roman road network, the Roman paving fell into disrepair when the Romans left Britain, although the route continued to be used for centuries afterwards. It is likely that <!--del_lnk--> Chaucer's pilgrims used Watling Street to travel from <!--del_lnk--> Southwark to <!--del_lnk--> Canterbury in his <i><!--del_lnk--> Canterbury Tales</i>.<p><a id="Turnpike" name="Turnpike"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Turnpike</span></h3>
<p>The road north of London became a <!--del_lnk--> Turnpike when in <!--del_lnk--> 1706 the section from <!--del_lnk--> Hockliffe to <!--del_lnk--> Dunchurch was paved. The road was re-paved in the early <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Telford who brought it back into use as a turnpike road for use by mail coaches bringing mail to and from <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, his road being extended to the port of <!--del_lnk--> Holyhead on the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Anglesey in <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>. At this time the section south of London became known as the Great Dover Road. The toll system ended in 1875.<p><a id="Modern_Road" name="Modern_Road"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modern Road</span></h3>
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<p>Most of the road is still in use today apart from a few sections where it has been diverted. The stretch of the road between London and Dover is today known as the <!--del_lnk--> A2, and the stretch between London and <!--del_lnk--> Shrewsbury is today known as the <!--del_lnk--> A5 (which now continues to <!--del_lnk--> Holyhead). Through <a href="../../wp/m/Milton_Keynes.htm" title="Milton Keynes">Milton Keynes</a>, the A5 is diverted onto a new dual-carriageway and Watling Street forms part of the new town's grid system and carries the additional designation <b>V4</b>. The name of the town of <!--del_lnk--> Wellington, Shropshire, which lies just east of Shrewsbury, is believed to be a corruption of the word 'Watling town' as Watling Street supposedly ran straight through the centre of Wellington.<p><a id="Continued_use_of_the_name_along_the_ancient_road" name="Continued_use_of_the_name_along_the_ancient_road"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Continued use of the name along the ancient road</span></h3>
<p>The use of the street name is retained along the ancient road in many places: for instance, to the south east of London in <!--del_lnk--> Kent (including the towns of <!--del_lnk--> Canterbury, <!--del_lnk--> Gillingham, <!--del_lnk--> Rochester, <!--del_lnk--> Gravesend, <!--del_lnk--> Dartford, and <!--del_lnk--> Bexleyheath). Similarly, north of London the name Watling Street still occurs in many places, for example in <!--del_lnk--> Hertfordshire (including <!--del_lnk--> St Albans), <!--del_lnk--> Bedfordshire, <!--del_lnk--> Buckinghamshire (including <a href="../../wp/m/Milton_Keynes.htm" title="Milton Keynes">Milton Keynes</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Northamptonshire (including <!--del_lnk--> Towcester), <!--del_lnk--> Leicestershire, <!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire (including <!--del_lnk--> Nuneaton), <!--del_lnk--> Staffordshire (including <!--del_lnk--> Cannock, <!--del_lnk--> Wall and <!--del_lnk--> Lichfield), <!--del_lnk--> Shropshire and <!--del_lnk--> Gwynedd.<p><a id="Other_Watling_Streets" name="Other_Watling_Streets"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other Watling Streets</span></h2>
<p>A Watling Street still exists in the <!--del_lnk--> City of London, close to <!--del_lnk--> Mansion House underground station, though this is unlikely to be on the route of the original Roman road which traversed the <a href="../../wp/r/River_Thames.htm" title="River Thames">River Thames</a> via the first <a href="../../wp/l/London_Bridge.htm" title="London Bridge">London Bridge</a>. In Lancashire, Watling Street is the Roman Road through <!--del_lnk--> Affetside which leads from Manchester to <!--del_lnk--> Ribchester.<p>The Roman Road from <!--del_lnk--> Catterick (<i>Cataractonium</i>) to <!--del_lnk--> Corbridge (<i>Corstopitum</i>) and onto the <!--del_lnk--> Antonine Wall also came to be known as Watling Street, with perhaps a similar <a href="../../wp/o/Old_English_language.htm" title="Old English language">Anglo-Saxon</a> <!--del_lnk--> etymology owing to its path into the foreign land of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. This route is also known as <!--del_lnk--> Dere Street.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watling_Street"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wave</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.General_Physics.htm">General Physics</a></h3>
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<p>A <b>wave</b> is a disturbance that propagates through <!--del_lnk--> space or <!--del_lnk--> spacetime, often transferring <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a>. While a mechanical wave exists in a <!--del_lnk--> medium (which on deformation is capable of producing elastic restoring forces), waves of <a href="../../wp/e/Electromagnetic_radiation.htm" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> (and probably <!--del_lnk--> gravitational radiation) can travel through <!--del_lnk--> vacuum, that is, without a medium. Waves travel and transfer <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> from one point to another, with little or no permanent displacement of the particles of the medium (there is little or no associated mass transport); instead there are <!--del_lnk--> oscillations around fixed positions.<p>For many years, scientists have been trying to work out the problem of energy transfer from one place to another - especially sound and light energy.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="Characteristics" name="Characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Characteristics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14503.jpg.htm" title="Surface waves in water"><img alt="Surface waves in water" height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:2006-01-14_Surface_waves.jpg" src="../../images/145/14503.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14503.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Surface waves in water</div>
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<p>Periodic waves are characterized by <i><!--del_lnk--> crests</i> (highs) and <i><!--del_lnk--> troughs</i> (lows), and may usually be categorized as either longitudinal or transverse. <!--del_lnk--> Transverse waves are those with vibrations perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the wave; examples include waves on a string and electromagnetic waves. <!--del_lnk--> Longitudinal waves are those with vibrations parallel to the direction of the propagation of the wave; examples include most sound waves.<p>When an object bobs up and down on a ripple in a pond, it experiences an orbital trajectory because ripples are not simple transverse sinusoidal waves.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14504.png.htm" title=" A = At deep water. B = At shallow water. The circular movement of a surface particle becomes elliptical with decreasing depth. 1 = Progression of wave 2 = Crest 3 = Trough"><img alt=" A = At deep water. B = At shallow water. The circular movement of a surface particle becomes elliptical with decreasing depth. 1 = Progression of wave 2 = Crest 3 = Trough" height="236" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wave_motion-i18n.png" src="../../images/145/14504.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14504.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>A</b> = At deep water.<br /><b>B</b> = At shallow water. The circular movement of a surface particle becomes elliptical with decreasing depth.<br /><b>1</b> = Progression of wave<br /><b>2</b> = Crest<br /><b>3</b> = Trough</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Ripples on the surface of a pond are actually a combination of transverse and longitudinal waves; therefore, the points on the surface follow orbital paths.<p>All waves have common behaviour under a number of standard situations. All waves can experience the following:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Reflection – the change of direction of waves, due to hitting a reflective surface.<li><!--del_lnk--> Refraction – the change of direction of waves due to them entering a new medium.<li><!--del_lnk--> Diffraction – the circular spreading of waves that happens when the distance between waves move through an opening of equal distance.<li><!--del_lnk--> Interference – the <!--del_lnk--> superposition of two waves that come into contact with each other.<li><!--del_lnk--> Dispersion – the splitting up of waves by frequency.<li><!--del_lnk--> Rectilinear propagation – the movement of waves in straight lines.</ul>
<p><a id="Polarization" name="Polarization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Polarization</span></h3>
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<dd>
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<p>A wave is polarized if it can only oscillate in one direction. The polarization of a transverse wave describes the direction of oscillation, in the plane perpendicular to the direction of travel. Longitudinal waves such as sound waves do not exhibit polarization, because for these waves the direction of oscillation is along the direction of travel. A wave can be polarized by using a polarizing filter.<p><a id="Examples" name="Examples"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Examples</span></h3>
<p>Examples of waves include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ocean surface waves, which are perturbations that propagate through water.<li><!--del_lnk--> Radio waves, <!--del_lnk--> microwaves, <!--del_lnk--> infrared rays, <!--del_lnk--> visible light, <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet rays</a>, <!--del_lnk--> x-rays, and <!--del_lnk--> gamma rays make up <a href="../../wp/e/Electromagnetic_radiation.htm" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>. In this case, propagation is possible without a medium, through vacuum. These electromagnetic waves travel at <a href="../../wp/s/Speed_of_light.htm" title="Speed of light">299,792,458 m/s</a> in a vacuum.<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sound.htm" title="Sound">Sound</a> - a mechanical wave that propagates through air, liquid or solids.<li><!--del_lnk--> Seismic waves in <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, of which there are three types, called S, P, and L.<li><!--del_lnk--> Gravitational waves, which are fluctuations in the <!--del_lnk--> gravitational field predicted by <!--del_lnk--> general Relativity. These waves are <!--del_lnk--> nonlinear, and have yet to be observed empirically.<li><!--del_lnk--> Inertial waves, which occur in rotating fluids and are restored by the <!--del_lnk--> Coriolis force.</ul>
<p><a id="Mathematical_description" name="Mathematical_description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mathematical description</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/145/14505.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wave.png" src="../../images/145/14505.png" width="400" /></a></span></div>
<p>Waves can be described mathematically using a series of parameters.<p>The <b><!--del_lnk--> amplitude</b> of a wave (commonly notated as <span class="texhtml"><i>A</i></span>, or another letter) is a measure of the maximum disturbance in the medium during one wave cycle. In the illustration to the right, this is the maximum vertical distance between the baseline and the wave. The units of the amplitude depend on the type of wave — waves on a string have an amplitude expressed as a distance (meters), sound waves as pressure (pascals) and electromagnetic waves as the amplitude of the <a href="../../wp/e/Electric_field.htm" title="Electric field">electric field</a> (volts/meter). The amplitude may be constant (in which case the wave is a <i>c.w.</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> continuous wave</i>), or may vary with time and/or position. The form of the variation of amplitude is called the <i>envelope</i> of the wave.<p>The <b><!--del_lnk--> wavelength</b> (denoted as <span class="texhtml">λ</span>) is the distance between two sequential crests (or troughs). This generally has the unit of metres; it is also commonly measured in nanometres for the optical part of the electromagnetic spectrum.<p>A <b><!--del_lnk--> wavenumber</b> <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i></span> can be associated with the wavelength by the relation<dl>
<dd><img alt="k = \frac{2 \pi}{\lambda}" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44881.png" />.</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14506.gif.htm" title="Waves can be represented by simple harmonic motion."><img alt="Waves can be represented by simple harmonic motion." height="85" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Simple_harmonic_motion_animation.gif" src="../../images/145/14506.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14506.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Waves can be represented by <!--del_lnk--> simple harmonic motion.</div>
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<p>The <b><!--del_lnk--> period</b> <span class="texhtml"><i>T</i></span> is the time for one complete cycle for an oscillation of a wave. The <b><!--del_lnk--> frequency</b> <span class="texhtml"><i>f</i></span> (also frequently denoted as <span class="texhtml">ν</span>) is how many periods per unit time (for example one second) and is measured in <!--del_lnk--> hertz. These are related by:<dl>
<dd><img alt="f=\frac{1}{T}" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44883.png" />.</dl>
<p>In other words, the frequency and period of a wave are reciprocals of each other.<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> angular frequency</i> <span class="texhtml">ω</span> represents the frequency in terms of radians per second. It is related to the frequency by:<dl>
<dd><img alt="\omega = 2 \pi f = \frac{2 \pi}{T}" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44884.png" />.</dl>
<p>There are two velocities that are associated with waves. The first is the <b><!--del_lnk--> phase velocity</b>, which gives the rate at which the wave propagates, is given by<dl>
<dd><img alt="v_p = \frac{\omega}{k}" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44885.png" />.</dl>
<p>The second is the <b><!--del_lnk--> group velocity</b>, which gives the velocity at which variations in the shape of the wave's amplitude propagate through space. This is the rate at which information can be transmitted by the wave. It is given by<dl>
<dd><img alt="v_g = \frac{\partial \omega}{\partial k}" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44886.png" /></dl>
<p><a id="The_wave_equation" name="The_wave_equation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The wave equation</span></h3>
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<dd>
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<p>The <b>wave equation</b> is a <a href="../../wp/d/Differential_equation.htm" title="Differential equation">differential equation</a> that describes the evolution of a harmonic wave over time. The equation has slightly different forms depending on how the wave is transmitted, and the medium it is traveling through. Considering a one-dimensional wave that is travelling down a rope along the <span class="texhtml"><i>x</i></span>-axis with velocity <span class="texhtml"><i>v</i></span> and amplitude <span class="texhtml"><i>u</i></span> (which generally depends on both x and t), the wave equation is<dl>
<dd><img alt="\frac{1}{v^2}\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2}=\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial x^2}. \" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44887.png" /></dl>
<p>In three dimensions, this becomes<dl>
<dd><img alt="\frac{1}{v^2}\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = \nabla^2 u" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44888.png" />,</dl>
<p>where <img alt="\nabla^2" class="tex" src="../../images/438/43863.png" /> is the <!--del_lnk--> Laplacian.<p>The velocity <span class="texhtml"><i>v</i></span> will depend on both the type of wave and the medium through which it is being transmitted.<p>A general solution for the wave equation in one dimension was given by <!--del_lnk--> d'Alembert. It is<dl>
<dd><img alt="u(x,t)=F(x-vt)+G(x+vt). \" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44889.png" /></dl>
<p>This can be viewed as two pulses travelling down the rope in opposite directions; <i>F</i> in the <i>+x</i> direction, and <i>G</i> in the <i>-x</i> direction. If we substitute for <i>x</i> above, replacing it with directions <i>x</i>, <i>y</i>, <i>z</i>, we then can describe a wave propagating in three dimensions.<p>The <a href="../../wp/s/Schr%25C3%25B6dinger_equation.htm" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a> describes the wave-like behaviour of particles in <a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_mechanics.htm" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>. Solutions of this equation are <!--del_lnk--> wave functions which can be used to describe the probability density of a particle. Quantum mechanics also describes particle properties that other waves, such as light and sound, have on the atomic scale and below.<p><a id="Traveling_waves" name="Traveling_waves"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Traveling waves</span></h3>
<p>Waves that remain in one place are called <i>standing waves</i> - e.g. vibrations on a violin string. Waves that are moving are called <i>traveling waves</i>, and have a disturbance that varies both with time <span class="texhtml"><i>t</i></span> and distance <span class="texhtml"><i>z</i></span>. This can be expressed mathematically as:<dl>
<dd><img alt="u = A(z,t) \cos (\omega t - kz + \phi)\," class="tex" src="../../images/448/44890.png" /></dl>
<p>where <span class="texhtml"><i>A</i>(<i>z</i>,<i>t</i>)</span> is the amplitude envelope of the wave, <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i></span> is the <i>wave number</i> and <span class="texhtml">φ</span> is the <i><!--del_lnk--> phase</i>. The <!--del_lnk--> phase velocity <span class="texhtml"><i>v</i><sub><i>p</i></sub></span> of this wave is given by:<dl>
<dd><img alt="v_p = \frac{\omega}{k}= \lambda f," class="tex" src="../../images/448/44891.png" /></dl>
<p>where <span class="texhtml">λ</span> is the <i><!--del_lnk--> wavelength</i> of the wave.<p><a id="Propagation_through_strings" name="Propagation_through_strings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Propagation through strings</span></h3>
<p>The speed of a wave traveling along a string (v) is directly proportional to the square root of the <!--del_lnk--> tension (T) over the <!--del_lnk--> linear density (μ):<dl>
<dd><img alt="v=\sqrt{\frac{T}{\mu}}." class="tex" src="../../images/448/44892.png" /></dl>
<p><a id="Transmission_medium" name="Transmission_medium"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transmission medium</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The medium that carries a wave is called a <i>transmission medium</i>. It can be classified into one or more of the following categories:<ul>
<li>A <i>linear medium</i> if the amplitudes of different waves at any particular point in the medium can be added.<li>A <i>bounded medium</i> if it is finite in extent, otherwise an <i>unbounded medium</i>.<li>A <i>uniform medium</i> if its physical properties are unchanged at different locations in space.<li>An <i>isotropic medium</i> if its physical properties are the <i>same</i> in different directions.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wave–particle duality</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.General_Physics.htm">General Physics</a></h3>
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<p>In <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <b>wave-particle duality</b> holds that <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">matter</a> exhibit <a href="../../wp/p/Property.htm" title="Property">properties</a> of both <a href="../../wp/w/Wave.htm" title="Wave">waves</a> and of <!--del_lnk--> particles. A central concept of <a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_mechanics.htm" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, duality represents a way to address the inadequacy of conventional concepts like "particle" and "wave" to meaningfully describe the behaviour of quantum objects. The idea of duality is rooted in a debate over the nature of <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">matter</a> dating back to the <!--del_lnk--> 1600s, when competing theories of light were proposed by <!--del_lnk--> Christiaan Huygens and <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. Through the work of <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Louis de Broglie and many others, it is now established that all objects have both wave and particle nature (though this phenomenon is only detectable on small <!--del_lnk--> scales, such as with <a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" title="Atom">atoms</a>), and that a suitable <!--del_lnk--> interpretation of quantum mechanics provides the over-arching theory resolving this ostensible <!--del_lnk--> paradox.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10508.png.htm" title="Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction of light, 1803."><img alt="Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction of light, 1803." height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Young_Diffraction.png" src="../../images/105/10508.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10508.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction of light, 1803.</div>
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<p>At the close of the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, the case for <!--del_lnk--> atomic theory, that matter was made of particulate objects or <a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" title="Atom">atoms</a>, was well established. Electricity, first thought to be a fluid, was understood to consist of particles called <a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">electrons</a>, as demonstrated by <!--del_lnk--> J.J. Thomson by his research into the work of <!--del_lnk--> Rutherford, who had investigated using <!--del_lnk--> cathode rays that an electrical charge would actually travel across a vacuum from cathode to anode. In brief, it was understood that much of nature was made of particles. At the same time, waves were well understood, together with wave phenomena such as <!--del_lnk--> diffraction and <!--del_lnk--> interference. Light was believed to be a wave, as <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Young's <!--del_lnk--> double-slit experiment and effects such as <!--del_lnk--> Fraunhofer diffraction had clearly demonstrated the wave-like nature of light.<p>But as the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> turned, problems had emerged with this viewpoint. The <!--del_lnk--> photoelectric effect, as analyzed in <!--del_lnk--> 1905 by <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, demonstrated that light also possessed particle-like properties, further confirmed with the discovery of the <!--del_lnk--> Compton effect in 1923. Later on, the <!--del_lnk--> diffraction of electrons would be predicted and experimentally confirmed, thus showing that electrons must have wave-like properties in addition to particle properties.<p>This confusion over particle versus wave properties was eventually resolved with the advent and establishment of <a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_mechanics.htm" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> in the first half of the 20th century, which ultimately explained <b>wave-particle duality</b>. It provided a single unified theoretical framework for understanding that all matter may have characteristics associated with particles and waves. Quantum mechanics holds that every particle in nature, be it a <a href="../../wp/p/Photon.htm" title="Photon">photon</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">electron</a> or <a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" title="Atom">atom</a>, is described by a solution to a <a href="../../wp/d/Differential_equation.htm" title="Differential equation">differential equation</a>, most typically, the <!--del_lnk--> Schroedinger equation. The solutions to this equation are known as <!--del_lnk--> wave functions, as they are inherently wave-like in their form. They can <!--del_lnk--> diffract and <!--del_lnk--> interfere, leading to the wave-like phenomena that are observed. Yet also, the wave functions are interpreted as describing the <!--del_lnk--> probability of finding a particle at a given point in space. Thus, if one is looking for a particle, one will find one, with a <!--del_lnk--> probability density given by the square of the magnitude of the wave function.<p>One does not observe the wave-like quality of everyday objects because the associated <!--del_lnk--> wavelengths of people-sized objects are exceedingly small.<p><a id="Huygens_and_Newton.3B_earliest_theories_of_light" name="Huygens_and_Newton.3B_earliest_theories_of_light"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Huygens and Newton; earliest theories of light</span></h2>
<p>The earliest comprehensive theory of <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a> was advanced by <!--del_lnk--> Christiaan Huygens, who proposed a <!--del_lnk--> wave theory of light, and in particular demonstrated how waves might interfere to form a wave-front, propagating in a straight line. However, the theory had difficulties in other matters, and was soon overshadowed by <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> corpuscular theory of light. That is, Newton proposed that light consisted of small particles, with which he could easily explain the phenomenon of <!--del_lnk--> reflection. With considerably more difficulty, he could also explain <!--del_lnk--> refraction through a <!--del_lnk--> lens, and the splitting of sunlight into a <a href="../../wp/r/Rainbow.htm" title="Rainbow">rainbow</a> by a <!--del_lnk--> prism.<p>Because of Newton's immense intellectual stature, his theory went essentially unchallenged for over a century, with Huygens' theories all but forgotten. With the discovery of <!--del_lnk--> diffraction in the early 19th century, the wave theory was revived, and so by the advent of the 20th century, a scientific debate over waves vs. particles had already been thriving for a very long time.<p><a id="Fresnel.2C_Maxwell.2C_and_Young" name="Fresnel.2C_Maxwell.2C_and_Young"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fresnel, Maxwell, and Young</span></h2>
<p>In the early <!--del_lnk--> 1800s, the <!--del_lnk--> double-slit experiments by <!--del_lnk--> Young and <!--del_lnk--> Fresnel provided <!--del_lnk--> evidence for <!--del_lnk--> Huygens' theories: these experiments showed that when light is sent through a <!--del_lnk--> grid, a characteristic <!--del_lnk--> interference <!--del_lnk--> pattern is <!--del_lnk--> observed, very similar to the pattern resulting from the interference of <!--del_lnk--> water waves; the wavelength of light can be <!--del_lnk--> computed from such patterns. <a href="../../wp/j/James_Clerk_Maxwell.htm" title="James Clerk Maxwell">Maxwell</a>, during the late-<!--del_lnk--> 1800s, explained light as the propagation of <a href="../../wp/e/Electromagnetic_radiation.htm" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic waves</a> with the <!--del_lnk--> Maxwell equations. These equations were verified by experiment, and Huygens' view became widely accepted.<p><a id="Einstein_and_photons" name="Einstein_and_photons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Einstein and photons</span></h2>
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<div style="width:224px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14507.png.htm" title="The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right."><img alt="The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Photoelectric_effect.png" src="../../images/145/14507.png" width="222" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14507.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1905, <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> provided an explanation of the <!--del_lnk--> photoelectric effect, a hitherto troubling experiment which the wave theory of light seemed incapable of explaining. He did so by postulating the existence of <a href="../../wp/p/Photon.htm" title="Photon">photons</a>, <!--del_lnk--> quanta of light energy with particulate <!--del_lnk--> qualities.<p>In the photoelectric effect, it was observed that shining a light on certain metals would lead to an <!--del_lnk--> electric current in a <!--del_lnk--> circuit. Presumably, the light was knocking electrons out of the metal, causing them to flow. However, it was also observed that while a dim blue light was enough to cause a current, even the strongest, brightest red light caused no current at all. According to wave theory, the strength or <!--del_lnk--> amplitude of a light wave was in proportion to its brightness: a bright light should have been easily strong enough to create a large current. Yet, oddly, this was not so.<p>Einstein explained this conundrum by <!--del_lnk--> postulating that the electrons were knocked free of the metal by incident photons, with each photon carrying an amount of <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> <i>E</i> that was related to the <!--del_lnk--> frequency, <i>ν</i> of the light by<dl>
<dd><img alt="E = h \nu\," class="tex" src="../../images/448/44894.png" /></dl>
<p>where <i>h</i> is <!--del_lnk--> Planck's constant (6.626 x 10<sup>-34</sup> J seconds). Only photons of a high-enough frequency, (above a certain <i>threshold</i> value) could knock an electron free. For example, photons of blue light had sufficient energy to free an electron from the metal, but photons of red light did not. More intense light above the threshold frequency could release more electrons, but no amount of light below the threshold frequency could release an electron.<p>Einstein was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Physics in <!--del_lnk--> 1921 for his theory of the photoelectric effect.<p><a id="de_Broglie" name="de_Broglie"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">de Broglie</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1924, <!--del_lnk--> Louis-Victor de Broglie formulated the <!--del_lnk--> de Broglie hypothesis, claiming that <i>all</i> matter, not just light, has a wave-like nature; he related <!--del_lnk--> wavelength, <!--del_lnk--> λ (lambda), and <a href="../../wp/m/Momentum.htm" title="Momentum">momentum</a>, <i>p</i>:<dl>
<dd><img alt="\lambda = \frac{h}{p}" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44895.png" /></dl>
<p>This is a generalization of Einstein's <!--del_lnk--> equation above since the momentum of a photon is given by <i>p</i> = <i>E</i> / <i>c</i> where <i>c</i> is the speed of light in vacuum, and <i>λ</i> = <i>c</i> / <i>ν</i>.<p>de Broglie's formula was confirmed three years later for <!--del_lnk--> electrons (which have a rest-mass) with the observation of <!--del_lnk--> electron diffraction in two independent experiments. At the <!--del_lnk--> University of Aberdeen, <!--del_lnk--> George Paget Thomson passed a beam of electrons through a thin metal film and observed the predicted interference patterns. At <!--del_lnk--> Bell Labs <!--del_lnk--> Clinton Joseph Davisson and <!--del_lnk--> Lester Halbert Germer guided their beam through a crystalline grid.<p>de Broglie was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize for Physics in <!--del_lnk--> 1929 for his hypothesis. Thomson and Davisson shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in <!--del_lnk--> 1937 for their experimental work.<p><a id="Heisenberg" name="Heisenberg"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Heisenberg</span></h2>
<p>Wave-particle duality is often expressed via the <!--del_lnk--> Heisenberg <!--del_lnk--> uncertainty principle, which states, in its most common form, that:<dl>
<dd><img alt="\Delta x \Delta p \ge \frac{\hbar}{2}" class="tex" src="../../images/448/44896.png" /></dl>
<p>where<dl>
<dd><span class="texhtml">Δ</span> is a measure of uncertainty or imprecision in the measurement.<dd><b>x</b> and <b>p</b> are a particle's position and <!--del_lnk--> linear momentum respectively.<dd><i><img alt="\hbar" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17672.png" /></i> is the <!--del_lnk--> reduced Planck's constant (Planck's constant divided by 2<span class="texhtml">π</span>).</dl>
<p>However the relationship holds more generally for <i>any</i> two <!--del_lnk--> conjugate variables, such as time and energy, or angle of rotation and <!--del_lnk--> angular momentum and follows from the <!--del_lnk--> de Broglie hypothesis being applied to classical fields. The uncertainty relation implies that the measurement of one variable results in the disturbance of its conjugate partner, so that the product of their uncertainty is always greater than a certain amount.<p>
<br />
<dl>
<dd>
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<p><a id="Wave_behavior_of_large_objects" name="Wave_behavior_of_large_objects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wave behaviour of large objects</span></h2>
<p>Similar experiments have since been conducted with <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Proton.htm" title="Proton">protons</a>. Among the most famous experiments are those of <!--del_lnk--> Estermann and <!--del_lnk--> Otto Stern in <!--del_lnk--> 1929. Authors of similar recent experiments with atoms and molecules claim that these larger particles also act like waves.<p>A dramatic series of experiments emphasizing the action of <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a> in relation to wave-particle duality were conducted in the <!--del_lnk--> 1970's using the <!--del_lnk--> neutron interferometer. <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">Neutrons</a>, one of the components of the <!--del_lnk--> atomic nucleus, provide much of the mass of a nucleus and thus of ordinary matter. Neutrons are <!--del_lnk--> fermions, and thus possess an important quality we associate with matter, namely its "rigidness" (due to the fact that they obey the <!--del_lnk--> Pauli Exclusion Principle). In the neutron interferometer, they act as quantum-mechanical waves directly subject to the force of <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a>. While the results were not surprising since gravity was known to act on everything - even <!--del_lnk--> deflecting light and acting on <!--del_lnk--> photons (the <!--del_lnk--> Pound-Rebka falling photon experiment), the self-interference of the quantum mechanical wave of a massive fermion in a gravitational field had never been experimentally confirmed before.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1999, the diffraction of C<sub>60</sub> <!--del_lnk--> fullerenes by researchers from the <!--del_lnk--> University of Vienna was reported. Fullerenes are rather large and massive objects, having an atomic mass of about 720. The de Broglie wavelength is 2.5 <!--del_lnk--> picometers, whereas the diameter of the molecule is about 1 <!--del_lnk--> nanometer, <i>i.e.</i> about 400 times larger. <!--del_lnk--> As of 2005, this is the largest object for which quantum-mechanical wave-like properties have been directly observed in far-field diffraction. The experimenters have assumed the arguments of wave-particle duality and have assumed the validity of de Broglie's equation in their argument. In 2003 the Vienna group has meanwhile also demonstrated the wave-nature of <!--del_lnk--> tetraphenylporphyrin - a flat biodye with an extension of about 2 nm and a mass of 614 amu. For this demonstration they employed a near-field <!--del_lnk--> Talbot Lau interferometer . In the same interferometer they also found interference fringes for C60F48, a fluorinated <!--del_lnk--> buckyball with a mass of about 1600 amu, composed of 108 atoms . Large molecules are already so complex that they give experimental access to some aspects of the quantum-classical interface, i.e. to certain decoherence mechanisms .<p>Whether objects heavier than the <!--del_lnk--> Planck mass (about the weight of a large bacterium) have a de Broglie wavelength is theoretically unclear and experimentally unreachable; above the <!--del_lnk--> Planck mass a particle's <!--del_lnk--> Compton wavelength would be smaller than the <!--del_lnk--> Planck length and its own <!--del_lnk--> Schwarzchild radius, a scale at which current theories of physics may break down or need to be replaced by more general ones.<p><a id="Theoretical_sketch_and_remarks_on_philosophical_inquiry" name="Theoretical_sketch_and_remarks_on_philosophical_inquiry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Theoretical sketch and remarks on philosophical inquiry</span></h2>
<p>Examples (<!--del_lnk--> diffraction, <!--del_lnk--> interference, <!--del_lnk--> double-slit experiment, phase noise in <!--del_lnk--> lasers, <a href="../../wp/p/Proton.htm" title="Proton">proton</a>, <!--del_lnk--> teleportation, <!--del_lnk--> quantum computing, <!--del_lnk--> quantum cryptography , <!--del_lnk--> Bell's theorem, combination with <a href="../../wp/s/Special_relativity.htm" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Klein-Gordon Equation and <!--del_lnk--> Dirac equations) for the application of this framework have been given above, now the common mathematics behind it is discussed.<p>The wave and the particle description is made equivalent three steps:<ol>
<li>For particles the state of a system is described mathematically by the number of particles and their positions; <a href="../../wp/q/Quantum_mechanics.htm" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> assigns every number and every combination of positions a <!--del_lnk--> complex number.<li>For waves the state of a system is described mathematically by the field distribution; <!--del_lnk--> quantum field theory assigns every field distribution (zero everywhere, homogeneous , circular ...) a <!--del_lnk--> complex number.<li>It is mathematically proven (see <!--del_lnk--> fock space in <!--del_lnk--> quantum field theory), that both quantum descriptions are equivalent, while the classical descriptions are not</ol>
<p>see also: <!--del_lnk--> Hilbert space, <!--del_lnk--> path integral formulation, <!--del_lnk--> Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics<p>All complex numbers together make up the <!--del_lnk--> ket, which is also called wave function. But the name "wave function" is problematic, as it sounds that they have more to do with waves than with particles. The time evolution of a ket is governed by a partial <a href="../../wp/d/Differential_equation.htm" title="Differential equation">differential equation</a> generically called the <a href="../../wp/s/Schr%25C3%25B6dinger_equation.htm" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>. The mathematical tools learned for classical physics to solve such an equation can still be applied: <!--del_lnk--> Superposition, <!--del_lnk--> eigenfunctions, <!--del_lnk--> eigenvalues, <!--del_lnk--> FDTD, <!--del_lnk--> perturbation theory. In other words: "it is a particle and a wave at the same time" in reality and in calculations. It has to be admitted that the <!--del_lnk--> coefficients for the differential equations were derived in a rather unsymmetrical way with respect to particles and waves, but it is unclear if this is an historical artifact.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> ket is still <!--del_lnk--> interpreted as the <!--del_lnk--> probability of finding a system in a specific state. Most of the examples allow or even need partial measurements followed by a second time evolution of the ket followed by more measurements and so on, this is where the philosophical inquiry takes place.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p>Wave-particle duality is exploited in <!--del_lnk--> electron microscopy, where the small wavelengths associated with the electron can be used to view objects much smaller than what is visible using visible light.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Sports_and_games_people.htm">Sports and games people</a></h3>
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<td class="fn" colspan="3" style="text-align:center; font-size: large">Wayne Rooney</td>
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<td align="center" colspan="3"><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9965.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="294" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wayne_Rooney.png" src="../../images/100/10099.png" width="250" /></a></td>
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<td><b>Date of birth</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> October 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1985 <span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1985-10-24</span>)</span> </td>
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<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<td colspan="2">1.78 <!--del_lnk--> m (5 <!--del_lnk--> ft 10 <!--del_lnk--> in)</td>
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<td colspan="2"><span class="role"><!--del_lnk--> Striker</span></td>
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<td colspan="2"><span class="org"><a href="../../wp/m/Manchester_United_F.C..htm" title="Manchester United F.C.">Manchester United</a></span></td>
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<tr>
<td><b>Number</b></td>
<td colspan="2">8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #b0c4de;">Youth clubs</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2000–2002</td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Everton</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #b0c4de;">Senior clubs<sup><small>1</small></sup></th>
</tr>
<tr style="line-height:9pt;">
<td><b>Years</b></td>
<td><b>Club</b></td>
<td><b>App (Gls)</b>*</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-right:3em;">2002–2004<br /> 2004–</td>
<td style="padding-right:3em;"><!--del_lnk--> Everton<br /><a href="../../wp/m/Manchester_United_F.C..htm" title="Manchester United F.C.">Manchester United</a></td>
<td>67 (15)<br /> 97 (41)<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> </span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #b0c4de;text-align: center">National team<sup><small>2</small></sup></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2003–</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> England</td>
<td>38 (12)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="color: #555555; font-size:80%; text-align:center;">
<p><sup>1</sup> Senior club appearances and goals<br /> counted for the domestic league only and<br /> correct as of 14:45, 17 March 2007 (UTC).<br /><sup>2</sup> National team caps and goals correct<br /> as of 21:19, <!--del_lnk--> 28 March 2007 (UTC).<br /> * Appearances (Goals)</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Wayne Mark Rooney</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> 24 October <!--del_lnk--> 1985 in <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>) is an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">footballer</a> who currently plays for the English <!--del_lnk--> Premier League club <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester_United_F.C..htm" title="Manchester United F.C.">Manchester United</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> England national team. He is seen as one of the most exciting prospects of the modern game and is the most expensive teenager in world football. Rooney is a highly talented player with remarkable technique, vision, passing and finishing, and is one of those players capable of scoring wonder goals, his shots are believed to be the most powerful in the <!--del_lnk--> English Premier League. He normally played as a second <!--del_lnk--> striker to <!--del_lnk--> Ruud van Nistelrooy for his club team before van Nistelrooy's move to <!--del_lnk--> Real Madrid, although during <!--del_lnk--> 2005-06, he showed his versatility as a player by shifting to the midfield and playing on both flanks. He wears the number 8 shirt for Manchester United and the number 9 shirt for the English national team.<p>Rooney was brought up in an urban area of eastern Liverpool called <!--del_lnk--> Croxteth, where he and his two brothers attended the local De La Salle Catholic School.<p>Rooney grew up supporting <!--del_lnk--> Everton, and wore a T-shirt reading "Once a blue, Always a blue". However, he would end up playing just two seasons with Everton before demanding, and then executing, a transfer. This has left him on unfavourable terms with Everton fans, as they showed when he returned to Goodison Park and he was booed severely.<p>Rooney has been under an intense media spotlight since first arriving on the scene in 2002, particularly coming to the public's notice on <!--del_lnk--> 19 October <!--del_lnk--> 2002 when he scored a memorable goal against title-holders <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenal_F.C..htm" title="Arsenal F.C.">Arsenal</a>, ending their 30-match unbeaten run. Receiving the ball on the edge of the 18-yard box, Rooney brought it down with instant control and turned away from his marker before firing it into the top left-hand corner of the goal, beating England keeper <!--del_lnk--> David Seaman and giving Everton a late 2-1 victory at Goodison Park. This goal provoked <!--del_lnk--> Clive Tyldesley, the match commentator, to exclaim 'remember the name, Wayne Rooney'. Rooney gained a huge reputation on the world stage due to his performance at <!--del_lnk--> Euro 2004, as he spearheaded the English attack, scoring four goals, eclipsing fellow England team mate Michael Owen. England fans knew that with such an outrageously talented player like Rooney, they had a chance to win the tournament, but Rooney was unable to play for the whole of the quarter-final game against Portugal due to injury and England were knocked out in a penalty shoot-out. Rooney appears on the cover of the <!--del_lnk--> FIFA 06 and <!--del_lnk--> FIFA 07 <!--del_lnk--> video game in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<p>
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<p><a id="Career" name="Career"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Career</span></h2>
<p><a id="Everton" name="Everton"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Everton</span></h3>
<p>After excelling for Liverpool Schoolboys and The Dynamo Brownwings, Rooney was signed by Everton shortly before his 11th birthday. Rooney gained national prominence on the 19th of October 2002 when he became the youngest goal scorer in the history of the <!--del_lnk--> Premier League at 16 years and 360 days while playing for <!--del_lnk--> Everton (though this record has since been surpassed twice by <!--del_lnk--> James Milner and current record holder <!--del_lnk--> James Vaughan). His goal against then-champions <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenal_F.C..htm" title="Arsenal F.C.">Arsenal</a> was a last-minute winner and brought to an end the London side's 30-match unbeaten run. At the end of 2002 he won the <!--del_lnk--> BBC Sports Young Personality of the Year.<p><a id="Transfer" name="Transfer"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Transfer</span></h3>
<p>Before turning 17 and becoming eligible for a professional contract, he was playing for <a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">£</a>80 a week and living with his family on a <!--del_lnk--> council estate. His salary has since been increased several times and Rooney now earns an estimated £51,755 a week. Following intense media coverage of Rooney at <!--del_lnk--> Euro 2004, Everton claimed that they would not transfer his contract for less than £50 million. The club offered Rooney a new contract for £12,000 a week for three years. This, however, was turned down by Rooney's agent on the <!--del_lnk--> 27 August <!--del_lnk--> 2004, leaving Manchester United and <!--del_lnk--> Newcastle United to compete for his signature.<p><!--del_lnk--> The Times newspaper reported that Newcastle were close to signing the young star for £18.5 million, a fact later confirmed by Rooney's agent. Manchester United, however, were the successful club in signing the young talent. Rooney handed in a transfer request to Everton and on <!--del_lnk--> 31 August <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Rooney signed for Manchester United after a <!--del_lnk--> deal worth around £31 million (£49 million including wages) was agreed. The deal was concluded just hours before the <!--del_lnk--> transfer deadline.<p>The initial fee of £23m was paid to Everton over two years; the rest of the money depends on appearances and/or success at Manchester United and/or England. It is likely the fee will reach the maximum £31m within the next 3 years. A final fee in the region of £30m plus costs is more likely. In the club's <!--del_lnk--> 2004-05 accounts, Rooney's contract is recorded as having a book cost of £25.066 million as at <!--del_lnk--> 30 June <!--del_lnk--> 2005, with contingent payables of £14 million, giving a maximum final fee of £39.066 million including costs.<p>Rooney's transfer fee is the second highest for an exclusively British deal, with only his Manchester United team-mate, <!--del_lnk--> Rio Ferdinand, commanding a <!--del_lnk--> higher fee. Rooney does, however, have the honour of being the most expensive teenage footballer ever, being only 18 when Manchester United signed him.<p><a id="Manchester_United" name="Manchester_United"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Manchester United</span></h3>
<p>Rooney made his debut for Manchester United on <!--del_lnk--> 28 September <!--del_lnk--> 2004 in the <!--del_lnk--> UEFA Champions League against <!--del_lnk--> Fenerbahçe, scoring a <!--del_lnk--> hat-trick and also an assist (the match finished in a 6-2 win for United). For the <!--del_lnk--> 2005-06 season, Rooney initially started playing in wider positions than his more favoured central role. Pundits and fans alike agreed that he seemed less effective in such positions. Eventually, after Manchester United's poor run of form early in the season, Sir <!--del_lnk--> Alex Ferguson moved him back to his stronger position, playing behind Dutchman Ruud van Nistelrooy as a second striker. He got his first professional Winners Medal in the 2006 English <!--del_lnk--> League Cup. He was also named <!--del_lnk--> Man of the Match in the League Cup final against <!--del_lnk--> Wigan Athletic, after scoring two goals in the final (a 4-0 victory for United), en route to winning his first senior medal. He was also a member of the United side defeated in the 2005 <!--del_lnk--> FA Cup Final by <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenal_F.C..htm" title="Arsenal F.C.">Arsenal</a>. He captained Manchester United for the first time in a home Champions League match against <!--del_lnk--> Copenhagen on <!--del_lnk--> 17 October <!--del_lnk--> 2006, becoming probably the youngest captain in the clubs' history. On <!--del_lnk--> 26 November <!--del_lnk--> 2006 he signed a two-year extension to his contract, which will keep him at Old Trafford until at least 2012; the contract extension negotiations only took one month, which was interpreted as showing how keen both sides were to conclude the extension.<p>Wayne Rooney has been a prolific goal scorer for Manchester United and Everton, matching the level of goals scored by other strikers such as <!--del_lnk--> Ruud van Nistelrooy. Also, he is a regular assist contributor. In the 2005-2006 season he achieved a final total of 14 assists and 16 goals, fewer goals than his current strike partner <!--del_lnk--> Louis Saha, but more assists.<p>During the first half of the 2006-7 season, Rooney went 10 games without a goal before scoring a hat-trick against Bolton. There was speculation about his fitness and confidence on the pitch, as he seemed less active than he usually is and his presence on the field was somewhat overshadowed by the brilliant form of Portuguese winger Cristiano Ronaldo, although it is worth saying that Rooney is far from the sensational player he's been for Man united during the last two seasons (In which he was the main force and influnce of the team, much like what Cristiano Ronaldo is now). Rooney's scoring rate had been matched by Louis Saha and exceeded by <!--del_lnk--> Cristiano Ronaldo, a winger. Nevertheless, as of February 2007 he was the top English goalscorer in the Premiership, and had received significantly fewer bookings than in previous seasons. In the <!--del_lnk--> FA Cup tie against <a href="../../wp/p/Portsmouth.htm" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a>, Rooney came on as a substitute and scored two goals, one of which being a superb 25-yard chip over goalkeeper <!--del_lnk--> David James, and soon after scored two of <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester_United_F.C..htm" title="Manchester United">United</a>'s four goals in the derby against <!--del_lnk--> Bolton. Despite getting back on the score sheet, Rooney's form was considerably lower than that of the previous seasons, as he seemed less active on the field, and his uncanny abilities to beat defenders were not demonstrated frequently, as he barely attempts to dribble past an opposing player and usually prefers to pass the ball, it was difficult to tell if Rooney had actually changed his playing style or if he hasn't regained his form after the injury he picked up prior to the 2006 world cup, along with facing early problems in the season after being sent off in a pre-season friendly against FC Porto which added to Rooney's already bad record with FIFA after he stepped on Ricardo Carvalho and pushed United team mate Cristiano Ronaldo during the 2006 world cup, since those two incidents, Rooney added more discipline to his game (which might explain why he doesn't seem as confident as he usually is). Rooney scored his first goal for two-and-a-half years in Europe in a 2-1 defeat to <!--del_lnk--> A.S. Roma on <!--del_lnk--> 4 April <!--del_lnk--> 2007, and his second (with the third goal of the night) in the quarter final second leg at Old Trafford on <!--del_lnk--> 10 April <!--del_lnk--> 2007, when United defeated Roma 7-1. His scoring form continued in the Champions League semi-final first leg on <!--del_lnk--> 24 April <!--del_lnk--> 2007, when he scored two goals in the 3-2 victory over <!--del_lnk--> A.C. Milan, the second a low first-time drive into the bottom right-hand corner in the 91st minute after a Ryan Giggs counter attack and pass. On <!--del_lnk--> 28 April <!--del_lnk--> 2007, Rooney was the hero once again as he completed United's comeback from 0-2 down to win 4-2 away to Everton, scoring his team's third goal. By the end of April, Rooney had scored 23 goals for his team in all competitions (which takes him ahead of Cristiano Ronaldo in goals scored in all competitions this season, although the latter has scored more Premiership goals), a remarkable record for a player who missed the opening games of the season through suspension, suffered a dip in form and a goal drought for 10 games.<p><a id="National_team_career" name="National_team_career"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">National team career</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/101/10116.jpg.htm" title="Rooney playing for England"><img alt="Rooney playing for England" class="thumbimage" height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wayne_Rooney.jpg" src="../../images/101/10116.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/101/10116.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Rooney playing for <!--del_lnk--> England</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>He has also figured prominently in recent England international matches, after having become the youngest ever player to play for England, in a friendly against <!--del_lnk--> Australia, on <!--del_lnk--> 12 February <!--del_lnk--> 2003, aged 17 years, 111 days. This record has since been surpassed by <!--del_lnk--> Theo Walcott, who came off the bench to play in England's friendly against <!--del_lnk--> Hungary on <!--del_lnk--> 30 May <!--del_lnk--> 2006. England's youngest ever player previous to Rooney was <!--del_lnk--> James F. M. Prinsep of <!--del_lnk--> Clapham Rovers,<!--del_lnk--> who made his debut almost one and a quarter centuries before, on <!--del_lnk--> 5 April <!--del_lnk--> 1879, aged 17 years, 253 days. Rooney is also the youngest England scorer ever (17 years, 317 days).<p>His reputation as one of the world's most exciting young players was further enhanced by his highly regarded performances for England at <!--del_lnk--> Euro 2004 in <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> At the tournament Rooney became the youngest player ever to score in the <!--del_lnk--> UEFA European Football Championships, when on <!--del_lnk--> 17 June <!--del_lnk--> 2004 he scored twice against <!--del_lnk--> Switzerland; although the Swiss player, <!--del_lnk--> Johan Vonlanthen, broke this record against <!--del_lnk--> France four days later. Unfortunately Rooney was injured early in the quarter final match against <!--del_lnk--> Portugal and England were subsequently knocked out on penalties.<p><a name="2004_Court_Case"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">2004 Court Case</span></h3>
<p>In and around 2002 there was a dispute between two groups over who had the right to manage Rooney and this led to a criminal trial after allegations that one side was trying to demand money with menaces from the other. The court was told that one group sought the help of the infamous London gangster <!--del_lnk--> Tommy Adams in resolving the dispute. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Disciplinary_issues" name="Disciplinary_issues"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Disciplinary issues</span></h3>
<p>Wayne Rooney's career has been tainted with moments of ill-discipline. In September 2005, against Northern Ireland, Rooney launched an on-field outburst at former England captain <a href="../../wp/d/David_Beckham.htm" title="David Beckham">David Beckham</a>, but since then the pair have played down the bust-up.<p>His ill-discipline led to his dismissal in the 0-0 draw with <!--del_lnk--> Villarreal during United's Champions League encounter in Spain. Rooney was sent off for dissent following his <!--del_lnk--> sarcastic applauding of the referee, <!--del_lnk--> Kim Milton Nielsen, after he was initially booked for what he felt was an unfair booking.<p>Rooney has pledged to keep his temper under control and both his club and international managers have defended him, citing his youth as the main reason for his behaviour. It is known that other teams and players are familiar with Rooney's disciplinary problems and sometimes use them against him, teasing him or provoking him. Since the <!--del_lnk--> 2004-05 season he has been trying to keep his temper in check, as shown by a drop in cards received in the <!--del_lnk--> 2005-06 season. In the 2006 World Cup quarter-final match with <!--del_lnk--> Portugal, Rooney was <!--del_lnk--> sent off after an incident during the 62nd minute of the match. He became only the third English player to be given a <!--del_lnk--> red card while playing a match in a World Cup Finals. Rooney was struggling to gain proper control of the ball as he was involved in a tangle with <!--del_lnk--> Ricardo Carvalho and <!--del_lnk--> Petit, during which he appeared to stamp on Carvalho's groin. The incident occurred right in front of <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentinian</a> referee <!--del_lnk--> Horacio Elizondo. As play was stopped, Portuguese player <!--del_lnk--> Cristiano Ronaldo, a fellow teammate of his at Manchester United, remonstrated with the referee. Rooney then pushed Ronaldo and was shown the red card for what was thought to be a combination of the incidents involving Carvalho and Ronaldo. However, on <!--del_lnk--> 4 July, Elizondo told <i><!--del_lnk--> The Times</i> that the red card was due to the stamp on Carvalho, and not the scuffle afterwards. He said "It was violent play and therefore he got a red card. People can say what they want (about Ronaldo) but this had absolutely no influence. For me it was a clear red card, so I didn't react to the Portuguese players."<p>After the match, which England lost on penalties, the BBC pundit team, led by <!--del_lnk--> Gary Lineker, showed a clip of what they found interesting in light of Rooney's dismissal. Before the match, Rooney's Manchester United team-mate Cristiano Ronaldo approached him from behind and aggressively placed his head close to Rooney before speaking directly into his ear. Rooney's reaction and the look on Ronaldo's face suggested that the act was far from playful. Following Rooney's dismissal, Ronaldo was seen winking at the Portuguese bench. Cristiano Ronaldo said in a post-match press conference that he had not urged the referee to take out a red card, but just pointed out that Rooney had committed a foul.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 3 July, Rooney released a statement saying, "I bear no ill feeling to Cristiano but am disappointed that he chose to get involved. I suppose I do, though, have to remember that on that particular occasion we were not team-mates." He also claimed that his actions were accidental. He also defended his own actions in the statement: "I want to say absolutely categorically that I did not intentionally put my foot down on Ricardo Carvalho. He slid in from behind me and unfortunately ended up in a positioning where my foot was inevitably going to end up as I kept my balance. That's all there was to it. When the referee produced the red card I was amazed - gobsmacked."<p>Wayne Rooney was investigated by FIFA's disciplinary committee after being sent off during England's World Cup quarter-final defeat against Portugal, banned for two competitive matches and fined 5,000 <!--del_lnk--> Swiss francs.<p>Rooney was sent off again for Manchester United in an <!--del_lnk--> Amsterdam Tournament game against <!--del_lnk--> FC Porto on <!--del_lnk--> 4 August <!--del_lnk--> 2006 for the alleged use of an elbow, and was subsequently handed a three-match ban by the <!--del_lnk--> FA following their receipt of a 23-page report from referee Ruud Bossen explaining why he felt it was necessary to send Rooney off in the aforementioned game. This was viewed as surprising, as other players sent off in pre-season friendly matches were not so sanctioned, and Rooney wrote to the FA threatening to withdraw the FA's permission to use his image rights if the ban was not revoked - however the FA has no procedure to do so.<p>Though not related to on-field action, there were reports by British media that Rooney punched <!--del_lnk--> Blackburn Rovers' <!--del_lnk--> Michael Gray on <!--del_lnk--> 2 September <!--del_lnk--> 2006. The alleged incident that happened inside a Manchester restaurant was a result of suggestive comments by Gray towards Rooney's fiancée <!--del_lnk--> Coleen McLoughlin. Police were not informed about the incident.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 24 November <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Wayne Rooney was questioned by the police over a fight outside a Manchester nightclub. This supposedly happened when a photographer started hassling Rooney. The photographer did not need any medical treatment.<p><a id="Personal_life" name="Personal_life"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Personal life</span></h2>
<p>Rooney is one of three sons of Wayne, Sr, and Jeanette Rooney, his brothers being Graham and John. He didn't achieve a single <!--del_lnk--> GCSE.<p>He has rarely been out of the media spotlight since his goal against Arsenal in October 2002, and has received criticism for his relationship with fiancée <!--del_lnk--> Coleen McLoughlin, who is often featured in the <!--del_lnk--> tabloid press for her shopping habits. They currently live in a £4.25 million mansion in the village of <!--del_lnk--> Prestbury in Cheshire. When he moved to Manchester United and was told to find a home in the posh area of Cheshire, Rooney passed a pub which he thought was named "Admiral Rooney" and saw it as a good omen for his future home. It was actually "<!--del_lnk--> Admiral Rodney", but Rooney chose the place, Prestbury, anyway (<i>kicker</i>, <!--del_lnk--> April 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, p. 79-80). He also owns property in <!--del_lnk--> Marbella and Harbour Pointe, <!--del_lnk--> Port Charlotte, <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>.<p>Rooney has also lucrative contracts with <!--del_lnk--> Nike, <!--del_lnk--> Nokia, <!--del_lnk--> Ford, <!--del_lnk--> Asda and <!--del_lnk--> Coca Cola. His marketing value is estimated at <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">€</a>46 million, making him the third-highest rated football player behind <!--del_lnk--> Ronaldinho and <a href="../../wp/d/David_Beckham.htm" title="David Beckham">David Beckham</a>.As a side note, he was featured on 500 million <!--del_lnk--> Coca-Cola cans during the 2006 World Cup. Regarding his private life, Rooney's favourite rappers are <!--del_lnk--> Eminem and <!--del_lnk--> 50 Cent. His favourite film is <i><a href="../../wp/g/Grease_%2528film%2529.htm" title="Grease (film)">Grease</a></i>, and his favourite TV series is <i><!--del_lnk--> Only Fools And Horses</i>. Moreover, he is an avid reader of the <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_Potter.htm" title="Harry Potter">Harry Potter</a> series. He enjoys boxing, and idolises <!--del_lnk--> Mike Tyson. (<i>kicker</i>, <!--del_lnk--> April 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, p. 79-80).<p>Rooney was "Merk'd" along with other England teammates (the equivalent to the American TV Show "Punk'd") by his Manchester United and England team mate, <!--del_lnk--> Rio Ferdinand on a mini-series TV show build up to the World Cup, "World Cup Wind Ups". This comical scenario left Wayne holding a drip for a young Manchester United fan's dog.<p>In his spare time, Wayne likes to play <!--del_lnk--> video games, his favourite game is <!--del_lnk--> FIFA 07, which he plays with <!--del_lnk--> Man United teammates <!--del_lnk--> Wes Brown, <!--del_lnk--> John O'Shea and <!--del_lnk--> Rio Ferdinand.<p><a id="Visits_to_prostitutes" name="Visits_to_prostitutes"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Visits to prostitutes</span></h3>
<p>Rooney's personal life has also often been marred by accusations from the press surrounding his visits to <!--del_lnk--> prostitutes, which he later confirmed to be true. Rooney has spoken of his deep regret at the incident. On <!--del_lnk--> 29 January <!--del_lnk--> 2007 a case was dismissed where by Patricia Tierney, 52, from <!--del_lnk--> Whiston, had claimed libel damages against <!--del_lnk--> The Sun newspaper. Tierney said an article from <!--del_lnk--> 2004 had featured "horrible lies" about her working as a prostitute at Diva's massage parlour in Liverpool, and that she had sex with Rooney; had resultantly destroyed her reputation and life. However, in the police statement taken at the time she said she worked as a sex worker because she needed the money, but kept her job a secret from her family. Her solicitors withdrew from the case, and Tierney who had represented herself at Manchester County Court, asked the judge, Mr Justice Christopher Clarke, to adjourn the hearing while she sought alternative legal representation. Tierney told the court she could not read, the police statement misrepresented what she had told the officer and that she did not know what she was signing. Mr Justice Clarke dismissed the case, saying in his ruling: <i>"In light of that statement, it's plain that the central plank of the claimant's case that she was not, and never had been, a prostitute and worked only as a receptionist is not true, and that the claim that she was not a liar was false and was known to be so."</i> The Sun's barrister, Anthony Hudson, said Tierney's claim amounted to between £750,000 and £250,000 damages for her and £500,000 legal fees, which the Sun would have had to pay if she won her case..<p><a id="Press_accusations" name="Press_accusations"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Press accusations</span></h3>
<p>In April <!--del_lnk--> 2006, newspapers suggested that he owed in excess of £700,000 in gambling debts, possibly connected to a business partner of <!--del_lnk--> Michael Owen. Days later, he accepted £100,000 (which he donated to charity) in libel damages from <i><!--del_lnk--> The Sun</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> News of the World</i> newspapers which had claimed he had assaulted his fiancée in a nightclub.<p>In September 2006, Rooney was again at a the centre of controversy, accused of punching <!--del_lnk--> Michael Gray in the eye following provocation from the Blackburn defender.<p><a id="Books_and_website" name="Books_and_website"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Books and website</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 9 March <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Rooney signed the largest sports book deal in publishing history with the publishers <!--del_lnk--> HarperCollins. He is to receive a £5 million advance, plus royalties, for a minimum of five books to be published over a twelve-year period. The first book, <i>My Story So Far</i>, a ghost-written autobiography, was scheduled to be published after the World Cup. On <!--del_lnk--> 1 September <!--del_lnk--> 2006 <!--del_lnk--> Everton manager <!--del_lnk--> David Moyes started a libel action against the <i><!--del_lnk--> Daily Mail</i>, which was publishing extracts of Rooney's book and threatened to also sue Rooney and his book publishers over statements made in the book concerning the circumstances of Rooney's leaving Everton.<p>In July 2006, Rooney's lawyers went to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>' <!--del_lnk--> World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) to gain ownership of the internet domain names "waynerooney.com" and "waynerooney.co.uk", which Welsh television actor Huw Marshall had registered in 2002. In October 2006, the WIPO ruled that "waynerooney.com" should be handed over to Rooney.<p><a id="Career_stats" name="Career_stats"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Career stats</span></h2>
<p>(<i>Correct as of <!--del_lnk--> 24 April <!--del_lnk--> 2007</i>)<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th rowspan="2">Club</th>
<th rowspan="2">Season</th>
<th colspan="3">League</th>
<th colspan="3">Cup</th>
<th colspan="3">Europe</th>
<th colspan="3">Total</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Apps</th>
<th>Goals</th>
<th>Assists</th>
<th>Apps</th>
<th>Goals</th>
<th>Assists</th>
<th>Apps</th>
<th>Goals</th>
<th>Assists</th>
<th>Apps</th>
<th>Goals</th>
<th>Assists</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Everton F.C.</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2002–03</td>
<td>33</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>37</td>
<td>8</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2003–04</td>
<td>34</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>40</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><a href="../../wp/m/Manchester_United_F.C..htm" title="Manchester United">Manchester United</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2004–05</td>
<td>29</td>
<td>11</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>8</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>43</td>
<td>17</td>
<td>4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2005–06</td>
<td>36</td>
<td>16</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>48</td>
<td>19</td>
<td>14</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2006–07</td>
<td>31</td>
<td>14</td>
<td>13</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>11</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>0</td>
<td>49</td>
<td>23</td>
<td>16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Total</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>
</th>
<th>215</th>
<th>76</th>
<th>40</th>
</tr>
</table>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Weakest Link</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Television.htm">Television</a></h3>
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<p><i><b>Weakest Link</b></i> (formerly titled <i><b>The Weakest Link</b></i>) is a <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> <!--del_lnk--> game show which first appeared in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> on <!--del_lnk--> BBC Two on <!--del_lnk--> 14 August <!--del_lnk--> 2000. It was devised by doctor and <!--del_lnk--> situation comedy writer <!--del_lnk--> Fintan Coyle and the comedian <!--del_lnk--> Cathy Dunning, and developed for television by the BBC Entertainment department. It has since been replicated around the world. It may also be called a "reality game show" because of competition similar to present-day <!--del_lnk--> reality shows and has been the basis of academic studies. The UK version, hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Anne Robinson, reached its 1,000th episode on 18 December 2006.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Format" name="Format"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Format</span></h2>
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<p>The original format featured a team of nine contestants who take turns answering general knowledge questions. The object of each round is to answer a chain of consecutive correct answers to earn an increasing amount for a single communal pot. However, just one incorrect answer wipes out any money earned in that chain. But, before their question is asked, a contestant can say "BANK" and the money earned thus far is safely stored and a new chain is initiated from scratch.<p>Banking money is the safe option, however <i>not</i> banking, in anticipation that one will be able to correctly answer the upcoming question, allows the money to grow as each successive correct answer earns proportionally more money.<p>When the allotted time for each round ends, any money not banked is lost, and if the host is in the middle of asking a question, or has asked a question but the contestant has yet to answer, the question is abandoned.<p>Each player is then required to vote for which contestant they thought was the "weakest link," for whatever reason. Whoever gets the most votes at the end of the round is eliminated from the game, and leaves with no money. If there is a tie in the voting, the statistically strongest link gets to choose which of the tied players is eliminated. If they voted for one of the tied players, they are given the opportunity to change their mind.<p>Whenever a contestant is eliminated, 10 seconds are taken away from the clock for the following round. On the eighth round, the clock is reduced to 90 seconds.<p><a id="Voting" name="Voting"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Voting</span></h4>
<p>At the end of each <i>round</i>, contestants must vote off one player whom they consider to be "The Weakest Link": the one they believe wasted the most time, failed to bank judiciously or gave too many wrong answers. Until the beginning of the next round, only the television audience knows (via an announcer's narration) exactly who the "strongest link" and "weakest link" are statistically. While the contestants work as a team, they are encouraged at this point to be ruthless to each other. Voting presents somewhat of a tactical challenge for canny players seeking to maximise their chances of winning, and maximizing the payoffs if they do. Voting off weaker players is likely to increase the payoff for the winner, but stronger players may be more difficult to beat in a playoff. The host usually questions the players as to who they are voting for , For example, if someone voted for John, the host would ask that person "Why John?" or, in the case that someone voted for Deloris, the host would say, "Why Deloris?" once the host has heard their opinions on who they voted for, she will say to the eliminated player, "You are the weakest link. Goodbye."<p><a id="Strategies" name="Strategies"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Strategies</span></h4>
<p>Some players may consider incorrectly answering some questions so as not to appear so much of a threat — however, such a strategy is risky. One study suggested that the optimal percentage of questions to answer correctly is 60%. If you do worse, you risk being voted off for being too weak; if you do better, you are perceived as a threat in the final showdown. Mathematical analysis of the expected payoffs provided by various banking strategies suggest that the optimum strategies are to either attempt to go for the highest payoff, or bank after every question. Few teams adopt either — most choose to bank after three or four questions.<p><a id="End_of_the_Game" name="End_of_the_Game"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">End of the Game</span></h3>
<p><a id="Final_Round" name="Final_Round"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Final Round</span></h4>
<p>When two contestants remain, they work together in one final round, identical to previous rounds in all but two details: First, all money banked at the end of the round is tripled (or doubled in some versions), before added to the current money pool to make the final total of the game. And second, there is no elimination. Instead, the game moves to the Head to Head Round.<p><a id="Head_to_Head" name="Head_to_Head"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Head to Head</span></h4>
<p>For the Head to Head round, the remaining two players will each be required to answer five questions each. The strongest link from the previous round chooses who goes first. Whoever has the most correct answers out of five at the end of the Head to Head wins the game.<p>The winner of the game takes home all of the money accumulated in the prize pool for the game, and the loser goes home with nothing like all previous eliminated players.<p>In the event of a tie, the game goes to Sudden Death. Each player is continued to be asked questions as usual, until one person gets a question right and the other wrong or both get it right or wrong.. This can go on for as long as it takes, though in some countries, the Sudden Death is edited to only one round for airtime reasons. If both get their answers right in the curent US verson 1st season only would share the money,if both get their answers wrong then the game ends in a draw. Later on if both get their answers right or wrong, a final sudden death question was played in which the players were asked a survey, the player who comes nearest without going over wins.<p>In most episodes the maximum possible winnings in the British shows is £10,000; in special celebrity and charity episodes the maximum is £50,000.<p><a id="Success" name="Success"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Success</span></h2>
<p>Part of the show's success was due to the presenter, <!--del_lnk--> Anne Robinson. Already well-known in the UK for her sarcastic tone while presenting the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>'s consumer programme <i><!--del_lnk--> Watchdog</i>, she found here a new outlet in her taunts to the contestants. Her sardonic summary to the "team", usually berating them for their lack of intelligence for not achieving the target, became a trademark of the show, and her call of "You are the weakest link — goodbye!" quickly became a catchphrase. (Originally, the devisors suggested the equally acerbic <!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Paxman, host of <i><!--del_lnk--> University Challenge</i>.) The voice-over in the UK version is by <!--del_lnk--> Jon Briggs.<p>With elements inspired by <i><!--del_lnk--> Big Brother</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Who Wants To Be A Millionaire</i>, the show differed from virtually all games shows before it by inviting open conflict between players, and using a host who is openly hostile to the competitors rather than a positive figure (though this feature of the show tends to be played for laughs, especially in the prime time version, where there is a studio audience for Robinson — and the contestants — to play to). Heavily criticised by the television press in some countries for its <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Hobbes.htm" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbesian</a> overtones, the show has nevertheless been a ratings success in most countries.<p><a id="International_versions" name="International_versions"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">International versions</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/221/22155.png.htm" title="Countries with their own version"><img alt="Countries with their own version" class="thumbimage" height="110" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WL-map.png" src="../../images/221/22155.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/221/22155.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Countries with their own version</div>
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<p>The original British version of the show airs around the world on <!--del_lnk--> BBC Prime and <!--del_lnk--> BBC America. The format has been licensed across the world, with many countries producing their own series of <i>Weakest Link</i>. Internationally, the show has taken off airing in at least over 80 countries world-wide, some with red haired, female presenters, some without, and some with male presenters such as the US syndicated edition as mentioned below. Others include the Irish version hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Eamon Dunphy, the Italian version presented by <!--del_lnk--> Enrico Papi, the Chilean version (broadcast on <!--del_lnk--> Canal 13) hosted by local actress <!--del_lnk--> Catalina Pulido, the South African (broadcast on <!--del_lnk--> SABC3) with <!--del_lnk--> Fiona Coyne, the <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Polish</a> version with <!--del_lnk--> Kazimiera Szczuka on <!--del_lnk--> TVN, the Filipino version with <!--del_lnk--> Edu Manzano, the <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> version hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Dodo Cheng, the <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indian</a> version hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Nina Gupta, the <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japanese</a> version with Shiro Ito and the <!--del_lnk--> Australian version hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Cornelia Frances broadcast on <!--del_lnk--> Seven Network. The version in <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, <i>El Rival Mas Débil</i>, has been a success for two years and is still running with its host <!--del_lnk--> Montserrat Ontiveros. The Norwegian version, hosted by Anne Grosvold, was aired by the state-owned <!--del_lnk--> NRK, but lasted only one season.<p>There are also other (confirmed) versions from Belgium, China, Taiwan, the Middle East, Israel, Czech Republic, Greece, Finland, France, Hungary, Russia, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, Brazil, the Netherlands, Ireland and Denmark.<p><a id="North_America" name="North_America"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">North America</span></h3>
<p><a id="United_States" name="United_States"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">United States</span></h4>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> version of <i>Weakest Link</i> (without the "the" in the title) premièred on <!--del_lnk--> 16 April <!--del_lnk--> 2001 on <!--del_lnk--> NBC, with <!--del_lnk--> Anne Robinson hosting. In this version, there was a team of eight contestants vying for a cash pot of up to US $1,000,000. Earning respectable ratings, even topping <i><!--del_lnk--> Who Wants to Be a Millionaire</i> a few times, the show had garnered itself a place on the 2001-02 autumn schedule. After the <a href="../../wp/s/September_11%252C_2001_attacks.htm" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">9/11</a> attacks, the ratings went down. In an effort to revive interest in the show, episodes now featured celebrities, rather than ordinary members of the public. There were a few episodes with ordinary people in between, but they usually had themes (such as Halloween costumes, Christmas costumes, or contestants that looked like Anne Robinson). The show aired its last episode on <!--del_lnk--> July 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2002. A set of unaired episodes was shown later that year on the <!--del_lnk--> PAX Network. The last set of taped episodes remained unaired until the show ended up on the <!--del_lnk--> GSN schedule in <!--del_lnk--> 2003.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> syndicated version ran from <!--del_lnk--> January 2002 through <!--del_lnk--> September 2003. It was hosted by <!--del_lnk--> George Gray. In this version there was a team of only six contestants and each episode is only 30 minutes long. In the first syndicated season, the maximum pot was <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>75,000 and there were five rounds, while increasing to $100,000 (and the rounds decreased to only four all with a $25 000 top prize) in the final syndicated season. In contrast to Robinson's "<!--del_lnk--> dominatrix" tone, Gray was more playful and humorous to the contestants, although arguably more sarcastic. Also in contrast, the second season had no doubling round; the final two players headed straight to the Head to Head (with the Strongest Link from the last round, or the second Strongest Link starting off the round). The Head to Head consisted of only 3 questions each, rather than the usual 5. GSN began airing the syndicated version in January 2006.<p>Both U.S. versions were produced by <!--del_lnk--> The Gurin Company, <!--del_lnk--> BBC Worldwide and <!--del_lnk--> NBC Studios.<p><a id="Mexico" name="Mexico"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Mexico</span></h4>
<p>The Mexican version of the Weakest Link, called <i>El Rival Más Débil,</i> airs on the Mexican network <!--del_lnk--> TV Azteca The program premiered on <!--del_lnk--> August 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, and is quite a success along with its hostess, Montserrat Ontiveros. In each episode, eight contestants have the chance to win 200,000 Mexican pesos. The Mexican version remains on air after three years of success.<p>External link (fan site): <!--del_lnk--> http://elrivalmasdebil.tripod.com<p><a id="Australia" name="Australia"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Australia</span></h3>
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<p>An <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australian</a> version premiered in February 2001, on <!--del_lnk--> Seven Network. Presented by <!--del_lnk--> Cornelia Frances, the show featured 9 contestants vying for $100,000. It aired twice weekly in primetime. At the beginning, the show received a lot of feedback from angry people, complaining how rude Cornelia was, some even saying she was worse than <!--del_lnk--> Anne Robinson. After toning the show down, it continued to receive modest ratings until its cancellation in April 2002. There was even a special version where it was linked with <!--del_lnk--> the Mole where the Mole contestants were part of the show. In this episode, <!--del_lnk--> Bob Young won the playoff over <!--del_lnk--> Thao Nguyen and became the winner of this episode, where the prize was a free pass to the next episode on <!--del_lnk--> the Mole (aka immunity) and all money won went to the kitty. According to <!--del_lnk--> Cornelia Frances, they won $14,100, the lowest amount won in any Australian episode of the Weakest Link. However, <!--del_lnk--> Grant Bowler, the host of the Mole rounded up to $15,000 since all kitties of the Mole have been rounded by $1,000. In one episode, one contestant was so angry because he was "The Weakest Link", he threw his sign down on the floor where it bounced and hit <!--del_lnk--> Cornelia Frances in the leg. This scene was edited out before going to air.<p><a id="Asia" name="Asia"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Asia</span></h3>
<p><a id="China" name="China"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">China</span></h4>
<p>China also had its own version, hosted by Chen Lu Yu, then Shen Bing, and last Xia Qing. It has been reported that much of the cues been taken away during the Xia Qing years. The top prize was ¥200,000 (<!--del_lnk--> Chinese yuan). It aired on <!--del_lnk--> CCTV.<p><a id="Hong_Kong" name="Hong_Kong"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Hong Kong</span></h4>
<p>The Hong Kong version of the show was licensed and started quickly by <!--del_lnk--> TVB to air on <!--del_lnk--> TVB Jade, after rival <!--del_lnk--> ATV took the lion's share of ratings with the Chinese (Cantonese) language version of <i><!--del_lnk--> Who Wants to be a Millionaire</i>. The top prize was HK$3,000,000. It premiered in August 2001. Per the licensing agreement, <!--del_lnk--> Carol "Dodo" Cheng initially had to act just like Anne Robinson — complete with the same "cold" style of voice and facial expressions. Since Chinese culture typically does not value this kind of attitude toward people, TVB received complaints about the show. Bowing to public pressure, the broadcaster changed the style of the show, softening Carol Cheng's "character". As a result, the show became more acceptable to the viewers and the ratings went up. Since TVB ordered 108 daily weekday shows, the series finale aired sometime in January 2002.<div class="thumb tright">
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<p><a id="India" name="India"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">India</span></h4>
<p>Trying to follow up on the success of <i>Who Wants to be A Millionaire</i>, Star TV launched <i>Kamzor Kadii Kaun</i>, the Hindi version of <i>Weakest Link</i>. Hosted by soap opera actress Neena Gupta, it aired on <!--del_lnk--> STAR Plus weekly in primetime beginning in December 2001. The top prize was 2,500,000 (25,00,000 [25 lakh] in Indian writing) rupees. Unfortunately, the show barely lasted a year before it was cancelled.<p><a id="Israel" name="Israel"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Israel</span></h4>
<p>Israel also had its own version hosted by Pnina Dvorin (2002-2004) and then Hana Laszlo. The show aired on <!--del_lnk--> Channel 10. It started out with 9 players and then it went to an 8-player format later in the run. The top prize was ₪100,000.<p><a id="Japan" name="Japan"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Japan</span></h4>
<p>The show started in April 2002. It was hosted by Shiro Ito, who uses English phrases such as "Lets play Weakest Link", "Time's up" and "Welcome to Weakest Link". The top prize is ¥16,000,000, but because of Japanese laws prohibiting a single person to win more than ¥2,000,000, the winning contestant would be capped at ¥2,000,000, and share the rest of the money with a relative. It aired on <!--del_lnk--> Fuji TV. However, the show was quickly cancelled.<p><a id="Lebanon" name="Lebanon"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Lebanon</span></h4>
<p>The Lebanese version called <i>Al-Halqa al-Ad'af</i> was hosted by a former radio presenter Rita Khoury and drew contestants from many Arab speaking countries. It was soon cancelled; apparently due to its lack of popularity. It aired on <!--del_lnk--> Future TV.<p><a id="Philippines" name="Philippines"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Philippines</span></h4>
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<p>The Philippine version of the show is produced by <!--del_lnk--> VIVA Entertainment and <!--del_lnk--> ECM Productions. The show premiered on September 2001 on the television network <!--del_lnk--> Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation as a follow-up to the success of <i><!--del_lnk--> Who Wants To Be A Millionaire</i> in the country. It was initially hosted by actor <!--del_lnk--> Edu Manzano. Known for his villainy roles and serious acting styles, Manzano made a good and fitting host of the show (contributing to its popularity). He was later replaced by comedian/singer <!--del_lnk--> Allan K. His humorous hosting stint (along with the fire that razed the original studio the show was taped) led its show to its demise on October 2002.<p>The show followed the eight-player primetime format with the money tree as follows: P1,000, P2,000, P5,000, P10,000, P20,000, P50,000, P80,000, P125,000. If the highest amount was banked successfully in all seven rounds, the highest amount possible would be 1,000,000 <!--del_lnk--> Philippine pesos, which is close to the maximum price of £10,000 in BBC2's version of the game.<p><a id="Singapore" name="Singapore"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Singapore</span></h4>
<p>The show was first aired in May 2002 in Chinese, and was hosted by Cui Lixin. It aired on <!--del_lnk--> Channel 8. The top prize was SG$100,000.<p>In October 2002, an English language version of the show hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Asha Gill premiered on <!--del_lnk--> Channel 5. The top prize was SG$1,000,000.<p><a id="Taiwan" name="Taiwan"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Taiwan</span></h4>
<p>Taiwan also had its own version, originally hosted by Belle Yu (first season), then Tseng Yang Qing (second season). Belle Yu later returned as celebrity contestant. This is probably the first Chinese version to have a male host. It aired on <!--del_lnk--> STAR Chinese Channel. The top prize was NT$1,000,000.<p><a id="Thailand" name="Thailand"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Thailand</span></h4>
<p>A Thai version called <i>Kamchad Jud Orn</i> was aired on the Thai Channel 3 from February - December 2002. It was hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Krittika Kongsompong. It follows the eight-person format, with a possible payout of 1,000,000 baht.<p>This version was even criticized by the Thai government because it was said to promote traits that are "unbecoming and contradictory to Thai culture and morality", even to the point that it would be monitored. Like the Hong Kong version, the show was somewhat toned down.<p><a id="Europe" name="Europe"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Europe</span></h3>
<p><a id="Azerbaijan" name="Azerbaijan"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Azerbaijan</span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/221/22187.jpg.htm" title="Weakest Link host Kamila Babayeva, Azerbaijan edition"><img alt="Weakest Link host Kamila Babayeva, Azerbaijan edition" class="thumbimage" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Zaifband.JPG" src="../../images/221/22187.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Azerbaijan has a version called <i>Zəif Bənd</i> that airs on Lider TV and is hosted by Kamila Babayeva. The premiere was in September 2004. The top prize was 100,000,000 <!--del_lnk--> Azerbaijani manat (=20,000 New Azerbaijani manat). Like many foreign versions, it only lasted for one series.<p><a id="Belgium" name="Belgium"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Belgium</span></h4>
<p>Belgium had its own version in 2001 called <i>De Zwakste Schakel</i>, hosted by Goedele Liekens, which aired on <!--del_lnk--> VTM. The top prize was 2,000,000 <!--del_lnk--> Belgian francs. However, the show was quickly cancelled.<p><a id="Croatia" name="Croatia"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Croatia</span></h4>
<p>The Croatian version is called <i>Najslabija karika</i>, and it's hosted by Nina Violic Daniela Trbović - Vlajki. And Nina Violic(2004) The Croatian version is being shown on the channel <!--del_lnk--> HRT 1.<p><a id="Czech_Republic" name="Czech_Republic"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Czech Republic</span></h4>
<p>The Czech Republic also has its own version of <i>The Weakest Link</i>. Much like the Hong Kong version of the show, the hostess Zuzana Slavíková toned down similarities to Anne Robinson. The top prize was Kc1,000,000. It aired on <!--del_lnk--> TV Nova. Its called Nejslabší! Máte padáka!<p><a id="Denmark" name="Denmark"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Denmark</span></h4>
<p>Denmark had a version hosted by Trine Gregorius. The show aied on <!--del_lnk--> DR1 with a top prize of 200,000KR. When this version was cancelled, they sent their set to Norway.<p><a id="Finland" name="Finland"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Finland</span></h4>
<p>The Finnish version started on September 6, 2002, and has aired every Friday on <!--del_lnk--> MTV3. It is called <i>Heikoin Lenkki</i> and the host is Kirsi Salo. Eight contestants compete for up to €18,000. The Finnish version was cancelled at the beginning of 2005.<p><a id="France" name="France"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">France</span></h4>
<p>The show <i>Le Maillon Faible</i>, hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Laurence Boccolini, is aired on <!--del_lnk--> TF1. Nine contestants have a chance to win €50,000. Previously it was €20,000, and 150,000 <!--del_lnk--> French francs (before the Euro came into use).<p><a id="Germany" name="Germany"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Germany</span></h4>
<p>In German, <i>The Weakest Link</i> would be <i>Das schwächste Glied</i>, but this could also be read as <i>The Weakest Member</i> (in a sexual sense). Consequently, this may be the reason why the show was called <b>Der Schwächste fliegt!</b>, meaning <i>The Weakest Gets Booted</i> (literally <i>The Weakest Flies</i>).<p>March 2001 saw the appearance of the first non-English version in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> on <!--del_lnk--> RTL. The show premiered weekdays at 3pm and was hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Sonja Zietlow (who was already known for her tough-talking styles on her self-titled talk show from previous years). Just like the British version, the show pitted nine contestants against each other for a pot of <!--del_lnk--> DM 50,000. But by September of that year, the show was sinking fast in ratings, so in order to gain ratings, Sonja treated the contestants with more respect. Previously, Sonja bullied the contestants with insults such as <i>"Da wollen wir doch mal sehen, wer unsere kostbare Studioluft lang genug weggeatmet hat!"</i> (Let's take a look, who breathed our valuable studio air too long!)<p>However the change in Sonja's behaviour did not sufficiently revive the show, and it was cancelled in December. However, in February 2002, the show was given another chance in the late-night Saturday slot, this time with a newly revamped studio, that now featured an audience, and a higher prize of <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">€</a> 50,000. But there have been rumours that after the first few episodes actors were paid to be contestants on the show, in order to attract more viewers. These changes were unsuccessful in boosting the show's ratings, and was cancelled for good in March.<p><a id="Greece" name="Greece"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Greece</span></h4>
<p>Greece also created its own version <i>O pio adinamos krikos</i> (<i>Ο ΠΙΟ ΑΔΥΝΑΜΟΣ ΚΡΙΚΟΣ</i>), hosted by Elena Akrita. According to its viewers, Akrita was a nicer host than those of foreign versions-- instead of saying a terse, "You are the Weakest Link-- goodbye," like her foreign counterparts, she would dismiss a player who receives the most votes by saying, "<i>λυπάμαι πολύ</i>," which means "I am very sorry". The show is not airing anymore but it was a huge success with high ratings. The top prize was €15,000. It was broadcasted by major Greek TV station <!--del_lnk--> Mega Channel.<p><a id="Hungary" name="Hungary"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Hungary</span></h4>
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<p>In Hungary the show debuted on August 12, 2001 at 7 p.m. on <!--del_lnk--> TV2 under the name of <b>Nincs Kegyelem - A Leggyengébb Láncszem</b> (which means <i>No Mercy - The Weakest Link</i>) and was aired three times a week, on Monday, Tuesday Thursday respectively, with a maximum prize of 3 million <!--del_lnk--> forints (approx. $12 000 at that time). It was hosted by Krisztina Máté, a News at Night presenter, who took a very extreme turn with accepting this new role. She was probably chosen because of the similarities between her and her American counterpart. The whole show instantly became the most controversial program on TV that time, but couldn't profited with the sudden attention, because of the rude style and manner that the whole game-play was built upon, it shocked people and the hostess' reputation quickly changed into irritating and arrogant. Another wrong decision of <!--del_lnk--> TV2 was modifying the airing time to compete with another other quiz show shown on rival channel <!--del_lnk--> RTL Klub (namely the <i><!--del_lnk--> Millionaire</i> show and host István Vágó [who is often referred as the "Quiz Professor" by Hungarians]). The popularity of Weakest Link began to fade, and so the management decreased the number of players from 8 to 5, but it didn't help, and finally the show was cancelled on May, 2002. Though she returned to news, Krisztina Máté's reputation was "tarnished" because of her meanness displayed in the Weakest Link.<p><a id="Republic_of_Ireland" name="Republic_of_Ireland"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Republic of Ireland</span></h4>
<p>The independent television station <!--del_lnk--> TV3 aired a version of the show in Ireland, presented by radio and TV personality <!--del_lnk--> Eamon Dunphy, the first male to host the quiz. The show lasted only one season, due to a lack of sponsor for the second season. The top prize was €10,000 despite the fact that the Irish pound was still in use at the time.<p><a id="Italy" name="Italy"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Italy</span></h4>
<p>Italy had its own version (called <i>Anello Debole</i>) hosted by Enrico Papi. It aired on <!--del_lnk--> Italia 1. The top prize was €15,000. The show did not last long, because of low audience.<p><a id="The_Netherlands" name="The_Netherlands"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">The Netherlands</span></h4>
<p>In the Netherlands it is called <i>De Zwakste Schakel</i> and hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Chazia Mourali on <!--del_lnk--> RTL 4. It had a maximum prize of €10,000 (previously 10,000 <!--del_lnk--> Dutch gulden) and nine contestants. Until the summer of 2004, it was the longest running version after the UK. RTL put it out of the schedule in 2004 though, making France the longest running international version. After a couple of years without the show, De Zwakste Schakel will return soon though (and with a new host).<p><a id="Norway" name="Norway"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Norway</span></h4>
<p>Norway had a version called Det svakeste ledd, hosted by Anne Grosvold. The show started around 2003 and it used the Danish set.<p><a id="Poland" name="Poland"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Poland</span></h4>
<p>The show is aired in <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> as well, 4 days a week (Monday-Thursday) on Polish network <!--del_lnk--> TVN. The local version is titled <b>Najsłabsze ogniwo</b> and features <!--del_lnk--> Kazimiera Szczuka as the host. Eight contestants compete to win 27,000 <!--del_lnk--> złoty. The money tree goes: 3000, 2400, 1800, 1300, 900, 600, 300, 100 złoty.<p><a id="Portugal" name="Portugal"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Portugal</span></h4>
<p>The Portuguese version is called <i>O Elo Mais Fraco</i>, and started on June 11, 2002 on <!--del_lnk--> RTP 1. It was first hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Júlia Pinheiro and then by <!--del_lnk--> Luísa Castel-Branco. Nine contestants competed for the €10,000 pot and the money tree was €20, €50, €100, €200, €300, €450, €600, €800, €1000.<p><a id="Romania" name="Romania"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Romania</span></h4>
<p>The Weakest Link (<i>Lanţul slăbiciunilor</i>) was produced by <!--del_lnk--> ProTV, being hosted by <!--del_lnk--> Andrei Gheorghe.<p><a id="Russia" name="Russia"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Russia</span></h4>
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<p>Russia has a version called <i>Slaboe Zveno</i> hosted by Maria Kiselyova. It airs on <!--del_lnk--> ORT. The top prize is 400,000 <!--del_lnk--> rubles. The show ended in 2005.<p><a id="Serbia" name="Serbia"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Serbia</span></h4>
<p>The show aired on <!--del_lnk--> BKTV as <i>Najslabija karika</i> from <!--del_lnk--> 2002 until April <!--del_lnk--> 2006 when the station's terrestrial licence got revoked by Serbian authorities. It was hosted by Sandra Lalatović. The top prize was <!--del_lnk--> RSD3 million, which according to the exchange rate fluctuations in that period came in the range between <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">€</a>37,500 and <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">€</a>50,000. The show may return to the airwaves this year on either <!--del_lnk--> B92 or <!--del_lnk--> RTV Pink.<p><a id="Slovenia" name="Slovenia"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Slovenia</span></h4>
<p>The Slovenian version is called <i>Najšibkejši člen</i>, and it's hosted by Violeta Tomič. Like many other game shows in Slovenia, it airs on <!--del_lnk--> RTV Slovenija.<p><a id="Spain" name="Spain"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Spain</span></h4>
<p>The Spanish version was called <i>El Rival Más Débil</i> and was hosted by Nuria González (2002-2003) on <!--del_lnk--> TVE 1 and Karmele Anaburu (2003-2004) on <!--del_lnk--> La 2(<!--del_lnk--> TVE). The show premiered in May 2002. The top prize, at least in the first version, was €7,200.<p><a id="Ukraine" name="Ukraine"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Ukraine</span></h4>
<p>Its called Слабое звено nothing is known about this version it airs on INTER network. Host is unknown.<p><a id="Moldova" name="Moldova"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Moldova</span></h4>
<p>Its called Veriga Slabă and its hosted by Andrei Gheorghe, who also hosts the Romania version. It airs on Kanal 1, a Moldovan TV station. Top prize is unknown.<p><a id="Turkey" name="Turkey"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Turkey</span></h4>
<p>Turkey also had a version called <i>En Zayif Halka</i> hosted by Hülya Uğur Tanrıöver. However, it only lasted one season. It aired on <!--del_lnk--> Show TV.<p><a id="Oceania" name="Oceania"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Oceania</span></h3>
<p><a id="New_Zealand" name="New_Zealand"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">New Zealand</span></h4>
<p>The show was produced by TVNZ and aired on <!--del_lnk--> TV ONE in 2001 and hosted by Louise Wallace. She was a blond-haired news anchor who specially dyed her hair Robinson-red for the host part. The show finished in 2002. It had a top prize of <!--del_lnk--> NZ$100,000.<p><a id="South_America" name="South_America"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">South America</span></h3>
<p><a id="Brazil" name="Brazil"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Brazil</span></h4>
<p>Brazilian <!--del_lnk--> TV Globo bought <i>The Weakest Link</i> from the BBC in October 2001. It was decided that Fausto Silva would host the two pilots. However, after the pilots were made, the show never made it to the air, and was replaced by the more popular <i><!--del_lnk--> Big Brother</i>. The host was supposed to be Pedro Bial.<p><a id="Chile" name="Chile"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Chile</span></h4>
<p>Chile also had its own version (El Rival Más Débil) for a 6 month run in 2003 hosted by local actress <!--del_lnk--> Catalina Pulido on <!--del_lnk--> Canal 13. The top prize was 10,000,000 Chilean pesos.<p><a id="Africa" name="Africa"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Africa</span></h3>
<p><a id="South_Africa" name="South_Africa"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">South Africa</span></h4>
<p>South Africa has a version called <i>The Weakest Link</i> hosted by Fiona Coyne. The show airs weekly on <!--del_lnk--> SABC 3. As of season 4, the top prize is now R100,000 (it was previously R50,000).<p><a id="Countries_with_licenses" name="Countries_with_licenses"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Countries with licenses</span></h3>
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<li>Argentina<li>Brazil<li>Bulgaria (airs the Russian version on the <!--del_lnk--> NTV network)<li>Canada (aired the <!--del_lnk--> NBC USA version on <!--del_lnk--> CTV)<li>Colombia<li>Puerto Rico (Aired the USA version)<li>United Kingdom (aired the <!--del_lnk--> NBC USA version on <!--del_lnk--> BBC first, later on <!--del_lnk--> Challenge)<li>United States (airs the British version on <!--del_lnk--> BBC America)</ul>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Anne Robinson appears as the voice of the "Anne-Droid" in the <i><a href="../../wp/d/Doctor_Who.htm" title="Doctor Who">Doctor Who</a></i> episode "<!--del_lnk--> Bad Wolf", which hosts a version of the show in the year 200,100 that has deadly consequences for its contestants if they are eliminated...or try to quit the game. "Anne-Droid" also appeared in the Doctor Who special of the quiz, recorded on <!--del_lnk--> November 21, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 at <!--del_lnk--> Pinewood Studios, which was broadcast on the <!--del_lnk--> March 30, <!--del_lnk--> 2007.<li>The 1000th UK daytime edition was recorded at Pinewood on 1 November 2006 in front of an invited audience of past contestants, and broadcast on 18 December the same year, followed by a half-hour documentary going behind the scenes of the show. The contestants for the 1000th edition included the winner of the very first episode and memorable celebrities who have appeared on previous editions. The show began with Anne bursting from a giant cake to deliver her opening spiel. After a disappointing final with not a single correct answer whatsoever until Sudden Death, eventually the strongest link became Miss Evans, who won £2,710. At her request, the prize money was shared between her and co-finalist Basil Brush, who each donated their respective half of the money to charity - at which point Anne announced that since it was the 1000th edition, £1000 was added to the total prize money.<li>Familiar face on TV game shows <!--del_lnk--> Mark Gardiner (TV) was once a winning contestant.<li>There has been a pantomime special in which pantomime actors were questioned, including <i><a href="../../wp/b/Basil_Brush.htm" title="Basil Brush">Basil Brush</a></i>. Basil Brush has since become the only puppet to win <i>Weakest Link</i>.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Dead Ringers</i> (a satire produced by the BBC) also made a spoof of the Weakest Link, calling it The Weakest Disciple. The contestants were all disciples of Jesus (with Judas banking the most money - 30 pieces of silver). There has also been the Weakest Trappist Monk, they are all Trappist monks, they bank nothing and are silent when Anne Robinson insults them (due to their vow of silence), although that doesn't stop them from writing profanic insults to her (the weakest Trappist monk has written on his card "F*** you" as he was doing the walk of shame).<li>Music is played throughout the show, uninterrupted, from the opening theme to the closing credits.<li>All of the hosts wear black clothing (or sometimes dark colours with black).<li>Most versions have disciplinarian female hosts.</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weakest_Link"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Weapon</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Engineering.htm">Engineering</a>; <a href="../index/subject.History.Military_History_and_War.htm">Military History and War</a></h3>
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<div style="width:342px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14508.jpg.htm" title="The bayonet is used as both knife and spear."><img alt="The bayonet is used as both knife and spear." height="56" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Prussian_bayonet_clean.jpg" src="../../images/145/14508.jpg" width="340" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14508.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> bayonet is used as both <!--del_lnk--> knife and <!--del_lnk--> spear.</div>
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<p>A <b>weapon</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> tool that is intended or is used to <!--del_lnk--> injure, kill, or <!--del_lnk--> incapacitate, to damage or <!--del_lnk--> destroy, or to otherwise render <!--del_lnk--> resources non-functional or unavailable. Weapons may be used to <!--del_lnk--> attack and <!--del_lnk--> defend, and consequently also to <!--del_lnk--> threaten or <!--del_lnk--> protect. Metaphorically, anything used to damage (even <a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">psychologically</a>) can be referred to as a weapon. A weapon can be as simple as a <!--del_lnk--> club or as complex as an <!--del_lnk--> intercontinental ballistic missile.<p>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14509.jpg.htm" title="Ancient Chinese cannon displayed in the Tower of London."><img alt="Ancient Chinese cannon displayed in the Tower of London." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tower_of_London_interior.jpg" src="../../images/145/14509.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The weapon is any tool or object that is used to increase the destructive range or power of a human. From the earliest traces of mankind up to our modern civilization, weapons have been a facet of human development. Weapons development has accelerated along with other areas of technology in more modern times. In ancient times, from the dawn of humanity through the Classical civilizations of <!--del_lnk--> Greece and <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a>, weapons were primarily extensions of an individual's strength, essentially making up for the human body's lack of natural weapons such as claws. These weapons allowed the bearer to be substantially more lethal than a similar human without such a weapon. The Medieval period, including the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, marked a period of distinct advancement in weaponry. Due to some of the unique influences of the period, weapons revolved around two major areas. First was that of knights. These horsemen required new weapons, as well as promoting development of weapons to defeat them. Second was that of castles. The building of castles on a large scale necessitated new weapons to help defend and attack them.<p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> marked the beginning of the implementation of combustion based devices in warfare. The most long-lasting effect of this was the introduction of cannon and firearms to the battlefield, where they are still at the core of modern weaponry. However, many other machines of war were experimented with.<p>From the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution through the beginning of the 20th Century, human-powered weapons were finally excluded from the battlefield for the most part, as they were normally close-range & difficult to use. Sometimes referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> Age of Rifles, this period was characterized by the development of firearms for infantry and cannons for support, as well as the beginnings of mechanized weapons such as the machine gun.<p><a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> marked the entry of fully industrialized warfare, and weapons were developed quickly to meet wartime needs. Many new technologies were developed, particularly in the development of military aircraft and vehicles. <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> however, perhaps marked the most frantic period of weapons development in the history of humanity. Massive numbers of new designs and concepts were fielded, and all existing technologies were improved between 1939 and 1945. Ultimately, the most powerful of all invented weapons was the <!--del_lnk--> nuclear bomb.<p>After World War II, with the onset of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the constant technological development of new weapons was institutionalized, as participants engaged in a constant race to develop weapons and counter-weapons. This constant state of weapons development continues into the modern era, and remains a constant draw on the resources of most nations.<p><a id="Ancient_weapons" name="Ancient_weapons"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ancient weapons</span></h3>
<p>The basic tasks a weapon must perform have not changed since ancient times. All weapons do one or more of the following:<ol>
<li>Concentrate <!--del_lnk--> pressure: the sharp end of a broken stone or pointed stick will apply more force per unit area, and do more harm, than the blunt end. A material's <!--del_lnk--> hardness determines its ability to apply or resist pressure.<li>Store <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a>: an object accumulates kinetic energy as a person accelerates it, and releases this energy in a much shorter time frame upon impact, thus magnifying a person's <!--del_lnk--> power.<li>Project <a href="../../wp/f/Force.htm" title="Force">force</a>: a thrown rock or long stick allows a person to affect an adversary from a distance.</ol>
<p>As shown by the preceding examples, even simple items such as rocks and sticks can often serve these functions better than the human body. The usefulness of such tools made their development of paramount importance for a <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Humanity">humanity</a> consisting of small, thinly spread, hunter-gatherer communities. The first known traces of weapons are from the <a href="../../wp/s/Stone_Age.htm" title="Stone age">stone age</a> with <!--del_lnk--> flint <!--del_lnk--> knives, <a href="../../wp/a/Axe.htm" title="Axe">handaxes</a> and heads for large <!--del_lnk--> darts. There is no evidence for handaxes being thrown, but very good evidence for them having been used to butcher animals. Instead, darts seem to have been a powerful <!--del_lnk--> projectile weapon: anthropologists have thrown reconstructed darts through several <!--del_lnk--> inches of <!--del_lnk--> oak using <!--del_lnk--> atlatls. The broad, leaf-shaped heads penetrate deeply, and easily cut <!--del_lnk--> arteries.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2252.jpg.htm" title="Bronze age weaponry."><img alt="Bronze age weaponry." height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bronze_age_weapons_Romania.jpg" src="../../images/22/2252.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2252.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bronze age weaponry.</div>
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<p>Some weapons are probably much older than the dart, although little early evidence for them exists. These include the <!--del_lnk--> sling and the <!--del_lnk--> spear. Even though these weapons are quite simple, they were a major military weapon at least until Roman times; a unit of fast-moving <!--del_lnk--> skirmishers could be equipped with them at very little cost. Lack of early evidence is understandable, as slings are prone to decay, and it would be difficult to prove that a particular stone has been used as ammunition. Similarly, there is less incentive to put a stone point onto a spear than a dart. A weighted spear point is a liability rather than an asset, and the greater momentum imparted by stabbing makes sharpness less critical than toughness, so that points of bone, antler, or even fire-hardened wood can make more effective spear points. Once metal became available, its toughness made spears and <!--del_lnk--> pikes the core of most infantry forces.<p>Some of the earliest evidence for <!--del_lnk--> arrows are from ca. 20,000 BC in the <!--del_lnk--> Levant (the so-called 'Geometric Kebaran' period), made with several very small sharp pieces of stone embedded in an arrowshaft. Here again, far earlier examples may have been subject to decay: for instance, some cultures make weighted arrow points by cutting a hollow reed diagonally and filling the end segment with clay.<p><!--del_lnk--> Archery and <!--del_lnk--> swords have been crucial for warfare. Archery, because of the large amount of energy that can be easily stored and released using a <!--del_lnk--> bow, and short swords because of their lethality in close combat. Far greater energy can be stored in a <!--del_lnk--> composite bow than a wooden bow of the same weight due to clever mechanical design and choice of materials, but militarily such weapons were mostly limited to use in dry climates. Traditional designs are held together by animal glue (chemically similar to <!--del_lnk--> gelatin); moisture would weaken the glue and damage bows of this design. The <!--del_lnk--> long bow makes up for less exotic materials with its larger size. In another tradeoff, short swords can be optimized for either thrusting or cutting; the former focuses on pressure, the latter on energy. The <i><!--del_lnk--> gladius hispaniensis</i> could slip through openings in armor, and <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> doctrine held that a stab wound as shallow as one <!--del_lnk--> inch could be lethal. The hatchet-like <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> <!--del_lnk--> kopis, by contrast, seems built to dismember, but its point-heavy balance might make it clumsy against comprehensive armor.<p>The most effective defense to traditional weapons was a <!--del_lnk--> fortress. The doctrines to support fortresses in the age of edged weapons may have greatly influenced medieval and noble history. <!--del_lnk--> Medieval siege weapons were used in countervailing doctrines, but the stave-sling and even the bow often had superior range, making them unsafe to use.<p><a id="Combustion-powered_weapons" name="Combustion-powered_weapons"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Combustion-powered weapons</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/f/Firearm.htm" title="Firearm">Firearms</a> are qualitatively different from earlier weapons because they store energy in a combustible <!--del_lnk--> propellant such as <a href="../../wp/g/Gunpowder.htm" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>, rather than in a weight or spring. This energy is released quite rapidly, and can be restored without much effort by the user, so that even early firearms such as the <!--del_lnk--> arquebus were much more <!--del_lnk--> powerful than human-powered weapons. They became increasingly important and effective during the 16th century to 19th century, with progressive improvements in <!--del_lnk--> ignition <!--del_lnk--> mechanisms followed by revolutionary changes in <!--del_lnk--> ammunition handling and propellant. During the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Civil War various technologies including the <!--del_lnk--> machine gun and <!--del_lnk--> ironclad warship emerged that would be recognizable and useful military weapons today, particularly in lower-technology conflicts. In the 19th century <!--del_lnk--> warship propulsion changed from <!--del_lnk--> sail power to <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a>-powered <a href="../../wp/s/Steam_engine.htm" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a>.<p>The age of edged weapons ended abruptly just before <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> with rifled <!--del_lnk--> artillery, such as <!--del_lnk--> howitzers which are able to destroy any masonry fortress. This single invention caused a revolution in military affairs and doctrines that continues to this day. <i>See <!--del_lnk--> Technology during World War I for a detailed discussion.</i><p>An important feature of <!--del_lnk--> industrial age warfare was <!--del_lnk--> technological escalation - an innovation could, and would, be rapidly matched by copying it, and often with yet another innovation to counter it. The <!--del_lnk--> technological escalation during World War I was profound, producing armed <a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tank.htm" title="Tank">tanks</a>.<p>This continued in the period between the end of that war and <!--del_lnk--> the next, with continuous improvements of all weapons by all major powers. Many modern military weapons, particularly ground-based ones, are relatively minor improvements on those of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. <i>See <!--del_lnk--> military technology during World War II for a detailed discussion.</i><p>
<br /> The most notable development in weaponry since World War II has been the combination and further development of two weapons first used in it—<a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> ballistic missile, leading to its ultimate configuration: the <!--del_lnk--> ICBM. The mutual possession of these by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> ensured that either nation could inflict terrible damage on the other; so terrible, in fact, that neither nation was willing to instigate direct, all-out war with the other (a phenomenon known as <!--del_lnk--> Mutually Assured Destruction). The indiscriminate nature of the destruction has made nuclear-tipped missiles essentially useless for the smaller wars fought since. However computer-guided weaponry of all kinds, from <!--del_lnk--> precision-guided munitions (or "smart bombs") to computer-aimed tank rounds, has greatly increased weaponry's accuracy.<p><a id="Information_warfare" name="Information_warfare"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Information warfare</span></h3>
<p>In modern warfare, since all redoubts are traps, maneuver and coordination of forces is decisive, overshadowing particular weapons. The goal of every modern commander is therefore to "operate within the observation-decision-action cycle of the enemy." In this way, the modern commander can bring overwhelming force to bear on isolated groups of the enemy, and "tactically" overwhelm an enemy.<p>Traditional military maneuvers tried to achieve this coordination with "fronts" made of lines of military assets. These were formerly the only way to prevent harm to friendly forces. Close-order marching and drill (a traditional military skill) was an early method to get relative superiority of coordination. Derivative methods (such as "leapfrogging units to advance a line") survived into combined arms warfare to coordinate aircraft, artillery, armor and infantry.<p>Computers are changing this. The most extreme example so far (2003) is the use of "<!--del_lnk--> swarm" tactics by the U.S. military in <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. The U.S. had instantaneous, reliably encrypted communications, perfect navigation using <!--del_lnk--> GPS and computer-mediated communications to aim precision weapons.<p>In swarm tactics, small units pass through possible enemy territory. When attacked they attempt to survive by calling down immediate overwhelming showers of precision-guided air-dropped munitions for armor, and <!--del_lnk--> cluster bombs for enemy troops. To consolidate such a region, nearby <!--del_lnk--> artillery begin bombardment, and ground units rush in on safe vectors through the bombardments, avoiding them by computer-mediated navigation aids.<p>Thus in modern warfare, <!--del_lnk--> satellite navigation systems, <!--del_lnk--> digital radios and <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computers</a> give decisive advantages to ordinary military personnel armed with weapons that are otherwise unremarkable.<p><a id="Types_of_weapons" name="Types_of_weapons"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of weapons</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14511.jpg.htm" title="An MP5K Personal defense weapon."><img alt="An MP5K Personal defense weapon." height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hkmp5k.jpg" src="../../images/145/14511.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14511.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An <!--del_lnk--> MP5K <!--del_lnk--> Personal defense weapon.</div>
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<p>There are essentially three facets to classifying weapon types: who uses it, how it works, and what it targets.<p><i>Who uses it</i> essentially determines how it can be employed:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Personal weapons (or <!--del_lnk--> Small Arms) are designed to be used by an individual person.<li><!--del_lnk--> Crew served weapons are larger than personal weapons, requiring more than one <!--del_lnk--> crew member to operate correctly.<li><!--del_lnk--> Fortification weapons are designed to be mounted in a permanent installation, or used primarily within a fortification.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mountain weapons are designed for use by mountain forces or those operating in difficult terrain and harsh climates.<li><!--del_lnk--> Vehicle weapons are designed to be mounted on any type of <!--del_lnk--> military vehicle.<li><!--del_lnk--> Railway weapons are designed to be mounted on railway cars, including armored trains.<li><!--del_lnk--> Aircraft weapons are designed to be carried on and used by some type of <a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, <!--del_lnk--> helicopter, or other aerial vehicle.<li><!--del_lnk--> Naval weapons are designed to be mounted on <a href="../../wp/s/Ship.htm" title="Ship">ships</a> and <!--del_lnk--> submarines.<li><!--del_lnk--> Space weapons are designed to be used in or launched from space.</ul>
<p><i>How it works</i> refers to the construction of the weapon and how it operates:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Antimatter weapons (still theoretical) combine matter and antimatter to cause a powerful explosion. Unfortunately (or fortunately), antimatter is hard to make and harder to store.<li><!--del_lnk--> Archery related weapons operate by using a tensioned string to launch a projectile at some target.<li><!--del_lnk--> Artillery are large firearms capable of launching heavy projectiles (normally explosive) over long distances.<li><!--del_lnk--> Biological weapons spread biological agents, attacking humans (or livestock) by causing disease and infection.<li><!--del_lnk--> Chemical weapons spread chemical agents, attacking humans by poisoning and causing reactions.<li><!--del_lnk--> Energy weapons rely on concentrating forms of energy to attack, such as lasers, electrical shocks, and thermal or sonic attack.<li><!--del_lnk--> Explosive weapons use a physical explosion to create blast concussion or spread shrapnel.<li><!--del_lnk--> Firearms use a chemical charge to launch one or more projectiles down a rifled or smoothbore barrel.<li><!--del_lnk--> Future weapons make use of futuristic high tech weapon systems and advanced materials.<li><!--del_lnk--> Incendiary weapons rely on combustible materials and an ignition mechanism to cause damage by fire.<li><!--del_lnk--> Non-lethal weapons are used to attack and subdue humans, but are designed to minimize the risk of killing the target.<li><!--del_lnk--> Magnetic weapons is one that uses magnetic fields to accelerate and propel projectiles, or to focus charged particle beams.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mêlée weapons operate as physical extensions of the user's body and directly impact their target.<li><!--del_lnk--> Missiles are rockets which are guided to their target after launch. This is also a general term for <!--del_lnk--> projectile weapons.<li><a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_weapon.htm" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a> use radioactive materials to create <a href="../../wp/n/Nuclear_fission.htm" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> and/or <!--del_lnk--> nuclear fusion detonations above a target ("air-burst") or at ground-level.<li><!--del_lnk--> Primitive weapons make no use of technological or industrial elements, instead being purely constructed of easily obtainable natural materials.<li><!--del_lnk--> Ranged weapons cause a <!--del_lnk--> projectile to leave the user and (ideally) strike a target afterwards.<li><!--del_lnk--> Rockets use chemical propellant to accelerate a projectile (usually with an explosive warhead) towards a target and are typically unguided once fired.<li><!--del_lnk--> Suicide weapons are typically explosive in nature and exploit the willingness of their operator to not survive the attack to reach their target.</ul>
<p><i>What it targets</i> refers to what type of target the weapon is designed to attack:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Anti-aircraft weapons target enemy aircraft, helicopters, missiles and any other aerial vehicles in flight.<li><!--del_lnk--> Anti-fortification weapons are designed to target enemy installations, including bunkers and fortifications. The American <!--del_lnk--> bunker buster bomb is designed to travel almost 10 metres underground before detonating, toppling underground installations.<li><!--del_lnk--> Anti-personnel weapons are designed to attack people, either individually or in numbers.<li><!--del_lnk--> Anti-radiation weapons target enemy sources of electronic radiation, particularly radar emitters.<li><!--del_lnk--> Anti-ship weapons target enemy ships and vessels on water.<li><!--del_lnk--> Anti-submarine weapons target enemy submarines and other underwater targets.<li><!--del_lnk--> Anti-tank weapons are primarily used to defeat armored targets, but may be targeted against other less well armored targets.<li><!--del_lnk--> Area denial weapons are designed to target territory, making it unsafe or unsuitable for enemy use or travel.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hunting weapons are designed particularly for use against animals for hunting purposes.<li><!--del_lnk--> Infantry support weapons are designed to attack various threats to infantry units, supporting the infantry's operations, including <!--del_lnk--> heavy machine guns, <!--del_lnk--> mortars and pinpoint <!--del_lnk--> airstrikes ordered by the <!--del_lnk--> infantry, often to strike heavily defended positions, such as enemy camps or extensively powerful machine-gun nests.</ul>
<p><a id="Weapons_by_era" name="Weapons_by_era"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Weapons by era</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ancient<li><!--del_lnk--> Medieval<li><!--del_lnk--> Military technology during the Napoleonic wars<li><!--del_lnk--> Technology during World War I<li><!--del_lnk--> Military technology during World War II<li><!--del_lnk--> Military technology of the late 20th century<li><!--del_lnk--> Modern weapons<li><!--del_lnk--> All eras</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Weasel</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Weasels</b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/145/14512.jpg.htm" title="Long-tailed Weasel"><img alt="Long-tailed Weasel" height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WEASEL.JPG" src="../../images/145/14512.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Long-tailed Weasel</small></div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carnivora<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mustelidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mustelinae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Mustela</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758</small></td>
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<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Species</center>
</th>
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela africana</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela altaica</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela erminea</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela eversmannii</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela felipei</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela frenata</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela kathiah</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela lutreola</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela lutreolina</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela nigripes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela nivalis</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela nudipes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela putorius</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela sibirica</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela strigidorsa</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Mustela vison</i><br />
</td>
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<p><b>Weasels</b> are <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> in the genus <i><b>Mustela</b></i> of the <!--del_lnk--> Mustelidae <!--del_lnk--> family. Originally, the name "weasel" was applied to one <!--del_lnk--> species of the genus, the <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> form of the <!--del_lnk--> Least Weasel (<i>Mustela nivalis</i>). Early literary references to weasels, for example their common appearances in fables, refer to this species rather than to the genus as a whole.<p>Weasels vary in length from 15 to 35 centimeters (6 to 14 inches), and usually have a light brown upper coat, white belly and black fur at the tip of the tail; in many species, populations living at high latitudes <!--del_lnk--> moult to a white coat with black fur at the tip of the tail in winter. They have long slender bodies, which enable them to follow their prey into burrows. Their tails are typically almost as long as the rest of their bodies. As is typical of small carnivores, weasels have a reputation for cleverness and guile.<p>Most weasels feed on small mammals, and in former times were considered vermin since some species took <a href="../../wp/p/Poultry.htm" title="Poultry">poultry</a> from farms, or <a href="../../wp/r/Rabbit.htm" title="Rabbits">rabbits</a> from commercial warrens. Some species of weasel have been reported to perform a "hypnotic dance" in front of prey, which appears to mesmerize it. In folklore at least, this behaviour is particularly associated with the <!--del_lnk--> stoat.<p>Of the 16 extant species currently classified in the genus <i>Mustela</i>, only 10 have "weasel" in their common name. Among those that do not are the stoat, the two species of <!--del_lnk--> mink, and the <!--del_lnk--> polecats or <!--del_lnk--> ferrets.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species of weasel</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Subgenus <i>Grammogale</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tropical Weasel, <i>Mustela africana</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Colombian Weasel, <i>Mustela felipei</i></ul>
<li>Subgenus <i>Lutreola</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> European Mink, <i>Mustela lutreola</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Indonesian Mountain Weasel, <i>Mustela lutreolina</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Malayan Weasel, <i>Mustela nudipes</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Siberian Weasel, <i>Mustela sibirica</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Black-striped Weasel, <i>Mustela strigidorsa</i></ul>
<li>Subgenus <i>Mustela</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mountain Weasel, <i>Mustela altaica</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Stoat, <i>Mustela erminea</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Long-tailed Weasel, <i>Mustela frenata</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Yellow-bellied Weasel, <i>Mustela kathiah</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Least Weasel, <i>Mustela nivalis</i></ul>
<li>Subgenus <i>Putorius</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Steppe Polecat, <i>Mustela eversmannii</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Black-footed Ferret, <i>Mustela nigripes</i><li><!--del_lnk--> European Polecat, <i>Mustela putorius</i> (includes the <!--del_lnk--> domestic ferret)</ul>
<li>Subgenus <i>Vison</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sea Mink, <i>Mustela macrodon</i> (<!--del_lnk--> extinct in 1894)<li><!--del_lnk--> American Mink, <i>Mustela vison</i></ul>
</ul>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Mammal', 'Europe', 'Poultry', 'Rabbits'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Weather</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Climate_and_the_Weather.htm">Climate and the Weather</a></h3>
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<td height="30" style="padding:0.2em; border solid thin #0000CC; text-align:center; margin-bottom:5px; background-color:LightYellow"><small>Part of the <a href="../../wp/n/Nature.htm" title="Nature">Nature</a> series on</small><br /><big><b><strong class="selflink">Weather</strong></b></big><br />
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<th style="font-size: 95%; color:LightSteelBlue; background-color:LightSteelBlue;">x</th>
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<th style="font-size: 95%; color:#ffffff; background-color:MediumSeaGreen;">Seasons</th>
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<p>• <a href="../../wp/s/Spring_%2528season%2529.htm" title="Spring (season)">Spring</a> •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">Summer</a> •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/a/Autumn.htm" title="Autumn">Autumn</a> •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/w/Winter.htm" title="Winter">Winter</a> •</td>
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<th style="font-size: 95%; color:#ffffff; background-color:MediumSeaGreen;">Storms</th>
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<p>• <!--del_lnk--> Thunder storm •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/t/Tornado.htm" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Hurricane">Hurricane</a> •<br /> • <!--del_lnk--> Blizzard •</td>
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<th style="font-size: 95%; color:#ffffff; background-color:MediumSeaGreen;">Precipitation</th>
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<p>• <!--del_lnk--> Fog •<br /> • <!--del_lnk--> Drizzle •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">Rain</a> •<br /> • <!--del_lnk--> Freezing rain •<br /> • <!--del_lnk--> Sleet •<br /> • <!--del_lnk--> Hail •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" title="Ice">Ice</a> •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">Snow</a> •</td>
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<th style="font-size: 95%; color:#ffffff; background-color:MediumSeaGreen;">Topics</th>
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<p>• <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a> •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/w/Weather_forecasting.htm" title="Weather forecasting">Weather forecasting</a> •<br /> • <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">Climate</a> •<br /> • <!--del_lnk--> Air pollution •</td>
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<td style="text-align: center; background-color:Goldenrod;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Weather Portal</b> · </td>
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<p><i><b>Weather</b></i> is a term that encompasses <!--del_lnk--> phenomena in the <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere of a <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a>. The term is normally taken to mean the activity of these phenomena over short periods of time, usually no more than a few days (see also <!--del_lnk--> Weather report). Average atmospheric conditions over significantly longer periods are known as <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a>. Usage of the two terms often overlaps and the <!--del_lnk--> physical concepts underlying them are closely related.<p>
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</script><a id="Basic_mechanism" name="Basic_mechanism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Basic mechanism</span></h2>
<p>When used without qualification, "weather" is understood to be the weather of <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>. At large scales, weather results from temperature differences around the globe, which arise mainly because areas closer to the <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropics</a> receive more energy per unit area from the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> (see also <!--del_lnk--> Sunrise and <!--del_lnk--> Sunset) than regions nearer to the Earth's <!--del_lnk--> poles. On local scales, temperature differences can occur because different surfaces (such as <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forests</a>, or <a href="../../wp/i/Ice.htm" title="Ice">ice</a> sheets) have differing physical characteristics such as <!--del_lnk--> reflectivity, roughness, or moisture content.<p>Surface <!--del_lnk--> temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. A hot surface heats the air above it and the air expands, lowering the <!--del_lnk--> air pressure. The resulting horizontal <!--del_lnk--> pressure gradient accelerates the air from high to low pressure, creating <a href="../../wp/w/Wind.htm" title="Wind">wind</a>. The simple systems thus formed can then display <!--del_lnk--> emergent behaviour to produce more <!--del_lnk--> complex systems and thus other weather phenomena. Large scale examples include the <!--del_lnk--> Hadley cell and other forms of <!--del_lnk--> atmospheric circulation. An smaller scale example would be <!--del_lnk--> coastal breezes.<p>Because the Earth's <!--del_lnk--> axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, <a href="../../wp/s/Sunlight.htm" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> is incident at different angles at different times of the year. In June the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, so at any given Northern Hemisphere latitude sunlight falls more directly on that spot than in December (see <!--del_lnk--> Effect of sun angle on climate). This effect causes <a href="../../wp/s/Season.htm" title="Season">seasons</a>. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbital parameters affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate (see <!--del_lnk--> Milankovitch cycles).<p><a id="Terrestrial_weather" name="Terrestrial_weather"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Terrestrial weather</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14513.jpg.htm" title="Fair weather Cumulus clouds"><img alt="Fair weather Cumulus clouds" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GoldenMedows.jpg" src="../../images/145/14513.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14513.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Fair weather <!--del_lnk--> Cumulus clouds</div>
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<p>On <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>, regularly occurring <!--del_lnk--> weather phenomena include such things as <a href="../../wp/w/Wind.htm" title="Wind">wind</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cloud.htm" title="Cloud">cloud</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Rain.htm" title="Rain">rain</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fog and <!--del_lnk--> dust storms. Less common events include <!--del_lnk--> natural disasters such as <!--del_lnk--> tornadoes, <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Hurricanes">hurricanes</a> and <!--del_lnk--> ice storms. Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the <!--del_lnk--> troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere). Weather does occur in the <!--del_lnk--> stratosphere and does affect weather lower down in the troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are poorly understood .<p>The <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a> is a <!--del_lnk--> chaotic system, so small changes to one part can have large effects elsewhere. This makes it very difficult to accurately predict weather changes more than a few days in advance, though <a href="../../wp/w/Weather_forecasting.htm" title="Weather forecasting">weather forecasters</a> are continually working to extend this limit through the scientific study of weather, <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a>.<p>Chaos theory says that the slightest variation in the motion of the air will grow with time. This idea is sometimes called the <!--del_lnk--> butterfly effect, from the idea that the motions caused by the flapping wings of a butterfly eventually could produce marked changes in the state of the atmosphere. Because of this sensitivity to small changes it will never be possible to forecast perfectly, although there still is potential for vast improvement.<p><a id="Shaping_the_planet" name="Shaping_the_planet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Shaping the planet</span></h3>
<p>Along with <a href="../../wp/p/Plate_tectonics.htm" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> ocean circulation, weather is one of the fundamental processes that shape the Earth. The process of <!--del_lnk--> weathering breaks down rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into their constituent substances. These are then free to take part in chemical reactions that can affect the surface further (e.g. <a href="../../wp/a/Acid_rain.htm" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>) or are reformed into other rocks and soils. Weather also plays a major role in <!--del_lnk--> erosion of the surface.<p><a id="Human_history" name="Human_history"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Human history</span></h3>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14514.jpg.htm" title="Badly Flooded New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina."><img alt="Badly Flooded New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina." height="154" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Navy-FloodedNewOrleans.jpg" src="../../images/145/14514.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14514.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Badly Flooded New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina.</div>
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<p>Weather has played a large, and sometimes direct, part in <a href="../../wp/h/History_of_the_world.htm" title="History of the world">human history</a>. Aside from climatic changes that have caused the gradual drift of populations (for example the <!--del_lnk--> desertification of the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Ice ages in <!--del_lnk--> Northern Europe), <!--del_lnk--> extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population movements and intruded directly on the course of human history. One such event is the saving of <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> from invasion by the <!--del_lnk--> Mongol fleet of <!--del_lnk--> Kublai Khan by the <!--del_lnk--> Kamikaze winds in <!--del_lnk--> 1281. A series of great storms throughout the <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a> caused the powerful English <!--del_lnk--> Cinque Ports to be silted up and hence lose their influence. The <!--del_lnk--> Little Ice Age of the 14th to 18th centuries had wide ranging effects in the North Atlantic region, including the demise of the <a href="../../wp/v/Viking.htm" title="Viking">Viking</a> colonies in <a href="../../wp/g/Greenland.htm" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, catalysing the formation of leagues among the <!--del_lnk--> Native American groups in North America, and forcing the change of patterns of agriculture across Europe to accommodate the shortened growing season. More recently, <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> forced the temporary abandonment of the entire city of <!--del_lnk--> New Orleans in <!--del_lnk--> 2005.<p>Because of the effect that weather has on day-to-day life, prior to the advent of scientific methods of weather forecasting a large body of <!--del_lnk--> weather folklore developed to explain the weather has grown up. An example is the <!--del_lnk--> Groundhog Day celebration near the end of winter in parts of the United States.<p>The effect of seasons on the life of primitive peoples also caused them to observe and celebrate certain events during the <!--del_lnk--> calendar, some of which, in altered form, are still observed today. <!--del_lnk--> Christmas, for example, is the <!--del_lnk--> Yule of the <!--del_lnk--> pagans, celebrated around the <!--del_lnk--> winter solstice, the shortest day of the year (in the Northern Hemisphere, the <!--del_lnk--> summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere).<p><a id="Forecasting" name="Forecasting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Forecasting</span></h3>
<p>Weather forecasting is the application of current technology and science to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The history of weather forecasting goes back millennia, however the techniques used have changed significantly since then. Today, weather forecasts are made by collecting as much data as possible about the current state of the atmosphere (particularly the temperature, humidity and wind) and using understanding of atmospheric processes (through meteorology) to determine how the atmosphere evolves in the future. However, the chaotic nature of the atmosphere and incomplete understanding of the processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the range of the forecast increases.<p><a id="In_the_future" name="In_the_future"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In the future</span></h3>
<p>It is the goal of some scientists to <!--del_lnk--> control the weather. Experiments have been carried out for many years, but the results are usually ambiguous. On a grander scale, <!--del_lnk--> science fiction authors have long posited the idea of <!--del_lnk--> terraforming other planets in order to make them habitable by human beings. While this may be possible in the distant future, this is far beyond current technology.<p><a id="Extremes" name="Extremes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Extremes</span></h3>
<p>The coldest air temperature ever recorded on Earth is -89.2°C (-127.8°F), and that was at <!--del_lnk--> Vostok, <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> on <!--del_lnk--> July 21, 1983. The hottest air temperature ever recorded on earth was 57.7°C (135.9°F), which occurred in <!--del_lnk--> Al 'Aziziyah, <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a>, on <!--del_lnk--> September 13, 1922. The highest recorded average annual temperature was 34.4°C (94°F) at <!--del_lnk--> Dallol, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>. The coldest recorded average annual temperature is -50.6°C (-59°F) at <!--del_lnk--> Vostok, <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>. And the coldest average annual temperature in a permanently inhabited location is at <!--del_lnk--> Resolute, Nunavut, in <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>.<p><a id="Extra-terrestrial_weather" name="Extra-terrestrial_weather"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Extra-terrestrial weather</span></h2>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14515.jpg.htm" title="Jupiter's Great Red Spot"><img alt="Jupiter's Great Red Spot" height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Redspot.jpg" src="../../images/145/14515.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14515.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Jupiter's Great Red Spot</div>
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<p>Weather on other planets follows many of the same physical principles as weather on Earth, but occurs on different scales and in atmospheres having different chemical composition from Earth. The <a href="../../wp/c/Cassini-Huygens.htm" title="Cassini-Huygens">Cassini-Huygens</a> mission to <!--del_lnk--> Titan, for example, discovered clouds formed from methane or ethane which deposit rain composed of liquid <!--del_lnk--> methane and other <!--del_lnk--> organic compounds.<p>Extra-terrestrial weather systems can be extremely stable; one of the most famous landmarks in the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter's <i><a href="../../wp/g/Great_Red_Spot.htm" title="Great Red Spot">Great Red Spot</a></i> is an <!--del_lnk--> anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. On other <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_giant.htm" title="Gas giant">gas giants</a>, the lack of a surface allows the wind to reach enormous speeds: gusts of up to 400 metres per second (ca. 1440kmph / 900 mph) have been measured on the planet <a href="../../wp/n/Neptune.htm" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>. This has created a puzzle for <!--del_lnk--> planetary scientists: The weather is ultimately created by solar energy and the amount of energy received by Neptune is only about 1/900th of that received by Earth, yet the intensity of weather phenomena on Neptune is far greater than on Earth. <p>Earth's weather includes about six latitudinal circulation zones, three in each hemisphere (see <!--del_lnk--> Hadley cell). Jupiter's banded appearance shows over a dozen such zones, while <!--del_lnk--> Venus appears to have no zones at all. Studying how the weather works on other planets has been seen as helpful in understanding how it works on Earth. <p><a id="Extra-planetary_weather" name="Extra-planetary_weather"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Extra-planetary weather</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14516.jpg.htm" title="Aurora Borealis"><img alt="Aurora Borealis" height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Polarlicht.jpg" src="../../images/145/14516.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14516.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aurora Borealis</div>
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<p>Weather is not limited to just planetary bodies, however. A star's <!--del_lnk--> corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>, known as the <!--del_lnk--> solar wind.<p>Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as <!--del_lnk--> Coronal Mass Ejections, form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (i.e. pressure and wind), and though not true weather, is generally known as <!--del_lnk--> space weather. The activity of this system can affect <!--del_lnk--> planetary atmospheres and occasionally surfaces. The interaction of the <!--del_lnk--> solar wind with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce spectacular <!--del_lnk--> aurorae, but can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as <!--del_lnk--> electricity grids and <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radio</a> signals.<div class="center">
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<div style="width:652px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14517.jpg.htm" title="Aurora australis"><img alt="Aurora australis" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aurora_australis_panorama.jpg" src="../../images/145/14517.jpg" width="650" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14517.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aurora australis</div>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Weather forecasting</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Climate_and_the_Weather.htm">Climate and the Weather</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Storms.htm">Storms</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15988.jpg.htm" title="Weather map of Europe, 10 December 1887"><img alt="Weather map of Europe, 10 December 1887" class="thumbimage" height="287" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wetterkarte_9._%26_10.12.1887.jpg" src="../../images/159/15988.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/159/15988.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weather map of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 10 December <!--del_lnk--> 1887</div>
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<p><b><a href="../../wp/w/Weather.htm" title="Weather">Weather</a> forecasting</b> is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> for a future time and a given location. Humankind has attempted to predict the weather since ancient times. Today, weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative <!--del_lnk--> data about the current state of the atmosphere and using <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">scientific understanding of atmospheric processes</a> to project how the atmosphere will evolve. The <!--del_lnk--> chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, and incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the range of the forecast increases.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History_of_weather_forecasting" name="History_of_weather_forecasting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of weather forecasting</span></h2>
<p>For millennia people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC, the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns. In about 340 BC, <a href="../../wp/a/Aristotle.htm" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> described weather patterns in <!--del_lnk--> Meteorologica. Chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC.<p>Ancient weather forecasting methods usually relied on observed patterns of events. For example, it might be observed that if the sunset was particularly red, the following day often brought fair weather. This experience accumulated over the generations to produce <!--del_lnk--> weather lore. However, not all of these predictions prove reliable and many of them have since been found not to stand up to rigorous statistical testing.<p>It was not until the invention of the <!--del_lnk--> telegraph in 1837 that the modern age of weather forecasting began. Before this time, it had not been possible to transport information about the current state of the weather any faster than a steam train. The telegraph allowed reports of weather conditions from a wide area to be received almost instantaneously by the late <!--del_lnk--> 1840's. This allowed forecasts to be made by knowing what the weather conditions were like further upwind.<table align="right" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" style="border: 2px solid #aaa; font-size: 90%; padding: 4px; margin: 0 1em; margin-[[:Template:Align]]:0; background-color: #f9f9f9;clear:right;" width="50%">
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<td align="center"><i>Imagine a rotating sphere that is 12,800 kilometers (8000 miles) in diameter, has a bumpy surface, is surrounded by a 40-kilometer-deep mixture of different gases whose concentrations vary both spatially and over time, and is heated, along with its surrounding gases, by a nuclear reactor 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) away. Imagine also that this sphere is revolving around the nuclear reactor and that some locations are heated more during one part of the revolution and other locations are heated during another part of the revolution. And imagine that this mixture of gases continually receives inputs from the surface below, generally calmly but sometimes through violent and highly localized injections. Then, imagine that after watching the gaseous mixture, you are expected to predict its state at one location on the sphere one, two, or more days into the future. This is essentially the task encountered day by day by a weather forecaster.</i><br /> —On the difficulty of weather forecasting, <!--del_lnk--> Bob Ryan, <!--del_lnk--> Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 1982.</td>
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<p>The two men most credited with the birth of forecasting as a science were <!--del_lnk--> Francis Beaufort (remembered chiefly for the <!--del_lnk--> Beaufort scale) and his protégé <!--del_lnk--> Robert Fitzroy (developer of the Fitzroy <!--del_lnk--> barometer). Both were influential men in British Naval and Governmental circles, and though ridiculed in the press at the time, their work gained scientific credence, was accepted by the British Navy and formed the basis for all of today's weather forecasting knowledge.<p>Great progress was made in the science of <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> during the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>. The possibility of <!--del_lnk--> numerical weather prediction was proposed by <!--del_lnk--> Lewis Fry Richardson in 1922, though computers fast enough to complete the vast number of calculations required to produce a forecast before the event had occurred did not exist at that time. Practical use of numerical weather prediction began in 1955, spurred by the development of programmable electronic <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computers</a>.<p><a id="Modern_day_weather_forecasting_system" name="Modern_day_weather_forecasting_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Modern day weather forecasting system</span></h2>
<p>Components of a modern weather forecasting system include:<ul>
<li>Data collection<li>Data assimilation<li>Numerical weather prediction<li>Model output post-processing<li>Forecast presentation to end-user</ul>
<p><a id="Data_collection" name="Data_collection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Data collection</span></h3>
<p>Observations of <!--del_lnk--> atmospheric pressure, <!--del_lnk--> temperature, wind speed, wind direction, humidity, precipitation are made near the earth's surface by trained observers, <!--del_lnk--> automatic weather stations or <!--del_lnk--> buoys. The <!--del_lnk--> World Meteorological Organization acts to standardize the instrumentation, observing practices and timing of these observations worldwide. Stations either report hourly in <!--del_lnk--> METAR reports, or every six hours in <!--del_lnk--> SYNOP reports.<p>Measurements of temperature, humidity and wind above the surface are found by launching <!--del_lnk--> radiosondes (<!--del_lnk--> weather balloon). Data are usually obtained from near the surface to the middle of the <!--del_lnk--> stratosphere, about 30,000 m (100,000 ft). In recent years, data transmitted from commercial airplanes through the <!--del_lnk--> AMDAR system has also been incorporated into upper air observation, primarily in numerical models.<p>Increasingly, data from <!--del_lnk--> weather satellites are being used due to their (almost) global coverage. Although their visible light images are very useful for forecasters to see development of clouds, little of this information can be used by numerical weather prediction models. The infra-red (IR) data however can be used as it gives information on the temperature at the surface and cloud tops. Individual clouds can also be tracked from one time to the next to provide information on wind direction and strength at the clouds steering level. Polar orbiting satellites provide <!--del_lnk--> soundings of temperature and moisture throughout the depth of the atmosphere. Compared with similar data from radiosondes, the satellite data has the advantage that coverage is global, however the accuracy and resolution is not as good.<p><!--del_lnk--> Meteorological radar provide information on precipitation location and intensity. Additionally, if <!--del_lnk--> doppler radar are used then wind speed and direction can be determined.<p><a id="Data_assimilation" name="Data_assimilation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Data assimilation</span></h3>
<p>During the data assimilation process, information gained from the observations is used in conjunction with a numerical model's most recent forecast for the time that observations were made (since this contains information from previous observations) to produce the meteorological <i>analysis</i>. This is the best estimate of the current state of the atmosphere. It is a three dimensional representation of the distribution of temperature, moisture and wind.<p><a id="Numerical_weather_prediction_.28NWP.29" name="Numerical_weather_prediction_.28NWP.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Numerical weather prediction (NWP)</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Numerical weather prediction models are computer simulations of the atmosphere. They take the analysis as the starting point and evolve the state of the atmosphere forward in time using understanding of <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> fluid dynamics. The complicated equations which govern how the state of a <!--del_lnk--> fluid changes with time require <!--del_lnk--> supercomputers to solve them. The output from the model provides the basis of the weather forecast.<p><a id="Model_output_post_processing" name="Model_output_post_processing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Model output post processing</span></h3>
<p>The raw output is often modified before being presented as the forecast. This can be in the form of statistical techniques to remove known <!--del_lnk--> biases in the model, or of adjustment to take into account consensus among other numerical weather forecasts.<p>In the past, the human forecaster used to be responsible for generating the entire weather forecast from the observations. However today, for forecasts beyond 24hrs human input is generally confined to post-processing of model data to add value to the forecast. Humans are required to interpret the model data into weather forecasts that are understandable to the end user. Additionally, humans can use knowledge of local effects which may be too small in size to be resolved by the model to add information to the forecast. Increasing accuracy of forecast models continues to decrease the need for post-processing and human input, mostly in areas with a low variation in terrain.<p><a id="Presentation_of_weather_forecasts" name="Presentation_of_weather_forecasts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Presentation of weather forecasts</span></h3>
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<p>The final stage in the forecasting process is perhaps the most important. Knowledge of what the end user needs from a weather forecast must be taken into account to present the information in a useful and understandable way.<p><a id="Public_information" name="Public_information"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Public information</span></h4>
<p>One of the main end users of a forecast is the general public. <!--del_lnk--> Thunderstorms can cause strong winds, dangerous lightning strikes leading to deaths and power outages, and widespread hail damage. Heavy <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">snow</a> or rain can bring transportation and commerce to a stand-still, as well as cause <!--del_lnk--> flooding in low-lying areas. Excessive heat or cold waves can kill or sicken those without adequate utilities. The <!--del_lnk--> National Weather Service provides forecasts and watches/warnings/advisories for all areas of the United States to protect life and property and maintain commercial interests. <!--del_lnk--> Environment Canada is responsible for dispensing similar forecasts and warnings to the public in Canada. Traditionally, television and <!--del_lnk--> radio weather presenters have been the main method of informing the public, however increasingly the internet is being used due to the vast amount of information that can be found.<p><a id="Air_traffic" name="Air_traffic"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Air traffic</span></h4>
<p>The aviation industry is especially sensitive to the weather. <!--del_lnk--> Fog and/or exceptionally low ceilings can prevent many aircraft landing and taking off. Similarly, <!--del_lnk--> turbulence and <!--del_lnk--> icing can be hazards whilst in flight. Thunderstorms are a problem for all aircraft, due to severe turbulence and icing, as well as large <!--del_lnk--> hail, strong winds, and <!--del_lnk--> lightning, all of which can cause fatal damage to an aircraft in flight. On a day to day basis airliners are routed to take advantage of the <!--del_lnk--> jet stream tailwind to improve fuel efficiency. Air crews are briefed prior to <!--del_lnk--> take off on the conditions to expect en route and at their destination.<p><a id="Marine" name="Marine"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Marine</span></h4>
<p>Commercial and recreational use of waterways can be limited significantly by weather in that wind direction and speed, wave periodicity and heights, tides, and precipitation can each influence the safety of marine transit. Consequently, a variety of codes have been established to efficiently transmit detailed marine weather forecasts to vessel pilots via radio, for example the <!--del_lnk--> MAFOR (marine forecast).<p><a id="Utility_companies" name="Utility_companies"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Utility companies</span></h4>
<p>Electricity and gas companies rely on weather forecasts to anticipate demand which can be strongly affected by the weather. In winter, severe cold weather can cause a surge in demand as people turn up their heating. Similarly, in summer a surge in demand can be linked with the increased use of <!--del_lnk--> air conditioning systems in hot weather. By anticipating a surge in demand, utility companies can purchase additional supplies of power or natural gas before the price increases, or in some circumstances, supplies are restricted.<p><a id="Private_sector" name="Private_sector"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Private sector</span></h4>
<p>Increasingly, private companies pay for weather forecasts tailored to their needs so that they can increase their profits or avoid large losses. For example, supermarket chains may change the stocks on their shelves in anticipation of different consumer spending habits in different weather conditions. State Departments of Transportation and private road maintenance companies also use their forecasts to demonstrate a 'best effort' in defending against lawsuits as a result of traffic accidents.<p><a id="Military_applications" name="Military_applications"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Military applications</span></h4>
<p>Similarly to the private sector, Military weather forecasters present weather conditions to the war fighter community. Equally provide pre-flight weather briefs and flight weather briefs from take off to terminal location. Including updates throughout the flight path. Also, military weather forecasters provide real time resource protection services for military installations, not covered by the National Weather Service. Three military branches have independent weather forecasting techniques tailored for their specific needs. For example, Naval Forecasters cover the waters and ship weather forecasts; Air Force Forecasters cover air operations in both wartime and peacetime operations and provide Army support; Coast Guard Forecasters provide ship forecasts for ice breakers and other various operations within their realm; And Marine Forecasters forecast for their troops and local aviation assets. There is a silent cooperative agreement between civilian forecasters and military forecasters, both working in unison for the improvement of weather forecasting in general.<p><a id="Persistence_forecasting" name="Persistence_forecasting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Persistence forecasting</span></h2>
<p>The simplest method of forecasting the weather, persistence relies upon today's conditions to forecast the conditions tomorrow. This can be a valid way of forecasting the weather when it is steady state, such as during the summer season in the tropics. This method of forecasting strongly depends upon the presence of a stagnant weather pattern. It can be useful in both short range forecasts and long range forecasts.<p><a id="Nowcasting" name="Nowcasting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nowcasting</span></h3>
<p>The forecasting of the weather in the 0-12 hour timeframe is often referred to as <b>nowcasting</b>. It is in this range that the human forecaster still has an advantage over computer NWP models. In this time range it is possible to forecast smaller features such as individual shower clouds with reasonable accuracy, however these are often too small to be resolved by a computer model. A human given the latest radar, satellite and observational data will be able to make a better analysis of the small scale features present and so will be able to make a more accurate forecast for the following few hours.<p>Below is a sample nowcast, issued by the <!--del_lnk--> National Weather Service in <!--del_lnk--> Mount Holly, New Jersey:<pre>
000
FPUS71 KPHI 240805
NOWPHI
</pre> <pre>
SHORT TERM FORECAST
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE MOUNT HOLLY NJ
405 AM EDT FRI JUN 24 2005
DEZ002>004-MDZ015-019-020-NJZ013-014-020-022>027-241200-
ATLANTIC NJ-ATLANTIC COASTAL CAPE MAY NJ-CAPE MAY NJ-CAROLINE MD-
COASTAL ATLANTIC NJ-COASTAL OCEAN NJ-DELAWARE BEACHES DE-
EASTERN MONMOUTH NJ-INLAND SUSSEX DE-KENT DE-OCEAN NJ-
QUEEN ANNE'S MD-SOUTHEASTERN BURLINGTON NJ-TALBOT MD-
WESTERN MONMOUTH NJ-
INCLUDING THE CITIES OF...ATLANTIC CITY AND DOVER
405 AM EDT FRI JUN 24 2005
</pre> <pre>
.NOW...
</pre> <pre>
AREAS OF FOG AND LOW CLOUDS WILL BE OVER SOUTHERN DELAWARE AND
PORTIONS OF THE NORTHEASTERN MARYLAND SHORE EARLY THIS MORNING, AS
WELL AS ALONG THE NEW JERSEY COAST. THE PATCHY DENSE FOG MAY REDUCE
THE VISIBILITY TO A QUARTER MILE OR LESS AT TIMES. IF YOU WILL BE
DRIVING THIS MORNING, BE SURE TO LEAVE PLENTY OF ROOM BETWEEN YOUR
VEHICLE AND THE ONE AHEAD OF YOU. YOUR VISIBILITY COULD DROP QUICKLY
IF YOU DRIVE INTO A DENSE PATCH OF FOG. WATCH ESPECIALLY FOR
PEDESTRIANS. THE FOG SHOULD DISSIPATE AN HOUR OR TWO AFTER SUNRISE.
$$
</pre><p><a id="Medium_Range_Forecasting" name="Medium_Range_Forecasting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Medium Range Forecasting</span></h2>
<p><a id="Analog_technique" name="Analog_technique"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analog technique</span></h3>
<p>A more complicated way of making a forecast, it requires remembering a previous weather event which is expected to be mimicked by an upcoming event. What makes it a difficult technique to use is that there is rarely a perfect analog for an event in the future. Some call this type of forecasting <b>pattern recognition</b>, which remains a useful method of observing rainfall over data voids such as oceans, as well as the forecasting of precipitation amounts and distribution in the future. A variation on this theme is used in Medium Range forecasting, which is known as teleconnections, when you use systems in other locations to help pin down the location of another system within the surrounding regime. One method of using teleconnections are by using ENSO-related phenomena.<p><a id="Ensemble_forecasting" name="Ensemble_forecasting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ensemble forecasting</span></h3>
<p>Although a forecast model will predict realistic looking weather features evolving realistically into the distant future, the errors in a forecast will inevitably grow with time due to the <!--del_lnk--> chaotic nature of the atmosphere. The detail that can be given in a forecast therefore decreases with time as these errors increase. There becomes a point when the errors are so large that the forecast is completely wrong and the forecast atmospheric state has no <!--del_lnk--> correlation with the actual state of the atmosphere.<p>However, looking at a single forecast gives no indication of how likely that forecast is to be correct. <i><!--del_lnk--> Ensemble forecasting</i> uses lots of forecasts produced to reflect the uncertainty in the initial state of the atmosphere (due to errors in the observations and insufficient sampling). The uncertainty in the forecast can then be assessed by the range of different forecasts produced. They have been shown to be better at detecting the possibility of extreme events at long range.<p>Ensemble forecasts are increasingly being used for operational weather forecasting (for example at <!--del_lnk--> ECMWF, <!--del_lnk--> NCEP, and the Canadian forecasting centre). <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Websites providing forecasts</span></h2>
<p><a id="Meteorological_agencies" name="Meteorological_agencies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Meteorological agencies</span></h3>
<p>These are academic or governmental meteorology organizations. Most provide at least a limited forecast for their area of interest on their website.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The World Meteorological Organization<li><!--del_lnk--> NOAA weather page<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> NOAA satellite images<dd><!--del_lnk--> National Weather Service</dl>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Met Éireann (Ireland)<li><!--del_lnk--> The Met Office of the UK<li><!--del_lnk--> European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF)<li><!--del_lnk--> Environment Canada Weather Office<li><!--del_lnk--> Australian Bureau of Meteorology<li><!--del_lnk--> New Zealand MetService<li><!--del_lnk--> Meteo Suisse (Swiss Weather Agency, in English<li><!--del_lnk--> Finnish Meteorological Institute<li><!--del_lnk--> Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium<li><!--del_lnk--> Korea Meteorological Administration<li><!--del_lnk--> Hong Kong Observatory</ul>
<p><a id="Commercial_organisations" name="Commercial_organisations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Commercial organisations</span></h3>
<p>These are high profile commercial sites.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Freese-Notis Weather Site — Meteorologists with doppler radar images, data analysis, forensics and a wide variety industry specific US and international weather forecasts, agriculture and energy being strong areas of performance plus supplies advanced <!--del_lnk--> web site content<li><!--del_lnk--> Weather Underground — Provides a wide variety of US and international weather information<li><!--del_lnk--> Unisys Weather Site — Provides meteorological data, analysis, and forecasts for the US along with ancillary information for aircraft or flight systems related information domestically and overseas<li><!--del_lnk--> Verizon's Weather Forecasts - Provides weather briefs & extended outlook for the U.S. Also powers weather on 20,000 other websites<li><!--del_lnk--> MeteoGroup<!--del_lnk--> Europe's largest independent weather forecasting company. Provides weather for Transport, Energy, Agriculture, Maritime, Media, Leisure, Health & Environment, Insurance and Water Management.<li><!--del_lnk--> Accuweather — Weather forecasts and weather-related news (US and international) known for television grade services<li><!--del_lnk--> The Weather Channel — Weather forecasts and weather-related news mainly for the US, but also has world forecasts.<li><!--del_lnk--> TheWeatherOutlook — Weather forecasts for the UK.<li><!--del_lnk--> BBC Weather — Weather forecasts for the UK and climate overviews for the whole world. Links to contemporary <a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" title="Climate change">climate change</a> news for astute observers of the controversial topic<li><!--del_lnk--> Wetterzentrale - A German language site displaying a large range of high quality weather charts.<li><!--del_lnk--> The Weather Network - Canadian weather and forecasts.<li><!--del_lnk--> Weatherzone - Provides a wide variety of Australian weather information.<li><!--del_lnk--> Weather.com.au - Australian weather forecasts.<li><!--del_lnk--> Weatheronline - Meteorological data, analysis, and forecasts for the UK and the whole world. Provides radar images, climate data and weather-related news.<li><!--del_lnk--> MSN Weather (Data provided by FORECA) - Worldwide Weather Forecasts (Hourly, Extended Ten-day and Historical Averages)</ul>
<p><a id="Other_external_links" name="Other_external_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_forecasting"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Climate_and_the_Weather.htm">Climate and the Weather</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22200.gif.htm" title="A surface weather analysis for the United States on October 21, 2006."><img alt="A surface weather analysis for the United States on October 21, 2006." class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Surface_analysis.gif" src="../../images/222/22200.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22200.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A surface weather analysis for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> on October 21, 2006.</div>
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<p>A <b>weather map</b> is a tool used to display information quickly showing the analysis of various meteorological quantities at various levels of the atmosphere. Maps utilizing <!--del_lnk--> isotherms show probable location of <!--del_lnk--> weather fronts. <!--del_lnk--> Isotach maps of the upper atmosphere show where the <!--del_lnk--> jet stream lies. <!--del_lnk--> Streamlines show areas of converging and diverging winds, particularly in the tropics. At the surface, the popular type of weather map is the <!--del_lnk--> surface weather analysis, which uses <!--del_lnk--> isobars to depict areas of <!--del_lnk--> high pressure and <!--del_lnk--> low pressure, as well as help locate weather fronts. Special weather maps in aviation show areas of icing and turbulence.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<p>A weather map is used to depict a picture of the atmosphere at a specific time in the free <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere. They are used for the analysis and display of observations and computer analyses, including forecast fields derived by <!--del_lnk--> computer models. Forecast maps can be displayed for up to 14 days in the future to aid <!--del_lnk--> weather forecasters prepare forecasts of various parameters.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22202.gif.htm" title="Wind barb interpretation"><img alt="Wind barb interpretation" class="thumbimage" height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wind_barbs.gif" src="../../images/222/22202.gif" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22202.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wind barb interpretation</div>
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<p><a id="Plotted_winds" name="Plotted_winds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plotted winds</span></h2>
<p>Winds have a standard notation when plotted on weather maps, whether they be of the surface, some higher level in the atmosphere, or to depict temperature or moisture <!--del_lnk--> advection. More than a century ago, winds were plotted as arrows, with feathers on just one side depicting five knots of wind, while feathers on both sides depicted 10 knots of wind. The notation changed to that of half of an arrow, with half of a flag depicting five knots and a full flag depicting 10 knots.<p><a id="Types_of_analyses_performed" name="Types_of_analyses_performed"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of analyses performed</span></h2>
<p><a id="Isobaric_analysis" name="Isobaric_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Isobaric analysis</span></h3>
<p>An isobaric analysis involves the construction of lines of equal mean <!--del_lnk--> sea level pressure, or isobars, on a geographic map. The innermost closed lines indicate the positions of relative maxima and minima in the pressure field. The minima are called low pressure areas while the maxima are called high pressure areas. Highs are depicted by blue H's while lows are depicted by red L's. Troughs of low pressure are depicted by thick, brown dashed lines down an elongation of lower pressure.<p><a id="Isotach_analysis" name="Isotach_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Isotach analysis</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22204.gif.htm" title="An upper level jet streak. DIV areas are regions of divergence aloft, which will lead to surface convergence and aid cyclogenesis."><img alt="An upper level jet streak. DIV areas are regions of divergence aloft, which will lead to surface convergence and aid cyclogenesis." class="thumbimage" height="104" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jetstreak.gif" src="../../images/222/22204.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22204.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An upper level jet streak. DIV areas are regions of divergence aloft, which will lead to surface convergence and aid cyclogenesis.</div>
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<p>Isotachs are lines of equal wind speed drawn on weather maps. They are helpful in finding maxima and minima in the wind pattern. Minima in the wind pattern aloft are favorable for <!--del_lnk--> tropical cyclogenesis. Maximum in the wind pattern at various levels of the atmosphere show locations of the upper level jet stream and low level jets, both of which play a role in severe weather. Certain quadrants of upper level wind maxima are areas where upward vertical motion is preferred.<p><a id="Isotherm_analysis" name="Isotherm_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Isotherm analysis</span></h3>
<p>Isotherms are lines of equal temperature drawn on weather maps. Isotherms are drawn normally as solid lines at a preferred temperature interval. They easily show areas of temperature gradient, which is useful in finding fronts, located normally at the warm edge of temperature gradients. They also show areas above and below freezing, which is useful in determination of precipitation type.<p><a id="Streamline_analysis" name="Streamline_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Streamline analysis</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22206.gif.htm" title="Streamline analysis of the tropical Pacific ocean"><img alt="Streamline analysis of the tropical Pacific ocean" class="thumbimage" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Streamlineanalysispacific.gif" src="../../images/222/22206.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22206.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Streamline analysis of the tropical Pacific ocean</div>
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<p>A streamline analysis is a series of arrows oriented parallel to wind, showing wind motion within a certain geographic area. C's depict cyclonic flow or likely areas of low pressure, while A's depict anticyclonic flow or likely positions of high pressure areas.<p><a id="Types_of_weather_maps" name="Types_of_weather_maps"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of weather maps</span></h2>
<p><a id="Surface_weather_analysis" name="Surface_weather_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Surface weather analysis</span></h3>
<p>A surface weather analysis is a type of weather map that depicts positions for <!--del_lnk--> high and <!--del_lnk--> low pressure areas including <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a>, as well as various types of <!--del_lnk--> synoptic scale systems such as <!--del_lnk--> frontal zones, <!--del_lnk--> tropical waves, and <!--del_lnk--> dry lines. Mesoscale boundaries such as outflow boundaries and <!--del_lnk--> squall lines also are analyzed on surface weather analyses. Isobars are commonly used to place surface boundaries from the <!--del_lnk--> horse latitudes poleward, while streamline analyses are used in the tropics.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22208.gif.htm" title="Alaskan aviation weather map"><img alt="Alaskan aviation weather map" class="thumbimage" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ifr.gif" src="../../images/222/22208.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/222/22208.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Alaskan aviation weather map</div>
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<p><a id="Aviation_maps" name="Aviation_maps"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aviation maps</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Aviation interests have their own set of weather maps. One type of map shows where VFR (visual flight rules) are in effect and where IFR (instrument flight rules) are in effect. Weather depiction plots show <!--del_lnk--> ceiling height (level where at least half the sky is covered with clouds) in hundreds of feet, present weather, and cloud cover. Icing maps are used to depict areas where icing can be a hazard for flying. Aviation-related maps also show areas of turbulence.<p><a id="See_Also" name="See_Also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_map"</div>
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| ['United States', 'Tropical cyclone'] |
Weed | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14518.jpg.htm" title="A common weed flower"><img alt="A common weed flower" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Weedflower.JPG" src="../../images/145/14518.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14518.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A common weed flower</div>
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<p>The notion of "weed" is almost entirely in the eye of the beholder. A weed in one situation might be a wildflower in another. For example, <a href="../../wp/d/Dandelion.htm" title="Dandelion">dandelions</a> are widely viewed as weeds, but some consider them attractive flowers. Some weeds are edible, and their leaves and roots may be utilized for food or <!--del_lnk--> herbal medicine. It is typically necessary for a plant to grow easily and spread persistently to be considered a weed, because plants which need to be carefully nurtured are easily removed.<p>
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<p>In order to reduce weed growth, many <b>weed control</b> strategies have been developed. The most basic is <!--del_lnk--> ploughing, which cuts the roots of annual weeds. Today, chemical weed killers known as <!--del_lnk--> herbicides are widely used. Modern herbicides such as <!--del_lnk--> glyphosate are designed to leave no harmful residue in the soil, although the <!--del_lnk--> surfactants can be detrimental to watercourses. But these often have a bad effect on wildlife as farmers overuse it and it can get in water supply. In domestic gardens, methods of weed control include covering an area of ground with several layers of wet newspaper or a black plastic sheet for several weeks. In the case of using wet newspaper, the multiple layers prevent light from reaching all plants beneath, which kills them. Saturating the newspaper with water daily speeds the decomposition of the dead plants. Any weed seeds that start to sprout because of the water will also be deprived of sunlight, be killed, and decompose. After several weeks, all germinating weed seeds present in the ground should be dead. Then the newspaper can be removed and the ground can be planted. The decomposed plants will help fertilize the plants or seeds planted later. In the case of using the black plastic sheet, the <a href="../../wp/g/Greenhouse_effect.htm" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> is used to kill the plants beneath the sheet. A 5-10 cm layer of wood chip <!--del_lnk--> mulch on the ground will also prevent most weeds from sprouting. Also, gravel can be spread over the ground as an inorganic mulch.<p>In agriculture, irrigation is sometimes used as a weed control measure such as in the case of <!--del_lnk--> paddy fields.<p><a id="Some_Examples" name="Some_Examples"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Some Examples</span></h2>
<p>Here is a partial list of plants that are commonly considered weeds.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Broadleaf plantain<li><!--del_lnk--> Burdock<li><!--del_lnk--> Cannabis<li><!--del_lnk--> Creeping Charlie<li><a href="../../wp/d/Dandelion.htm" title="Dandelion">Dandelion</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Kudzu<li><!--del_lnk--> Leafy Spurge<li><!--del_lnk--> Milk Thistle<li><!--del_lnk--> Ragweed<li><!--del_lnk--> Red sorrel<li><a href="../../wp/s/Sumac.htm" title="Sumac">Sumac</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Wild Carrot<li><!--del_lnk--> Winter Cress</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weed"</div>
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| ['Dandelion', 'Greenhouse effect', 'Dandelion', 'Sumac'] |
Weight_training | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12933.jpg.htm" title="A complete weight training workout can be performed with a pair of adjustable dumbbells and a set of weight disks (plates)."><img alt="A complete weight training workout can be performed with a pair of adjustable dumbbells and a set of weight disks (plates)." height="298" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TwoDumbbells.JPG" src="../../images/129/12933.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12933.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A complete weight training workout can be performed with a pair of adjustable <!--del_lnk--> dumbbells and a set of weight disks (plates).</div>
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<p><b>Weight training</b> is a form of <!--del_lnk--> exercise for developing the <!--del_lnk--> strength and size of <!--del_lnk--> skeletal muscles. It is a common type of <!--del_lnk--> strength training which uses the force of gravity (in the form of weighted bars, dumbells or weight stacks) to oppose the force generated by muscle through <!--del_lnk--> concentric or <!--del_lnk--> eccentric contraction.<p>Properly performed, weight training can provide significant functional benefits and improvement in overall <a href="../../wp/h/Health.htm" title="Health">health</a> and well-being including increased bone, muscle, tendon and ligament strength, improved joint function, reduced potential for injury, improved cardiac function and elevated <!--del_lnk--> good cholesterol. In one common training method, the technique involves lifting progressively increasing amounts of <!--del_lnk--> weight, and uses a variety of exercises and types of <!--del_lnk--> equipment to target specific muscle groups. Weight training is primarily an <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic activity, although some proponents have adapted it to provide the benefits of <!--del_lnk--> aerobic exercise.<p>Weight training differs from <!--del_lnk--> bodybuilding, <!--del_lnk--> weightlifting, and <!--del_lnk--> powerlifting, which are <a href="../../wp/s/Sport.htm" title="Sport">sports</a> rather than forms of exercise. Weight training, however, is often part of their training regimen.<p>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12934.gif.htm" title="An early plate-loading barbell and kettlebell"><img alt="An early plate-loading barbell and kettlebell" height="238" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EarlyBarbell.gif" src="../../images/129/12934.gif" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12934.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An early plate-loading <!--del_lnk--> barbell and <!--del_lnk--> kettlebell</div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/h/Hippocrates.htm" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> explained the principle behind weight training when he wrote "that which is used develops, and that which is not used wastes away." Progressive resistance training dates back at least to <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, when legend has it that wrestler <!--del_lnk--> Milo of Croton trained by carrying a newborn <!--del_lnk--> calf on his back every day until it was fully grown. Another Greek, the physician <!--del_lnk--> Galen, described strength training exercises using the <!--del_lnk--> halteres (an early form of <!--del_lnk--> dumbbell) in the 2nd century.<p>Another early device was the <!--del_lnk--> Indian club, which came from ancient Persia where it was called the "meels." It subsequently became popular during the 19th century, and has recently made a comeback in the form of the clubbell.<p>The dumbbell was joined by the <!--del_lnk--> barbell in the latter half of the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes that could be filled with <a href="../../wp/s/Sand.htm" title="Sand">sand</a> or lead <!--del_lnk--> shot, but by the end of the century these were replaced by the plate-loading barbell commonly used today.<p>The 1960s saw the gradual introduction of <!--del_lnk--> exercise machines into the still-rare strength training gyms of the time. Weight training became increasingly popular in the 1980s, following the release of the bodybuilding movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Pumping Iron</i> and the subsequent popularity of <a href="../../wp/a/Arnold_Schwarzenegger.htm" title="Arnold Schwarzenegger">Arnold Schwarzenegger</a>. Since the late 1990s increasing numbers of women have taken up weight training, influenced by programs like <!--del_lnk--> Body for Life: currently nearly one in five U.S. women engages in weight training on a regular basis.<p><a id="Basic_principles" name="Basic_principles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Basic principles</span></h2>
<p>The basic principle of weight training involves a manipulation of the number of reps, sets, tempo, exercise types and weight moved to cause desired increases in strength, endurance, size or shape. A <!--del_lnk--> repetition (or "rep") is the act of lifting and lowering a weight once in a controlled manner. A "set" consists of a series of repetitions performed continuously, without rests between reps. Different exercises target different muscles or muscles groups. The specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises and weight depends upon the aims of the individual performing the exercise; sets with fewer reps can be performed with heavier weights, but have a reduced impact on endurance.<p>According to popular theory:<ul>
<li>Sets of one to five repetitions primarily develop strength, with less impact on muscle size and none on <!--del_lnk--> endurance.<li>Sets of six to twelve repetitions develop a balance of strength, muscle size and endurance.<li>Sets of thirteen to twenty repetitions develop endurance, with some increases to muscle size and limited impact on strength.<li>Sets of more than twenty repetitions are considered to be an <!--del_lnk--> aerobic exercise.</ul>
<p>Individuals typically perform one to six sets per exercise, and one to three exercises per muscle group, with short breaks between each set. The duration of these breaks determines which energy system the body utilizes: for example, performing a series of exercises with little or no rest between them is referred to as "<!--del_lnk--> circuit training", and the body will draw most of its energy from the aerobic energy system (as opposed to the ATP-CP or glycogen systems, used in exercises with longer rests between sets).<p>It has been shown that for beginners multiple-set training offers minimal benefits over single set training with respect to either strength gain or muscle mass increase, but for the experienced athlete multiple-set systems are required for optimal progress. This is because beginners are unable to tap the full strength of the muscle; before they can use the full force ouput of a specific muscle, the nerves that innervate the muscle must be trained to fire at a high enough rate to cause <!--del_lnk--> tetanus, and contract all motor units available for the movement.<p><i>Training to achieve different performance goals (from "Supertraining" by Dr. M. C. Siff)</i><table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Variable</th>
<th>Strength</th>
<th>Power</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Hypertrophy</th>
<th>Endurance</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Load (% of <!--del_lnk--> 1RM)</td>
<td>80-100</td>
<td>70-100</td>
<td>60-80</td>
<td>40-60</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Reps per set</td>
<td>1-5</td>
<td>1-5</td>
<td>8-15</td>
<td>25-60</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Sets per exercise</td>
<td>4-7</td>
<td>3-5</td>
<td>4-8</td>
<td>2-4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Rest between sets (mins)</td>
<td>2-6</td>
<td>2-6</td>
<td>2-5</td>
<td>1-2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Duration (seconds per set)</td>
<td>5-10</td>
<td>4-8</td>
<td>20-60</td>
<td>80-150</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Speed per rep (% of max)</td>
<td>60-100</td>
<td>90-100</td>
<td>60-90</td>
<td>60-80</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Training sessions per week</td>
<td>3-6</td>
<td>3-6</td>
<td>5-7</td>
<td>8-14</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Weights for each exercise should be chosen so that the desired number of repetitions can just be achieved. Each exercise should be performed according to its description; otherwise <!--del_lnk--> injury may result. This is known as "good form."<p><a id="Progressive_overload" name="Progressive_overload"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Progressive overload</span></h3>
<p>In one common method, weight training uses the principle of progressive overload, in which the <!--del_lnk--> muscles are overloaded by attempting to lift at least as much weight as they are capable of. They respond by growing larger and stronger. This procedure is repeated with progressively heavier weights as the practitioner gains strength and endurance.<p>However, performing exercises at the absolute limit of one's strength (so-called "<!--del_lnk--> one rep max" lifts) is considered too risky for all but the most experienced practitioners, or novices under expert supervision. Moreover, most individuals wish to develop a combination of strength, endurance and muscle size. One repetition sets are not well suited to these aims. Practitioners therefore lift somewhat smaller (sub-maximal) weights, with more repetitions, to fatigue the muscle—and all fibres within that muscle—as required by the progressive overload principle.<p>Commonly, each exercise is continued to the point of momentary muscular failure. Contrary to widespread belief, this is not the point at which the individual <i>thinks</i> they cannot complete any more repetitions, but rather the first repetition that fails due to inadequate muscular strength. <!--del_lnk--> Training to failure is, however, a controversial topic. The proponents of <!--del_lnk--> High Intensity Training—<!--del_lnk--> Mike Mentzer, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Jones and Ellington Darden—advise training to failure on every set. But other experts believe that this will lead to <!--del_lnk--> overtraining, and suggest training to failure only on the last set of an exercise. Some practitioners recommend finishing a set of repetitions just before the point of failure; e.g. if you can do a maximum of 12 reps with a given weight, only perform 11.<p>Weight training can be a very effective form of strength training because exercises can be chosen, and weights precisely adjusted to safely exhaust each individual muscle group after the specific numbers of sets and repetitions that have been found to be the most effective for the individual. Other strength training exercises lack the flexibility and precision that weights offer, and often cannot be safely taken to the point of momentary muscular failure.<p><a id="Recovery" name="Recovery"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recovery</span></h3>
<p>There are many theories as to why weight training creates muscle growth. One such theory is that this training causes <!--del_lnk--> microtrauma to the muscles. Muscles grow during the rest period following a workout by repairs to these areas of muscle, making them stronger than before. Weight training programs should therefore allow the muscles time to repair and grow, otherwise <!--del_lnk--> overtraining can occur. Therefore the individual should exercise caution in increasing the level of exertion. Muscle growth is normally completed within 36 to 96 hours, depending upon the intensity of the workout. Novices commonly work out every other day, often scheduling workouts on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. As weight trainers grow fitter and stronger, it takes more intense workouts to fully challenge their muscles. More advanced practitioners may exercise specific muscle groups only every three or four days.<p>One solution to scheduling workouts around these needs is to split one's routine between several workouts, by exercising certain muscle groups on one day and the remainder on another. One common two-day split is the upper body — lower body split. Another is the front — back split, in which the <!--del_lnk--> pectorals, <!--del_lnk--> triceps and <!--del_lnk--> quadriceps are exercised on one day, and the <!--del_lnk--> lats, <!--del_lnk--> biceps and <!--del_lnk--> hamstrings on another. There are also three-day and four-day splits. By targeting different muscle groups, workouts can be scheduled more frequently than would otherwise be possible.<p><a id="Intensity.2C_volume.2C_and_frequency" name="Intensity.2C_volume.2C_and_frequency"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Intensity, volume, and frequency</span></h3>
<p>Three important principles of weight training, as well as exercise in general, are intensity, volume and frequency. Intensity refers to the amount of force required to achieve the activity, and in this case, refers to the outright weight being lifted (lifting 20kg requires more force or intensity than lifting 10kg, regardless of how many reps/sets etc are done), volume refers to how much you do in a particular session, and includes the number of sets, reps and exercises you do for each muscle, whereas frequency refers to how many sessions per week you do. A good analogy is the exercise of running, with the intensity being how fast you run, the volume being how far you run, and the frequency being how many times a week you run.<p>These principles are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to <!--del_lnk--> microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, eg. increasing weight means you can’t do as many reps, and will cause more damage, requiring more recovery time and therefore less workouts per week are possible. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in <!--del_lnk--> overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy (lack of energy) or even sickness. Therefore the high-medium-low formula should be used, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low, following this chart as a guide:<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Type</th>
<th>Low</th>
<th>Med</th>
<th>High</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Intensity (% of <!--del_lnk--> 1RM)</td>
<td>10-40%</td>
<td>50-70%</td>
<td>80-100%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Volume(per muscle)</td>
<td>1 exercise</td>
<td>2 exercises</td>
<td>3+ exercises</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Sets</td>
<td>1 set</td>
<td>2-3 sets</td>
<td>4+ sets</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Reps</td>
<td>1-6 reps</td>
<td>8-15 reps</td>
<td>20+ reps</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Session Frequency</td>
<td>1 p/w</td>
<td>2-3 p/w</td>
<td>4+ p/w</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Using examples from typical gym programs: doing a full body program, you would work each muscle as one exercise and do 2 sets of 12 reps (low volume), with an intensity of around 50-60% of 1RM each set (medium intensity), every second day (high frequency), which is typical of general fitness programs; doing each body part in a 3 day split, at 50-70% of 1RM (medium intensity), with 3 exercises and 3 sets of 10 reps (high volume), each muscle worked once a week (low frequency), which is typical of traditional <!--del_lnk--> hypertrophy programs; or 80-90% of 1RM (high intensity), 1-2 sets of 3-5 reps(low volume), 2 times per week (medium frequency), typical of muscular strength training. All of these programs are different examples of the high-medium-low formula, emphasizing one giving a different result, as the body adapts to specific demands.<p>Most people set the volume and frequency the same each week (eg. people plan to come to the gym 3 times per week, and do 2 sets of 12 reps each workout), and steadily increase the weight (increase intensity), however it may be equally or more beneficial for you to keep or decrease the weight, and increase volume or frequency (especially true to achieve <!--del_lnk--> hypertrophy).<p>Most supplements focus on improving a particular aspect, for instance taking <!--del_lnk--> creatine will give you the ability to do more sets (more volume) in a workout, while taking additional protein (or illegal <!--del_lnk--> steroids) will help muscle recovery, and so allow for more sessions per week (more frequency at the same level of intensity and volume). Adrenaline and other hormones may promote additional intensity by stimulating the body to lift additional weight (as well as the neuro-muscular stimulations that happen when in “fight-or-flight” mode, as the body activates more muscle fibres), so getting “revved up” before a workout can increase the maximum weight lifted, one of the reasons why bodybuilders and powerlifters grunt and rev themselves and their training partners up, whether this is more psychological or physiological though is debatable, as people can often lift more weight than they think they can.<p>Psychology definitely plays a role in training strategy. Someone who overtrains will feel less motivated to continue than someone who is undertraining, because the overtrainer begins to dislike his or her workout; it will seem too difficult or tiring, and this may cause a cycle of overtraining followed by long layoffs, which will give poor results. The undertrainer has no such discomfort and is likely to train more consistently and find a volume, frequency and intensity that is appropriate for their goals, even if they are not necessarily maximizing their potential.<p><a id="Benefits" name="Benefits"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Benefits</span></h2>
<p>The benefits of weight training include greater muscular strength, improved muscle tone and appearance, increased endurance, enhanced bone density, and improved cardiovascular fitness.<p>Many people take up weight training to improve their <!--del_lnk--> physical attractiveness. Most men can develop substantial muscles; most women lack the <!--del_lnk--> testosterone to do this, but they can develop a firm, "toned" (see below) physique, and they can increase their strength by the same proportion as that achieved by men (but usually from a significantly lower starting point). Ultimately an individual's <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a> dictate the response to weight training stimuli.<p>The body's <!--del_lnk--> basal metabolic rate increases with increases in muscle mass, which promotes long-term <!--del_lnk--> fat loss and helps dieters avoid <!--del_lnk--> yo-yo dieting. Moreover, intense workouts elevate the <!--del_lnk--> metabolism for several hours following the workout, which also promotes fat loss.<p>Weight training also provides functional benefits. Stronger muscles improve posture, provide better support for <!--del_lnk--> joints, and reduce the risk of <!--del_lnk--> injury from everyday activities. <!--del_lnk--> Older people who take up weight training can prevent some of the loss of muscle tissue that normally accompanies <!--del_lnk--> aging—and even regain some functional strength—and by doing so become less frail. They may be able to avoid some types of <!--del_lnk--> physical disability. Weight-bearing exercise also helps to prevent <!--del_lnk--> osteoporosis. The benefits of weight training for older people have been confirmed by studies of people who began engaging in it even in their 80s and 90s.<p>Stronger muscles improve performance in a variety of sports. Sport-specific training routines are used by many competitors. These often specify that the speed of <!--del_lnk--> muscle contraction during weight training should be the same as that of the particular sport.<p>When performed properly and at sufficient intensity, weight training provides an excellent stimulus to the <!--del_lnk--> cardiovascular system. The <!--del_lnk--> heart and <!--del_lnk--> lungs support the muscular system; as one taxes the muscles, the systems that support them are taxed. Exercise <!--del_lnk--> physiologists believe that <!--del_lnk--> aerobics training is a better cardiovascular stimulus due to their observation of maximal <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> uptake estimates. Central <!--del_lnk--> catheter monitoring during resistance training reveals increased <!--del_lnk--> cardiac output, thus illustrating the strength training's potential for <!--del_lnk--> cardiovascular exercise.<p>Other than the visible benefits, weight training can play a significant role in improving mental health through improved mood, self-concept and body satisfaction. One side-effect of general intense exercise is that it increases levels of <!--del_lnk--> dopamine, <!--del_lnk--> serotonin and <!--del_lnk--> norepinephrine, which can help to improve mood and counter feelings of <!--del_lnk--> depression. Individuals who exercise at least two to three times a week experience significantly less depression, anger, and stress than those exercise less frequently or not at all and regular exercisers perceive their health and fitness to be better than less frequent exercisers.<p><a id="Common_concerns" name="Common_concerns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Common concerns</span></h2>
<p><a id="Is_weight_training_the_same_as_bodybuilding.3F" name="Is_weight_training_the_same_as_bodybuilding.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Is weight training the same as bodybuilding?</span></h3>
<p>Although weight training is similar to <!--del_lnk--> bodybuilding, they have quite different goals. Bodybuilders compete in bodybuilding competitions, so they train to maximize their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of <!--del_lnk--> body fat. In contrast, most weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat below normal. Weight trainers tend to focus on compound exercises to build basic strength, whereas bodybuilders often use isolation exercises to visually separate their muscles, and to improve muscular <a href="../../wp/s/Symmetry.htm" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a>.<p>However, the bodybuilding community has been the source of many of weight training's principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs.<p><a id="Is_nutrition_relevant_for_weight_trainers.3F" name="Is_nutrition_relevant_for_weight_trainers.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Is nutrition relevant for weight trainers?</span></h3>
<p>Most people think of <!--del_lnk--> dieting in terms of weight loss, but weight trainers can also adjust their <!--del_lnk--> diet to improve the results from their workouts. Adequate <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> is required for building skeletal muscle. Various sources advise weight trainers to consume a <!--del_lnk--> high protein diet with anywhere from 0.6 to 1.5 <!--del_lnk--> g of protein per <!--del_lnk--> pound of body weight per day (1.4 to 3.3 g per <!--del_lnk--> kg). Protein that is not needed for cell growth and repair nor consumed for energy is converted by the liver into fat, which is then stored in the body. Some people believe that a high protein diet entails risk of <!--del_lnk--> kidney damage, but studies have shown that kidney problems only occur in people with previous <!--del_lnk--> kidney disease.<p>A light balanced meal consumed prior to the workout (usually one to two hours beforehand) ensures that adequate energy and amino acids are available to perform the intense bout of exercise. <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">Water</a> is consumed throughout the course of the workout to prevent poor performance due to <!--del_lnk--> dehydration. A protein shake is often consumed immediately following the workout, because both protein uptake and protein usage are increased at this time. Glucose (or another simple sugar) is often consumed as well since this quickly replenishes any <!--del_lnk--> glycogen lost during the exercise period (see <!--del_lnk--> Gainer). Some weight trainers also take <!--del_lnk--> supplements (such as <!--del_lnk--> creatine) to aid muscle growth. However, the effectiveness of some products is disputed and others are potentially harmful.<p><a id="Do_women_who_train_with_weights_look_.22bulky.22.3F" name="Do_women_who_train_with_weights_look_.22bulky.22.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Do women who train with weights look "bulky"?</span></h3>
<p>Very few women are able to develop large muscles regardless of the program they follow; they simply lack the testosterone required to achieve this. Normally the most that can be achieved is a look similar to that of a fitness <!--del_lnk--> model. Muscle is <!--del_lnk--> denser than fat, so someone who builds muscle while keeping the same body weight will look slimmer.<p>The results obtained by female bodybuilders are extremely atypical: they are self-selected for their genetic ability to build muscle, perform enormous amounts of exercise, their musculature is exaggerated by very low body fat and like many male bodybuilders their results may be enhanced by <!--del_lnk--> anabolic steroids. Unless a woman dedicates her life to bodybuilding, she will not achieve the same results as a professional bodybuilder.<p><a id="Are_light.2C_high-repetition_exercises_effective_for_.22toning.22_muscles.3F" name="Are_light.2C_high-repetition_exercises_effective_for_.22toning.22_muscles.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Are light, high-repetition exercises effective for "toning" muscles?</span></h3>
<p>Some weight trainers perform light, high-repetition exercises in an attempt to "tone" their muscles without increasing their size. This comes from misunderstanding the meaning of the word "<!--del_lnk--> tone." What most people refer to as a <i>toned physique</i> is one that combines reasonable muscular size with moderate levels of body fat. The use of the word "tone" in this sense is inaccurate: a more appropriate term would be "definition".<p><i>Muscle tone</i> is a physiologic term that refers to the constant, low-frequency contractions that occur in all muscles all the time, even at "rest", which prepare them for future activity. This continuous slight tension in torso muscles contributes to maintaining good posture. High-repetition exercises should increase muscle size, but will not improve the latter type of muscle "tone". Even performed as <!--del_lnk--> aerobic exercises they will have limited benefit, since aerobic exercise is most effective when it engages the whole body.<p>To define muscles requires a combination of weight training to increase muscle size and cardiovascular training to reduce bodyfat levels.<p><a id="Is_weight_training_safe_for_children.3F" name="Is_weight_training_safe_for_children.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Is weight training safe for children?</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Orthopaedic specialists used to recommend that children avoid weight training because the growth plates on their <!--del_lnk--> bones might be at risk, but recent studies have shown that this concern is unfounded. The very rare reports of growth plate fractures in children who trained with weights occurred as a result of inadequate supervision, improper form or excess weight. "Growth plate injuries have not occurred in any youth strength training study that followed established training guidelines." The National Strength and Conditioning Association also confirms that "a properly designed and supervised resistance training programme is safe for children."<p>Young children <i>must</i> be supervised around weight training equipment. Like adults, they may be injured if a weight is dropped, or if they perform an exercise incorrectly. Children may also forget to follow the safety guidelines, or be tempted to act irresponsibly.<p><a id="Can_weight_training_help_me_slim.3F" name="Can_weight_training_help_me_slim.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Can weight training help me slim?</span></h3>
<p>Yes, but not via the low weight/high repetition approach that is usually used. Five minutes of crunches will expend only a small fraction of the energy used up in five minutes of running, because the abdominal muscles are so much smaller than the leg muscles. Instead, high weight/low rep exercises can be used to maintain (and possibly even increase) the body's muscle mass while dieting. This helps to prevent the metabolic slowdown that otherwise often limits the effect of dieting and causes post-diet weight gain.<p><a id="Safety" name="Safety"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Safety</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12935.jpg.htm" title="The back must be kept straight during the squat and the deadlift."><img alt="The back must be kept straight during the squat and the deadlift." height="219" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DumbbellDeadlift.JPG" src="../../images/129/12935.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12935.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The back must be kept straight during the squat and the deadlift.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Weight training can be one of the safest forms of exercise, especially when the movements are slow, controlled, and carefully defined. However, as with any form of exercise, improper execution can result in injury. When the exercise becomes difficult towards the end of a set, there is a temptation to "cheat", i.e. to use poor form to recruit other muscle groups to assist the effort. This may shift the effort to weaker muscles that cannot handle the weight. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> <i>squat</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> deadlift</i> are used to exercise the largest muscles in the body—the <!--del_lnk--> leg and <!--del_lnk--> buttock muscles—so they require substantial weight. Beginners are tempted to round their back while performing these exercises. This causes the weaker <!--del_lnk--> lower back muscles to support much of the weight, which can result in serious lower back injuries. To avoid such problems, weight training exercises must be performed correctly. Hence the saying: "train, don't strain".<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12936.jpg.htm" title="A lifting belt is sometimes worn to help support the lower back."><img alt="A lifting belt is sometimes worn to help support the lower back." height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LiftingBelt.JPG" src="../../images/129/12936.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12936.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A lifting belt is sometimes worn to help support the lower back.</div>
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<p>An exercise should be halted if marked or sudden pain is felt, to prevent further injury. However, not all discomfort indicates injury. Weight training exercises are brief but very intense, and many people are unaccustomed to this level of effort. The expression "no pain, no gain" refers to the discomfort expected from such vigorous effort. It does NOT suggest ignoring the more severe pain that comes from injury.<p>Discomfort can arise from other factors. Individuals who perform large numbers of repetitions, sets and exercises for each muscle group may experience <!--del_lnk--> lactic acid build-up in their muscles. This is experienced as a burning sensation in the muscle, but it is perfectly harmless. These individuals may also experience a swelling sensation in their muscles from increased blood flow (the "pump"), which is also harmless.<p>Beginners are advised to build up slowly to a weight training programme. Untrained individuals may have some muscles that are comparatively stronger than others. An injury can result if, in a particular exercise, the primary muscle is stronger than its stabilising muscles. Building up slowly allows muscles time to develop appropriate strengths relative to each other. This can also help to minimise <!--del_lnk--> delayed onset muscle soreness. A sudden start to an intense programme can cause significant muscular soreness. Unexercised muscles contain cross-linkages that are torn during intense exercise.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12937.jpg.htm" title="The Cross Trainer exercise machine can be used to warm up muscles in both the upper and lower body."><img alt="The Cross Trainer exercise machine can be used to warm up muscles in both the upper and lower body." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CrossTrainer.JPG" src="../../images/129/12937.jpg" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12937.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Cross Trainer exercise machine can be used to warm up muscles in both the upper and lower body.</div>
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<p>Weight trainers commonly spend 5 to 20 minutes <!--del_lnk--> warming up their muscles with <!--del_lnk--> aerobic exercise before starting a workout. They also <!--del_lnk--> stretch muscles after they have been exercised. The exercises are performed at a steady pace, taking at least two to four seconds to lift and lower the weight, to avoid jerks that can damage muscles and joints.<p>Exercises where a barbell is held above the body, such as the <i>squat</i> or the <i><!--del_lnk--> bench press</i>, are normally performed inside a <!--del_lnk--> squat cage, which can catch the bar, or in the presence of one or more <!--del_lnk--> spotters, who can safely re-rack the barbell at the end of the set if the weight trainer is unable to do so.<p>Anyone beginning an intensive physical training programme is typically advised to consult a <!--del_lnk--> physician, because of possible undetected heart or other conditions for which such activity is contraindicated.<p>There have been mixed reviews regarding the use of weightlifting belts and other devices, such as lifting straps. Critics claim that they allow the lifter to use more weight than they should. In addition, the stabiliser muscles in the lower back and gripping muscles in the forearms receive less benefit from the exercises.<p><a id="Types_of_exercises" name="Types_of_exercises"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of exercises</span></h2>
<p><a id="Isotonic.2C_isometric_and_plyometric_exercises" name="Isotonic.2C_isometric_and_plyometric_exercises"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Isotonic, isometric and plyometric exercises</span></h3>
<p>These terms combine the prefix "iso" (meaning "same") with "tonic" (strength) and "metric" (distance). In "isotonic" exercises the force applied to the muscle does not change (while the length of the muscle <!--del_lnk--> decreases or <!--del_lnk--> increases) while in "isometric" exercises the length of the muscle does not change.<p>Weight training is primarily an <b>isotonic</b> form of exercise, as the force produced by the muscle to push or pull weighted objects should not change (though in practice the force produced does decrease as muscles fatigue). Any object can be used for weight training, but <!--del_lnk--> dumbbells, <!--del_lnk--> barbells and other specialised equipment are normally used because they can be adjusted to specific weights and are easily gripped. Many exercises are not strictly isotonic because the force on the muscle varies as the joint moves through its range of motion. Movements can become easier or harder depending on the angle of muscular force relative to gravity - in example, a standard bicep curl becomes easier as the hand approaches the shoulderas more of the load is taken by the structure of the elbow. Certain machines such as the <!--del_lnk--> Nautilis involve special adaptations to keep resistance constant irrespective of the joint angle.<p>Some forms of weight training use <b><!--del_lnk--> isometric</b> contractions to further stress the muscles after or during a period of isotonic exercise. In this case the muscles flex and hold a stationary position, and no movement of a load takes place. Often this is used to increase muscular strength at specific joint angles, to get over 'sticking points' in an exercise.<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Plyometric exercises</b> exploits the stretch-shortening cycle of muscles to enhance the myotatic (stretch) reflex. This involves rapid alternation of lengthening and shortening of muscle fibers against a resistance. The resistance involved is often a weighted object such as a <!--del_lnk--> medicine ball, but can also be the body itself as in jumping exercises. Plyometrics is used to develop explosive speed, and focuses on maximal <!--del_lnk--> power instead of maximal strength by compressing the force of muscular contraction into as short a period as possible, and may be used to improve the effectiveness of a <!--del_lnk--> boxer's punch, or to increase the vertical jumping ability of a <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a> player.<p><a id="Isolation_exercises_versus_compound_exercises" name="Isolation_exercises_versus_compound_exercises"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Isolation exercises versus compound exercises</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12939.jpg.htm" title="The leg extension is an isolation exercise."><img alt="The leg extension is an isolation exercise." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LegExtensionMachineExercise.JPG" src="../../images/129/12939.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12939.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>leg extension</i> is an isolation exercise.</div>
</div>
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<p>An <b>isolation exercise</b> is one where the movement is restricted to one joint and one muscle group. For example, the <i>leg extension</i> is an isolation exercise for the quadriceps. The other muscle groups are only minimally involved—they just help the individual maintain a stable posture—and movement occurs only around the knee joint.<p><b>Compound exercises</b> work several muscle groups at once, and include movement around two or more joints. For example, in the <i>leg press</i> movement occurs around the hip, knee and ankle joints. This exercise is primarily used to develop the quadriceps, but it also involves the hamstrings, glutes and calves.<p>Compound exercises are generally similar to the ways that people naturally push, pull and lift objects, whereas isolation exercises often feel a little unnatural.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12940.jpg.htm" title="The leg press is a compound exercise."><img alt="The leg press is a compound exercise." height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LegPressMachineExercise.JPG" src="../../images/129/12940.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12940.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>leg press</i> is a compound exercise.</div>
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<p>Each type of exercise has its uses. Compound exercises build the basic strength that is needed to perform everyday pushing, pulling and lifting activities. Isolation exercises are useful for "rounding out" a routine, by directly exercising muscle groups that cannot be fully exercised in the compound exercises.<p>The type of exercise performed also depends on the individual's goals. Those who seek to increase their performance in sports would focus mostly on compound exercises, with isolation exercises being used to strengthen just those muscles that are holding the athlete back. Similarly, a <!--del_lnk--> powerlifter would focus on the specific compound exercises that are performed at powerlifting competitions. However, those who seek to improve the look of their body without necessarily maximising their strength gains (including <!--del_lnk--> bodybuilders) would put more of an emphasis on isolation exercises.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Free_weights_versus_exercise_machines" name="Free_weights_versus_exercise_machines"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Free weights versus exercise machines</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12942.jpg.htm" title="Swiss balls allow a wider range of free weight exercises to be performed. They are also known as exercise balls, gym balls, sports balls, therapy balls, medicine balls or body balls."><img alt="Swiss balls allow a wider range of free weight exercises to be performed. They are also known as exercise balls, gym balls, sports balls, therapy balls, medicine balls or body balls." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SwissBallSquat.JPG" src="../../images/129/12942.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12942.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Swiss balls allow a wider range of free weight exercises to be performed. They are also known as exercise balls, gym balls, sports balls, therapy balls, medicine balls or body balls.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>Free weights</b> are <!--del_lnk--> dumbbells and <!--del_lnk--> barbells. Unlike exercise machines, they do not constrain users to specific, fixed movements, and therefore require more effort from the individual's stabilizer muscles. It is often argued that free weight exercises are superior for precisely this reason. As exercise machines can go some way toward preventing poor form, they are somewhat safer than free weights for novice trainees. Moreover, since users need not concentrate so much on maintaining good form, they can focus more on the effort they are putting into the exercise. However, most <!--del_lnk--> athletes, bodybuilders and serious <!--del_lnk--> fitness enthusiasts prefer to use compound free weight exercises to gain functional strength.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:142px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12945.jpg.htm" title="The weight stack from a Cable machine."><img alt="The weight stack from a Cable machine." height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WeightStack.JPG" src="../../images/129/12945.jpg" width="140" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12945.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The weight stack from a <!--del_lnk--> Cable machine.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Some free weight exercises can be performed while sitting or lying on a <!--del_lnk--> Swiss ball. This makes it <i>more</i> difficult to maintain good form, which helps to exercise the deep torso muscles that are important for maintaining a good posture.<p>There are a number of <b>exercise machines</b> that are commonly found in neighbourhood gyms. The <!--del_lnk--> Smith machine is a barbell that is constrained to move only vertically upwards and downwards. The <!--del_lnk--> cable machine consists of two weight stacks separated by 2.5 <!--del_lnk--> metres, with cables running through adjustable pulleys (that can be fixed at any height) to various types of handles. There are also exercise-specific <!--del_lnk--> weight machines such as the <!--del_lnk--> leg press. A multigym includes a variety of exercise-specific mechanisms in one apparatus.<p>One limitation of many free weight exercises and exercise machines is that the muscle is working maximally against gravity during only a small portion of the lift. Some exercise-specific machines feature an oval <!--del_lnk--> cam (first introduced by <!--del_lnk--> Nautilus) which varies the resistance so that the resistance, and the muscle force required, remains constant throughout the full range of motion of the exercise.<p><a id="Aerobic_exercise_versus_anaerobic_exercise" name="Aerobic_exercise_versus_anaerobic_exercise"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aerobic exercise versus anaerobic exercise</span></h3>
<p>Strength training exercise is primarily <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic. Even while training at a lower intensity (training loads of ~20-RM), anaerobic glycolysis is still the major source of power, although <!--del_lnk--> aerobic metabolism makes a small contribution. Weight training is commonly perceived as anaerobic exercise, because one of the more common goals is to increase strength by lifting heavy weights. Other goals such as rehabilitation, weight loss, body shaping, and bodybuilding often use lower weights, adding aerobic character to the exercise.<p>Except in the extremes, a muscle will fire fibres of both the aerobic or anaerobic types on any given exercise, in varying ratio depending on the load on the intensity of the contraction. In the aerobic regime, the blood and intracellular processes can maintain a supply of fuel and oxygen, and continual repetition of the motion will not cause the muscle to fail.<p><b>Circuit weight training</b> is a form of exercise that uses a number of weight training exercise sets separated by short intervals. The cardiovascular effort to recover from each set serves a function similar to an aerobic exercise, but this is not the same as saying that a weight training set is itself an aerobic process.<p><a id="Exercises_for_specific_muscle_groups" name="Exercises_for_specific_muscle_groups"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Exercises for specific muscle groups</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12950.jpg.htm" title="The back extension should be left to the end of the workout, because in other exercises the lower back muscles are used to keep the back straight. This is not possible if the muscles have already been exercised and exhausted."><img alt="The back extension should be left to the end of the workout, because in other exercises the lower back muscles are used to keep the back straight. This is not possible if the muscles have already been exercised and exhausted." height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RomanChairBackExtension.JPG" src="../../images/129/12950.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12950.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <i>back extension</i> should be left to the end of the workout, because in other exercises the lower back muscles are used to keep the back straight. This is not possible if the muscles have already been exercised and exhausted.</div>
</div>
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<p>Weight trainers commonly divide the body's <!--del_lnk--> individual muscles into ten major muscle groups. These do not include the <!--del_lnk--> hip, <!--del_lnk--> neck and <!--del_lnk--> forearm muscles, which are rarely trained in isolation. The most common exercises for these muscle groups are listed below. (Videos of these and other exercises are available at <!--del_lnk--> exrx.net and from the <!--del_lnk--> University of Wisconsin.) The sequence shown below is one possible way to order the exercises. The large muscles of the lower body are normally trained before the smaller muscles of the upper body, because these first exercises require more mental and physical energy. The core muscles of the <!--del_lnk--> torso are trained before the <!--del_lnk--> shoulder and <!--del_lnk--> arm muscles that assist them. Exercises often alternate between "pushing" and "pulling" movements to allow their specific supporting muscles time to recover. The stabilising muscles in the <!--del_lnk--> waist should be trained last.<table cellpadding="5">
<tr valign="top">
<td><b>Lower body</b><p>1. <!--del_lnk--> Quadriceps (front of legs)<p>Compound exercises for the quadriceps also involve the <!--del_lnk--> glutes (buttocks), hamstrings and calves.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> squat (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> leg press (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> deadlift (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> lunge (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> leg extension (isolation)</ul>
<p>2. <!--del_lnk--> Hamstrings (back of legs)<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> leg curl (isolation)</ul>
<p>3. <!--del_lnk--> Calves<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> standing calf raise (isolation)<li><!--del_lnk--> seated calf raise (isolation)</ul>
</td>
<td><b>Upper body</b><p>4. <!--del_lnk--> Pectorals (chest)<p>Compound exercises for the pectorals also involve the triceps and front deltoids.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> bench press (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> pullover (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> flye (isolation)</ul>
<p>5. <!--del_lnk--> Lats (upper back)<p>Compound exercises for the lats also involve the biceps and rear deltoids.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> pulldown (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> bent-over row (compound)</ul>
<p>6. <!--del_lnk--> Deltoids and <!--del_lnk--> Trapezius (shoulders)<p>Compound exercises for the shoulders also involve the arm muscles.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> upright row (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> shoulder press (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> lateral raise (isolation)<li><!--del_lnk--> shoulder shrug (isolation)</ul>
</td>
<td><b>Arms</b><p>7. <!--del_lnk--> Triceps (back of arms)<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> parallel bar dip (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> pushdown (isolation)<li><!--del_lnk--> triceps extension (isolation)</ul>
<p>8. <!--del_lnk--> Biceps (front of arms)<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> biceps curl (isolation)</ul>
<p><b>Waist</b><p>9. <!--del_lnk--> Abdominals (belly)<p>Compound exercises for the abdominals also involve the <!--del_lnk--> hip flexors.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> leg raise (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> crunch (isolation)</ul>
<p>10. <!--del_lnk--> Lower back<p>Some compound exercises for the legs also involve the lower back.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> back extension (isolation)<li><!--del_lnk--> good-morning (compound)<li><!--del_lnk--> deadlift (compound)</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Advanced_techniques" name="Advanced_techniques"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Advanced techniques</span></h2>
<p>A number of techniques have been developed to make weight training exercises more intense, and thereby potentially increase the rate of progress:<p><a id="Set_structure" name="Set_structure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Set structure</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Drop sets<dd>Drop sets do not end at the point of momentary muscular failure, but continue with progressively lighter weights.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Pyramid sets<dd>In a pyramid the weight is first increased, and then decreased over a series of sets. A full pyramid typically includes five sets of approximately 12, 10, 8, 10 and 12 reps. The first two sets are performed with light to medium weights to warm up the muscles. The middle set is the <i>work set,</i> and uses the heaviest weight possible. The last two sets are <i>drop sets,</i> and further fatigue the muscle with progressively lighter weights. This technique provides a combination of volume and intensity, and is therefore popular with bodybuilders. However, the full pyramid may be too much for a beginner to handle, so it is only recommended for experienced trainers.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Burnouts<dd>Burnouts combine pyramids and drop sets, working up to higher weights with low reps and then back down to lower weights and high reps.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Diminishing set<dd>The diminishing set method is where a weight is chosen that can be lifted for 20 reps in one set, and then 70 repetitions are performed in as few sets as possible.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Rest-pause (heavy singles)<dd>Rest-pause heavy singles are performed at or near <!--del_lnk--> 1RM, with ten to twenty seconds of rest between each lift. The lift is repeated six to eight times. It is generally recommended to use this method infrequently.</dl>
<p><a id="Combined_sets" name="Combined_sets"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Combined sets</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Supersets<dd>Supersets combine two or more exercises with similar motions to maximize the amount of work of an individual muscle or group of muscles. The exercises are performed with no rest period between the exercises. An example would be doing bench press, which predominantly works the pectoralis and triceps muscles, and then moving to an exercise that works just the triceps such as the triceps extension or the pushdown.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Push-pull supersets<dd>Push-pull supersets are similar to regular supersets, but exercises are chosen which work opposing muscle groups. This is especially popular when applied to arm exercises, for example by combining biceps curls with the triceps pushdown. Other examples include the shoulder press and lat pulldown combination, and the bench press and wide grip row combination.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Pre-exhaustion<dd>Pre-exhaustion combines an isolation exercise with a compound exercise for the same muscle group. The isolation exercise first exhausts the muscle group, and then the compound exercise uses the muscle group's supporting muscles to push it further than would otherwise be possible. For example, the triceps muscles normally help the pectorals perform their function. But in the "bench press" the weaker triceps often fails first, which limits the impact on the pectorals. By preceding the bench press with the pec flye, the pectorals can be pre-exhausted so that both muscles fail at the same time, and both benefit equally from the exercise.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Breakdowns<dd>Breakdowns were developed by <!--del_lnk--> Fred Hatfield and <!--del_lnk--> Mike Quinn to work the different types of <!--del_lnk--> muscle fibers for maximum stimulation. Three different exercises that work the same muscle group are selected, and used for a superset. The first exercise uses a heavy weight (~85% of <!--del_lnk--> 1 rep max) for around five reps, the second a medium weight (~70% of 1 rep max) for around twelve reps, and finally the third exercise is performed with a light weight (~50% of 1 rep max) for twenty to thirty reps, or even lighter (~40% of 1 rep max) for forty or more reps. (<!--del_lnk--> Going to failure is discouraged.) The entire superset is performed three times.</dl>
<p><a id="Beyond_failure" name="Beyond_failure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Beyond failure</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Forced reps<dd>Forced reps occur after momentary muscular failure. An assistant provides just enough help to get the weight trainer past the <!--del_lnk--> sticking point of the exercise, and allow further repetitions to be completed. Weight trainers often do this when they are <!--del_lnk--> spotting their exercise partner. With some exercises forced reps can be done without a training partner. For example, with one-arm <i>biceps curls</i> the other arm can be used to assist the arm that is being trained.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Cheat reps<dd>Cheating is a deliberate compromise of form in order to achieve further reps. Cheating has the advantage that it can be done without a training partner, unlike forced reps.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Rest-pause (post-failure)<dd>After a normal set of 6-8 reps (to failure), the weight is re-racked and the trainer takes 10-15 deep breaths, and then performs one more repetition. This process can be repeat for two further repetitions. The twenty-rep squat is another, similar approach, in that it follows a 12-15 rep set of squats with individual rest-pause reps, up to a total of 20 reps.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Negative reps<dd>Negatives are performed with much heavier weights. Assistants lift the weight, and then the weight trainer attempts to resist its downward progress. Alternatively, an individual can use an exercise machine for negatives by lifting the weight with both arms or legs, and then lowering it with only one. Or they can simply lower weights more slowly than they lift them: for example, by taking two seconds to lift each weight and four seconds to lower it.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Partial reps<dd>Partial reps, as the name implies, involves movement through only part of the normal path of an exercise. Partial reps can be performed with heavier weights. Usually, only the easiest part of the repetition is attempted.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Burns<dd>Burns involve mixing partial reps into a set of full range reps in order to increase intensity. The partials can be performed at any part of the exercise movement, depending on what works best for the particular exercise. Also, the partials can either be added after the end of a set or in some alternating fashion with the full range reps. For example, after performing a set of <i>biceps curls</i> to failure, an individual would cheat the bar back to the most contracted position, and then perform several partial reps.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>X-reps<dd>X-reps are a variation of burns, but X-reps always occur after momentary muscular failure. After the last full repetition, an isometric contraction at the point of maximum force is combined with a series of small pulsing movements to further stress the muscles. However, in a 1997 article Steve Holman states that "X-Rep training is simply placing a muscle in its completely contracted position, or close to it, against resistance and holding it there until the muscle can no longer contract. Once you achieve fatigue overload, you slowly lower the weight through the eccentric range of motion, and the set is complete."</dl>
<p><a id="Other_techniques" name="Other_techniques"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other techniques</span></h3>
<dl>
<dt>Super slow<dd><!--del_lnk--> Super slow repetitions are performed with lighter weights. The lifting and lowering phases of each repetition take 10 seconds or more.</dl>
<dl>
<dt>Timed rests<dd>By strictly controlling the rest periods between reps and sets a trainer can reduce their level of <!--del_lnk--> blood oxygenation, which helps to increase the stress on the muscles.</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12960.jpg.htm" title="Using a wrist strap."><img alt="Using a wrist strap." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WristStrap.JPG" src="../../images/129/12960.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12960.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Using a wrist strap.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dt>Wrist straps<dd>Wrist straps (lifting straps) are sometimes used to assist in gripping very heavy weights. They are particularly useful for the <i>deadlift</i>. Some lifters, however, avoid using wrist straps in order to develop their <!--del_lnk--> grip strength. Wrist straps can allow a lifter initially to use more weight than they might be able to handle safely for an entire set. They can also place potentially harmful stress on the bones of the wrist. Instead, <!--del_lnk--> wrist curls and reverse wrist curls can be done to improve grip strength.</dl>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_training"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Weimar Republic</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Recent_History.htm">Recent History</a>; <a href="../index/subject.History.World_War_II.htm">World War II</a></h3>
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:135%;"><b>Deutsches Reich<br /><small><i>Weimarer Republik</i></small><br /><small><i>Weimar Republic</i></small></b></td>
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<td style="border:0; vertical-align:middle; font-size:95%; line-height: 105%;" width="50px"><!--del_lnk--> ← <a class="image" href="../../images/22/2228.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg" src="../../images/228/22828.png" width="30" /></a><br />
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:115%; border:0"><b><!--del_lnk--> 1919 – <!--del_lnk--> 1933</b></td>
<td style="border:0; vertical-align: middle; line-height: 105%;" width="50px"><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1309.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany_1933.svg" src="../../images/228/22829.png" width="30" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">→</a><br />
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<td align="center" style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/228/22830.png.htm" title="Flag"><img alt="Flag" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany_%282-3%29.svg" src="../../images/228/22830.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td align="center" style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/56/5605.png.htm" title="Coat of arms"><img alt="Coat of arms" height="95" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wappen_Deutsches_Reich_%28Weimarer_Republik%29.svg" src="../../images/56/5605.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Flag</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Anthem</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Das Lied der Deutschen</td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/56/5668.png.htm" title="Location of Germany"><img alt="Location of Germany" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Deutsches_Reich_1925_b.png" src="../../images/56/5668.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div><small>Germany during the Weimar Republic, with the <!--del_lnk--> Free State of Prussia (<i>Freistaat Preußen</i>) as the largest</small></td>
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<td width="50%"><b><a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">Capital</a></b></td>
<td width="50%"><a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 52°31′N 13°24′E">52°31′N, 13°24′E</span></span></small></td>
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<td><b>Language(s)</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a></td>
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<td><b><a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">Government</a></b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Republic</td>
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<td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> President</b></td>
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<td> - 1919-1925</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Ebert</td>
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<td> - 1925-1933</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Paul von Hindenburg</td>
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<td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Chancellor</b></td>
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<td> - 1919</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Philipp Scheidemann</td>
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<td><b>Historical era</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Interwar period</td>
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<td> - Established</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1919</td>
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<td> - Hitler takes office</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 30 January <!--del_lnk--> 1933</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag fire</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 27 February, 1933</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Enabling Act</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 23, 1933</td>
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<td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b></td>
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<td> - 1919</td>
<td>468,787 km<sup>2</sup><br /> 181,000 sq mi</td>
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<td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b></td>
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<td> - 1925 est.</td>
<td>62,411,000 </td>
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<td><b><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Papiermark (1919-1923)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Reichsmark (1924-1933)</td>
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<p>The <b>Weimar Republic</b> (<span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> Weimarer Republik</span> , <!--del_lnk--> IPA: [<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ˈvaɪ̯marər repuˈbliːk</span>]) governed <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> from <!--del_lnk--> 1919 to <!--del_lnk--> 1933. This period of <!--del_lnk--> German history is often called the Weimar period. The republic was named after the city of <!--del_lnk--> Weimar, where a national assembly convened to produce <!--del_lnk--> a new constitution for the <!--del_lnk--> German Empire following <!--del_lnk--> the nation's defeat in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<p>Despite its political form, the new Republic still called itself "Deutsches <!--del_lnk--> Reich", the same name used by the <!--del_lnk--> German monarchy before 1919. The phrase <i>Weimar Republic</i> is an invention of historians, and was not used officially during its existence. <i>Deutsches Reich</i> was usually translated to "The German Reich" in English-speaking countries during this era, with "Reich" no longer being translated as "<!--del_lnk--> Empire."<p>This first attempt to establish a <a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_democracy.htm" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> in Germany happened during a time of civil conflict, and failed with the ascent of <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Nazi Party in 1933. Although technically the 1919 constitution was not invalidated until after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the legal measures taken by the Nazi government in 1933 (commonly known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Gleichschaltung</i>) destroyed the mechanisms of a typical democratic system, so 1933 is cited as the end of the Weimar Republic.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Controlled_revolution:_the_establishment_of_the_Republic_.281918.E2.80.931919.29" name="Controlled_revolution:_the_establishment_of_the_Republic_.281918.E2.80.931919.29"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Controlled revolution: the establishment of the Republic (1918–1919)</span></h2>
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<th style="padding:0 5px; background:#ccf; font-size:111%;"><!--del_lnk--> History of Germany</th>
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<td align="center"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="90" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/94/9493.png" width="150" /></a></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>Ancient times</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Germanic peoples</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Migration Period</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Frankish Empire</b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #fff;"><b>Medieval times</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b><a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b><!--del_lnk--> East Colonisation</b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>Building a nation</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Confederation of the Rhine</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> German Confederation</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> North German Confederation</b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #fff;"><b>Imperial Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b><!--del_lnk--> German Empire</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Germany during World War I</b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>Weimar Republic</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><strong class="selflink">Weimar Republic</strong></b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #fff;"><b>Nazi Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b><a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b><!--del_lnk--> World War II</b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>Post-war Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Since 1945</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Occupation and Division</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Expulsion</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> East Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> West Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><a href="../../wp/g/German_reunification.htm" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #fff;"><b>Present day Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #fff;"><b><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Modern Germany</a></b></td>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>Topical</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Military history of Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Territorial changes of Germany</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Timeline of German history</b></td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 10px; background: #ececec;"><b><!--del_lnk--> History of the German language</b></td>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/56/5606.png.htm" title="States of Germany at the time of the Weimar Republic, with Prussia in blue"><img alt="States of Germany at the time of the Weimar Republic, with Prussia in blue" class="thumbimage" height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Deutsches_Reich2.png" src="../../images/56/5606.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/56/5606.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> States of Germany at the time of the Weimar Republic, with <!--del_lnk--> Prussia in blue</div>
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<p>From <!--del_lnk--> 1916 onwards, the <!--del_lnk--> 1871 <!--del_lnk--> German Empire had effectively been governed by the military headed by the <i><!--del_lnk--> Oberste Heeresleitung</i> (OHL, Supreme Army Command) with the Chief of Staff <!--del_lnk--> Paul von Hindenburg. When it became apparent that <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> was lost, the OHL demanded that a civil government be installed in order to meet a key peace talk condition from <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> President <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>. Any attempt to continue the war after <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> had left the <!--del_lnk--> Central Powers would have only caused German territories to be militarily occupied by the victors. The new <i>Reichskanzler</i> Prince <!--del_lnk--> Max von Baden thus offered a cease-fire to U.S. President Wilson on <!--del_lnk--> October 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1918. On <!--del_lnk--> October 28, 1918, the 1871 constitution was finally amended to make the <i>Reich</i> a <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a>, which the government had refused for half a century: the Chancellor was henceforth responsible to Parliament, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Reichstag,</i> and no longer to the <!--del_lnk--> Kaiser.<p>The plan to transform Germany into a <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> similar to <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> quickly became obsolete as the country slid into a state of near-total chaos. Germany was flooded with soldiers returning from the front, many of whom were wounded physically and psychologically. Violence was rampant, as the forces of the political right and left fought not only each other, but among themselves.<p>Rebellion broke out when on <!--del_lnk--> October 29, the military command, without consultation with the government, ordered the German <!--del_lnk--> High Seas Fleet to <!--del_lnk--> sortie. This was not only entirely hopeless from a military standpoint, but was also certain to bring the peace negotiations to a halt. The crews of two ships in <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelmshaven mutinied. When the military arrested about 1,000 seamen and had them transported to <!--del_lnk--> Kiel, the <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelmshaven mutiny turned into a general rebellion that quickly swept over most of Germany. Other seamen, soldiers and workers, in solidarity with the arrested, began electing worker and soldier councils modelled after the <!--del_lnk--> soviets of the <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_Revolution_of_1917.htm" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution of 1917</a>, and seized military and civil powers in many cities. On <!--del_lnk--> November 7, the revolution had reached <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>, causing King <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig III of Bavaria to flee.<p>In contrast to Russia one year earlier, the councils were not controlled by a communist party. Still, with the emergence of the Soviet Union, the rebellion caused great fear in the establishment down to the middle classes. The country seemed to be on the verge of a <!--del_lnk--> communist revolution.<p>At the time, the political representation of the working class was divided: a faction had separated from the Social Democratic Party, the traditional working-class party, calling themselves "Independent Social Democrats" (USPD) and leaning towards a socialist system. In order not to lose their influence, the remaining "Majority Social Democrats" (MSPD, who supported a parliamentary system) decided to put themselves at the front of the movement, and on <!--del_lnk--> November 7, demanded that Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm II abdicate. When he refused, <!--del_lnk--> Prince Max of Baden simply announced that he had done so and frantically attempted to establish a <!--del_lnk--> regency under another member of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Hohenzollern. On <!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1918, the Republic was proclaimed by <!--del_lnk--> Philipp Scheidemann at the <!--del_lnk--> <i>Reichstag</i> building in <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, to the fury of the <!--del_lnk--> Reichskanzler, who still hoped to preserve the monarchy. Two hours later a Soviet republic was proclaimed around the corner at the <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Stadtschloss by a left-wing radical named <!--del_lnk--> Karl Liebknecht.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 9, in a legally questionable act, <i>Reichskanzler</i> <!--del_lnk--> Prince Max of Baden transferred his powers to <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Ebert, the leader of the MSPD, who, shattered by the monarchy's fall, reluctantly accepted. It was apparent, however, that this act would not be sufficient to satisfy Liebknecht and his followers, so a day later, a coalition government called "Council of People's Commissioners" (<i>Rat der Volksbeauftragten</i>) was established, consisting of three MSPD and three USPD members, led by Ebert for the MSPD and <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Haase for the USPD. Although the new government was confirmed by the Berlin worker and soldier council, it was opposed by the <!--del_lnk--> Spartacist League led by communists <!--del_lnk--> Rosa Luxemburg and <!--del_lnk--> Karl Liebknecht. Ebert called for a National Congress of Councils, which took place from <!--del_lnk--> December 16 to 20, 1918, and in which the MSPD had the majority. Ebert thus managed to enforce quick elections for a National Assembly to produce a constitution for a parliamentary system, marginalizing the movement that called for a socialist republic (see below).<p>From November <!--del_lnk--> 1918 through January <!--del_lnk--> 1919, Germany was governed dictatorially by the Council of People's Commissioners. In those three months, the government was extraordinarily active, and issued a large number of decrees. At the same time, its main activities were confined to certain spheres: the eight-hour workday, domestic labour reform, agricultural labour reform, right of civil-service associations, local municipality social welfare relief (split between Reich and States) and important national health insurance, re-instatement of demobilised workers, protection from arbitrary dismissal with appeal as a right, regulated wage agreement, and Universal suffrage from 20 years of age in all classes of elections - local and national. Occasionally the name "Die Deutsche Sozialdemokratische Republik" (The German Social-Democratic Republic) appeared in leaflets and on posters from this era, although this was never the official name of the country.<p><a id="The_Reichswehr_and_the_Revolution" name="The_Reichswehr_and_the_Revolution"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The <i>Reichswehr</i> and the Revolution</span></h3>
<p>To ensure that his fledgling government was able to maintain control over the country, Ebert made an uneasy pact with the OHL, now led by Ludendorff's successor General <!--del_lnk--> Wilhelm Groener. This <!--del_lnk--> Ebert-Groener pact stipulated that the government would not attempt to reform the Army so long as the army swore to protect the state. On the one hand, this agreement symbolised the acceptance of the new government by the military, assuaging concern among the middle classes; on the other hand, it was considered a betrayal of worker interests by the radical left wing. The new model <i>Reichswehr</i> armed forces, limited by the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> to 100,000 army soldiers and 15,000 seamen, remained fully under the control of the <!--del_lnk--> German officer class despite its nominal re-organisation. As an independent and conservative group in Weimar, it wielded a large amount of influence over the fate of the republic.<p>This also marked one of several steps that caused the permanent split in the working class' political representation into the SPD and Communists. The eventual fate of the Weimar Republic derived significantly from the general political incapacity of the German labour movement. The several strands within the central mass of the socialist movement adhered more to sentimental loyalty to alliances arising from chance than to any recognition of political necessity. Combined action on the part of the socialists was impossible without action from the millions of workers who stood midway between the <!--del_lnk--> parliamentarians and the ultra-leftists who supported the workers councils. Confusion made acute the danger of extreme right and extreme left engaging in virulent conflict.<p>The split became final after Ebert called upon the OHL for troops to put down another Berlin army mutiny on <!--del_lnk--> November 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1918, in which soldiers had captured the city's garrison commander and closed off the <i>Reichskanzlei</i> where the Council of People's Commissioners was situated. The ensuing street fighting was brutal with several dead and injured on both sides. This caused the left wing to call for a split with the MSPD which, in their view, had joined with the Anti-Communist military to suppress the Revolution. The USPD thus left the Council of People's Commissioners after only seven weeks. In December, the split deepened when the <!--del_lnk--> Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands (KPD) was formed out of a number of radical left-wing groups, including the radical left wing of the USPD and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Spartacist League</i> group.<p>In January, more armed attempts at establishing <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a>, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Spartacist uprising, by the <!--del_lnk--> Spartacist League and others in the streets of Berlin were put down by paramilitary <i><!--del_lnk--> Freikorps</i> units consisting of volunteer soldiers. Bloody street fights culminated in the beating and shooting deaths of <!--del_lnk--> Rosa Luxemburg and <!--del_lnk--> Liebknecht after their arrests on <!--del_lnk--> January 15. With the affirmation of Ebert, the murderers were not tried before a <!--del_lnk--> court martial, leading to very lenient sentences, which did not exactly lead to more acceptance for Ebert from the radical left.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22832.jpg.htm" title="Official postcard of the National Assembly."><img alt="Official postcard of the National Assembly." class="thumbimage" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Offizielle_Postkarte_Weimarer_Nationalkversammlung.jpg" src="../../images/228/22832.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22832.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Official postcard of the National Assembly.</div>
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<p>The National Assembly elections took place <!--del_lnk--> January 19, 1919. In this time, the radical left-wing parties, including the USPD and KPD, were barely able to get themselves organized, leading to a solid majority of seats for the MSPD moderate forces. To avoid the ongoing fights in Berlin, the National Assembly convened in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Weimar, giving the future Republic its unofficial name. The <!--del_lnk--> Weimar Constitution created a republic under a <!--del_lnk--> semi-presidential system with the <i>Reichstag</i> elected by <!--del_lnk--> proportional representation. The Socialist and (Non-Socialist) Democratic parties obtained a solid 80 per cent of the vote.<p>During the debates in Weimar, fighting continued. A <!--del_lnk--> Soviet republic was declared in <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>, but was quickly put down by <i>Freikorps</i> and remnants of the regular army. The fall of the <!--del_lnk--> Munich Soviet Republic to these units, many of which were situated on the extreme right, resulted in the growth of <!--del_lnk--> far-right movements and organizations in <!--del_lnk--> Bavaria, including the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazis">Nazis</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Organisation Consul, and societies of exiled Russian Monarchists. Sporadic fighting continued to flare up around the country. In eastern provinces, forces loyal to Germany's fallen Monarchy fought the republic, while militias of Polish nationalists fought for independence: <!--del_lnk--> Great Poland Uprising in <!--del_lnk--> Provinz Posen and three <!--del_lnk--> Silesian Uprisings in <!--del_lnk--> Upper Silesia.<p><a id="The_socialist_roots_of_Weimar" name="The_socialist_roots_of_Weimar"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The socialist roots of Weimar</span></h3>
<p>The carefully thought-out social and political legislation introduced during the revolution was generally unappreciated by the German working-class. The two goals sought by the government, democratisation and social protection of the working class, were never achieved. This has been attributed to a lack of pre-war political experience on the part of the Social Democrats. The government had little success in confronting the twin economic crises following the war.<p>The permanent economic crisis was a result of lost pre-war industrial exports, the loss of supplies in raw materials and food stuffs from <!--del_lnk--> Alsace-Lorraine, Polish districts and the colonies along with worsening debt balances and reparations payments. Military-industrial activity had almost ceased, although controlled demobilisation kept unemployment at around one million. The fact that the Allies continued to blockade Germany until after the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> did not help matters, either.<p>The allies permitted only low import levels of goods that most Germans could not afford. After four years of war and famine, many German workers were exhausted, physically impaired and discouraged. Millions were disenchanted with capitalism and hoping for a new era. Meanwhile the currency devalued.<p>The German peace delegation in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> signed the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> accepting mass reductions of the German military, unrealistically heavy war reparations payments, and the controversial "<!--del_lnk--> War Guilt Clause". <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> later blamed the republic and its democracy for the oppressive terms of this treaty.<p>The Republic's first <i><!--del_lnk--> Reichspräsident</i> ("Reich President"), <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Ebert of the SPD, signed the new German constitution into law on <!--del_lnk--> August 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1919.<p><a id="The_early_years:_internal_conflict_.281919.E2.80.931923.29" name="The_early_years:_internal_conflict_.281919.E2.80.931923.29"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">The early years: internal conflict (1919–1923)</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22833.jpg.htm" title="1923-issue 50 million mark banknote. Worth approximately $1 US when printed, this sum would have been worth approximately $12 million nine years earlier. The note was practically worthless a few weeks later due to continued inflation."><img alt="1923-issue 50 million mark banknote. Worth approximately $1 US when printed, this sum would have been worth approximately $12 million nine years earlier. The note was practically worthless a few weeks later due to continued inflation." class="thumbimage" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WiemarRepublic_September_01_1923_50MillionMark.jpg" src="../../images/228/22833.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22833.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1923-issue 50 million mark banknote. Worth approximately $1 US when printed, this sum would have been worth approximately $12 million nine years earlier. The note was practically worthless a few weeks later due to continued inflation.</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22834.jpg.htm" title="Inflation 1923–24: a woman feeds her tiled stove with money. At the time, burning money was less expensive than buying firewood."><img alt="Inflation 1923–24: a woman feeds her tiled stove with money. At the time, burning money was less expensive than buying firewood." class="thumbimage" height="273" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Inflation-1923.jpg" src="../../images/228/22834.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22834.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Inflation 1923–24: a woman feeds her tiled stove with money. At the time, burning money was less expensive than buying firewood.</div>
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<p>The Republic was under great pressure from both left and right-wing extremists. The radical left accused the ruling Social Democrats of having betrayed the ideals of the workers' movement by preventing a communist revolution. Right-wing extremists were opposed to any democratic system, preferring an authoritarian state like the 1871 Empire. To further undermine the Republic's credibility the extremists of the right (especially certain members of the former officer corps) also blamed an alleged conspiracy of Socialists and Jews for Germany's defeat in World War I (see <i><!--del_lnk--> Dolchstoßlegende</i>).<p>For the next five years Germany's large cities suffered <a href="../../wp/t/Terrorism.htm" title="Political violence">political violence</a> between left-wing and right-wing groups, both of which committed violence and murder against innocent civilians and against each other, resulting in many deaths. The worst of the violence was between right-wing paramilitaries called the <!--del_lnk--> Freikorps and pro-Communist militias called the <!--del_lnk--> Red Guards, both of which admitted ex-soldiers into their ranks.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Kapp Putsch took place on <!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1920, involving a group of <i><!--del_lnk--> Freikorps</i> troops who gained control of <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> and installed <!--del_lnk--> Wolfgang Kapp (a right-wing journalist) as chancellor. The national government fled to <a href="../../wp/s/Stuttgart.htm" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a> and called for a <!--del_lnk--> general strike. While Kapp's vacillating nature did not help matters, the strike crippled Germany's ravaged economy and the Kapp government collapsed after only four days on <!--del_lnk--> March 17.<p>Inspired by the general strikes, a communist uprising began in the <!--del_lnk--> Ruhr region when 50,000 people formed a "Red Army" and took control of the province. The regular army and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Freikorps</i> ended the uprising on their own authority. Other communist rebellions were put down in March <!--del_lnk--> 1921 in <!--del_lnk--> Saxony and <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>.<p>By <!--del_lnk--> 1923, the Republic claimed it could no longer afford the reparations payments required by the Versailles treaty, and the government defaulted on some payments. In response, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> troops <!--del_lnk--> occupied the Ruhr region, Germany's most productive industrial region at the time, taking control of most mining and manufacturing companies in January of <!--del_lnk--> 1923. Strikes were called, and passive resistance was encouraged. These strikes lasted eight months, further damaging the economy and raising expensive imports. The strike meant no goods were being produced and this made the French so furious that they began to kill and exile protestors in the region.<p>Since striking workers were paid benefits by the state, much additional currency was printed, fueling a period of <!--del_lnk--> hyperinflation. Hyperinflation started when Germany had no goods to trade with. Printing money was the solution sought at that time, though there are other better solutions to it, for example, borrowing money from the US (President Gustav Stresseman did this and Germany earned a precarious economic boom). This allowed Germany to pay war loans and reparations with worthless marks and helped ex-great industrialists to pay loans as well. This also lead to pay rise of workers, as well as businessmen whom wanted a profit out of it. Circulation of money rocketed and soon, the Germans discovered their money was worthless. The value of the <!--del_lnk--> Papiermark had declined from 4.2 per US dollar at the outbreak of World War I to 1 million per dollar by August 1923. On <!--del_lnk--> 15 November <!--del_lnk--> 1923, a new currency, the <!--del_lnk--> Rentenmark, was introduced at the rate of 1 <!--del_lnk--> trillion (1,000,000,000,000) Papiermark for 1 Rentenmark. At that time, 1 U.S. dollar was equal to 4.2 Rentenmark. Reparation payments resumed, and the Ruhr was returned to Germany.<p>Further pressure from the right came in 1923 with the <!--del_lnk--> Beer Hall Putsch, staged by <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in <a href="../../wp/m/Munich.htm" title="Munich">Munich</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> 1920, the <!--del_lnk--> German Workers' Party had become the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), nicknamed the <!--del_lnk--> Nazi Party, and would become a driving force in the collapse of Weimar. Hitler was named chairman of the party in July <!--del_lnk--> 1921. The Storm Division (<!--del_lnk--> Sturmabteilung or SA) was established in November 1921 and acted as Hitler's personal army. On <!--del_lnk--> November 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1923, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Kampfbund</i>, in a pact with <!--del_lnk--> Erich Ludendorff, took over a meeting by Bavarian prime minister <!--del_lnk--> Gustav von Kahr at a beer hall in Munich. Ludendorff and Hitler declared a new government, planning to take control of Munich the following day. The 3,000 rebels were thwarted by 100 policemen. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison, a minimum sentence for the charge and he served less than eight months before his release. Following the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch, his imprisonment and subsequent release, Hitler focused on legal methods of gaining power.<p><a id="Stresemann.27s_Golden_Era_.281923.E2.80.931929.29" name="Stresemann.27s_Golden_Era_.281923.E2.80.931929.29"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Stresemann's Golden Era (1923–1929)</span></h2>
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<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/110/11047.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Sino-German cooperation played a great role in <!--del_lnk--> Chinese history of the early and mid 20th century.</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Gustav Stresemann was <i><!--del_lnk--> Reichskanzler</i> for a brief period in <!--del_lnk--> 1923, and served as foreign minister from <!--del_lnk--> 1923-<!--del_lnk--> 1929, a period of relative stability for the Weimar Republic when there were fewer uprisings and the beginnings of economic recovery.<p>Stresemann's first move was to issue a new currency, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Rentenmark</i>, to halt the <!--del_lnk--> hyperinflation crippling German society and the economy. It was successful because Stresemann refused to issue more currency, the cause of the inflationary spiral. To further stabilise the economy, he reduced spending and <!--del_lnk--> bureaucracy while increasing <!--del_lnk--> taxes. He signed the <!--del_lnk--> Locarno Treaties with the Allied countries in 1925 as a means of restoring Germany's diplomatic status in Europe.<p>During this period, the <!--del_lnk--> Dawes Plan was created, tying reparations payments to Germany's ability to pay. Germany was admitted into the <a href="../../wp/l/League_of_Nations.htm" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, made agreements over its western border, signed a neutrality pact- the Kellogg-Briand pact- with <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> disarmament was brought to a halt. However, this progress was funded by overseas loans, increasing the nation's debts, while overall trade decreased and unemployment rose. Stresemann's reforms did not relieve the underlying weaknesses of Weimar but gave the appearance of a stable democracy.<p>Despite the progress during these years, Stresemann was criticized by opponents for his policy of "fulfilment", or compliance with the terms of the <!--del_lnk--> Versailles Treaty, and by the German people after the invasion of the Ruhr, in which he agreed to pay the reparations set by the treaty in order for the French troops to evacuate.<p>In 1929, Stresemann's death marked the end of the "Golden Era" of the Weimar Republic. He died at the age of 51, four months after receiving the <a href="../../wp/n/Nobel_Peace_Prize.htm" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a>.<p><a id="The_Republic_crumbles_and_Hitler.27s_support_rises_.281930.E2.80.931932.29" name="The_Republic_crumbles_and_Hitler.27s_support_rises_.281930.E2.80.931932.29"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">The Republic crumbles and Hitler's support rises (1930–1932)</span></h2>
<p><a id="Loss_of_credibility" name="Loss_of_credibility"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Loss of credibility</span></h3>
<p>The last years of the Weimar Republic were stamped by even more political instability than in the previous years and the administrations of Chancellors Brüning, Papen, Schleicher and Hitler (from <!--del_lnk--> 30 January to <!--del_lnk--> 23 March <!--del_lnk--> 1933) were all Presidentially appointed dictatorships. On <!--del_lnk--> March 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1930, the finance expert <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Brüning had been appointed the successor of Chancellor Müller by <!--del_lnk--> Paul von Hindenburg after months of political lobbying by General <!--del_lnk--> Kurt von Schleicher on behalf of the military. The new government was expected to lead a political shift towards conservatism, based on the emergency powers granted to the <i>Reichspräsident</i> by the constitution, since it had no majority support in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Reichstag</i>.<p>After an unpopular bill to reform the Reich's finances was left unsupported by the <i>Reichstag</i>, Hindenburg established the bill as an emergency decree based on <!--del_lnk--> Article 48 of the constitution. On <!--del_lnk--> July 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1930, the bill was again invalidated by a slim majority in the <i>Reichstag</i> with the support of the SPD, <!--del_lnk--> KPD, the (then small) NSDAP and <!--del_lnk--> DNVP. Immediately afterwards, Brüning submitted to the <i>Reichstag</i> the president's decree that it would be dissolved.<p>The <i>Reichstag</i> general elections on <!--del_lnk--> September 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1930 resulted in an enormous political shift: 18.3% of the vote went to the Nazis, five times the percentage compared to 1928. This had devastating consequences for the Republic. There was no longer a majority in the <i>Reichstag</i> even for a Great Coalition of moderate parties, and it encouraged the supporters of the Nazis to bring out their claim to power with increasing violence and terror. After 1930, the Republic slid more and more into a state of potential civil war.<p>From 1930 to 1932, Brüning attempted to reform the devastated state without a majority in Parliament, governing with the help of the President's emergency decrees. During that time, the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression reached its lowpoint. In line with liberal economic theory that less public spending would spur economic growth, Brüning drastically cut state expenditures, including in the social sector. He expected and accepted that the economic crisis would, for a while, deteriorate before things would improve. Among others, the <i>Reich</i> completely halted all public grants to the obligatory unemployment insurance (which had been introduced only in 1927), which resulted in higher contributions by the workers and fewer benefits for the unemployed. This was understandably an unpopular move on his part.<p>The economic downturn lasted until the second half of 1932, when there were first indications of a rebound. By this time though, the Weimar Republic had lost all credibility with the majority of Germans. While scholars greatly disagree about how Brüning's policy should be evaluated, it can safely be said that it contributed to the decline of the Republic. Whether there were alternatives at the time remains the subject of much debate.<p>The bulk of German capitalists and land-owners originally gave support to the conservative experiment: not from any personal liking for Brüning, but believing the conservatives would best serve their interests. As, however, the mass of the working class and also of the middle classes turned against Brüning, more of the great capitalists and landowners declared themselves in favour of his opponents - Hitler and Hugenberg. By late 1931 conservatism as a movement was dead, and the time was coming when Hindenburg and the <!--del_lnk--> Reichswehr would drop Brüning and come to terms with Hugenberg and Hitler. Hindenburg himself was no less a supporter of an anti-democratic counter-revolution represented by Hugenberg and Hitler. <p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 30, 1932, Brüning resigned after no longer having Hindenburg's support. Five weeks earlier, Hindenburg had been re-elected <i>Reichspräsident</i> with Brüning's active support, running against Hitler (the president was directly elected by the people while the <i>Reichskanzler</i> was not).<p><a id="Franz_von_Papen_calls_for_elections" name="Franz_von_Papen_calls_for_elections"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Franz von Papen calls for elections</span></h3>
<p>Hindenburg then appointed <!--del_lnk--> Franz von Papen as new <i>Reichskanzler</i>. Von Papen lifted the ban on the <!--del_lnk--> SA, imposed after the street riots, in an unsuccessful attempt to secure the backing of Hitler.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22835.jpg.htm" title="SPD election poster, 1932. Translation: "Against Papen, Hitler, Thälmann; List 2, Social Democrats". The poster shows the Social Democrats crushing their three ideological enemies, Monarchism, Nazism and Communism."><img alt="SPD election poster, 1932. Translation: "Against Papen, Hitler, Thälmann; List 2, Social Democrats". The poster shows the Social Democrats crushing their three ideological enemies, Monarchism, Nazism and Communism." class="thumbimage" height="290" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spd-poster-1932.jpg" src="../../images/228/22835.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22835.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> SPD election poster, 1932. Translation: "Against <!--del_lnk--> Papen, <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Hitler">Hitler</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Thälmann; List 2, Social Democrats". The poster shows the Social Democrats crushing their three ideological enemies, <!--del_lnk--> Monarchism, <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazism</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">Communism</a>.</div>
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<p>Von Papen was closely associated with the industrialist and land-owning classes and pursued an extreme Conservative policy along Hindenburg's lines. He appointed as Reichswehr Minister <!--del_lnk--> Kurt von Schleicher and all of the members of the new cabinet were of the same political opinion as Hindenberg. This government was to be expected to assure itself of the co-operation of Hitler. Since the Republicans and Socialists were not yet ready to take action and the Conservatives had shot their political bolt, Hitler and Hindenberg were certain to achieve power.<p><a id="Elections_of_July_1932" name="Elections_of_July_1932"></a><h4><span class="mw-headline">Elections of July 1932</span></h4>
<p>Since most parties opposed the new government, von Papen had the <i><!--del_lnk--> Reichstag</i> dissolved and called for new elections. The general elections on <!--del_lnk--> July 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1932 yielded major gains for the <!--del_lnk--> KPD and the Nazis, who won 37.2% of the vote, supplanting the <!--del_lnk--> Social Democrats as the largest party in the <i>Reichstag</i>.<p>July 1932 resulted in the question as to now what part the immense Nazi Party would play in the Government of the country. The Nazi party owed its huge increase to an influx of workers, unemployed, despairing peasants, and middle-class people. The millions of radical adherents at first forced the Party towards the Left. They wanted a renewed Germany and a new organisation of German society. The left of the Nazi party strove desperately against any drift into the train of such capitalist and feudal reactionaries. Therefore Hitler refused ministry under Papen, and demanded the chancellorship for himself, but was rejected by Hindenburg on <!--del_lnk--> August 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1932. There was still no majority in the <i>Reichstag</i> for any government; as a result, the Reichstag was dissolved and elections took place once more in the hope that a stable majority would result.<p><a id="November_and_.27Socialist_General.27_Schleicher" name="November_and_.27Socialist_General.27_Schleicher"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">November and 'Socialist General' Schleicher</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> November 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1932 elections yielded 33.1% for the Nazis: it dropped 2 million voters. Franz von Papen stepped down, and was succeeded by General von Schleicher as <i>Reichskanzler</i> on <!--del_lnk--> December 3. The political army officer Schleicher, had developed in atmosphere of semi-obscurity and intrigue that encompassed the Republican military policy. He had for years been in the camp of those supporting the Conservative counter-revolution. Schleicher's bold and unsuccessful plan was to build a majority in the Reichstag by uniting the <!--del_lnk--> Trade Unionist left wings in the various parties, including that of the Nazis led by Gregor Strasser. This did not prove successful either.<p>In this brief Presidential Dictatatorship entr'acte, Schleicher took the role of 'Socialist General', and entered into relations with the Christian Trade Unions, the Left Nazis, and even with the Social Democrats. Schleicher's plan was for a sort of Labour Government under his Generalship. It was an utterly un-workable idea as the Reichswehr officers were hardly prepared to follow Schleicher on this path, and the working class had a natural distrust of their future allies. Equally, Schleicher aroused hatred amongst the great capitalists and landowners by these plans. The SPD and KPD could have achieved success building on a Berlin transport strike.<p>Hitler learned from von Papen that the general had no authority to abolish the <i>Reichstag</i> parliament, whereas any majority of seats did. The cabinet (under a previous interpretation of Article 48) ruled without a sitting Reichstag, which could vote only for its own dissolution. Hitler also learned that all past crippling Nazi debts were to be relieved by German big business.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 22, Hitler's efforts to persuade Oskar von Hindenburg (the President's son) included threats to bring criminal charges over estate taxation irregularities at the President's <!--del_lnk--> Neudeck estate (although 5000 extra acres were soon allotted to Hindenburg's property). Out maneuvered by von Papen and Hitler on plans for the new cabinet, and having lost Hindenburg's confidence, Schleicher asked for new elections. On <!--del_lnk--> January 28 von Papen described Hitler to <!--del_lnk--> Paul von Hindenburg as only a minority part of an alternative, von Papen-arranged government. The four great political movements, the SPD, KPD, Centre, and the Nazis were in opposition. If this continued there was real danger that the Centre and Nazi parties would radicalize further, and that in the end a vast united national bolshevist front would be formed against the ruling system.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 29 January Hitler and von Papen thwarted a last-minute threat of an officially-sanctioned <i>Reichswehr</i> takeover, and on <!--del_lnk--> 30 January <!--del_lnk--> 1933 Hindenburg accepted the new Papen-Nationalist-Hitler coalition with the Nazis holding only three of eleven Cabinet seats. Later that day, the first cabinet meeting was attended by only two political parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the <!--del_lnk--> DNVP led by <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Hugenberg (196 + 52 seats). Eyeing the Catholic <!--del_lnk--> Centre Party's 70 (+ 20 <!--del_lnk--> BVP) seats, Hitler refused their leader's demands for constitutional "concessions" (amounting to protection) and planned for dissolution of the Reichstag.<p>Hindenburg, despite his misgivings about the Nazis' goals and about Hitler as a person, reluctantly agreed to Papen's theory that, with Nazi popular support on the wane, Hitler could now be controlled as chancellor. The date dubbed <i><!--del_lnk--> Machtergreifung</i> (seizure of power) by the Nazi propaganda is commonly seen as the beginning of <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>.<p><a id="Hitler.27s_chancellorship_and_the_death_of_the_Weimar_Republic_.281933.29" name="Hitler.27s_chancellorship_and_the_death_of_the_Weimar_Republic_.281933.29"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Hitler's chancellorship and the death of the Weimar Republic (1933)</span></h2>
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> was sworn in as <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor on the morning of <!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1933 in what some observers later described as a brief and indifferent ceremony. By early February, a mere week after Hitler's assumption of the chancellorship, the government had begun to clamp down on the opposition. Meetings of the left-wing parties were banned, and even some of the moderate parties found their members threatened and assaulted. Measures with an appearance of legality suppressed the Communist Party in mid-February and included the plainly illegal arrests of <i>Reichstag</i> deputies.<p><a id="Reichstag_Fire" name="Reichstag_Fire"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Reichstag Fire</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag Fire on <!--del_lnk--> February 27 was blamed by Hitler's government on the Communists, and Hitler used the ensuing state of emergency to obtain the assent of President von Hindenburg to issue the <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag Fire Decree the following day. The decree invoked <!--del_lnk--> Article 48 of the <!--del_lnk--> Weimar Constitution and suspended a number of constitutional protections of civil liberties, allowing the Nazi government to take swift action against political meetings, arresting or murdering members of the Communist party.<p><a id="Reichstag_election_of_March_5" name="Reichstag_election_of_March_5"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Reichstag election of March 5</span></h3>
<p>Hitler and the Nazis exploited the German state's broadcasting and aviation facilities in a massive attempt to sway the electorate, but this election — the last democratic election to take place until the end of the <!--del_lnk--> Third Reich twelve years later — yielded a scant majority of 16 seats for the coalition. At the Reichstag elections, which took place <!--del_lnk--> 5 March, the NSDAP obtained seventeen million votes. The Communist, Socialist and Catholic Centre votes stood firm.<p>Hitler addressed disparate interest groups, stressing the necessity for a definitive solution to the perpetual instability of the Weimar Republic. He now blamed Germany's problems on the Communists, even threatening their lives on <!--del_lnk--> March 3. Former Chancellor <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Bruning proclaimed that his Centre Party would resist any constitutional change and appealed to the President for an investigation of the Reichstag fire. Hitler's successful plan was to induce what remained of the now Communist-depleted Reichstag to grant him, and the Government, the authority to issue decrees with the force of law. The hitherto Presidential Dictatorship hereby was to give itself a new legal form.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 15 March the first cabinet meeting was attended by the two coalition parties, representing a minority in the Reichstag: The Nazis and the <!--del_lnk--> DNVP led by <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Hugenberg (196 + 52 seats). According to the <!--del_lnk--> Nuremberg Trials this cabinet meeting's first order of business was how at last to achieve the complete counter-revolution by means of the constitutionally-allowed <!--del_lnk--> Enabling Act, requiring two-thirds parliamentary majority. This Act would, and did, bring Hitler and the <!--del_lnk--> NSDAP unfettered dictatorial powers.<p><a id="Hitler_cabinet_meeting_in_mid-March" name="Hitler_cabinet_meeting_in_mid-March"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Hitler cabinet meeting in mid-March</span></h3>
<p>At the meeting of the new cabinet on <!--del_lnk--> March 15, Hitler introduced the <!--del_lnk--> Enabling Act, which would have authorised the cabinet to enact legislation without the approval of the Reichstag. Meanwhile, the only remaining question for the Nazis was whether the Catholic <!--del_lnk--> Centre Party (<i>Zentrum</i>) would support the Enabling Act in the Reichstag, thereby providing the two-thirds majority required to ratify a law that amended the constitution. Hitler expressed his confidence to win over the Centre's votes. Hitler is recorded at the Nuremberg Trials as being sure of eventual <!--del_lnk--> Centre Party Germany capitulation and thus rejecting of the DNVP's suggestions to "balance" the majority through further arrests, this time of socialists. Hitler however assured his coalition partners that arrests would resume after the elections, and in fact some 26 SDP Socialists were physically removed. After meeting with Centre leader Monsignor <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Kaas and other Centre Trade Union leaders daily, and denying them a substantial participation in the government, negotiation succeeded in respect of guarantees towards Catholic civil-servants and education issues. Kaas himself negotiated a letter of constitutional guarantee in theory accepted by the Centre Party as final condition for assent to the <!--del_lnk--> Enabling Act, which guarantee was not finally given, before the Centre indeed assented through Kaas towards the two-thirds majority.<p><!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Kaas, the party's chairman since <!--del_lnk--> 1928, had strong connection to the <a href="../../wp/v/Vatican_City.htm" title="Vatican City">Vatican</a> Secretary of State, later <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Pius_XII.htm" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a>. At the last internal Centre meeting prior to the debate on the <i>Enabling Act</i>, Kaas expressed no preference or suggestion on the vote, but as a way of mollifying opposition by Centre members to the granting of further powers to Hitler, Kaas somehow arranged for a letter of constitutional guarantee from Hitler himself prior to his voting with the centre <i>en bloc</i> in favour of the Enabling Act.<p>Kaas is remembered in connection with this vote he handed, and in this connection to the Vatican for whom he thereafter set in train and drafted the <!--del_lnk--> Holy See's very long desired <!--del_lnk--> Reichskonkordat with Germany. Ludwig Kaas is named along with von Papen as being one of the two most important political figures within this achievement of Dictatorship by Adolf Hitler. <p>The Socialist leader <!--del_lnk--> Otto Wels is remembered as the sole opposing voice to the <!--del_lnk--> 23 March Enabling Act that marks the end of the Weimar republic.<p><a id="Enabling_Act_negotiations" name="Enabling_Act_negotiations"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Enabling Act negotiations</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 20 negotiation began between Hitler and Frick on one side and the Catholic Centre Party (<i>Zentrum</i> (the word <i>zentrum</i> means centre in German, thus the naming of the <i>Catholic Centre Party</i>)) leaders — Kaas, Stegerwald and Hackelsburger — on the other. The aim was to settle on conditions under which Center would vote in favour of the Enabling Act. Because of the Nazis' narrow majority in the <i>Reichstag</i>, Centre's support was necessary to receive the required two-thirds majority vote. On <!--del_lnk--> March 22, the negotiations concluded; Hitler promised to continue the existence of the German states, agreed not to use the new grant of power to change the constitution, and promised to retain <i>Zentrum</i> members in the civil service. Hitler also pledged to protect the Catholic confessional schools and to respect the concordats signed between the Holy See and Bavaria (1924), Prussia (1929) and Baden (1931). Hitler also agreed to mention these promises in his speech to the Reichstag before the vote on the Enabling Act.<p><a id="Ceremonial_opening_of_the_Reichstag_in_Potsdam_on_March_21" name="Ceremonial_opening_of_the_Reichstag_in_Potsdam_on_March_21"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Ceremonial opening of the <i>Reichstag</i> in Potsdam on March 21</span></h3>
<p>The ceremonial opening of the Reichstag on <!--del_lnk--> March 21 was held at the <!--del_lnk--> Garrison Church in <!--del_lnk--> Potsdam, a shrine of <!--del_lnk--> Prussianism, in the presence of many <!--del_lnk--> Junker landowners and representatives of the imperial military caste. This impressive and often emotional spectacle — orchestrated by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Goebbels — aimed to link Hitler's government with Germany's imperial past and portray National Socialism as a guarantor of the nation's future. The ceremony helped convince the "old guard" Prussian military elite of Hitler's homage to their long tradition and, in turn, produced the relatively convincing view that Hitler's government had the support of Germany's traditional protector — the Army. Such support would announce to the population a return to conservatism to curb the problems affecting the Weimar Republic, and that stability might be at hand. In a politically adroit move, Hitler bowed in respectful humility before President and Field Marshal <!--del_lnk--> von Hindenburg.<p><a id="Passage_of_the_Enabling_Act_by_the_Reichstag_on_March_23" name="Passage_of_the_Enabling_Act_by_the_Reichstag_on_March_23"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Passage of the Enabling Act by the <i>Reichstag</i> on March 23</span></h3>
<p>The Reichstag convened on <!--del_lnk--> March 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1933, and in the midday opening, Hitler made a historic speech, appearing outwardly calm and conciliatory. It is most noticeable for its abrupt reversal of the Nazi Party's hardline stance against Christianity and particularly Catholicism. Hitler presented an appealing prospect of respect towards Christianity by paying tribute to the Christian faiths as "essential elements for safeguarding the soul of the German people". He promised to respect their rights and declared his government's "ambition is a peaceful accord between <!--del_lnk--> Church and State" and that he hoped "to improve our friendly relations with the <!--del_lnk--> Holy See." This speech aimed especially at the future recognition by the named <!--del_lnk--> Holy See and therefore to the votes of the Centre Party addressing many concerns Kaas had voiced during the previous talks. Kaas is considered to have had a hand therefore in the drafting of the speech (<i>German Resistance Against Hitler</i>, Klemens von Klemperer, OUP, 1992) Kaas is also reported as voicing the Holy see's desire for Hitler as bulwark against <!--del_lnk--> atheistic Russian <!--del_lnk--> nihilism previously as early as May 1932 (Edgar Ansel Mowrer, Triumph and Turmoil,1968 p.209)<p>In the debate prior to the vote on the Enabling Act, Hitler orchestrated the full political menace of his <!--del_lnk--> paramilitary forces like the <!--del_lnk--> storm troopers in the streets to intimidate reluctant Reichstag deputies into approving the Enabling Act. The Communists' 81 seats had been empty since the Reichstag Fire Decree and other lesser known procedural measures, thus excluding their anticipated "No" votes from the balloting. <!--del_lnk--> Otto Wels, the leader of the Social Democrats, whose seats were similarly depleted from 120 to below 100, was the only speaker to defend democracy and in a futile but brave effort to deny Hitler the two-thirds majority, he made a speech critical of the abandonment of democracy to dictatorship. At this Hitler could no longer restrain his wrath. (<i><!--del_lnk--> The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich</i>, <!--del_lnk--> William L. Shirer <!--del_lnk--> 1959).<p>In his retort to Wels, Hitler abandoned earlier pretence at calm statesmanship and delivered a characteristic screaming diatribe, promising to exterminate all Communists in Germany and threatening <!--del_lnk--> Wels' Social Democrats as well. Meanwhile Hitler's promised written guarantee to Monsignor Kaas was being typed up, it was asserted to Kaas, and thereby Kaas was persuaded to silently deliver the Centre bloc's votes for the Enabling Act anyway.<p><a id="Aftermath" name="Aftermath"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Aftermath</span></h3>
<p>The passing of the Enabling Act gave Hitler and his government sweeping powers to legislate without the Reichstag's approval, and to make foreign policy decisions and deviate from the constitution where they saw fit. Hitler would use these powers to remove all opposition to the dictatorship he wished to create. The decrees issued by Hitler's cabinet within succeeding weeks rapidly stripped Germans of their rights, removed all non-Nazi members of the Civil Service, and banned all other political parties and unions, ushering in the Third Reich.<p>The NSDAP movement had rapidly passed the power of the majority Nationalist Ministers to control. Unchecked by the police, the S.A indulged in acts of terrorism throughout Germany. Communists, Social Democrats, and the Centre were ousted from public life everywhere. The violent persecution of Jews began, and by the summer 1933 the <!--del_lnk--> NSDAP felt itself so invincible that it did away with all the other parties, as well as trades unions. The Nationalist Party was among those suppressed. The <!--del_lnk--> NSDAP ruled alone in Germany. The Reichswehr had, however, remained completely un-touched by all these occurrences. It was still the same State within a State that it had been in the Weimar Republic. Similarly, the private property of wealthy industrialists and landowners was untouched, whilst the administrative and judicial machinery was only very slightly tampered with. {Arthur Rosenburg, A History of The German Republic, 1936)<p><a id="Reasons_for_the_Weimar_Republic.27s_failure" name="Reasons_for_the_Weimar_Republic.27s_failure"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Reasons for the Weimar Republic's failure</span></h2>
<p>The reasons for the Weimar Republic's collapse are the subject of continuing debate. It may have been doomed from the beginning since even moderates disliked it and extremists on both the left and right loathed it. Germany had no democratic traditions and Weimar democracy was widely seen as chaotic. And since Weimar politicians had been blamed for the "<!--del_lnk--> stab in the back" that led to the surrender of the German army in World War I, the government's legitimacy was on shaky ground.<p>No single reason can explain the failure of the Weimar Republic. The most commonly asserted causes can be grouped into three categories: economic problems, institutional problems and the roles of specific individuals.<p><a id="Economic_problems" name="Economic_problems"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Economic problems</span></h3>
<p>The Weimar Republic had some of the most serious economic problems ever experienced by any Western democracy in history. Rampant <!--del_lnk--> hyperinflation, massive unemployment and a large drop in living standards were primary factors. In 1923-29 there was a short period of economic recovery, but the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression of the 1930s led to a worldwide recession. Germany was particularly affected because it depended heavily on American loans. In 1932, about 5 million Germans were unemployed. Many blamed the Weimar Republic. This was made apparent when political parties on both right and left wanting to disband the Republic altogether made any democratic majority in Parliament impossible.<p>The Weimar Republic was severely affected by the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression triggered by the Wall Street crash in 1929. The crash and subsequent economic stagnation led to increased demands on Germany to repay the debts owed to the U.S. As the Weimar Republic was very fragile in all of its existence, the depression proved to be devastating, and played a major role in the NSDAP's takeover.<p>The <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Versailles treaty</a> was considered by most Germans to be a punishing and degrading document because it forced them to surrender resource-rich areas and pay massive amounts of compensation. These punitive reparations caused consternation and resentment, although the actual economic damage resulting from the Treaty of Versailles is difficult to determine. While the official reparations were considerable, Germany ended up paying only a fraction of them. However, the reparations did damage Germany's economy by discouraging market loans, which forced the Weimar government to finance its deficit by printing more money, causing rampant hyperinflation. In addition, the rapid disintegration of Germany in 1919, due to the return of a disillusioned army, the rapid change from possible victory in 1918 to defeat in 1919, and the political chaos may have caused a psychological imprint on Germans that could lead to extreme <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>, shown by Hitler.<p>Most historians agree that many industrial leaders identified the Weimar Republic with labour unions and with the Social Democrats, who had established the Versailles concessions of 1918/1919. Although some did see Hitler as a means to abolish the latter, the Republic was already unstable before any industry leaders were supporting Hitler. Even those who supported Hitler's appointment often did not want Nazism in its entirety and considered Hitler a temporary solution in their efforts to abolish the Republic. Industry support alone cannot explain Hitler's enthusiastic support by large segments of the population, including many workers who had turned away from the left.<p><a id="Institutional_problems" name="Institutional_problems"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Institutional problems</span></h3>
<p>It is widely agreed that the 1919 constitution had several weaknesses, making the eventual establishment of a dictatorship likely but it is unknown whether a different constitution could have prevented the Third Reich. However, the 1949 West German constitution (the <i><!--del_lnk--> Grundgesetz)</i> is generally viewed as a strong response to these flaws.<ul>
<li>The institution of the <i>Reichspräsident</i> was frequently considered as an <i>Ersatzkaiser</i> ("substitute emperor"), an attempt to replace the Kaiser (who resigned and fled in 1918) with a similarly strong institution meant to diminish party politics. Article 48 of the constitution gave the President power to "take all necessary steps" if "public order and security are seriously disturbed or endangered". Although this was intended as an emergency clause, it was often used before 1933 to issue decrees without the support of Parliament (see above) and also made <i><!--del_lnk--> Gleichschaltung</i> easier. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag Fire Decree was issued on the basis of Article 48.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The use of almost pure <!--del_lnk--> proportional representation meant any party with a small amount of support could gain entry into the <i><!--del_lnk--> Reichstag</i>. This led to many small parties, some extremist, building political bases within the system (after the war only parties with 5% or more of the total vote would be allowed to enter the <!--del_lnk--> Bundestag). Yet, it has to be noted that the Reichstag of the monarchy was fractioned to a similar degree although being elected by <!--del_lnk--> majority vote under a <!--del_lnk--> first-past-the-post system.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <i>Reichstag</i> could remove the <i>Reichskanzler</i> from office even if it was unable to agree on a successor. This "<!--del_lnk--> Motion of No Confidence" led to many chancellors in quick succession, adding to the Republic's instability (see <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of Germany for a list). As a result, the 1949 <i>Grundgesetz</i> stipulates that a chancellor may only be voted down by Parliament if a successor is elected at the same time (see <!--del_lnk--> Constructive Vote of No Confidence).</ul>
<ul>
<li>The constitution provided that in the event of the president's death or resignation, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Reichskanzler</i> would assume that office (and crucially possess its powers) pending election of a new president. This allowed Hitler to easily unite the offices of <i>Reichskanzler</i> and <i>Reichspräsident</i> after Hindenburg's death in 1934. However, by this time the dictatorship was already firmly installed and this clause alone cannot be blamed for Nazism.</ul>
<p><a id="Role_of_individuals" name="Role_of_individuals"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Role of individuals</span></h3>
<p>Some historians prefer to consider individuals and the decisions they made. This brings up the problematic question of what alternatives were available at the time and leads to speculation and hypothesis.<p>Brüning's economic policy from 1930-1932 has been the subject of much debate. It caused many Germans to identify the Republic with cuts in social spending and extremely liberal economics. Whether there were alternatives to this policy during <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression is an open question.<p><!--del_lnk--> Paul von Hindenburg became <i>Reichspräsident</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1925. He represented the older authoritarian 1871 Empire, and it is hard to label him as a democrat in support of the 1919 Republic, but he was never a Nazi. During his later years (at well over 80 years old), he was also <!--del_lnk--> senile. A president with solid democratic beliefs may not have allowed the Reichstag to be circumvented with the use of Article 48 decrees and might have avoided signing the <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag Fire Decree. Hindenburg waited one and a half days before he appointed Hitler as <i>Reichskanzler</i> on <!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1933, which indicates some hesitance. Some claim Nazism would have lost much public support if Hitler had not been named chancellor.<p>Writers <!--del_lnk--> John Cornwell and <!--del_lnk--> Ian Kershaw are amongst the modern commentators who have studied the role of <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Kaas and his alliance to <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Pius_XII.htm" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a>.<p>As regards the <!--del_lnk--> Rhenish-Westphalian Industrial Magnates and <!--del_lnk--> Franz von Papen, the <!--del_lnk--> Nuremberg Trials studied the era from <!--del_lnk--> January 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1933, and came to the conclusion that it would not be an indictable offence to have assisted Adolf Hitler and the NSDAP to power.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Welding</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Engineering.htm">Engineering</a></h3>
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<p><b>Welding</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> fabrication process that joins materials, usually <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metals</a> or <!--del_lnk--> thermoplastics, by causing <!--del_lnk--> coalescence. This is often done by <!--del_lnk--> melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the <i>weld puddle</i>) that cools to become a strong joint, but sometimes <!--del_lnk--> pressure is used in conjunction with <a href="../../wp/h/Heat.htm" title="Heat">heat</a>, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with <!--del_lnk--> soldering and <!--del_lnk--> brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the workpieces.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14521.jpg.htm" title="Arc welding"><img alt="Arc welding" height="282" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SMAW.welding.af.ncs.jpg" src="../../images/145/14521.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Many different <!--del_lnk--> energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">flame</a>, an <!--del_lnk--> electric arc, a <!--del_lnk--> laser, an <a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">electron</a> beam, <!--del_lnk--> friction, and <!--del_lnk--> ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, <!--del_lnk--> underwater and in <!--del_lnk--> space. Regardless of location, however, welding remains dangerous, and precautions must be taken to avoid burns, <!--del_lnk--> electric shock, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to <!--del_lnk--> ultraviolet light.<p>Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was <!--del_lnk--> forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join metals by heating and pounding them. <!--del_lnk--> Arc welding and <!--del_lnk--> oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and <!--del_lnk--> resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like <a href="../../wp/s/Shielded_metal_arc_welding.htm" title="Shielded metal arc welding">shielded metal arc welding</a>, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_metal_arc_welding.htm" title="Gas metal arc welding">gas metal arc welding</a>, <!--del_lnk--> submerged arc welding and <!--del_lnk--> flux-cored arc welding. Developments continued with the invention of <!--del_lnk--> laser beam welding and <a href="../../wp/e/Electron_beam_welding.htm" title="Electron beam welding">electron beam welding</a> in the latter half of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. <!--del_lnk--> Robot welding is becoming more commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality and properties.<p>
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<p>The history of joining metals goes back several millennia, with the earliest examples of welding from the <a href="../../wp/b/Bronze_Age.htm" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> and the <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. Welding was used in the construction of the <!--del_lnk--> Iron pillar in <a href="../../wp/d/Delhi.htm" title="Delhi">Delhi</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, erected about 310 and weighing 5.4 <!--del_lnk--> metric tons. The <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> brought advances in <!--del_lnk--> forge welding, in which blacksmiths pounded heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, <!--del_lnk--> Vannoccio Biringuccio published <i><!--del_lnk--> De la pirotechnia</i>, which includes descriptions of the forging operation. <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following centuries. Welding, however, was transformed during the 19th century—in 1800, <!--del_lnk--> Sir Humphry Davy discovered the <!--del_lnk--> electric arc, and advances in arc welding continued with the inventions of metal electrodes by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov, and an American, <!--del_lnk--> C.L. Coffin in the late 1800s, even as <!--del_lnk--> carbon arc welding, which used a carbon electrode, gained popularity. Around 1900, <!--del_lnk--> A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a>, which gave a more stable arc, and in 1919, <a href="../../wp/a/Alternating_current.htm" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> welding was invented by <!--del_lnk--> C.J. Holslag, but did not become popular for another decade.<p><!--del_lnk--> Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with the first patents going to <!--del_lnk--> Elihu Thompson in 1885, who produced further advances over the next 15 years. <!--del_lnk--> Thermite welding was invented in 1893, and around that time, another process, <!--del_lnk--> oxyfuel welding, became well established. <!--del_lnk--> Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Davy, but its use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a suitable <!--del_lnk--> blowtorch was developed. At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding methods due to its portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favour for industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as metal coverings (known as <!--del_lnk--> flux) for the electrode that stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities continued to be developed.<p><a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> caused a major surge in the use of welding processes, with the various military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Fulagar</i>, with an entirely welded hull. The Americans were more hesitant, but began to recognize the benefits of arc welding when the process allowed them to repair their ships quickly after a <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> attack in the <!--del_lnk--> New York Harbour at the beginning of the war. Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process.<p>During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed continuously. <!--del_lnk--> Shielding gas became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use of <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Argon.htm" title="Argon">argon</a>, and <a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a> as welding atmospheres. During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals like <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>. This, in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<p>During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. 1930 saw the release of <!--del_lnk--> stud welding, which soon became popular in shipbuilding and construction. <!--del_lnk--> Submerged arc welding was invented the same year, and continues to be popular today. <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding.htm" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">Gas tungsten arc welding</a>, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and <a href="../../wp/g/Gas_metal_arc_welding.htm" title="Gas metal arc welding">gas metal arc welding</a> followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-<!--del_lnk--> ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. <a href="../../wp/s/Shielded_metal_arc_welding.htm" title="Shielded metal arc welding">Shielded metal arc welding</a> was developed during the 1950s, using a consumable electrode and a <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> atmosphere as a shielding gas, and it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the <!--del_lnk--> flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same year, <!--del_lnk--> plasma arc welding was invented. <!--del_lnk--> Electroslag welding was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin, <!--del_lnk--> electrogas welding, in 1961.<p>Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of <a href="../../wp/e/Electron_beam_welding.htm" title="Electron beam welding">electron beam welding</a>, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat source. Following the invention of the <!--del_lnk--> laser in 1960, <!--del_lnk--> laser beam welding debuted several decades later, and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. Both of these processes, however, continue to be quite expensive due the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their applications.<p><a id="Welding_processes" name="Welding_processes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Welding processes</span></h2>
<p><a id="Arc_welding" name="Arc_welding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Arc welding</span></h3>
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<p>These processes use a <!--del_lnk--> welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use either <!--del_lnk--> direct (DC) or <a href="../../wp/a/Alternating_current.htm" title="Alternating current">alternating</a> (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable <!--del_lnk--> electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-<!--del_lnk--> inert gas, known as a <!--del_lnk--> shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.<p><a id="Power_supplies" name="Power_supplies"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Power supplies</span></h4>
<p>To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant <!--del_lnk--> current power supplies and constant <!--del_lnk--> voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.<p>The type of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively charged <!--del_lnk--> anode will have a greater heat concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode has an impact on weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, it will melt more quickly, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds. Nonconsumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as well as alternating current. However, with direct current, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds. Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a <!--del_lnk--> square wave pattern instead of the normal <!--del_lnk--> sine wave, making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the problem.<p><a id="Methods" name="Methods"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Methods</span></h4>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14523.jpg.htm" title="Shielded metal arc welding"><img alt="Shielded metal arc welding" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SMAW.welding.navy.ncs.jpg" src="../../images/145/14523.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14523.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Shielded metal arc welding</div>
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<p>One of the most common types of arc welding is <a href="../../wp/s/Shielded_metal_arc_welding.htm" title="Shielded metal arc welding">shielded metal arc welding</a> (SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding. Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod, which is made of steel and is covered with a <!--del_lnk--> flux that protects the weld area from <!--del_lnk--> oxidation and contamination by producing <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding. Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though speciality electrodes have made possible the welding of <!--del_lnk--> cast iron, <a href="../../wp/n/Nickel.htm" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a>, and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of applications, including repair work and construction.<p><a href="../../wp/g/Gas_metal_arc_welding.htm" title="Gas metal arc welding">Gas metal arc welding</a> (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas (MIG) welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic welding process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. Since the electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater for GMAW than for SMAW. However, because of the additional equipment, the process is less portable and versatile, but still useful for industrial applications. The process can be applied to a wide variety of metals, both ferrous and non-ferrous. A related process, <!--del_lnk--> flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14524.jpg.htm" title="Gas tungsten arc welding"><img alt="Gas tungsten arc welding" height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GTAW_welding.jpg" src="../../images/145/14524.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14524.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Gas tungsten arc welding</div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/g/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding.htm" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">Gas tungsten arc welding</a> (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a nonconsumable electrode made of <a href="../../wp/t/Tungsten.htm" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to <!--del_lnk--> stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in <a href="../../wp/b/Bicycle.htm" title="Bicycle">bicycle</a>, aircraft and naval applications. A related process, <!--del_lnk--> plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process, and furthermore, it is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, and automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is <!--del_lnk--> plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.<p><!--del_lnk--> Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products. Other arc welding processes include <!--del_lnk--> atomic hydrogen welding, <!--del_lnk--> carbon arc welding, <!--del_lnk--> electroslag welding, <!--del_lnk--> electrogas welding, and <!--del_lnk--> stud arc welding.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14525.jpg.htm" title="Gas welding a steel armature"><img alt="Gas welding a steel armature" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Welding.jpg" src="../../images/145/14525.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14525.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Gas welding a steel armature</div>
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<p><a id="Gas_welding" name="Gas_welding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gas welding</span></h3>
<p>The most common gas welding process is <!--del_lnk--> oxyfuel welding, also known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work. The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of <!--del_lnk--> acetylene in <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100°C. The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process, generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals. Other gas welding methods, such as <!--del_lnk--> air acetylene welding, <!--del_lnk--> oxygen hydrogen welding, and <!--del_lnk--> pressure gas welding are quite similar, generally differing only in the type of gases used. A <!--del_lnk--> water torch is sometimes used for precision welding of items such as jewelry. Gas welding is also used in <!--del_lnk--> plastic welding, though the heated substance is air, and the temperatures are much lower.<p><a id="Resistance_welding" name="Resistance_welding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Resistance welding</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1000–100,000 <!--del_lnk--> A) is passed through the metal. In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be high.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14526.jpg.htm" title="Spot welder"><img alt="Spot welder" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spot_welder.miller.triddle.jpg" src="../../images/145/14526.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14526.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Spot welder</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick. Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive industry—ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds. A specialized process, called <!--del_lnk--> shot welding, can be used to spot weld <!--del_lnk--> stainless steel.<p>Like spot welding, <!--del_lnk--> seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more limited. Other resistance welding methods include <!--del_lnk--> flash welding, <!--del_lnk--> projection welding, and <!--del_lnk--> upset welding.<p><a id="Energy_beam_welding" name="Energy_beam_welding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Energy beam welding</span></h3>
<p>Energy beam welding methods, namely <!--del_lnk--> laser beam welding and <a href="../../wp/e/Electron_beam_welding.htm" title="Electron beam welding">electron beam welding</a>, are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area include <!--del_lnk--> laser-hybrid welding, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc welding for even better weld properties.<p><a id="Solid-state_welding" name="Solid-state_welding"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Solid-state welding</span></h3>
<p>Like the first welding process, <!--del_lnk--> forge welding, some modern welding methods do not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, <!--del_lnk--> ultrasonic welding, is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure. The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. Welding metals with this process does not involve melting the materials; instead, the weld is formed by introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding plastics, the materials should have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminium or copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.<p>Another common process, <!--del_lnk--> explosion welding, involves the joining of materials by pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, such as the welding of aluminium with steel in ship hulls or compound plates. Other solid-state welding processes include <!--del_lnk--> co-extrusion welding, <!--del_lnk--> cold welding, <!--del_lnk--> diffusion welding, <!--del_lnk--> friction welding (including <!--del_lnk--> friction stir welding), <!--del_lnk--> high frequency welding, <!--del_lnk--> hot pressure welding, <!--del_lnk--> induction welding, and <!--del_lnk--> roll welding.<p><a id="Geometry" name="Geometry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geometry</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14527.png.htm" title="Common welding joint types – (1) Square butt joint, (2) Single-V preparation joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-joint."><img alt="Common welding joint types – (1) Square butt joint, (2) Single-V preparation joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-joint." height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Common_joint_types.png" src="../../images/145/14527.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14527.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Common welding joint types – (1) Square butt joint, (2) Single-V preparation joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-joint.</div>
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<p>Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types of weld <!--del_lnk--> joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint, and T-joint. Other variations exist as well—for example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces of material each tapering to a single centre point at one-half their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also fairly common—instead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints, they are curved, forming the shape of a U. Lap joints are also commonly more than two pieces thick—depending on the process used and the thickness of the material, many pieces can be welded together in a lap joint geometry.<p>Often, particular joint designs are used exclusively or almost exclusively by certain welding processes. For example, resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most frequently performed on lap joints. However, some welding methods, like shielded metal arc welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually any type of joint. Additionally, some processes can be used to make multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed to cool, and then another weld is performed on top of it. This allows for the welding of thick sections arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14528.png.htm" title="The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material."><img alt="The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material." height="56" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Welded_butt_joint_x-section.png" src="../../images/145/14528.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14528.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material.</div>
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<p>After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The weld itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded by the <!--del_lnk--> heat-affected zone, the area that had its microstructure and properties altered by the weld. These properties depend on the base material's behaviour when subjected to heat. The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found.<p><a id="Quality" name="Quality"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Quality</span></h2>
<p>Most often, the major metric used for judging the quality of a weld is its strength and the strength of the material around it. Many distinct factors influence this, including the welding method, the amount and concentration of heat input, the base material, the filler material, the flux material, the design of the joint, and the interactions between all these factors. To test the quality of a weld, either <!--del_lnk--> destructive or <!--del_lnk--> nondestructive testing methods are commonly used to verify that welds are defect-free, have acceptable levels of residual stresses and distortion, and have acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Welding codes and specifications exist to guide welders in proper welding technique and in how to judge the quality of welds.<p><a id="Heat-affected_zone" name="Heat-affected_zone"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Heat-affected zone</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14529.jpg.htm" title="The HAZ of a pipe weld, with the blue area being the metal most affected by the heat."><img alt="The HAZ of a pipe weld, with the blue area being the metal most affected by the heat." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pipe_root_weld_with_HAZ.jpg" src="../../images/145/14529.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14529.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The HAZ of a pipe weld, with the blue area being the metal most affected by the heat.</div>
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<p>The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimental—depending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding process used, the HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The <!--del_lnk--> thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large role—if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding process plays an important role as well, as processes like oxyacetylene welding have an unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input. To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures, the following formula can be used:<dl>
<dd><img alt="Q = \left(\frac{V \times I \times 60}{S \times 1000} \right) \times \mathit{Efficiency}" class="tex" src="../../images/387/38712.png" /></dl>
<p>where <i>Q</i> = heat input (<!--del_lnk--> kJ/<!--del_lnk--> mm), <i>V</i> = voltage (<a href="../../wp/v/Volt.htm" title="Volt">V</a>), <i>I</i> = current (<!--del_lnk--> A), and <i>S</i> = welding speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.<p><a id="Distortion_and_cracking" name="Distortion_and_cracking"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Distortion and cracking</span></h3>
<p>Welding methods that involve the melting of metal at the site of the joint necessarily are prone to <!--del_lnk--> shrinkage as the heated metal cools. Shrinkage, in turn, can introduce residual stresses and both longitudinal and rotational distortion. Distortion can pose a major problem, since the final product is not the desired shape. To alleviate rotational distortion, the workpieces can be offset, so that the welding results in a correctly shaped piece. Other methods of limiting distortion, such as clamping the workpieces in place, cause the buildup of residual stress in the heat-affected zone of the base material. These stresses can reduce the strength of the base material, and can lead to catastrophic failure through <!--del_lnk--> cold cracking, as in the case of several of the <!--del_lnk--> Liberty ships. Cold cracking is limited to steels, and is associated with the formation of <!--del_lnk--> martensite as the weld cools. The cracking occurs in the heat-affected zone of the base material. To reduce the amount of distortion and residual stresses, the amount of heat input should be limited, and the welding sequence used should not be from one end directly to the other, but rather in segments. The other type of cracking, <!--del_lnk--> hot cracking or solidification cracking, can occur in all metals, and happens in the fusion zone of a weld. To diminish the probability of this type of cracking, excess material restraint should be avoided, and a proper filler material should be utilized.<p><a id="Weldability" name="Weldability"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Weldability</span></h3>
<p>The quality of a weld is also dependent on the combination of materials used for the base material and the filler material. Not all metals are suitable for welding, and not all filler metals work well with acceptable base materials.<p><a id="Steels" name="Steels"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Steels</span></h4>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> weldability of <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steels</a> is inversely proportional to a property known as the <!--del_lnk--> hardenability of the steel, which measures the ease of forming <!--del_lnk--> martensite during heat treatment. The hardenability of steel depends on its chemical composition, with greater quantities of carbon and other <!--del_lnk--> alloying elements resulting in a higher hardenability and thus a lower weldability. In order to be able to judge alloys made up of many distinct materials, a measure known as the <!--del_lnk--> equivalent carbon content is used to compare the relative weldabilities of different alloys by comparing their properties to a plain <!--del_lnk--> carbon steel. The effect on weldability of elements like <a href="../../wp/c/Chromium.htm" title="Chromium">chromium</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Vanadium.htm" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, while not as great as <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, is more significant than that of <a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Nickel.htm" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, for example. As the equivalent carbon content rises, the weldability of the alloy decreases. The disadvantage to using plain carbon and low-alloy steels is their lower strength—there is a trade-off between material strength and weldability. <!--del_lnk--> High strength, low-alloy steels were developed especially for welding applications during the 1970s, and these generally easy to weld materials have good strength, making them ideal for many welding applications.<p><!--del_lnk--> Stainless steels, because of their high chromium content, tend to behave differently with respect to weldability than other steels. Austenitic grades of stainless steels tend to be the most weldable, but they are especially susceptible to distortion due to their high coefficient of thermal expansion. Some alloys of this type are prone to cracking and reduced corrosion resistance as well. Hot cracking is possible if the amount of <!--del_lnk--> ferrite in the weld is not controlled—to alleviate the problem, an electrode is used that deposits a weld metal containing a small amount of ferrite. Other types of stainless steels, such as ferritic and martensitic stainless steels, are not as easily welded, and must often be preheated and welded with special electrodes.<p><a id="Aluminum" name="Aluminum"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Aluminium</span></h4>
<p>The weldability of <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> alloys varies significantly, depending on the chemical composition of the alloy used. Aluminum alloys are susceptible to hot cracking, and to combat the problem, welders increase the welding speed to lower the heat input. Preheating reduces the temperature gradient across the weld zone and thus helps reduce hot cracking, but it can reduce the mechanical properties of the base material and should not be used when the base material is restrained. The design of the joint can be changed as well, and a more compatible filler alloy can be selected to decrease the likelihood of hot cracking. Aluminium alloys should also be cleaned prior to welding, with the goal of removing all <!--del_lnk--> oxides, <!--del_lnk--> oils, and loose particles from the surface to be welded. This is especially important because of an aluminium weld's susceptibility to <!--del_lnk--> porosity due to <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <!--del_lnk--> dross due to <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>.<p><a id="Unusual_conditions" name="Unusual_conditions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Unusual conditions</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14530.jpg.htm" title="Underwater welding"><img alt="Underwater welding" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Underwater_welding.jpg" src="../../images/145/14530.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14530.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Underwater welding</div>
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<p>While many welding applications are done in controlled environments such as factories and repair shops, some welding processes are commonly used in a wide variety of conditions, such as open air, underwater, and <!--del_lnk--> vacuums (such as space). In open-air applications, such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal arc welding is the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases to protect the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because unpredictable atmospheric movements can result in a faulty weld. Shielded metal arc welding is also often used in <!--del_lnk--> underwater welding in the construction and repair of ships, offshore platforms, and pipelines, but others, such as flux cored arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding, are also common. Welding in space is also possible—it was first attempted in 1969 by <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> cosmonauts, when they performed experiments to test shielded metal arc welding, plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding in a depressurized environment. Further testing of these methods was done in the following decades, and today researchers continue to develop methods for using other welding processes in space, such as laser beam welding, resistance welding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas could prove indispensable for projects like the construction of the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Space_Station.htm" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, which will likely rely heavily on welding for joining in space the parts that were manufactured on <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>.<p><a id="Safety_issues" name="Safety_issues"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Safety issues</span></h2>
<p>Welding, without the proper precautions, can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice. However, with the use of new technology and proper protection, the risks of injury and death associated with welding can be greatly reduced. Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns is significant. To prevent them, <!--del_lnk--> welders wear <!--del_lnk--> personal protective equipment in the form of heavy <!--del_lnk--> leather <!--del_lnk--> gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames. Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called <!--del_lnk--> arc eye in which <!--del_lnk--> ultraviolet light causes the inflammation of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cornea.htm" title="Cornea">cornea</a> and can burn the <a href="../../wp/r/Retina.htm" title="Retina">retinas</a> of the eyes. <!--del_lnk--> Goggles and <!--del_lnk--> welding helmets with dark face plates are worn to prevent this exposure, and in recent years, new helmet models have been produced that feature a face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to high amounts of UV light. To protect bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made of a <!--del_lnk--> polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc, but should not be used to replace the <!--del_lnk--> filter glass used in helmets.<p>Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and <!--del_lnk--> particulate matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce <!--del_lnk--> smoke containing particles of various types of <!--del_lnk--> oxides, which in some cases can lead to medical conditions like <!--del_lnk--> metal fume fever. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the <!--del_lnk--> toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce fumes and various gases, most commonly <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="../../wp/o/Ozone.htm" title="Ozone">ozone</a>, that can prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate. Furthermore, because the use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes pose an explosion and fire risk, some common precautions include limiting the amount of <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.<p><a id="Costs_and_trends" name="Costs_and_trends"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Costs and trends</span></h2>
<p>As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in manufacturing decisions. Many different variables affect the total cost, including equipment cost, labor cost, material cost, and <!--del_lnk--> energy cost. Depending on the process, equipment cost can vary, from inexpensive for methods like shielded metal arc welding and oxyfuel welding, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam welding and electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only used in high production operations. Similarly, because automation and robots increase equipment costs, they are only implemented when high production is necessary. Labor cost depends on the deposition rate (the rate of welding), the hourly wage, and the total operation time, including both time welding and handling the part. The cost of materials includes the cost of the base and filler material, and the cost of shielding gases. Finally, energy cost depends on arc time and welding power demand.<p>For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast majority of the total cost. As a result, many cost-savings measures are focused on minimizing the operation time. To do this, welding procedures with high deposition rates can be selected, and weld parameters can be fine-tuned to increase welding speed. Mechanization and automatization are often implemented to reduce labor costs, but this frequently increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time. Material costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary, and energy costs normally do not amount to more than several percent of the total welding cost.<p>In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production manufacturing, industrial welding has become increasingly more automated, most notably with the use of robots in resistance spot welding (especially in the automotive industry) and in arc welding. In <!--del_lnk--> robot welding, mechanized devices both hold the material and perform the weld, and at first, spot welding was its most common application. But robotic arc welding has been increasing in popularity as technology has advanced. Other key areas of research and development include the welding of dissimilar materials (such as steel and aluminium, for example) and new welding processes, such as <!--del_lnk--> friction stir, <!--del_lnk--> magnetic pulse, <!--del_lnk--> conductive heat seam, and <!--del_lnk--> laser-hybrid welding. Furthermore, progress is desired in making more specialized methods like laser beam welding practical for more applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive industries. Researchers also hope to better understand the often unpredictable properties of welds, especially microstructure, <!--del_lnk--> residual stresses, and a weld's tendency to crack or deform.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welding"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wellington</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Oceania_Australasia.htm">Geography of Oceania (Australasia)</a></h3>
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<th align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/129/12967.jpg.htm" title="Image:WellingtonPanorama.jpg"><img alt="Image:WellingtonPanorama.jpg" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WellingtonPanorama.jpg" src="../../images/129/12967.jpg" width="339" /></a></th>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><small>The <!--del_lnk--> Wellington Cable Car and city centre.</small></td>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Location</th>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/129/12968.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="291" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wellington.PNG" src="../../images/129/12968.png" width="200" /></a></span></div>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><small>Wellington shown within <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></small><br /><small>Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">41°17′20″S,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">174°46′38″E</span></span></small></td>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Government</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries.htm" title="List of countries">Country</a>:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Region:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wellington</td>
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<td>Regional Council:</td>
<td>Greater Wellington Regional Council</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Territorial Authorities:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wellington City Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hutt City Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Upper Hutt City Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> Porirua City Council</td>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Population (2005)</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Urban Area:</td>
<td>370,000</td>
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<td>Four cities:</td>
<td>374,000</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Wellington City:</td>
<td>182,600</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Wellington Region:</td>
<td>460,400</td>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Time Zone</th>
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<td>Standard:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NZST (UTC +12)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Daylight Saving:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NZDT (UTC +13)</td>
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<p><b>Wellington</b> (<i>Te Whanganui-a-Tara</i> or <i>Poneke</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Māori) is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, the country's second largest <!--del_lnk--> urban area and the most populous national capital in <a href="../../wp/o/Oceania.htm" title="Oceania">Oceania</a>. It is in the <!--del_lnk--> Wellington Region at the southern tip of the <!--del_lnk--> North Island, near the geographical centre of the country.<p>Like many cities, Wellington's urban area extends well beyond the boundaries of a single local authority. Greater Wellington or the <!--del_lnk--> Wellington Region means the entire urban area, plus the rural parts of the cities and the <!--del_lnk--> Kapiti Coast, and across the Rimutaka Range to the <!--del_lnk--> Wairarapa.<p>Wellington has roughly the same urban area population as <a href="../../wp/c/Canberra.htm" title="Canberra">Canberra</a> in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<p>Wellington was named in honour of <a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Wellesley%252C_1st_Duke_of_Wellington.htm" title="Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington">Arthur Wellesley</a>, the first <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Wellington and victor at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Waterloo. The Duke's title comes from the town of <!--del_lnk--> Wellington in the English county of <!--del_lnk--> Somerset.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Māori Wellington goes by two names. <i><!--del_lnk--> Te Whanganui-a-Tara</i> refers to Wellington Harbour and means "the great harbour of Tara". The alternative name <i>Pōneke</i> is often discouraged because of a belief that it is nothing more than a transliteration of the harbour's former nickname in English, <i>Port Nick</i>, short for <i>Port Nicholson</i>.<p>Wellington is New Zealand's political centre, housing Parliament and the head offices of all government ministries and departments.<p>Wellington's compact city centre supports an arts scene, café culture and nightlife much larger than most cities of a similar size. It is a centre of New Zealand's film and theatre industry. <!--del_lnk--> Te Papa Tongarewa (the Museum of New Zealand), the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, the Royal New Zealand Ballet and the biennial International Festival of the Arts are all sited there.<p>Wellington has the 12th best quality of living in the world, according to a 2006 study by consulting company Mercer. Of cities with English as the primary language, Wellington ranked fourth.<!--del_lnk--> 1<p>
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</script><a id="Settlement" name="Settlement"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Settlement</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Māori who originally settled the Wellington area knew it as <i>Te Upoko o te Ika a Māui</i>, meaning "the head of <!--del_lnk--> Māui's fish". Legend recounts that <!--del_lnk--> Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the <!--del_lnk--> tenth century.<p><a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand Company on the ship <i>Tory</i>, on <!--del_lnk--> 20 September <!--del_lnk--> 1839, followed by 150 settlers on the ship <i>Aurora</i> on <!--del_lnk--> 22 January <!--del_lnk--> 1840. The settlers constructed their first homes at <!--del_lnk--> Petone (which they called Britannia for a time) on the flat area at the mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> Hutt River. When that proved swampy and flood-prone they transplanted the plans without regard for a more hilly terrain. Wellington has some extremely steep streets running straight up the sides of hills.<p><a id="Earthquakes" name="Earthquakes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Earthquakes</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12985.jpg.htm" title="Wellington from Mount Victoria"><img alt="Wellington from Mount Victoria" height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wellington-FromTopOfMountVictoria.jpg" src="../../images/129/12985.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12985.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wellington from Mount Victoria</div>
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<p>Wellington suffered serious damage in a series of <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1848 and from another earthquake in <!--del_lnk--> 1855. The 1855 Wairarapa earthquake occurred on a fault line to the north and east of Wellington. It ranks as probably the most powerful earthquake in recorded New Zealand history, with an estimated magnitude of at least 8.2 on the Richter scale. It caused vertical movements of two to three metres over a large area, including raising an area of land out of the harbour and turning it into a tidal swamp. Much of this land was subsequently reclaimed and is now part of Wellington's central <a href="../../wp/b/Business.htm" title="Business">business</a> district. For this reason the street named <!--del_lnk--> Lambton Quay now runs 100 to 200 metres from the harbour. Plaques set into the footpath along Lambton Quay mark the shoreline in <!--del_lnk--> 1840 and thus indicate the extent of the uplift and of subsequent reclamation.<p>The area has high seismic activity even by New Zealand standards, with a major fault line running through the centre of the city, and several others nearby. Several hundred more minor fault lines have been identified within the urban area. The inhabitants, particularly those in high-rise buildings, typically notice several <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> every year. For many years after the 1855 earthquake, the majority of buildings constructed in Wellington were made entirely from wood. The 1996-restored Government Buildings, near Parliament and the <!--del_lnk--> Railway Station, comprise the largest wooden office building in the Southern Hemisphere. While masonry and structural steel have subsequently been used in building construction, especially for office buildings, timber framing remains the primary structural component of almost all residential construction. Residents also place their hopes of survival in good building regulations, which gradually became more stringent in the course of the 20th century.<p><a id="New_Zealand.27s_capital" name="New_Zealand.27s_capital"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">New Zealand's capital</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12986.jpg.htm" title="The historic former High Court building, future home of the Supreme Court of New Zealand."><img alt="The historic former High Court building, future home of the Supreme Court of New Zealand." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SCONZ.jpg" src="../../images/129/12986.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12986.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The historic former High Court building, future home of the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court of New Zealand.</div>
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<div style="width:177px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12987.jpg.htm" title="The old Government Buildings (now a law school) on the left and the Beehive, Parliament's Executive Wing, in the centre. Parliament House is to the right (small part shown)."><img alt="The old Government Buildings (now a law school) on the left and the Beehive, Parliament's Executive Wing, in the centre. Parliament House is to the right (small part shown)." height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wellington_Parliament_n.jpg" src="../../images/129/12987.jpg" width="175" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12987.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The old Government Buildings (now a law school) on the left and the Beehive, Parliament's Executive Wing, in the centre. Parliament House is to the right (small part shown).</div>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1865 Wellington became the capital of New Zealand, replacing <a href="../../wp/a/Auckland.htm" title="Auckland">Auckland</a>, where <!--del_lnk--> William Hobson had established his capital in <!--del_lnk--> 1841. Parliament first sat in Wellington on <!--del_lnk--> 7 July <!--del_lnk--> 1862, but the city did not become the official capital for some time. In November 1863 the Premier <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Domett moved a resolution before Parliament (in Auckland) that "... it has become necessary that the seat of government ... should be transferred to some suitable locality in Cook Strait." Apparently there was concern that the southern regions, where the gold fields were located, would form a separate colony. Commissioners from Australia (chosen for their neutral status) pronounced the opinion that Wellington was suitable because of its harbour and central location. Parliament officially sat in Wellington for the first time on <!--del_lnk--> 26 July <!--del_lnk--> 1865. The population of Wellington was then 4,900 .<p>Wellington is also the seat of New Zealand's highest court, the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court of New Zealand. The historic former High Court building is to be refurbished for the court's use.<p><!--del_lnk--> Government House, the official residence of the <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General, is in Newtown, opposite the <!--del_lnk--> Basin Reserve.<p><a id="Location_and_geography" name="Location_and_geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Location and geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:272px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12988.jpg.htm" title="Satellite photo of the Wellington conurbation: (1) Wellington; (2) Lower Hutt; (3) Upper Hutt; (4) Porirua"><img alt="Satellite photo of the Wellington conurbation: (1) Wellington; (2) Lower Hutt; (3) Upper Hutt; (4) Porirua" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wellington_landsat_labelled.jpg" src="../../images/129/12988.jpg" width="270" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12988.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite photo of the Wellington conurbation: (1) Wellington; (2) Lower Hutt; (3) Upper Hutt; (4) Porirua</div>
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<p>Wellington stands at the south-western tip of the <!--del_lnk--> North Island on <!--del_lnk--> Cook Strait, the passage that separates the North and South Islands. On a clear day the snowcapped <!--del_lnk--> Kaikoura Ranges are visible to the south across the strait. To the north stretch the golden beaches of the <!--del_lnk--> Kapiti Coast. On the east the <!--del_lnk--> Rimutaka Range divides Wellington from the broad plains of the <!--del_lnk--> Wairarapa, a wine region of national acclaim.<p>Wellington is the southernmost national capital city in the world, with a <!--del_lnk--> latitude about 41°S. It is more densely populated than most other settlements in New Zealand, due to the small amount of building space available between the harbour and the surrounding hills. Because of its location in the <!--del_lnk--> roaring forties latitudes and its exposure to omnipresent winds coming through <!--del_lnk--> Cook Strait, the city is known to <!--del_lnk--> Kiwis as "Windy Wellington".<p>More than most cities, life in Wellington is dominated by its central business district. Approximately 62,000 people work in the CBD, only 4,000 fewer than work in <a href="../../wp/a/Auckland.htm" title="Auckland">Auckland</a>'s CBD, despite that city having three times Wellington's population. Wellington's cultural and nightlife venues concentrate in Courtenay Place and surroundings located in the southern part of the <!--del_lnk--> CBD, making the inner city suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Te Aro the largest entertainment destination in New Zealand.<p>Wellington has the highest average income of a <!--del_lnk--> main urban area in New Zealand and the highest percentage of people with tertiary qualifications.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12991.jpg.htm" title="Te Papa ("Our Place"), the Museum of New Zealand"><img alt="Te Papa ("Our Place"), the Museum of New Zealand" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wellington_Te_Papa_n.jpg" src="../../images/129/12991.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12991.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Te Papa ("Our Place"), the Museum of New Zealand</div>
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<p>Wellington has a reputation for its picturesque natural harbour and green hillsides adorned with tiered suburbs of colonial villas. The CBD is sited close to Lambton Harbour, an arm of Wellington Harbour. Wellington Harbour lies along an active <!--del_lnk--> geological fault, which is clearly evident on its straight western coast. The land to the west of this rises abruptly, meaning that many of Wellington's suburbs sit high above the centre of the city.<p>There is a network of bush walks and reserves maintained by the Wellington City Council and local volunteers. The Wellington region has 500 square kilometres of regional parks and forests.<p>In the east is the <!--del_lnk--> Miramar Peninsula, connected to the rest of the city by a low-lying isthmus at Rongotai, the site of <!--del_lnk--> Wellington International Airport. The narrow entrance to Wellington is directly to the east of the Miramar Peninsula, and contains the dangerous shallows of <!--del_lnk--> Barrett Reef, where many ships have been wrecked (most famously the inter-island ferry <!--del_lnk--> Wahine in <!--del_lnk--> 1968).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12999.jpg.htm" title="The wind generator at Brooklyn"><img alt="The wind generator at Brooklyn" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Windturbine.jpg" src="../../images/129/12999.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/129/12999.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The wind generator at Brooklyn</div>
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<p>On the hill west of the city centre are <!--del_lnk--> Victoria University and <!--del_lnk--> Wellington Botanic Garden. Both can be reached on a <!--del_lnk--> funicular railway, the <!--del_lnk--> Wellington Cable Car.<p>Wellington Harbour has three islands: <!--del_lnk--> Matiu/Somes Island, Makaro/Ward Island and Mokopuna. Only Matiu/Somes Island is large enough for settlement. It has been used as a quarantine station for people and animals and as an internment camp during the First and Second World Wars. It is now a conservation island, providing refuge for endangered species, much like <!--del_lnk--> Kapiti Island further up the coast. There is access during daylight hours by the <!--del_lnk--> Dominion Post Ferry.<p>The city averages 2025 hours of sunshine per annum.<p><a id="Energy" name="Energy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Energy</span></h2>
<p>The energy needs of Wellington are increasing, one likely source is from the wind, and a large farm is proposed for that purpose. The project will consist of 70 turbines with a maximum capacity of 210 MW, just a few kilometres to the south-west of Wellington CBD, between Makara Beach and Cape Terawhiti.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>The population of Wellington, including the outlying areas, is approaching 400,000. In the 2001 census, 18.5% of people were under 15, compared with 22.7% for <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. About 8.6% of people were aged 65 and over, compared with 12.1% for <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. 85.6% of people in Wellington city said they are of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> ethnic origin. Around 4.1% are <!--del_lnk--> Māori, with the remainder being of <!--del_lnk--> Pacific Islander, <!--del_lnk--> Asian or other ethnicity.<p><a id="Arts_and_culture" name="Arts_and_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Arts and culture</span></h2>
<p>Wellington is the arts and culture capital of New Zealand, and is the centre of the nation's film industry. <!--del_lnk--> Peter Jackson, Richard Taylor, and a growing team of creative professionals have managed to turn the eastern suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Miramar into one of the world's finest film-making infrastructures. Directors like <!--del_lnk--> Jane Campion and <!--del_lnk--> Vincent Ward have managed to reach the world's screens with their independent spirit. Emerging Kiwi film-makers, like <!--del_lnk--> Taika Waititi, Charlie Bleakley, <!--del_lnk--> Costa Botes and <!--del_lnk--> Jennifer Bush-Daumec, are extending the Wellington-based lineage and cinematic scope.<p>Wellington is home to <!--del_lnk--> Te Papa Tongarewa (the Museum of New Zealand), the national opera company, <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, <!--del_lnk--> City Gallery, Chamber Music New Zealand, Royal New Zealand Ballet, <!--del_lnk--> St. James' Theatre, <!--del_lnk--> Downstage Theatre, <!--del_lnk--> Bats Theatre and Arts Foundation of New Zealand.<p>The once-prosaic capital has become home to dozens of high-profile events and cultural celebration. The city now hosts a biennial International Festival of the Arts, annual International Jazz Festival, and major events such as <!--del_lnk--> Cuba Street Carnival, <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand Fringe Festival, Summer City, New Zealand Affordable Art Show, numerous film festivals, and World of <!--del_lnk--> Wearable Art. Many of the city's neighbourhoods and ethnic communities also host annual festivals, all helping transform the city into the envy of New Zealand.<p>The local music scene, on the success of bands like <!--del_lnk--> The Phoenix Foundation, <!--del_lnk--> Shihad, <!--del_lnk--> Fat Freddy's Drop, and <!--del_lnk--> The Black Seeds has become a diverse and thriving pool of talent. The New Zealand School of Music was established in 2005 through a merger of the conservatory and theory programmes at Massey University and Victoria University.<p>Poet <!--del_lnk--> Bill Manhire, director of the International Institute of Modern Letters, has turned the Creative Writing Programme at Victoria University into a forge of new literary activity. <!--del_lnk--> Te Whaea, New Zealand's university-level school of dance and drama, and tertiary institutions such as The Learning Connexion, offer training and creative development for the next generation. <!--del_lnk--> Wellington underground poets broke new ground in creative expression in the 1980s and 1990s.<p>The city's new Arts Centre, <!--del_lnk--> Toi Poneke, serves as a nexus of creative projects, collaborations, and multi-disciplinary production. Arts Programmes and Services Manager <!--del_lnk--> Eric Holowacz and a small team based in the Abel Smith Street facility have produced ambitious new initiatives such as <!--del_lnk--> Opening Notes, <!--del_lnk--> Drive by Art, the annual <!--del_lnk--> Artsplash Festival, and new <!--del_lnk--> public art projects.<p>As a capital city, Wellington is home to diplomatic missions with cultural officers ready to interface with these aspects of the City's life. In the early part of the 21st century, Wellington has confirmed its place as a vibrant centre of arts, culture, and creativity in the South Pacific.<p><a id="Sport" name="Sport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h2>
<p>Wellington is the home to:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The Hurricanes — <a href="../../wp/s/Super_14.htm" title="Super 14">Super 14</a> rugby team<li><!--del_lnk--> Wellington Lions — <!--del_lnk--> Air New Zealand Cup (formerly NPC) rugby team<li><!--del_lnk--> Wellington Firebirds - <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a> team<li><!--del_lnk--> Wellington Orcas - <!--del_lnk--> Bartercard Cup team<li><!--del_lnk--> Capital Shakers — <!--del_lnk--> The National Bank Cup netball team<li><!--del_lnk--> Team Wellington - Wellington's franchise in the <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand Football Championship<li><!--del_lnk--> Wellington Saints - The <!--del_lnk--> National Basketball League <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a> team</ul>
<p>Sporting events hosted in Wellington include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Wellington Sevens - A round of the <!--del_lnk--> IRB <!--del_lnk--> Sevens World Series. Held at the <!--del_lnk--> Westpac Stadium over a weekend every February, this <!--del_lnk--> rugby sevens tournament brings more than 25,000 visitors and contributes over $8 million to the local economy each year.<li>a <!--del_lnk--> Wellington 500 street race for <!--del_lnk--> touring cars, between 1985 and 1996.<li>the World Mountain Running Championships in 2005.</ul>
<p><a id="Notable_Wellingtonians" name="Notable_Wellingtonians"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable Wellingtonians</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ivan Bootham - novelist, short story writer, poet and composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Jane Campion — <!--del_lnk--> Oscar winning film-maker<li>Sir <!--del_lnk--> Robin Cooke, Baron Cooke of Thorndon (dec) - barrister and jurist<li><!--del_lnk--> Russell Crowe — <!--del_lnk--> Oscar-winning actor<li><!--del_lnk--> Rod Drury - technology entrepreneur<li><!--del_lnk--> Lauris Edmond (dec) — poet<li><!--del_lnk--> Peter Jackson — <!--del_lnk--> Oscar-winning film-maker<li><!--del_lnk--> Katherine Mansfield (dec) — writer<li><!--del_lnk--> Jack Marshall (dec) — former Prime Minister<li><!--del_lnk--> Anna Paquin - <!--del_lnk--> Oscar-winning actress<li><!--del_lnk--> William Hayward Pickering (dec) — electrical engineer, former head of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California<li><!--del_lnk--> Antonia Prebble - actress<li><!--del_lnk--> John Psathas - composer<li><!--del_lnk--> Jonathan Sarfati - <!--del_lnk--> chess master and author, raised in Wellington<li><!--del_lnk--> Tom Scott - cartoonist, political commentator<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Taylor — head of film prop and special effects company Weta Workshop, owned by Peter Jackson. Multiple Oscar winner.<li><!--del_lnk--> Jon Toogood — singer and guitarist for the rock band <!--del_lnk--> Shihad<li><!--del_lnk--> Tana Umaga — former captain of the <a href="../../wp/a/All_Blacks.htm" title="All Blacks">All Blacks</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Karl Urban — actor</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Welsh law</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.htm">British History</a></h3>
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<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22836.png.htm" title="Drawing of a judge from the Peniarth 28 manuscript,"><img alt="Drawing of a judge from the Peniarth 28 manuscript," height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WelshLawJudge.png" src="../../images/228/22836.png" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22836.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Drawing of a judge from the Peniarth 28 manuscript,</div>
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<p><b>Welsh law</b>, the <a href="../../wp/l/Law.htm" title="Law">law</a> of <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, was traditionally first codified by <!--del_lnk--> Hywel Dda ("Hywel the Good") during the period between 942 and 950 when he was king of most of Wales. In <!--del_lnk--> Welsh it is usually called <i>Cyfraith Hywel</i>, the Law of Hywel. The tradition states that Hywel's men adapted existing laws and some elements are probably of much greater antiquity, with points of similarity to the <!--del_lnk--> Brehon Laws of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. The earliest manuscripts which have been preserved date from the early or mid <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a>. The law was continually revised and updated, sometimes by rulers but usually by <!--del_lnk--> jurists, so that the provisions of the law in a mid thirteenth century manuscript should not be considered as evidence of what the law was in the mid <a href="../../wp/1/10th_century.htm" title="10th century">10th century</a>.<p>The laws include "The laws of the court", the laws laying down the obligations and entitlements of the king and the officers of his court and "The laws of the country" dealing with every other topic. In some versions of the laws some of the material in the laws of the country are split off into "The justices' test book" dealing with homicide, theft and the values of wild and tame animals and other items. Within each of these sections there are tracts of varying length dealing with different subjects, for example the law of women and the law of contracts. Civil law differed from most other codes of law in the rule that on a landowner's death his land was to be shared equally between his sons, legitimate and illegitimate. This caused conflict with the church, for under <!--del_lnk--> Canon law illegitimate children could not inherit.<p>Once a case came to court, the method used to come to a decision was usually by <!--del_lnk--> compurgation. Under this system the person accused or the parties to a dispute would give their version under oath, following which they had to find a number of others who would take an oath that the principal's oath could be trusted. The number of compurgators required depended on the nature of the case. The judge or judges would then come to a decision. <!--del_lnk--> Capital punishment was only prescribed for a small number of crimes. Homicide was usually dealt with by the payment of compensation to the victim's family, while theft could be punished by death only if it was theft by stealth and the thief was caught with the goods in hand; the value of the goods stolen also had to exceed four pence. Most other offences were punished by a fine.<p>Welsh law was in force in Wales until the death of <!--del_lnk--> Llywelyn the Last in <!--del_lnk--> 1282 and the <!--del_lnk--> Statute of Rhuddlan in <!--del_lnk--> 1284 which replaced Welsh criminal law with English law. Welsh law continued to be used for civil cases until the annexation of Wales to England in the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22837.png.htm" title="Mediaeval kingdoms of Wales."><img alt="Mediaeval kingdoms of Wales." height="275" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CymruMap.PNG" src="../../images/228/22837.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22837.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mediaeval kingdoms of Wales.</div>
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</script><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<p>Most of the surviving manuscripts of Welsh law start with a preamble explaining how the laws were codified by Hywel. The introduction to the Book of Blegywryd is a typical example:<dl>
<dd><i>Hywel the Good, son of Cadell, by the grace of God, king of all Wales ... summoned to him from every commote of his kingdom six men who were practised in authority and jurisprudence ... to the place called the White House on the Taf in Dyfed. ... And at the end of Lent the king selected from that assembly the twelve most skilled laymen of his men and the one most skilled scholar who was called Master Blegywryd, to form and interpret for him and for his kingdom , laws and usages ... .</i> </dl>
<p>The description of Hywel as "king of all Wales" suggests a date between 942 and Hywel's death in 950 for this council. However the Welsh laws have many points of similarity to the Brehon Laws in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and some parts probably date from long before Hywel's time. What was produced by Hywel's council was not a set of entirely new laws, rather as described in the preamble to the Book of Iorwerth:<dl>
<dd><i>And by the common counsel and agreement of the wise men who came there they examined the old laws, and some of them they allowed to continue, others they amended, others they wholly deleted, and others they laid down anew.</i></dl>
<p>The "White House on the Taf" is <!--del_lnk--> Whitland ("Hen Dy Gwyn ar Daf" in Welsh). Other kings are said to have introduced later modifications to the laws, for example <!--del_lnk--> Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, king of <!--del_lnk--> Gwynedd and <!--del_lnk--> Powys in the mid <a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th century</a>.<p>Historians are divided as to whether the story of the council at Whitland can be regarded as having a basis in fact, since there is no contemporary record in the annals of such a council. K.L. Maund suggests that:<dl>
<dd><i>it is not impossible that the association of Hywel with the law reflects more on twelfth- and thirteenth century south Welsh attempts to re-establish the importance and influence of their line in an age dominated by the princes of Gwynedd.</i></dl>
<p>On the other hand, it should be noted that the Iorwerth versions, produced in Gwynedd, have exactly the same attribution of the law to Hywel and the council at Whitland as do the southern versions.<p><a id="Manuscripts" name="Manuscripts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Manuscripts</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22838.png.htm" title="A page from the Black Book of Chirk (Peniarth 29)"><img alt="A page from the Black Book of Chirk (Peniarth 29)" height="324" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ChirkCodex.png" src="../../images/228/22838.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22838.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A page from the Black Book of Chirk (Peniarth 29)</div>
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<p>There are no existing manuscripts of law texts dating back to the time of Hywel and Welsh law was continually being revised and updated. There has been some debate among scholars as to whether the laws were originally written in Welsh or Latin. The <i>Surexit</i> memorandum in the <!--del_lnk--> Lichfield Gospels is a record of the outcome of legal proceedings dating from the <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a> and written in Welsh, and though it is not a law manual it does indicate the use of Welsh legal terms at that time. The earliest manuscripts known are Peniarth 28, written in Latin but now generally thought to be a translation of a Welsh original, and Peniarth 29, known as the "Black Book of Chirk", written in Welsh. These are thought to date from the early or mid <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a>. There are a large number of law manuscripts, written mainly in Welsh but some in Latin, written between this period and the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a>. Apart from the full compilations there are shorter versions thought to have been working copies used by judges. However they are all usually considered to fall into three Redactions, known as the Cyfnerth Redaction, the Blegywryd Redaction and the Iorwerth Redaction. The Cyfnerth Redaction, thought to be linked to the area between the <!--del_lnk--> River Wye and the <a href="../../wp/r/River_Severn.htm" title="River Severn">River Severn</a>, possibly <!--del_lnk--> Maeliennydd, includes some of the least developed law. It is thought to have been compiled in the late <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a> when this area came under the rule of <!--del_lnk--> Rhys ap Gruffydd (The Lord Rhys) of Deheubarth. The Blegywryd Redaction is associated with <!--del_lnk--> Deheubarth and shows signs of the influence of the church. The Iorwerth Redaction is thought to represent the law as modified in Gwynedd during the reign of <a href="../../wp/l/Llywelyn_the_Great.htm" title="Llywelyn the Great">Llywelyn the Great</a> in the first part of the <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a> by the jurist Iorwerth ap Madog. This is considered to be the most developed version of the law, though it does contain some archaic passages. The version in <i>Llyfr Colan</i> is thought to be a revision of Iorwerth, though also from the 13th century, and there is also the <i>Llyfr y Damweiniau</i> (possibly best translated as "The book of happenings"), a collection of case-law linked to Colan. No manuscript has survived from <!--del_lnk--> Powys, though the Iorwerth Redaction does indicate where usage in Powys differs from usage in Gwynedd.<p><a id="The_laws_of_the_court" name="The_laws_of_the_court"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The laws of the court</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22839.png.htm" title="Drawing of a falconer from Peniarth 28"><img alt="Drawing of a falconer from Peniarth 28" height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WelshLawFalconer.png" src="../../images/228/22839.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The first part of the laws deal with the rights and duties of the king and the officers of the king's court. The order of precedence is set down, first the king, then the queen and then the <i>edling</i>, the designated heir of the king. Then come the officers of the court. The Iorwerth Redaction identifies twenty-four, of whom sixteen are the king's officers and eight the queen's officers. First in rank was the captain of the household troops, then the priest of the household, then the steward followed by the chief falconer, the court justice, the chief groom and the chamberlain. A list of additional officers follows, including such officers as the groom of the rein, the porter, the bakeress and the laundress. Each officer's entitlements and obligations are listed.<p>It introduces a number of legal terms. <i>Sarhad</i> could mean an insult or injury or the payment that was due to a person in the event of an insult or injury, and this varied according to the status of the person concerned, for example the queen or the edling's <i>sarhad</i> was one third that of the king. <i><!--del_lnk--> Galanas</i> was a form of <!--del_lnk--> weregild and represented the value of a person's life in the event of a homicide and was set at three times the <i>sarhad</i>, though the <i>sarhad</i> was also payable by the killer. <i>Dirwy</i> was a fine payable for crimes and <i>camlwrw</i> a smaller fine for less serious offences, while <i>ebediw</i> was a death duty payable to the deceased's lord.<p>The origins of the various redactions are reflected in the relative position of the rulers of the Welsh kingdoms. The Iorwerth Redaction manuscripts proclaim the superiority of the king of <!--del_lnk--> Aberffraw, chief seat of the kingdom of Gwynedd, over the others, while the manuscripts from Deheubarth claim at least equality for the king of <!--del_lnk--> Dinefwr, chief seat of the southern kingdom.<p>While Welsh law lays more emphasis on the powers of the king than the Brehon Law of Ireland, this is still restricted compared to many other codes. As Moore comments:<dl>
<dd><i>Welsh law fell into the juristic category of Volksrecht ("people's law"), which did not lay great stress on royal power, as opposed to the Kaisersrecht or Königsrecht ("king's law") of both England and Scotland, where it was emphasised that both civil and common law were imposed by the state.</i></dl>
<p><a id="The_laws_of_the_country" name="The_laws_of_the_country"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The laws of the country</span></h2>
<p>The laws indicate that Welsh society was divided into three classes, the king, the <i>breyr</i> or <i>bonheddig</i>, who were the free landowners, and the <i>taeog</i> or <!--del_lnk--> villein. A fourth class was the <i>alltud</i>, a person from outside Wales who had settled there. Most of the payments due by law varied with the social status of the person concerned.<p><a id="The_laws_of_women" name="The_laws_of_women"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The laws of women</span></h3>
<p>The second part of the laws begins with "the laws of women", for example the rules governing marriage and the division of property if a married couple should separate. The position of women under Welsh law differed significantly to that of their Norman-English contemporaries. A marriage could be established in two basic ways. The normal way was that the woman would be given to a man by her kindred; the abnormal way was that the woman could elope with a man without the consent of her kindred. In this case her kindred could compel her to return if she was still a virgin, but if she was not she could not be compelled to return. If the relationship lasted for seven years she had the same entitlements as if she had been given by her kin.<p>A number of payments are connected with marriage. <i>Amobr</i> was a fee payable to the woman's lord on the loss of her virginity, whether on marriage or otherwise. <i>Cowyll</i> was a payment due to the woman from her husband on the morning after the marriage, marking her transition from virgin to married woman. <i>Agweddi</i> was the amount of the common pool of property owned by the couple which was due to the woman if the couple separated before the end of seven years. The total of the agweddi depended on the woman's status by birth, regardless of the actual size of the common pool of property. If the marriage broke up after the end of seven years, the woman was entitled to half the common pool.<p>If a woman found her husband with another woman, she was entitled to a payment of six score pence the first time and a pound the second time; on the third occasion she was entitled to divorce him. If the husband had a concubine, the wife was allowed to strike her without having to pay any compensation, even if it resulted in the concubine's death. A woman could only be beaten by her husband for three things: for giving away something which she was not entitled to give away, for being found with another man or for wishing a blemish on her husband's beard. If he beat her for any other cause, she was entitled to the payment of <i>sarhad</i>. If the husband found her with another man and beat her, he was not entitled to any further compensation. According to the law, women were not allowed to inherit land. However there were exceptions, even at an early date. A poem dated to the first half of the 11th century is an elegy for Aeddon, a landowner on Anglesey. The poet says that after his death his estate was inherited by four women who had originally been brought to Aeddon's court as captives after a raid and had found favour with him. The rule for the division of moveable property when one of a married couple died was the same for both sexes. The property was divided into two equal halves, with the surviving partner keeping one half and the dying partner being free to give bequests from the other half.<p><a id="The_Nine-tongued_ones" name="The_Nine-tongued_ones"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Nine-tongued ones</span></h3>
<p>This section is a list of nine persons whose evidence on oath is to believed, without the need for compurgators. They include a justice testifying as to what his judgment was in a case, a surety as to what the debt was for which he gave suretyship and a maiden as to her virginity.<p><a id="Surety_and_contracts" name="Surety_and_contracts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Surety and contracts</span></h3>
<p>The section on surety lays down the rules if a person acts as <i>mach</i> or <!--del_lnk--> surety, for example for a debt, and gives the provisions for various cases, such as where the debtor refuses to pay or denies the debt and where the surety denies the suretyship or contests the sum involved. Rules are also given for the giving and forfeiting of gages. Another aspect is <i>amod</i> or <!--del_lnk--> contract, usually made by the two parties calling <i>amodwyr</i> who are witnesses to prove the terms agreed by the parties. It is laid down that<dl>
<dd><i>An amod breaks a rule of law. Though an amod be made contrary to law, it is necessary to keep it.</i></dl>
<p>In what is thought to be an archaic survival in some versions of Iorwerth it is stated that women are not entitled to act as sureties or to give sureties. Later versions of this rule in Iorwerth state that women were entitled to give sureties, and could therefore enter into contracts, though they were still not allowed to act as sureties. In Colan, Cyfnerth and some of the Latin texts women could give sureties and could under certain circumstances act as sureties. This appears to indicate a gradual improvement in the legal position of women in this respect.<p><a id="Land_law" name="Land_law"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Land law</span></h3>
<p>This is followed by land law, setting out the procedure in the event of rival claims for ownership of a piece of land. The court was held on the land itself, with both claimants bringing forward witnesses to support their claims. In the Iorwerth Redaction, it is stated that the claimants are entitled to the assistance of a <i>cyngaws</i> and a <i>canllaw</i>, both types of advocate though the difference between them is not explained in the texts. If both claims were adjudged equal in merit, the law allowed for the land to be shared equally between the two claimants.<p>On the death of a landowner the principle is that the land should be shared equally between his sons, a system similar to the <!--del_lnk--> gavelkind found in <!--del_lnk--> Kent and other parts of England. The youngest son was to divide the land and the other brothers to choose their portions in turn. Illegitimate sons were entitled to an equal share with the legitimate sons, provided they had been acknowledged by the father. This was the provision which differed most from Canon law; as the Iorwerth text puts it:<dl>
<dd><i>The law of the church says that no-one is entitled to patrimony save the father's eldest son by his wedded wife. The law of Hywel adjudges it to the youngest son as to the eldest, and judges that the father's sin and his illegality should not be set against the son for his patrimony.</i></dl>
<p><i>Dadannudd</i> is also described; this is the claim by a son of land which previously belonged to his father. The right of the landowner to alienate the land was restricted; this was only allowed under certain circumstances with the consent of his heirs. With the consent of the lord and the kindred, the landowner could use a system known as <i>prid</i>. The land would be made over to a third party, known as a <i>pridwr</i> for a period of four years, and if the land had not been redeemed by the owner or his heirs at the end of the four years, the prid could them be renewed for four years at a time without further limitations. After the lapse of four generations, the land passed pernanently to the new owner.<p><a id="The_justices.27_test_book" name="The_justices.27_test_book"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The justices' test book</span></h2>
<p>This is only a separate section in the Iorwerth Redaction; in the other versions the material is incorporated in the "Laws of the country" section. It is a compilation of the rules for dealing with the "Three Columns of Law", namely cases of homicide, theft and fire, and "The Value of Wild and Tame". There are also appendices dealing with joint ploughing and corn damage by stock.<p><a id="The_Three_Columns_of_Law:_homicide.2C_theft_and_fire" name="The_Three_Columns_of_Law:_homicide.2C_theft_and_fire"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Three Columns of Law: homicide, theft and fire</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Homicide was regarded as an offence against the family of the victim rather than against the king. It was normally dealt with by the payment of <i>galanas</i> by the killer and his family to the family of the deceased. The killing was considered more serious if, for example, it was from ambush, in which case double the standard <i>galanas</i> was payable. The Nine Abetments of Homicide are also described; these include pointing out the person who is to be killed and giving counsel to the killer. A person who witnessed a killing and failed to protect the victim was also held liable in law. The punishment for a person found guilty of one of these abetments was a fine, which went to the lord rather than the kin of the victim. A killer by poison could be put to death by the lord.<p><!--del_lnk--> Robbery by force was considered less serious than theft by stealth, the latter being one of the few crimes for which the death penalty was prescribed in certain cases. For the death penalty to apply, the thief had to be caught with the goods in hand and the goods had to be of the value of four pence or more. A thief could also be <!--del_lnk--> banished, and would be liable to the death penalty if found in the country after having been sentenced to banishment. However there were exceptions in the case of theft, for example in the Book of Blegywryd:<dl>
<dd><i>a necessitous person who has traversed three settlements, and nine houses in each settlement, without obtaining either alms to relieve him or provisions, though he may be caught with stolen eatables in his possession, he is free by law</i>.</dl>
<p>The Nine Abetments of Theft are listed, for example receiving part of the stolen property. Again these are punished by a <i>dirwy</i>, the money going to the lord. The same applies to the Nine Abetments of Fire.<p><a id="The_value_of_wild_and_tame" name="The_value_of_wild_and_tame"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The value of wild and tame</span></h3>
<p>"The value of wild and tame" gives the values of various animals, for example:<dl>
<dd><i>the value of a cat, fourpence. The value of a kitten from the night it is born until it opens its eyes, a penny, and from then until it kills mice, two pence, and after it kills mice, four pence ...</i></dl>
<dl>
<dd><i>A guard dog, if it is killed more than nine paces from the door is not paid for. If it is killed within the nine paces, it is worth twenty-four pence</i></dl>
<p>Values are also given for trees, equipment and parts of the human body. The value of a part of the body was fixed, thus a person causing the king to lose an eye would pay the same as if he had caused a villein to lose an eye. However he would also have to pay <i>sarhad</i>, and this would be far greater for the king than for the villein.<p><a id="Administration_of_the_law" name="Administration_of_the_law"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administration of the law</span></h2>
<p>The main administrative divisions of mediaeval Wales were the <!--del_lnk--> cantrefs, each of which was divided into several <!--del_lnk--> commotes. These were of particular importance in the administration of the law. Each cantref had its own court, which was an assembly of the "<i>uchelwyr</i>", the main landowners of the cantref. This would be presided over by the king if he happened to be present in the cantref, or if he was not present by his representative. Apart from the <!--del_lnk--> judges there would be a clerk, an usher and sometimes two professional pleaders. The cantref court dealt with crimes, the determination of boundaries and matters concerning inheritance. The commote court later took over most of the functions of the cantref court. The judges (Welsh <i>ynad</i>) in Gwynedd were professionals, while in south Wales the professional judges worked together with the free landowners of the district, all of whom were entitled to act as judges.<p>A person accused of a crime could deny the charge by denying it on oath and finding a certain number of persons prepared to go on oath that they believed his or her own oath, a system known as <!--del_lnk--> compurgation. The number of persons required to swear depended on the gravity of the alleged crime; for example denying a homicide could require 300 compurgators, while if a woman accused a man of rape, the man would have to find 50 men prepared to swear to his innocence. For lesser crimes a smaller number would be sufficient. Witnesses could also be called, including eye-witnessess of the crime (<i>gwybyddiaid</i>). A witness who has once been proved to have given false testimony on oath was barred from ever appearing as a witness again.<p>The task of the judge, having considered the case, was to determine what sort of proof was appropriate and which of the parties was to be required to produce proof, whether by the calling of witnesses, by compurgation or by pledges, then in the light of the proof to adjudicate on the case and impose the appropriate penalty in accordance with the law if a penalty was called for.<p>According to the Iorwerth Redaction, a prospective judge had to be at least twenty-five years of age and his legal knowledge has to be approved by the Court Justice:<dl>
<dd><i>... when his teacher sees that he is worthy, let him send him to the Court Justice, and it is for the Court Justice to test him, and if he finds him worthy, it is for him to send him to the Lord and it is for the Lord to grant him justiceship ... And it is for him to give twenty-four pence to the Court Justice as his fee.</i></dl>
<p>It was possible to appeal against a judge's decision, and the apellant could demand that the judge show the authority of a book for his judgment. The consequences for a judge could be serious if his judgement was reversed, involving a financial penalty equivalent to the value of his tongue as laid down in the values of the parts of the body. He would also be banned from acting as a judge in future.<p><a id="Welsh_law_and_Welsh_nationality" name="Welsh_law_and_Welsh_nationality"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Welsh law and Welsh nationality</span></h2>
<p>Wales was divided into a number of kingdoms and only at times was a strong ruler able to unite these into a single realm. It is frequently stated that Welsh law demanded the splitting of a kingdom between all the ruler's sons, but this is not strictly correct. All the Redactions mention the <i>edling</i>, the heir to the throne, chosen by the king from among his sons, including illegitimate sons, and brothers. Each of the other sons was entitled to a share of land within the kingdom, a similar system to <!--del_lnk--> appanage, but the laws do not prescribe the division of the kingdom itself, though this was frequently done to avoid civil war. The Law of Hywel was one of the most important unifying factors, applied in all parts of Wales with only minor variations. In the section on the laws as applied to an <i>alltud</i>, a foreigner coming to live in the kingdom, only a person from outside Wales was an <i>alltud</i>; a person from Deheubarth moving to Gwynedd, for example, was not an <i>alltud</i>.<p>Welsh law usually applied in the <!--del_lnk--> Welsh Marches as well as the areas ruled by Welsh princes. In the event of a dispute, the first argument in the border regions might be about which law should apply. For example when <!--del_lnk--> Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn was in dispute with <!--del_lnk--> Roger Mortimer about some lands, it was Gruffydd who wanted the case heard under English law and Mortimer who wanted Welsh law to apply. The matter went to the royal justices, who decided in 1281 that since the lands concerned lay in Wales, Welsh law should be used.<p>Welsh law came to be a particularly important badge of nationhood in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, particularly during the struggle between Llywelyn the Last and King <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_I_of_England.htm" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a> in the second half of the thirteenth century. Llywelyn stated:<dl>
<dd><i>Each province under the empire of the lord king has its own laws and customs according to the peculiarities and uses of those parts where it is situated, as do the Gascons in Gascony, the Scots in Scotland, the Irish in Ireland and the English in England; and this conduces rather to the glory of the Crown of the lord king than to its degradation. And so the Prince seeks that he may be able to have his own Welsh law ..</i>.</dl>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a>, <!--del_lnk--> John Peckham when involved in negotiations with Llywelyn on behalf of King Edward in 1282 sent Llywelyn a letter in which he denounced Welsh law, stating that King Hywel must have been inspired by the devil. Peckham had presumably consulted the Peniarth 28 manuscript which was apparently held in the library at <!--del_lnk--> St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury at this time. One of the features to which the English church objected was the equal share of land given to illegitimate sons. Following Llywelyn's death the <!--del_lnk--> Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 introduced English criminal law into Wales: "in thefts, larcenies, burnings, murders,manslaughters and manifest and notorious robberies — we will that they shall use the laws of England". Nearly two hundred years after Welsh law ceased to be used for criminal cases, the poet Dafydd ab Edmwnd (fl. <!--del_lnk--> 1450–<!--del_lnk--> 80) wrote an elegy for his friend, the harpist Siôn Eos, who had accidentally killed a man in a tavern brawl in <!--del_lnk--> Chirk. Siôn Eos was hanged, and Dafydd ab Edmwnd laments that he could not have been tried under the more humane Law of Hywel rather than "the law of London".<p>Welsh law was still used for civil cases such as land inheritance, contracts, sureties and similar matters, though with changes, for example illegitimate sons could no longer claim part of the inheritance. The <a href="../../wp/l/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%25E2%2580%25931542.htm" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542</a> brought Wales entirely under English law; when the 1535 Act declares the intention <i>utterly to extirpe alle and singular sinister usages and customs</i> belonging to Wales, Welsh law was probably the main target.<p><a id="Welsh_law_after_the_Laws_in_Wales_Acts" name="Welsh_law_after_the_Laws_in_Wales_Acts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Welsh law after the Laws in Wales Acts</span></h2>
<p>The last recorded case to be heard under Welsh law was a case concerning land in <!--del_lnk--> Carmarthenshire in 1540, four years after the 1536 Act had stipulated that only English law was to be used in Wales. Even in the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> in some parts of Wales there were unofficial meetings where points of dispute were decided in the presence of arbiters using principles laid down in Welsh law.<p>Antiquarian interest in the laws continued, and in 1730 a translation by <!--del_lnk--> William Wotton was published. In 1841 Aneurin Owen edited an edition of the laws entitled <i>Ancient laws and institutions of Wales</i>, and was the first to identify the various Redactions, which he named the "Gwentian Code" (Cyfnerth), the "Demetian Code" (Blegywryd) and the "Venedotian Code" (Iorwerth). His edition was followed by a number of other studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<p>Carmarthenshire County Council has set up the Hywel Dda Centre in Whitland, with an interpretative centre and garden to commemorate the original council.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_law"</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15805.jpg.htm" title="Wernher von Braun stands at his desk in the Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama in May 1964, with models of rockets developed and in progress."><img alt="Wernher von Braun stands at his desk in the Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama in May 1964, with models of rockets developed and in progress." height="308" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wernher_von_Braun.jpg" src="../../images/158/15805.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Dr. <b>Wernher Magnus Maximilian Freiherr</b> <b>von Braun</b> (<!--del_lnk--> March 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1912 – <!--del_lnk--> June 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1977) was one of the leading figures in the development of <!--del_lnk--> rocket technology in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. The German <!--del_lnk--> scientist who led Germany's rocket development program (<!--del_lnk--> V-2) before and during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, entered the United States at the end of the war through the then-secret <!--del_lnk--> Operation Paperclip. He became a naturalized <!--del_lnk--> U.S. citizen and worked on the American <!--del_lnk--> ICBM program before joining <!--del_lnk--> NASA, where he served as director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Centre and the chief architect of the <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> launch vehicle, the superbooster that propelled the United States to the Moon.<!--del_lnk--> He is generally regarded as the <!--del_lnk--> father of the <a href="../../wp/s/Space_Race.htm" title="Space Race">United States space program</a> while also remembered as head of the team that designed the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> <!--del_lnk--> V-2 rockets that killed more than 7,000 people in Britain in 1944 and 1945.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Wernher von Braun was born in <!--del_lnk--> Wirsitz, <!--del_lnk--> Province of Posen (now <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>), second of 3 sons with an impressive pedigree. His father, the conservative politician <!--del_lnk--> Lord Magnus von Braun (1877-1972), served as a Minister of Agriculture in the Federal Cabinet during the <a href="../../wp/w/Weimar_Republic.htm" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>. His mother, Emmy von Quistorp (1876?-1959) through both her parents could trace ancestry to medieval European <!--del_lnk--> royalty, including King <!--del_lnk--> Philip III of France, King <!--del_lnk--> Valdemar I of Denmark, King <!--del_lnk--> Robert III of Scotland and King <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_III_of_England.htm" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a>. Upon Wernher von Braun's <!--del_lnk--> Lutheran <!--del_lnk--> confirmation, his mother gave him a <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, and he discovered a passion for <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and the realm of <!--del_lnk--> space. When, as a result of the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, Wirsitz became part of <!--del_lnk--> Poland in 1920, his family, like many other German families, moved. They settled in <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> where at first von Braun did not do well in <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> until he acquired a copy of the book <i><!--del_lnk--> Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen</i> (<i>The Rocket into Interplanetary Space</i>) by rocket pioneer <!--del_lnk--> Hermann Oberth. From then on he applied himself at school in order to understand physics and mathematics. One anecdote from this period is the time the 12-year-old von Braun, when inspired by speed records established by <!--del_lnk--> Max Valier and <!--del_lnk--> Fritz von Opel, caused a major disruption by firing off a toy wagon to which he had attached a number of <!--del_lnk--> firecrackers. The young von Braun was taken into custody by the local police until his father came to collect him.<p>In 1930 von Braun attended the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Institute of Technology where he joined the <i><!--del_lnk--> Verein für Raumschiffahrt</i> (VfR, the "Spaceflight Society") and assisted Oberth in liquid-fueled rocket motor tests. After receiving his degree he commenced postgraduate studies at <!--del_lnk--> Technical University of Berlin, earning a <!--del_lnk--> doctorate in physics (<!--del_lnk--> aerospace engineering) on <!--del_lnk--> July 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1934.<p><a id="German_career" name="German_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">German career</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_rocketeer" name="The_rocketeer"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The rocketeer</span></h3>
<p>While von Braun was working on his doctorate, an artillery captain, <!--del_lnk--> Walter Dornberger, arranged an Ordnance Department research grant for him, and von Braun then worked next to Dornberger's existing solid-fuel rocket test site at <!--del_lnk--> Kummersdorf. He received his doctorate two years later and by the end of 1934 his group had successfully launched two rockets that rose to heights of 2.2 and 3.5 <!--del_lnk--> kilometres.<p>At the time, <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> was highly interested in American physicist <!--del_lnk--> Robert H. Goddard's research. Before <!--del_lnk--> 1939, German scientists occasionally directly contacted Goddard with technical questions. After that, things got kind of tense. Wernher von Braun used Goddard's plans from various journals and incorporated them into building the A-4 series of rockets--better known as the V-2.. In <!--del_lnk--> 1963, von Braun reflected on the history of rocketry, and said of Goddard's work: "His rockets ... may have been rather crude by present-day standards, but they blazed the trail and incorporated many features used in our most modern rockets and space vehicles" <!--del_lnk--> . Goddard confirmed his work was used by von Braun when, after the war ended, Goddard inspected captured German V-2s, and recognized many components which he invented.<p>There were no German rocket societies since the collapse of the VfR, and civilian rocket tests had been forbidden by the new <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi regime</a>. Only military development was possible and to this end a larger facility was erected at the village of <!--del_lnk--> Peenemünde in northern Germany on the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>. This location was chosen partly on the recommendation of von Braun's mother, who recalled her father's duck-hunting expeditions there. Dornberger became military commander at Peenemünde and von Braun was technical director. In collaboration with the <a href="../../wp/l/Luftwaffe.htm" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a>, the Peenemünde group developed liquid-fuel rocket engines for aircraft and <!--del_lnk--> jet-assisted takeoffs. They also developed the long-range A-4 <!--del_lnk--> ballistic missile (later renamed the <!--del_lnk--> V-2) and the <!--del_lnk--> supersonic <!--del_lnk--> Wasserfall <!--del_lnk--> anti-aircraft missile.<p>In November 1937 (other sources: <!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1932) von Braun joined the <!--del_lnk--> Nazi Party. An <!--del_lnk--> OMGUS (Office of the Military Government - <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>) document dated <!--del_lnk--> April 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1947 states that von Braun joined the SS (<!--del_lnk--> Schutzstaffel) horseback riding school in 1933, then the Nazi Party on <!--del_lnk--> May 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1937 and became an officer in the SS from May 1940 to the end of the war.<p>Amongst his comments about his Nazi membership von Braun has said:<blockquote>
<p><i>"I was officially demanded to join the National Socialist Party. At this time (1937) I was already technical director of the Army Rocket Centre at Peenemünde ... My refusal to join the party would have meant that I would have to abandon the work of my life. Therefore, I decided to join. My membership in the party did not involve any political activities ... in Spring 1940, one SS-<!--del_lnk--> Standartenführer (SS Colonel) Müller ... looked me up in my office at Peenemünde and told me that <!--del_lnk--> Reichsführer-SS <!--del_lnk--> Heinrich Himmler had sent him with the order to urge me to join the SS. I called immediately on my military superior ... Major-General W. Dornberger. He informed me that ... if I wanted to continue our mutual work, I had no alternative but to join."</i></blockquote>
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<p>That claim has been often disputed because in 1940 the SS had shown no interest in Peenemünde yet. Also, the assertion that persons in von Braun's position were pressured to join the Nazi party, let alone the SS, have been disputed. Braun claimed to have worn the SS uniform only once <!--del_lnk--> . He began as an <!--del_lnk--> Untersturmführer (Second Lieutenant) and was promoted three times by Himmler, the last time in June 1943 to SS-<!--del_lnk--> Sturmbannführer (<!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht Major).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15806.jpg.htm" title="A4 production in the Mittelwerk 1945."><img alt="A4 production in the Mittelwerk 1945." height="154" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dora_Mittelbau_A4_Fertigung_1945_b1.jpg" src="../../images/158/15806.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15806.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A4 production in the <!--del_lnk--> Mittelwerk 1945.</div>
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<p>In November 1942 <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> approved the production of the A-4 as a "vengeance weapon" and the group developed the A-4 to rain explosives on <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>. Twenty-two months after Hitler ordered it into production, the first combat A-4, now renamed the <!--del_lnk--> V-2 ("Vergeltungswaffe 2", "Retaliation/Vengeance Weapon 2"), was launched toward <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, on <!--del_lnk--> September 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1944.<p>SS General <!--del_lnk--> Hans Kammler, who as an <!--del_lnk--> engineer had constructed several <!--del_lnk--> concentration camps including <!--del_lnk--> Auschwitz, had a reputation for brutality and had originated the idea of using concentration camp prisoners as <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slave</a> laborers in the rocket program. <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Rudolph, chief engineer of the V-2 rocket factory at Peenemünde, endorsed this idea in April 1943 when a labor shortage developed. More people died building the V-2 rockets than were killed by it as a weapon. Von Braun admitted visiting the plant at <!--del_lnk--> Mittelwerk on many occasions, and called conditions at the plant "repulsive", but claimed never to have witnessed firsthand any deaths or beatings, although it became clear to him that deaths had occurred by 1944 <!--del_lnk--> . He denied ever visiting the <!--del_lnk--> Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp itself.<p>Adam Cabala reported:<blockquote>
<p><i>"[...] the German scientists led by Prof. Wernher von Braun also saw everything that went on every day. When they walked along the corridors, they saw the prisoners' drudgery, their exhausting work and their ordeal. During his frequent attendance in Dora, Prof. Wernher von Braun never once protested against this cruelty and brutality."</i></blockquote>
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<p><i>"On a little area beside the clinic shack you could see piles of prisoners every day who had not survived the workload and had been tortured to death by the vindictive guards. [...] But Prof. Wernher von Braun just walked past them, so close that he almost touched the bodies."</i> (Ref 6)</blockquote>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1944, von Braun wrote a letter (Ref 7) to Albin Sawatzki, manager of the V-2 production, admitting that he personally picked labor slaves from the <!--del_lnk--> Buchenwald concentration camp, who, he admitted 25 years later in an interview, had been in a "pitiful shape".<p>In <i>Wernher von Braun: Crusader for Space</i> numerous quotes from von Braun show he was aware of the conditions, but felt completely unable to change them. From a visit to Mittelwerk, von Braun is quoted by a friend:<blockquote>
<p><i>"It is hellish. My spontaneous reaction was to talk to one of the SS guards, only to be told with unmistakable harshness that I should mind my own business, or find myself in the same striped fatigues!... I realized that any attempt of reasoning on humane grounds would be utterly futile." (Page 44)</i></blockquote>
<p><a id="Arrest_by_the_Nazi_regime" name="Arrest_by_the_Nazi_regime"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Arrest by the Nazi regime</span></h3>
<p>There are three different versions of von Braun's arrest. <!--del_lnk--> André Sellier, a French historian and survivor of the <!--del_lnk--> Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp, offers as good an explanation as any. Himmler called von Braun, an SS officer, to come to his <!--del_lnk--> Hochwald HQ in <!--del_lnk--> East Prussia sometime in February 1944. To increase his power-base within the Nazi régime, Heinrich Himmler was conspiring to use Kammler to wrest control of all German armament programs, including the V-2 program at Peenemünde. He therefore recommended that von Braun work more closely with Kammler to solve the problems of the V-2, but von Braun claimed to have replied that the problems were merely technical and he was confident that they would be solved with Dornberger's assistance.<p>Apparently von Braun had been under <!--del_lnk--> SD surveillance since October 1943 and a report on him and his colleagues <!--del_lnk--> Riedel and <!--del_lnk--> Gröttrup was being prepared. In it von Braun and his colleagues were said to have expressed regret at an engineer's house one evening that they were not working on a spaceship and that they felt the war was not going well (a 'defeatist' attitude). A young female dentist later denounced them for their comments and, combined with Himmler's false charges that von Braun was a <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">Communist</a> sympathizer and had attempted to sabotage the V-2 program, this led to his arrest. Kammler, highly dedicated to Himmler, was also instrumental in von Braun's arrest by the <!--del_lnk--> Gestapo.<p>The unsuspecting von Braun was arrested on <!--del_lnk--> March 22 (or <!--del_lnk--> March 14<!--del_lnk--> ) 1944 and was taken to a Gestapo cell in <!--del_lnk--> Stettin (now Szczecin, Poland), where he was imprisoned for two weeks without knowing the charges leveled against him. It was only through the <!--del_lnk--> Abwehr in Berlin that Dornberger was able to obtain von Braun's conditional release and <!--del_lnk--> Albert Speer, Reichsminister for Munitions and War Production, convinced Hitler to release von Braun so that the V-2 program could continue.<p><a id="Surrender_to_the_Americans" name="Surrender_to_the_Americans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Surrender to the Americans</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Soviet Army was about 160 km from <!--del_lnk--> Peenemünde in the spring of 1945 when von Braun assembled his planning staff and asked them to decide how and to whom they should surrender. Afraid of the Soviet cruelty to prisoners of war, von Braun and his staff decided to try to surrender to the Americans. After using forged papers to steal a train, von Braun led 500 people through war-torn Germany toward the American lines. The <!--del_lnk--> SS had meanwhile been issued with orders to kill the German engineers and destroy their records. The engineers, however, had hidden these in a mineshaft and continued to evade their own troops. Upon finding an American private, von Braun's brother and fellow rocket engineer, Magnus, greeted him with the words "My name is Magnus von Braun. My brother invented the V-2. We want to surrender." Following the surrender, the American command realized the importance of the engineers and immediately went to Peenemünde and <!--del_lnk--> Nordhausen to capture the remaining V-2s and their parts before destroying both sites with explosives. Over 300 train-car loads of spare V-2 parts ultimately found their way to America. Much of von Braun's production team, however, was captured by the Russians. The V-2 rocket plans that had been hidden near <!--del_lnk--> Bad Sachsa in Germany were later recovered by members of the US <!--del_lnk--> 332nd Engineer General Service Regiment.<p><a id="American_career" name="American_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">American career</span></h2>
<p><a id="U.S._Army_career" name="U.S._Army_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">U.S. Army career</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1945, <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Secretary of State <!--del_lnk--> Cordell Hull approved the transfer of von Braun and his specialists to America. Since the paperwork of those Germans selected for transfer to the United States was indicated by paperclips, von Braun and his colleagues became part of the mission known as <!--del_lnk--> Operation Paperclip, an operation that resulted in the employment of many German scientists who were formerly considered as war criminals or security threats (like von Braun) by the U.S. Army <!--del_lnk--> <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15807.jpg.htm" title="Walt Disney and Wernher von Braun, shown in this 1954 photo, collaborated on a series of three educational films."><img alt="Walt Disney and Wernher von Braun, shown in this 1954 photo, collaborated on a series of three educational films." height="317" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Disneyandvonbraun.jpg" src="../../images/158/15807.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15807.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/w/Walt_Disney.htm" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a> and Wernher von Braun, shown in this 1954 photo, collaborated on a series of three educational films.</div>
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<p>The first seven technicians arrived in the United States at <!--del_lnk--> New Castle Army Air Base, just south of <!--del_lnk--> Wilmington, Delaware, on <!--del_lnk--> September 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1945. They were then flown to <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a> and taken by boat to the <!--del_lnk--> Army Intelligence Service post at <!--del_lnk--> Fort Strong in Boston Harbour. Later, with the exception of von Braun, the men were transferred to <!--del_lnk--> Aberdeen Proving Ground in <!--del_lnk--> Maryland to sort out the Peenemünde documents. These would be the documents that would enable the scientists to continue their rocketry experiments.<p>Finally, von Braun and his remaining Peenemünde staff were transferred to their new home at <!--del_lnk--> Fort Bliss, Texas, a large Army installation just north of <!--del_lnk--> El Paso. While there they trained military, industrial and university personnel in the intricacies of rockets and guided missiles and helped to refurbish, assemble and launch a number of V-2s that had been shipped from Germany to the <!--del_lnk--> White Sands Proving Grounds in <!--del_lnk--> New Mexico. They also continued to study the future potential of rockets for military and research applications. Since they were not permitted to leave Fort Bliss without military escort, von Braun and his colleagues began to refer to themselves only half-jokingly as "PoPs", "Prisoners of Peace".<p>During his stay at Fort Bliss von Braun mailed a marriage proposal to 18-year-old Maria von Quistorp. On <!--del_lnk--> March 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1947, having received permission to go back to Germany and return with his bride, he married her in a Lutheran church in <!--del_lnk--> Landshut, Germany. In December 1948, the von Brauns' first daughter, Iris, was born at Fort Bliss Army Hospital. In total, the von Brauns had three children: Iris, Margrit and Peter.<p>In 1950, von Braun and his team were transferred to <!--del_lnk--> Huntsville, Alabama, his home for the next twenty years. Between 1950 and 1956, von Braun led the Army's rocket development team at <!--del_lnk--> Redstone Arsenal, resulting in the <!--del_lnk--> Redstone rocket. In 1955 von Braun became a <!--del_lnk--> naturalized citizen of the United States.<p>Still dreaming of a world in which rockets would be used for <a href="../../wp/s/Space_exploration.htm" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>, in 1952 von Braun published his concept of a <a href="../../wp/s/Space_station.htm" title="Space station">space station</a> in a <i><!--del_lnk--> Collier's Weekly</i> magazine series of articles entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> Man Will Conquer Space Soon!</i> These articles were illustrated by the space artist <!--del_lnk--> Chesley Bonestell and were influential in spreading his ideas. The space-station would have a diameter of 250 feet (76 m), <!--del_lnk--> orbit at a height of 1075 miles (1730 km), spin to provide <!--del_lnk--> artificial gravity and provide a platform for <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">lunar</a> expeditions. In the hope that its involvement would bring about greater public interest in the future of the space program, von Braun also began working with the <!--del_lnk--> Disney studios as a <!--del_lnk--> technical director, initially for three television films about space exploration.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15808.jpg.htm" title="Director Wernher von Braun shows President Kennedy around the Army Ballistic Missile Agency in 1963."><img alt="Director Wernher von Braun shows President Kennedy around the Army Ballistic Missile Agency in 1963." height="277" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kennedy_vonbraun_19may63_02.jpg" src="../../images/158/15808.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15808.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Director Wernher von Braun shows <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">President Kennedy</a> around the <!--del_lnk--> Army Ballistic Missile Agency in 1963.</div>
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<p>As Director of the Development Operations Division of the <!--del_lnk--> Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), von Braun's team then developed the <!--del_lnk--> Jupiter-C, a modified Redstone rocket. The Jupiter-C successfully launched the West's first satellite, <!--del_lnk--> Explorer 1, on <!--del_lnk--> January 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1958. This event signaled the birth of America's space program.<p>Despite the work on the Redstone rocket, the twelve years from 1945 to 1957 were probably some of the most frustrating for von Braun and his colleagues. In the Soviet Union <!--del_lnk--> Sergei Korolev and his team plowed ahead with several new rocket designs and the <!--del_lnk--> Sputnik program, while the American government was not very interested in von Braun's work or views and only embarked on a very modest rocket-building program. In the meantime the press tended to dwell on von Braun's past as a member of the SS and the <!--del_lnk--> slave labor used to build his V-2 rockets. It was not until 1957 and the launch of <a href="../../wp/s/Sputnik_1.htm" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> that America realized how far it lagged behind the Soviet Union in the emerging <a href="../../wp/s/Space_Race.htm" title="Space Race">Space Race</a>. After the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Navy's attempt at building a rocket to lift satellites into orbit resulted in the very unreliable <!--del_lnk--> Vanguard, American authorities recognized they needed von Braun and his team's experience, so quickly had them transferred to NASA.<p><a id="NASA_career" name="NASA_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">NASA career</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15809.jpg.htm" title="Wernher von Braun, with the F-1 engines of the Saturn V first stage."><img alt="Wernher von Braun, with the F-1 engines of the Saturn V first stage." height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:S-IC_engines_and_Von_Braun.jpg" src="../../images/158/15809.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15809.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wernher von Braun, with the <!--del_lnk--> F-1 engines of the <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> first stage.</div>
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<p>NASA was established by law on <!--del_lnk--> July 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1958. One day later, the 50th Redstone rocket was successfully launched from <a href="../../wp/j/Johnston_Atoll.htm" title="Johnston Atoll">Johnston Atoll</a> in the south Pacific as part of <!--del_lnk--> Operation Hardtack. Two years later NASA opened the new <!--del_lnk--> Marshall Space Flight Centre in Huntsville, Alabama and transferred von Braun and his development team there from the ABMA at Redstone Arsenal. Presiding from July 1960 to February 1970, von Braun became the Centre's first Director.<p>The Marshall Centre's first major program was development of the <!--del_lnk--> Saturn rockets to carry heavy <!--del_lnk--> payloads into and beyond <!--del_lnk--> Earth orbit. Wernher von Braun's dream to help <!--del_lnk--> mankind set foot on the <a href="../../wp/m/Moon.htm" title="Moon">Moon</a> became a reality on <!--del_lnk--> July 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1969 when a Marshall-developed <a href="../../wp/s/Saturn_V.htm" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> rocket launched the crew of <i><a href="../../wp/a/Apollo_11.htm" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a></i> at the start of its historic eight-day mission. Over the course of the <!--del_lnk--> Apollo program Saturn V rockets enabled six teams of astronauts to reach the surface of the Moon. At the time of the first moon-landing von Braun publicly expressed his optimism that the Saturn rocket would continue to be developed, advocating manned missions to <a href="../../wp/m/Mars.htm" title="Mars">Mars</a> in the 1980s based on the Saturn V.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15810.jpg.htm" title="Still with his rocket models, von Braun is pictured in his new office at NASA headquarters in 1970."><img alt="Still with his rocket models, von Braun is pictured in his new office at NASA headquarters in 1970." height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:19700202-wernher-von-braun-nasa.jpg" src="../../images/158/15810.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15810.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Still with his rocket models, von Braun is pictured in his new office at NASA headquarters in 1970.</div>
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<p>During the late 1960s, von Braun played an instrumental role in the development of the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Space & Rocket Centre in Huntsville. The desk from which he enabled America's entry in the Space Race remains on display there.<p>In 1970, von Braun and his family relocated from Huntsville to <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> when he was assigned the post of NASA's Deputy Associate Administrator for Planning at NASA Headquarters. However, with the truncation of the Apollo program, von Braun retired from NASA in June 1972, as it became evident that his and NASA's visions for future U.S. space flight projects were different.<p><a id="Career_after_NASA" name="Career_after_NASA"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Career after NASA</span></h3>
<p>After leaving NASA, von Braun became a vice-president of <!--del_lnk--> Fairchild Industries in <!--del_lnk--> Germantown, Maryland, where he helped establish and promote the <!--del_lnk--> National Space Institute, a precursor of the present-day <!--del_lnk--> National Space Society. In 1976 he became scientific consultant to <!--del_lnk--> Lutz Kayser; the <!--del_lnk--> CEO of <!--del_lnk--> OTRAG; and a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Daimler-Benz <!--del_lnk--> board of directors. He was frequently asked to speak at universities and colleges. Von Braun was eager to cultivate interest in human spaceflight and rocketry, particularly with students and a new generation of engineers. On one such visit to a small college in Pennsylvania in 1974, Von Braun revealed a more personal, down-to-earth side of himself as a man in his early 60's, beyond the public persona most saw, including an all-too-human allergy to feather pillows and a subtle, if not humorous disdain for some rock music of the era.<p>In 1976 von Braun learned he had <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. Despite surgery, the cancer progressed, forcing him to retire from Fairchild on <!--del_lnk--> December 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1976. Von Braun sustained an injury from a crash and unknown to him started to bleed internally. By the time his family convinced him to go to the hospital it was too late to stop the bleeding. On <!--del_lnk--> June 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1977, Wernher von Braun died in <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, Virginia at the age of 65. He is buried there in the Ivy Hill Cemetery<!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Honors" name="Honors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Honours</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> National Medal of Science in <!--del_lnk--> 1975</ul>
<p><a id="Posthumous_recognition" name="Posthumous_recognition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Posthumous recognition</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Apollo space program director Sam Phillips was quoted as saying that he did not think that America would have reached the moon as quickly as it did without von Braun's help. Later, after discussing it with colleagues, he amended this to say that he did not believe America would have reached the moon at all.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> von Braun crater on the moon was so named by the <!--del_lnk--> IAU in recognition of von Braun's contribution to space exploration and technology.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Von Braun Civic Centre (built 1975) is named in von Braun's honour.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_1500_and_before_including_Roman_Britain.htm">British History 1500 and before (including Roman Britain)</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<p><b>Wessex</b> was one of the seven major <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (the <!--del_lnk--> Heptarchy) that preceded the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of England. It was named after the West Saxons and was situated in the south and southwest of England. It existed as a kingdom from the <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a> until the emergence of the English state in the <a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th century</a>, and as an <!--del_lnk--> earldom between <!--del_lnk--> 1016 and <!--del_lnk--> 1066. The earldom was recently revived for <!--del_lnk--> His Royal Highness <!--del_lnk--> The Prince Edward. "Wessex" has not had any official existence since that time, but it has remained a familiar term since <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Hardy revived it for his <!--del_lnk--> West Country novels and poetry. Today some wish to see it restored as a <!--del_lnk--> region of England.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>According to the <i><!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i> (ASC), Wessex was founded by <!--del_lnk--> Cerdic and <!--del_lnk--> Cynric, chieftains of a clan known as "<i><!--del_lnk--> Gewisse</i>", although the specific events given by the ASC are considered to be suspect. <!--del_lnk--> Archæological evidence points to an origin in the upper <!--del_lnk--> Thames and <a href="../../wp/c/Cotswolds.htm" title="Cotswolds">Cotswolds</a> area, and the ASC origin myth may have been political propaganda designed to justify a later invasion of the <!--del_lnk--> Jutish province in southern <a href="../../wp/h/Hampshire.htm" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a> and the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Wight.htm" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>. The first certain event in Wessex is the <!--del_lnk--> baptism of <!--del_lnk--> Cynegils around the year <!--del_lnk--> 640.<p>Wessex expanded its boundaries and clashed with its neighbours, notably <!--del_lnk--> British <!--del_lnk--> Dumnonia (essentially modern day <!--del_lnk--> Devon and <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall), which it eventually came to dominate, and with <a href="../../wp/m/Mercia.htm" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>. After <!--del_lnk--> Egbert defeated Mercia in <!--del_lnk--> 825 and the <!--del_lnk--> Northumbrians accepted his overlordship in <!--del_lnk--> 829, Egbert became the <!--del_lnk--> Bretwalda or lord of Britain, he was never referred to as King of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<p>The integrated system of fortified towns (the "<i><!--del_lnk--> burhs"</i>) established under <a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_the_Great.htm" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a>, described in both <!--del_lnk--> Asser and the <i>ASC</i>, and documented in a unique <i>hidage</i>, helped to prevent the conquest of southern England by the <!--del_lnk--> Danish invaders in the <!--del_lnk--> 870s. The <i>hidage</i> identifies thirty-three forts, which ensured that no one in Wessex was more than a long day's ride from a place of safety.<p>Important West Saxon settlements included old Roman settlements such as <!--del_lnk--> Dorchester and <!--del_lnk--> Winchester, which Alfred made the capital in <!--del_lnk--> 871, and newly-founded <i>burhs</i> such as <!--del_lnk--> Wallingford.<p>There is some evidence that kingship in Wessex was not rigidly hereditary. The strongest candidate from the pool of the senior families was elected or forced his control on the lesser kings. The internal feuding produced by this may have delayed the rise of Wessex as a full kingdom, but this is conjecture.<p>After the <a href="../../wp/m/Mercia.htm" title="Mercia">Mercian</a> conquest of its original territories in <!--del_lnk--> Gloucestershire and <!--del_lnk--> Oxfordshire, the northern boundary of Wessex was probably the <a href="../../wp/r/River_Thames.htm" title="River Thames">River Thames</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Southwark, facing London from the south bank of the Thames, was included among the <i>burhs</i>, but <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> fell beyond West Saxon territory. Its heartland was the present-day counties of <a href="../../wp/h/Hampshire.htm" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Wiltshire, <a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Somerset, and <!--del_lnk--> Berkshire.<p><a id="Revival" name="Revival"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Revival</span></h2>
<p>The English author <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Hardy used a fictionalised south-west as a setting for many of his novels, reviving the term <i>Wessex</i> for southwest England. His Wessex included all the counties mentioned in the previous paragraph apart from Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, along with <!--del_lnk--> Devon. He gave the counties the following fictionalised names: Berkshire = North Wessex; Devon = Lower Wessex; Dorset = South Wessex; Hampshire = Upper Wessex; Somerset = Outer Wessex; Wiltshire = Mid-Wessex. Neighbouring Cornwall was described as Off-Wessex or <!--del_lnk--> Lyonesse. See <i><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Hardy's Wessex</i>.<p>There is a movement in modern day south-central England to create a regional cultural and political identity in Wessex. This consists of three distinct but interlinked organisations. The <!--del_lnk--> Wessex Regionalist Party is a registered political party which contests elections. The <!--del_lnk--> Wessex Constitutional Convention is an all-party <!--del_lnk--> pressure group in which those sympathetic to Wessex <!--del_lnk--> devolution who are not members of the Wessex Regionalist Party can also be represented. The <!--del_lnk--> Wessex Society is a cultural society which promotes a cultural identity for Wessex while remaining neutral on questions of political devolution.<p>The boundaries of Wessex were unclear and subject to dispute. The Wessex Constitutional Convention and Wessex Society add Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire to Hardy's list; and the Wessex Regionalists, who currently use Hardy's definition of Wessex, are likely to follow suit in the near future.<p>This definition of Wessex has been criticised from a number of quarters. A number of people within Devon, southern Somerset and parts of Dorset see those areas as sharing a Dumnonian Celtic identity with Cornwall, whereas some regard Hardy's definition as correct on the grounds that the counties north of the Thames, along with Berkshire and north-east Somerset, were part of Mercia for most of the Anglo-Saxon period. There are also a few in Hampshire who argue that southern Hampshire and the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Wight.htm" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> were once a Jutish province in their own right and deserve to be treated differently to the rest of Wessex.<p>The Wessex regionalist movements justify their eight-<!--del_lnk--> shire definition of Wessex in terms both of history and of modern regional geography and point to the impossibility of pleasing everyone as an argument against change at the present time, though they do not rule out the possibility of change in the future if the popular will demands it.<p><a id="The_present_South_West_England_region" name="The_present_South_West_England_region"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The present South West England region</span></h2>
<p>The government office region of <!--del_lnk--> South West England covers a different area, consisting of Hardy's Wessex, less <!--del_lnk--> Berkshire, <a href="../../wp/h/Hampshire.htm" title="Hampshire">Hampshire</a> and the <a href="../../wp/i/Isle_of_Wight.htm" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>, but including <!--del_lnk--> Cornwall and <!--del_lnk--> Gloucestershire. Wessex groups are currently campaigning for boundary revisions to the <!--del_lnk--> regions in order to more closely match their definitions of Wessex.<p><a id="Modern_uses" name="Modern_uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Modern uses</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex Stadium, home to <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth F.C.<li><!--del_lnk--> 43rd (Wessex) Brigade - British Army's regional command for the South West region<li><!--del_lnk--> Royal Wessex Yeomanry - British Army territorial unit<li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex Archaeology - An educational charity and the largest UK archaeological practice <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex culture - an archæological label used <!--del_lnk--> anachronistically to describe a <a href="../../wp/b/Bronze_Age.htm" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> culture whose remains are found in the Wessex area<li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex League - <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> league covering Hampshire and parts of the surrounding counties<li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex Sound Studios - a renowned former recording studio<li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex Trains - <!--del_lnk--> train operating company that used to operate in much of the South West region<li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex Water - water supply and sewage company that covers much of the South West region<li>Wessex <!--del_lnk--> Cyclists Touring Club - cycling and events across the region <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Wessex Sport - Southampton University Sports teams have adopted 'Wessex' as a group identity <!--del_lnk--> </ul>
<p><a id="Earl_of_Wessex" name="Earl_of_Wessex"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Earl of Wessex</span></h2>
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<p>In an unusual move, <!--del_lnk--> Prince Edward was made Earl of Wessex and <!--del_lnk--> Viscount <a href="../../wp/r/River_Severn.htm" title="River Severn">Severn</a> in honour of his marriage to <!--del_lnk--> Sophie, The Countess of Wessex. The title Earl of Wessex had not been in use for over 900 years. The last earl, King <!--del_lnk--> Harold Godwinson, was famously killed at the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Hastings.htm" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1066.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessex"</div>
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<p>The <b>West Bank</b> (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" xml:lang="he">הגדה המערבית</span>, <i>Hagadah Hamaaravit</i>, <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span dir="rtl" lang="ar" style="white-space: nowrap;" xml:lang="ar">الضفة الغربية</span>‎, <i><span class="Arabic Unicode" lang="ar-Latn" style="white-space: nowrap; text-decoration: none" title="DIN 31635 Arabic transliteration" xml:lang="ar-Latn">aḍ-Ḍiffä l-Ġarbīyä</span></i>), is a landlocked territory on the west bank of the <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan_River.htm" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. It was <!--del_lnk--> captured by <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> from <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> 1967 <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War and is considered by the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Security Council, the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations General Assembly, the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Court_of_Justice.htm" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> International Committee of the Red Cross to be under <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israeli</a> <!--del_lnk--> occupation.<p>After the dissolution of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, this territory was part of the <!--del_lnk--> British Mandate of Palestine. The <!--del_lnk--> 1948 Arab-Israeli War brought an end to the Mandate. The West Bank was captured and <!--del_lnk--> annexed by <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> 1949 Armistice Agreements defined its interim boundary. From 1948 until 1967 the area was <!--del_lnk--> under Jordanian rule, though Jordan did not relinquish its claim to the area until <!--del_lnk--> 1988. The area was captured by <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> in the 1967 <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War, although, with the exception of <!--del_lnk--> East Jerusalem (and unlike the <!--del_lnk--> Golan Heights), it was not annexed by Israel. The West Bank is currently considered under <a href="../../wp/i/International_law.htm" title="International law">international law</a> to be <i><!--del_lnk--> de jure</i> a <!--del_lnk--> territory not part of any <!--del_lnk--> state.<p>40% of the area (including most of the population, 98% of the Palestinian population) is under the limited civilian jurisdiction of the <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian Authority, while Israel maintains overall control (including over <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlements, rural areas, roads, water, and border regions).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14532.jpg.htm" title="Settlements (darker pink) and areas of the West Bank (lighter pink) where access to Palestinians is closed or restricted. Source: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, January 2006."><img alt="Settlements (darker pink) and areas of the West Bank (lighter pink) where access to Palestinians is closed or restricted. Source: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, January 2006." height="526" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Settlements2006.jpg" src="../../images/145/14532.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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</script><a id="Demographics_of_the_West_Bank" name="Demographics_of_the_West_Bank"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics of the West Bank</span></h2>
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<p>According to Palestinian evaluations, The West Bank is inhabited by approximately 2.4 million <!--del_lnk--> Palestinians. According to a study presented at The Sixth Herzliya Conference on The Balance of Israel’s National Security there are 1.4 million Palestinians.<p>There are over 400,000 <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlers (260,000 not including those in East Jerusalem), and small ethnic groups such as the <!--del_lnk--> Samaritans, living in and around Nablus, numbering in the hundreds or low thousands. The Jews in the West Bank live mostly in Israeli settlements, though populations exist in Arab neighborhoods of Jerusalem and Hebron (though in Hebron, the Israelis live separated by fences and barricades). Interactions between the two societies have generally declined due to the recent security problems, though an economic relationship often exists between adjacent <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlements and <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian villages.<p>Approximately 30% of Palestinians living in the West Bank are refugees or their direct descendants, who fled or were expelled from Israel during the <!--del_lnk--> 1948 Arab-Israeli War (see <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian exodus).<p>The accuracy of the total population figures are disputed according to a study presented at The Sixth Herzliya Conference on The Balance of Israel’s National Security.<p><a id="Cities_and_settlements_in_the_West_Bank" name="Cities_and_settlements_in_the_West_Bank"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cities and settlements in the West Bank</span></h2>
<p>The most densely populated part of the region is a mountainous spine, running north-south, where the cities of <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Nablus, <!--del_lnk--> Ramallah, <!--del_lnk--> Bethlehem, and <!--del_lnk--> Hebron are located. <!--del_lnk--> Jenin, in the extreme north of the West Bank is on the southern edge of the <!--del_lnk--> Jezreel Valley, <!--del_lnk--> Qalqilyah and <!--del_lnk--> Tulkarm are in the low foothills adjacent to the Israeli coastal plain, and <!--del_lnk--> Jericho is situated near the <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan_River.htm" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a>, just north of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dead_Sea.htm" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a>.<p><a id="East_Jerusalem" name="East_Jerusalem"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">East Jerusalem</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> East Jerusalem is not recognized by Israel as a separate entity from western <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> as Jerusalem as a whole is currently claimed to be part of the Israeli capital. <!--del_lnk--> East Jerusalem is the location where Palestinians hope to establish their future capital. All existing definitions of East Jerusalem include the <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> Old City and some of the holiest sites in the Jewish, Muslim and Christian religions, including the <!--del_lnk--> Western Wall, the <!--del_lnk--> Temple Mount/<!--del_lnk--> Noble Sanctuary (containing the <!--del_lnk--> Dome of the Rock and the <!--del_lnk--> Al-Aqsa Mosque), and the <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Holy Sepulchre.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/73/7396.jpg.htm" title="On Mount of Olives."><img alt="On Mount of Olives." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:View_of_Jerusalem_%28small%29.jpg" src="../../images/73/7396.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/73/7396.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> On <!--del_lnk--> Mount of Olives.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/73/7397.jpg.htm" title="Closeup"><img alt="Closeup" height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jerusalem_from_mt_olives.jpg" src="../../images/73/7397.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/73/7397.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Closeup</div>
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<p><a id="Ma.27ale_Adummim" name="Ma.27ale_Adummim"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ma'ale Adummim</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Ma'ale Adummim (Hebrew: מעלה אדומים) is an Israeli settlement in the Judea region of the West Bank, east of Jerusalem. Founded in 1976, it is now sometimes considered to be a suburb of Jerusalem, mainly because most of its population works in Jerusalem. Ma'ale Adummim is one of the largest Jewish communities in the West Bank. As of 2005, the estimated population of Ma'ale Adummim is 32,000. Ma'ale Adummim is seen by Palestinians as a threat to the territorial continuity of any future Palestinian state, given its strategic situation between the northern and southern areas of the West Bank.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14533.jpg.htm" title="Ma'ale Adummim"><img alt="Ma'ale Adummim" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Settlement2.JPG" src="../../images/145/14533.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14533.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ma'ale Adummim</div>
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<p><a id="Ramallah" name="Ramallah"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ramallah</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Ramallah is generally considered the most affluent and cultural as well as the most liberal, of all Palestinian cities. <!--del_lnk--> Ramallah (not to be confused with the Israeli city of <!--del_lnk--> Ramla) is a major Palestinian cultural and economic centre, and is the location of <!--del_lnk--> Yasser Arafat's burial spot. The city is located close to the biblical <!--del_lnk--> Bethel, the location where Jacob had his divine revelation dream in <!--del_lnk--> Genesis, and the location where the Israelites built a temple to worship in the book of <!--del_lnk--> Kings. Although mentions of Ramallah can be found throughout historical texts, modern Ramallah was founded in the mid 1500s by the Hadadeens, a tribe of brothers who were descended from Yemenite Christian Arabs. Ramallah is also famous for the <!--del_lnk--> Mukata'a which now serves as the governmental headquarters of the Palestinian Authority in Ramallah. The Mukata'a also recently became known as "Arafat's Compound." The Israeli settlement of <!--del_lnk--> Bet El is located, just east, adjacent to <!--del_lnk--> Ramallah.<p><a id="Tulkarm" name="Tulkarm"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tulkarm</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Tulkarm or Tulkarem (Arabic: طولكرم‎ Ṭūlkarm; Hebrew: טול כרם) is a Palestinian city in the West Bank. The city's origins can be traced back to at least the third century C.E. under the name "Berat Soreqa", and in later centuries as "Tur Karma" (<!--del_lnk--> Aramaic: טור כרמא), which means “mount of vineyards” in Aramaic, as the city is known for the fertility of the land and the vines around it. <!--del_lnk--> Avnei Hefetz[, <!--del_lnk--> Sal'it and <!--del_lnk--> Einav are three Israeli settlements nearby.<p><a id="Nablus" name="Nablus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nablus</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Nablus is a major city of over 100,000 Palestinians and lies between the two mountains of <!--del_lnk--> Ebal and <!--del_lnk--> Gerizim. It is the location of the <!--del_lnk--> Palestine Securities Exchange and is also famous for its <!--del_lnk--> Knafeh. The city is referred to as <!--del_lnk--> Shechem in Hebrew, a Biblical city. Ancient Shechem is located in the eastern part of the modern city, in a site known as <!--del_lnk--> Tel Balatah. An ancient city with a rich history, Nablus is a site of religious significance to the three major <!--del_lnk--> Abrahamic faiths, and is also a scene of political instability related to the <!--del_lnk--> Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Before its destruction in 2000, <!--del_lnk--> Joseph's Tomb was located in Nablus.<p><a id="Jenin" name="Jenin"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jenin</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Jenin was known in ancient times as the Biblical village of <!--del_lnk--> En-gannim (Biblical Hebrew עֵין־גַּנִּים ʻĒn-Gannīm, "gardens spring"), a city of the <!--del_lnk--> Levites of the <!--del_lnk--> Tribe of Issachar. The modern Arabic name Jenin ultimately derives from this ancient name. The State of Israel built a nearby Israeli settlement, <!--del_lnk--> Ganim, also named after the ancient village. This settlement was evacuated in August 2005 as part of <!--del_lnk--> Israel's unilateral disengagement plan. In April 2002, Jenin's refugee camp was the theatre of <!--del_lnk--> one of the most intense battles to occur during the <!--del_lnk--> al-Aqsa Intifada. Israel was widely pilloried in by international journalists and diplomats for what was called the "Jenin massacre" -- a false allegation made by Palestinian officials that the IDF killed hundreds of civilians in the camp. Extensive investigation by the United Nations found that no such massacre took place.<p><a id="Ariel" name="Ariel"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ariel</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Ariel (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" xml:lang="he">אריאל</span>) is an <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlement located north of the Palestinian town of <!--del_lnk--> Salfit on the West Bank, in the Biblical region of <!--del_lnk--> Samaria near the ancient village of <!--del_lnk--> Timnat Serah. Founded in <!--del_lnk--> 1978, its population as of 2004 is 16,414, including 7,000 immigrants from the <!--del_lnk--> former Soviet Union. It is the fifth largest settlement in the territories that Israel gained control from Jordan of as a result of the Six Day War in 1967. The Israeli Ministry of the Interior gave the municipality of Ariel the status of a city in 1998. Ariel is home to the <!--del_lnk--> College of Judea and Samaria, founded in 1982. Current enrollment is 8,500 students, consisting of both Jewish and Arab students. In 2005, the Israeli government decided to allow the college to attain university status.<p><a id="Hebron" name="Hebron"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hebron</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Hebron is a city of paramount importance to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Prior to the <!--del_lnk--> 1929 Palestine riots, all three populations lived together in the city. It is the location of <!--del_lnk--> Ruth and <!--del_lnk--> Jesse's tombs, as well as many ancient synagogues and mosques. The <!--del_lnk--> Cave of the Patriarchs is considered to be the spiritual centre of <!--del_lnk--> Hebron.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/176/17691.jpg.htm" title="Cave of the Patriarchs"><img alt="Cave of the Patriarchs" height="186" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cave_of_the_Patriarchs.jpg" src="../../images/145/14536.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/176/17691.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cave of the Patriarchs</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Kiryat Arba is an urban Israeli settlement adjoining the city of Hebron. Biblically, it is generally regarded as another name for Hebron. Jewish settlers founded Kiryat Arba immediately to the east of Hebron. The population in 2005 was approximately 6,500, with an additional 2,700 Israelis living in a number of smaller surrounding settlements.<p><a id="Bethlehem" name="Bethlehem"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bethlehem</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Bethlehem, which is south of Jerusalem, has great significance for Christianity as it is believed to be the birthplace of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> of Nazareth and the <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Nativity. The traditional site of <!--del_lnk--> Rachel's Tomb, which is important in Judaism, lies at the city's outskirts. Bethlehem is also home to one of largest Christian communities in the Middle East. The Bethlehem agglomeration includes the small towns of <!--del_lnk--> Beit Jala and <!--del_lnk--> Beit Sahour, the latter also having biblical significance. The equally remote <!--del_lnk--> Greek Orthodox monastery of <!--del_lnk--> Mar Saba lies hidden along a silent, empty wadi 15 miles east of Bethlehem.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14537.jpg.htm" title="Interior of the Church of the Nativity"><img alt="Interior of the Church of the Nativity" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BethlehemInsideCN.jpg" src="../../images/145/14537.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14537.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Interior of the Church of the Nativity</div>
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<p><a id="Jericho" name="Jericho"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jericho</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Jericho, an oasis town in the Jordan Valley, is one of the oldest cities on Earth. It is mentioned in the Biblical book of <!--del_lnk--> Joshua as the first location that the Israelites conquered when entering the new land. The city was miraculously conquered when the <!--del_lnk--> Israelites circled the city's wall seven times and then it collapsed. Jericho has a population of approximately 19,000. It is believed by some to be the oldest continuously inhabited settlement in the world. Many archeological sites are located in this city. Also on September 16, 1998, a medium-sized casino and hotel, jointly called <!--del_lnk--> Oasis, were opened on the southern outskirts of Jericho. Jericho is also the site of Palestinian prisons. Outside Jericho, Nabi Musa is an austere, colonnaded mosque built by a Mamluk sultan at the place where Moses is reportedly buried, according to the Muslims. The 12th-century <!--del_lnk--> Monastery of the Qurantul on the <!--del_lnk--> Mount of Temptation is built on a majestic site where Jesus is believed to have fasted for 40 days while tempted by the devil. <!--del_lnk--> Mitzpeh Yericho is the Jewish settlement next to Jericho.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14538.jpg.htm" title=" Near central Jericho, November 1996"><img alt=" Near central Jericho, November 1996" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jerico1.JPG" src="../../images/145/14538.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14538.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Near central Jericho, November 1996</div>
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<p><a id="Gush_Etzion" name="Gush_Etzion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gush Etzion</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Gush Etzion (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" xml:lang="he">גוש עציון</span>, lit. bloc of the tree) is a group of Israeli settlements in the northern <!--del_lnk--> Judea region of the West Bank. The first modern Jewish attempt to settle the area was in <!--del_lnk--> 1927 by a group of <!--del_lnk--> Yemenite Jews who founded an agricultural village. The location was purchased because it was roughly equidistant from Bethlehem and Hebron, and thus fell between the zones of influence of the local Arab clans. Two years later, the <!--del_lnk--> 1929 Palestine riots and recurring hostilities forced the group to flee. <!--del_lnk--> 1935 saw the founding of <!--del_lnk--> Kfar Etzion, for which the bloc is named, but this attempt was halted by the <!--del_lnk--> 1936-1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. Four <!--del_lnk--> kibbutzim were ultimately founded after another attempt in <!--del_lnk--> 1943; they were destroyed a week before Israel's founding amid the <!--del_lnk--> Kfar Etzion massacre. Jewish settlement resumed after the <!--del_lnk--> 1967 <!--del_lnk--> Six Day War. Today the bloc is home to over 40,000 Israelis in two urban centers and 18 towns and villages.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/176/17681.jpg.htm" title="Central Bethlehem"><img alt="Central Bethlehem" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bethlehem.JPG" src="../../images/145/14539.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/176/17681.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Central Bethlehem</div>
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<p><a id="Jordan_Valley" name="Jordan_Valley"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Jordan Valley</span></h3>
<p>The Jordan Valley is a low-lying strip which cleaves down the western border of the country. It is part of the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Rift_Valley.htm" title="Great Rift Valley">Great Rift Valley</a>, which extends down southwards into East Africa. Since 1967, every Israeli government has considered the Jordan Valley to be the "eastern border" of Israel and has sought to strengthen the Israeli presence there. To strengthen its hold on the area, Israel has established 26 settlements and five Nahal brigade encampments there, which house some 7,500 residents. Over the years, most of the area has been declared state land and was attached to the jurisdictional area of the <!--del_lnk--> Jordan Valley Regional Council, which includes most of the settlements in the valley. Recently, Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Ehud Olmert stated in a TV interview that the Jordan Valley will remain under Israeli control in any future agreement.<p><a id="Other_Israeli_settlements" name="Other_Israeli_settlements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other Israeli settlements</span></h3>
<p>The following is a list of Israeli settlements, not listed above, located in the West Bank:<p><!--del_lnk--> Adora, <!--del_lnk--> Alei Zahav, <!--del_lnk--> Alfei Menashe, <!--del_lnk--> Almog, <!--del_lnk--> Almon (Anatot), <!--del_lnk--> Alon, <!--del_lnk--> Alon Shvut, <!--del_lnk--> Argaman, <!--del_lnk--> Asfar, <!--del_lnk--> Ateret, <!--del_lnk--> Avnei Hefetz, <!--del_lnk--> Barqan, <!--del_lnk--> Bat Ayin, <!--del_lnk--> Beit Arye, <!--del_lnk--> Beit El, <!--del_lnk--> Beit Ha´arava, <!--del_lnk--> Beit Horon, <!--del_lnk--> Beitar Illit, <!--del_lnk--> Bqa´ot, <!--del_lnk--> Bracha, <!--del_lnk--> Carmel, <!--del_lnk--> Chemdat, <!--del_lnk--> Dolev, <!--del_lnk--> Efrat (Efrata), <!--del_lnk--> El´azar, <!--del_lnk--> Eli (town), <!--del_lnk--> Elkana, <!--del_lnk--> Elon More, <!--del_lnk--> Enav, <!--del_lnk--> Eshkolot, <!--del_lnk--> Etz Efraim, <!--del_lnk--> Ganim (evacuated), <!--del_lnk--> Geva Binyamin, <!--del_lnk--> Gilgal, <!--del_lnk--> Gitit, <!--del_lnk--> Giv´at Ze´ev, <!--del_lnk--> Giv´on Ha´hadasha, <!--del_lnk--> Gva´ot, <!--del_lnk--> Haggai, <!--del_lnk--> Halamish, <!--del_lnk--> Hamra, <!--del_lnk--> Har Adar, <!--del_lnk--> Hashmonaim, <!--del_lnk--> Hermesh, <!--del_lnk--> Hinanit, <!--del_lnk--> Homesh (evacuated), <!--del_lnk--> Immanuel, <!--del_lnk--> Itamar, <!--del_lnk--> Kadim (evacuated), <!--del_lnk--> Kalia, <!--del_lnk--> Karmei Tzur, <!--del_lnk--> Karnei Shomron, <!--del_lnk--> Kedumim, <!--del_lnk--> Keidar, <!--del_lnk--> Kfar Adumim, <!--del_lnk--> Kfar Etzion, <!--del_lnk--> Kfar Ha´oranim (Menorah), <!--del_lnk--> Kfar Tapuah, <!--del_lnk--> Kiryat Arba, <!--del_lnk--> Kiryat Netafim, <!--del_lnk--> Kochav Ha´shachar, <!--del_lnk--> Kochav Ya´akov, <!--del_lnk--> Ma´ale Amos, <!--del_lnk--> Ma´ale Efraim, <!--del_lnk--> Ma´ale Levona, <!--del_lnk--> Ma´ale Michmash, <!--del_lnk--> Ma´ale Shomron, <!--del_lnk--> Ma´on, <!--del_lnk--> Masu´a, <!--del_lnk--> Matityahu, <!--del_lnk--> Mechola, <!--del_lnk--> Mechora, <!--del_lnk--> Metzadot Yehuda, <!--del_lnk--> Mevo Dotan, <!--del_lnk--> Mevo Horon, <!--del_lnk--> Migdal Oz, <!--del_lnk--> Migdalim, <!--del_lnk--> Mitzpe Shalem, <!--del_lnk--> Mitzpe Yericho, <!--del_lnk--> Modi´in Illit, <!--del_lnk--> Na´ale, <!--del_lnk--> Na´ama, <!--del_lnk--> Nahaliel, <!--del_lnk--> Negohot, <!--del_lnk--> Netiv Ha´gdud, <!--del_lnk--> Neve Daniel, <!--del_lnk--> Nili, <!--del_lnk--> Niran, <!--del_lnk--> Nofei Prat, <!--del_lnk--> Nofim, <!--del_lnk--> Nokdim, <!--del_lnk--> Ofarim, <!--del_lnk--> Ofra, <!--del_lnk--> Oranit, <!--del_lnk--> Otniel, <!--del_lnk--> Pedu´el, <!--del_lnk--> Petzael, <!--del_lnk--> Pnei Hever, <!--del_lnk--> Psagot, <!--del_lnk--> Rechelim, <!--del_lnk--> Reihan, <!--del_lnk--> Revava, <!--del_lnk--> Rimonim, <!--del_lnk--> Ro´i, <!--del_lnk--> Rosh Tzurim, <!--del_lnk--> Rotem, <!--del_lnk--> Sal´it, <!--del_lnk--> Sha´arei Tikva, <!--del_lnk--> Shadmot Mehola, <!--del_lnk--> Shaked, <!--del_lnk--> Shani (Livne), <!--del_lnk--> Shavei Shomron, <!--del_lnk--> Shilo, <!--del_lnk--> Shim´a, <!--del_lnk--> Shvut Rachel, <!--del_lnk--> Susiya, <!--del_lnk--> Talmon, <!--del_lnk--> Telem, <!--del_lnk--> Tene, <!--del_lnk--> Tko´a, <!--del_lnk--> Tomer, <!--del_lnk--> Tzofim, <!--del_lnk--> Vered Yericho, <!--del_lnk--> Yafit, <!--del_lnk--> Yakir, <!--del_lnk--> Yitav, <!--del_lnk--> Yitzhar.<p><a id="Origin_of_the_name" name="Origin_of_the_name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin of the name</span></h2>
<p><a id="West_Bank" name="West_Bank"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">West Bank</span></h3>
<p>The region did not have a separate existence until 1948–9, when it was defined by the <!--del_lnk--> Armistice Agreement between Israel and Jordan. The name "West Bank" was apparently first used by Jordanians at the time of their <!--del_lnk--> annexation of the region, and has become the most common name used in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> and related languages. The term literally means 'the West bank of the river Jordan'; the Kingdom of Jordan being on the 'East bank' of this same river Jordan.<p><a id="Judea_and_Samaria" name="Judea_and_Samaria"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Judea and Samaria</span></h3>
<p>Prior to this usage of the name "West Bank", the region was commonly referred to as <!--del_lnk--> Judea and Samaria, its long-standing name. For example, U.N. Resolution 181, The 1947 Partition Plan explicitly refers to part of the area as Judea and Samaria. For region boundaries set forth in the resolution see the text <!--del_lnk--> here.<p>Israelis refer to the region either as a unit: "The West Bank" (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: "ha-Gada ha-Ma'aravit" "הגדה המערבית"), or as two units: <!--del_lnk--> Judea (Hebrew: "Yehuda" "יהודה") and <!--del_lnk--> Samaria (Hebrew: "Shomron" "שומרון"), after the two biblical kingdoms (the southern <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Judah and the northern <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Israel — the capital of which was, for a time, in the town of Samaria). The border between Judea and Samaria is a belt of territory immediately north of Jerusalem sometimes called the "land of <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin". The name <i>Judea and Samaria</i> has been in continual use by Jews as well as various others since <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">biblical</a> times. This name carries an emotional meaning to many Jews as the cradle of Jewish Nation is derived from the time of <!--del_lnk--> King David in the region, the main religious sites and tombs are present there, and continuos Jewish communities were concentrated in the area throughout the years.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14540.jpg.htm" title="The Israeli settlement of Ma'ale Levona, with a 2004 population of 514, between Ramallah and Nablus, from different angles."><img alt="The Israeli settlement of Ma'ale Levona, with a 2004 population of 514, between Ramallah and Nablus, from different angles." height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Israeli_west_bank_settlement.jpg" src="../../images/145/14540.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14540.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Israeli settlement of <!--del_lnk--> Ma'ale Levona, with a 2004 population of 514, between Ramallah and Nablus, from different angles.</div>
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<p><a id="Cisjordan.2FTransjordan" name="Cisjordan.2FTransjordan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cisjordan/Transjordan</span></h3>
<p>The neo-<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> name <i><!--del_lnk--> Cisjordan</i> or <i>Cis-Jordan</i> (literally "on this side of the [River] Jordan") is the usual name in most <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages, in part out of the logical argument that the word "[river] bank" should not be applied to a mountainous region. The analogous <i><!--del_lnk--> Transjordan</i> has historically been used to designate modern-day Jordan which lies on the "eastern banks" of the <!--del_lnk--> River Jordan. In English, the name <i>Cisjordan</i> is also used to designate the entire region between the <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan_River.htm" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, particularly in the historical context of the British Mandate. The use of <i>Cisjordan</i> to refer to the smaller region discussed in this article is extremely rare; the name <i>West Bank</i> is standard usage for this geo-political entity. For the low-lying area immediately west of the Jordan, the name <i><!--del_lnk--> Jordan Valley</i> is used instead.<p><a id="Status" name="Status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Status</span></h2>
<p>The future status of the West Bank, together with the <a href="../../wp/g/Gaza_Strip.htm" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a> on the Mediterranean shore, has been the subject of negotiation between the Palestinians and Israelis, although the current <!--del_lnk--> Road Map for Peace, proposed by the "<!--del_lnk--> Quartet" comprising the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, envisions an independent Palestinian state in these territories living side by side with <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> (see also <!--del_lnk--> proposals for a Palestinian state).<p>The Palestinian people believe that the West Bank ought to be a part of their sovereign <!--del_lnk--> nation, and that the presence of Israeli military control is a violation of their right to self-determination. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> calls the West Bank and Gaza Strip <i>Israeli-occupied</i> (see <!--del_lnk--> Israeli-occupied territories). The <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> generally agrees with this definition. Many Israelis and their supporters prefer the term <i><!--del_lnk--> disputed territories,</i> claiming it comes closer to a <!--del_lnk--> neutral point of view; this viewpoint is not accepted by most other countries, which consider "occupied" to be the neutral description of status.<p>Israel argues that its presence is justified because:<ol>
<li>Israel's eastern border has never been defined by anyone;<li>The <i>disputed territories</i> have not been part of any state (Jordanian annexation was never officially recognized) since the time of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>;<li>According to the <!--del_lnk--> Camp David Accords (1978) with <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, the 1994 agreement with <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Oslo Accords with the <!--del_lnk--> PLO, the final status of the territories would be fixed only when there was a permanent agreement between Israel and the Palestinians.</ol>
<p>Palestinian public opinion is almost unanimous in opposing Israeli military and settler presence on the West Bank as a violation of their right to statehood and sovereignty. Israeli opinion is split into a number of views:<ul>
<li>Complete or partial withdrawal from the West Bank in hopes of peaceful coexistence in separate states (sometimes called the "<!--del_lnk--> land for peace" position); (According to a 2003 poll 76% of Israelis support a peace agreement based on that principle).<li>Maintenance of a military presence in the West Bank to reduce <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian terrorism by deterrence or by armed intervention, while relinquishing some degree of political control;<li><!--del_lnk--> Annexation of the West Bank while considering the Palestinian population as (for instance) citizens of Jordan with Israeli residence permit as per the <!--del_lnk--> Elon Peace Plan;<li>Annexation of the West Bank and assimilation of the Palestinian population to fully fledged Israeli citizens;<li>Annexation of the West Bank.<li><!--del_lnk--> Transfer of the East Jerusalem Palestinian population (a 2002 poll at the height of the <!--del_lnk--> Al Aqsa intifada found 46% of Israelis favoring Palestinian transfer of Jerusalem residents; in 2005 two polls using a different methodology put the number at approximately 30%).</ul>
<p><a id="Annexation" name="Annexation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Annexation</span></h3>
<p>Israel annexed the territory of <!--del_lnk--> East Jerusalem, and its Palestinian residents (if they should decline Israeli citizenship) have legal <!--del_lnk--> permanent residency status. Although permanent residents are permitted, if they wish, to receive Israeli citizenship if they meet certain conditions including swearing allegiance to the State and renouncing any other citizenship, most Palestinians did not apply for Israeli citizenship for political reasons. There are various possible reasons as to why the West Bank had not been annexed to Israel after its <!--del_lnk--> capture in 1967. The government of Israel has not formally confirmed an official reason, however, historians and analysts have established a variety of such, most of them demographic. Among the most agreed upon:<ul>
<li>Reluctance to award its citizenship to an overwhelming number of a potentially hostile population whose allies were sworn to the destruction of Israel (<small><!--del_lnk--> Bard</small>,)<li>Fear that the population of non-<a href="../../wp/z/Zionism.htm" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> Arabs would outnumber the Israelis, appeal to different political interests, and vote Israel out of existence; thus failing to maintain the concept and safety of a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Jewish state (<small><!--del_lnk--> Bard</small>,)<li>To ultimately exchange the <!--del_lnk--> land for peace with neighbouring states</ul>
<p><a id="Settlements_and_International_Law" name="Settlements_and_International_Law"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Settlements and International Law</span></h3>
<p>Israeli settlements on the West Bank beyond the Green Line border are considered by some legal scholars to be illegal under international law. Other legal scholars (including prominent international law expert <!--del_lnk--> Julius Stone), have argued that the settlements are legal under international law, on a number of different grounds. <i>The Independent</i> reported in March 2006 that immediately after the 1967 war <!--del_lnk--> Theodor Meron, legal counsel of Israel's Foreign Ministry advised Israeli ministers in a "top secret" memo that any policy of building settlements across occupied territories violated international law and would "contravene the explicit provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention". A contrasting opinion was held by <!--del_lnk--> Eugene Rostow, a former Dean of the Yale Law School and undersecretary of state for political affairs in the administration of U.S. President Lyndon Johnson, who wrote in 1991 that Israel has a right to have settlements in the West Bank under 1967's UN Security Council Resolution 242. It is the policy of both Israel and the United States that the settlements do not violate international law, although the United States considers ongoing settlement activity to be "unhelpful" to the peace process. Israel also recognizes that some small settlements are "illegal" in the sense of being in violation of Israeli law.<p>In 2005 the United States ambassador to Israel, Dan Kurtzer, expressed U.S. support "for the retention by Israel of major Israeli population centres [in the West Bank] as an outcome of negotiations", reflecting President Bush's statement a year earlier that a permanent peace treaty would have to reflect "demographic realities" on the West Bank.<p>The UN Security Council has issued several non-binding resolutions addressing the issue of the settlements. Typical of these is UN Security Council resolution 446 which states <i>[the] practices of Israel in establishing settlements in the Palestinian and other Arab territories occupied since 1967 have no legal validity</i>, and it calls on Israel <i>as the occupying Power, to abide scrupulously by the 1949 Fourth Geneva Convention.</i><p>The Conference of High Contracting Parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention held in Geneva on <!--del_lnk--> 5 December, 2001 called upon "the Occupying Power to fully and effectively respect the Fourth Geneva Convention in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, and to refrain from perpetrating any violation of the Convention." The High Contracting Parties reaffirmed "the illegality of the settlements in the said territories and of the extension thereof."<p><a id="West_Bank_barrier" name="West_Bank_barrier"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">West Bank barrier</span></h3>
<p>The Israeli <!--del_lnk--> West Bank barrier is a physical barrier being constructed by Israel consisting of a network of fences with vehicle-barrier trenches surrounded by an on average 60 meters wide exclusion area (95%) and up to 8 meters high concrete walls (5%). The barrier generally runs along or near the <!--del_lnk--> 1949 Jordanian-Israeli armistice/<!--del_lnk--> Green Line, but diverges in many places <!--del_lnk--> to include on the Israeli side several of the highly populated areas of <!--del_lnk--> Jewish settlements in the West Bank such as <!--del_lnk--> East Jerusalem, <!--del_lnk--> Ariel, <!--del_lnk--> Gush Etzion, <!--del_lnk--> Emmanuel, <!--del_lnk--> Karnei Shomron, <!--del_lnk--> Givat Ze'ev, <!--del_lnk--> Oranit, and <!--del_lnk--> Ma'ale Adummim. Because of the complex path it follows, most of the barrier is actually set in the West Bank, with the result that many <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlements in the West Bank remain on the Israeli side of the barrier, and some Palestinian towns are nearly encircled by it. The proponents of the barrier claim that its route is not set in stone, as it was challenged in court and changed several times.<p>The West Bank barrier is justified by Israel as being necessary to deter Palestinian attacks against Israeli civilians, but it has been subject to criticism by the international community. In October 2003 the issue of the barrier was considered by the UN Security Council where the US vetoed a resolution criticising its construction. Later in the same month the General Assembly passed a resolution (non-binding) calling for Israel to stop and reverse the construction of the barrier. The vote was 144 in favour, including all of the EU countries, and 4 against including the US. Subsequently the General Assembly passed the matter to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The ICJ found in a non-binding advisory opinion that the construction of the barrier was contrary to international law and that Israel should cease construction, dismantle existing structures and make reparations for loss and damage involved. The Court also ruled that all States 'are under an obligation not to recognize the (...) wall and under an obligation not to render aid or assistance'.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>The territories now known as the West Bank were part of the Mandate of Palestine granted to Great Britain by the League of Nations after WW1. The current border of the West Bank was not a dividing line of any sort during the Mandate period. When the United Nations General Assembly voted in 1947 to partition Palestine into a Jewish State, an Arab State, and an internationally-administered enclave of Jerusalem, almost all of the West Bank was assigned to the Arab State. In the ensuing 1948 Arab-Israel war, the territory was captured by the neighboring kingdom of Jordan. It was annexed by Jordan in 1950 but this annexation was recognized only by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. (<a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> is often, but apparently falsely,<!--del_lnk--> assumed to have recognized it also.)<p>The <!--del_lnk--> 1948 Armistice Agreements established the "Green Line" separating the territories held by Israel and its neighbors. During the 1950s, there was a significant <!--del_lnk--> influx of Palestinian refugees and violence together with Israeli reprisal raids across the Green Line. In the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War of 1967, Israel captured this territory, and in November, 1967, <!--del_lnk--> UN Security Council Resolution 242 was unanimously adopted. All parties eventually accepted it and agree to its applicability to the West Bank.<p>In 1988, Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank to the <!--del_lnk--> Palestine Liberation Organization, as "the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people."<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <p>The 1993 <!--del_lnk--> Oslo Accords declared the final status of the West Bank to be subject to a forthcoming settlement between <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the Palestinian leadership. Following these interim accords, Israel withdrew its military rule from some parts of West Bank, which was then split into:<ul>
<li>Palestinian-controlled, Palestinian-administered land (Area A)<li>Israeli-controlled, but Palestinian-administered land (Area B)<li>Israeli-controlled, Israeli-administered land (Area C)</ul>
<p>Areas B and C constitute the majority of the territory, comprising the rural areas and the <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan_River.htm" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> valley region, while urban areas – where the majority of the Palestinian population resides – are mostly designated Area A.<p>(See <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlements for a discussion of the legal standing of Israeli settlements in the West Bank.)<p><a id="Transport_and_communication" name="Transport_and_communication"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport and communication</span></h2>
<p><a id="Roads" name="Roads"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roads</span></h3>
<p>The West Bank has 4,500 km of roads, of which 2,700 km are paved.<p>In response to shootings by Palestinians, some highways, especially those leading to <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlements, are completely inaccessible to cars with Palestinian license plates, while many other roads are restricted only to public transportation and to Palestinians who have special permits from Israeli authorities <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> . Due to numerous shooting <!--del_lnk--> assaults <a href="../../wp/t/Terrorism.htm" title="Terrorism">targeting Israeli vehicles</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> IDF bars Israelis from using most of the original roads in the West Bank. Israel's longstanding policy of separation-to-prevent-friction dictates the development of alternative highway systems for Israelis and Palestinian traffic.<p>Israel maintains 50+ checkpoints in the West Bank <!--del_lnk--> . As such, movement restrictions are also placed on main roads traditionally used by Palestinians to travel between cities, and such restrictions have been blamed for poverty and economic depression in the West Bank <!--del_lnk--> . Since the beginning of 2005, there has been some amelioration of these restrictions. According to recent human rights reports, "Israel has made efforts to improve transport contiguity for Palestinians travelling in the West Bank. It has done this by constructing underpasses and bridges (28 of which have been constructed and 16 of which are planned) that link Palestinian areas separated from each other by Israeli settlements and bypass roads" <!--del_lnk--> and by removal of checkpoints and physical obstacles, or by not reacting to Palestinian removal or natural erosion of other obstacles. "The impact (of these actions) is most felt by the easing of movement between villages and between villages and the urban centres" <!--del_lnk--> .<p>However, the obstacles encircling major Palestinian urban hubs, particularly Nablus and Hebron, have remained. In addition, the <!--del_lnk--> IDF prohibits Israeli citizens from entering Palestinian-controlled land (Area A).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14541.jpg.htm" title="A section of the Israeli West Bank barrier."><img alt="A section of the Israeli West Bank barrier." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:West_Bank_barrier_0996.jpg" src="../../images/145/14541.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14541.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A section of the Israeli West Bank barrier.</div>
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<p><a id="Airports" name="Airports"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Airports</span></h3>
<p>The West Bank has three paved airports which are currently for military use only. The only civilian airport of <!--del_lnk--> Atarot Airport in northern Jerusalem, which was open only to Israeli citizens, was closed in 2001 due to the Intifada. Palestinians were previously able to use Israel's <!--del_lnk--> Ben Gurion International Airport with permission; however, Israel has discontinued issuing such permits, and Palestinians wishing to travel must cross the land border to either <a href="../../wp/j/Jordan.htm" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> or <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in order to use airports located in these countries <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Telecom" name="Telecom"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Telecom</span></h3>
<p>The Israeli <!--del_lnk--> Bezeq and Palestinian <!--del_lnk--> PalTel telecommunication companies provide communication services in the West Bank.<p><a id="Radio_and_television" name="Radio_and_television"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Radio and television</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation broadcasts from an AM station in Ramallah on 675 kHz; numerous local privately owned stations are also in operation. Most Palestinian households have a radio and TV, and satellite dishes for receiving international coverage are widespread. Recently, PalTel announced and has begun implementing an initiative to provide ADSL broadband internet service to all households and businesses.<p>Israel's <!--del_lnk--> cable television company <!--del_lnk--> 'HOT', satellite television provider (<!--del_lnk--> DBS) <!--del_lnk--> 'Yes', AM & FM radio broadcast stations and public television broadcast stations all operate. Broadband internet service by Bezeq's ADSL and by the cable company are available as well.<p><a id="Higher_education" name="Higher_education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Higher education</span></h2>
<p>Before 1967 there were no universities in the West Bank (except for the Hebrew University in Jerusalem - see below). There were a few lesser institutions of higher education; for example, <!--del_lnk--> An-Najah, which started as an elementary school in 1918 and became a community college in 1963. As the Jordanian government did not allow the establishment of such universities in the West Bank, Palestinians could obtain degrees only by travelling abroad to places such as Jordan, Lebanon, or Europe.<p>After the region was captured by Israel in the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War, several educational institutions began offering undergraduate courses, while others opened up as entirely new universities. In total, seven Universities have been commissioned in the West Bank since 1967:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bethlehem University, a <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic institution partially funded by the <!--del_lnk--> Vatican, opened its doors in 1973 <!--del_lnk--> .<li>In 1975, Birzeit College (located in the town of <!--del_lnk--> Bir Zeit north of <!--del_lnk--> Ramallah) became <!--del_lnk--> Birzeit University after adding third- and fourth-year college-level programs <!--del_lnk--> .<li>An-Najah College in <!--del_lnk--> Nablus likewise became <!--del_lnk--> An-Najah National University in 1977 <!--del_lnk--> .<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Hebron University was established in 1980 <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Al-Quds University, whose founders had yearned to establish a university in Jerusalem since the early days of Jordanian rule, finally realized their goal in 1995 <!--del_lnk--> .<li>Also in 1995, after the signing of the <!--del_lnk--> Oslo Accords, the <!--del_lnk--> Arab American University—the only private university in the West Bank—was founded in <!--del_lnk--> Jenin, with the purpose of providing courses according to the <a href="../../wp/e/Education_in_the_United_States.htm" title="Education in the United States">American system of education</a> <!--del_lnk--> .<li>In 2005, the <!--del_lnk--> College of Judea and Samaria in <!--del_lnk--> Ariel was approved to become a full fledged university <!--del_lnk--> . This move to create a university within an <!--del_lnk--> Israeli settlement has angered some Palestinians, although no official response was made by the Palestinian authority.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew University of Jerusalem, established in 1918, is one of Israel's oldest, largest, and most important institutes of higher learning and research. During the <!--del_lnk--> 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the leader of the Palestinian forces in Jerusalem, <!--del_lnk--> Abdul Kader Husseini, threatened that the Hadassah Hospital and the Hebrew University would be captured or destroyed "if the Jews continued to use them as bases for attacks". Medical convoys between the Yishuv-controlled section of Jerusalem and Mount Scopus were attacked since December 1947. After the <!--del_lnk--> Hadassah medical convoy massacre in 1948, which also included university staff, the Mount Scopus campus was cut off from the Jewish part of Jerusalem. After the War, the University was forced to relocate to a new campus in Givat Ram in western Jerusalem. After Israel captured <!--del_lnk--> East Jerusalem in the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War of June 1967, the University returned to its original campus in Mount Scopus.</ul>
<p>Most universities in the West Bank have politically active student bodies, and elections of student council officers are normally along party affiliations. Although the establishment of the universities was initially allowed by the Israeli authorities, some were sporadically ordered closed by the Israeli Civil Administration during the 1970s and 1980s to prevent political activities and violence against the <!--del_lnk--> IDF. Some universities remained closed by military order for extended periods during years immediately preceding and following the first Palestinian <!--del_lnk--> Intifada, but have largely remained open since the signing of the Oslo Accords despite the advent of the <!--del_lnk--> Al-Aqsa Intifada in 2000.<p>The founding of Palestinian universities has greatly increased education levels among the population in the West Bank. According to a Birzeit University study, the percentage of Palestinians choosing local universities as opposed to foreign institutions has been steadily increasing; as of 1997, 41% of Palestinians with bachelor degrees had obtained them from Palestinian institutions <!--del_lnk--> . According to UNESCO, Palestinians are one of the most highly educated groups in the Middle East "despite often difficult circumstances" <!--del_lnk--> . The literacy rate among Palestinians in the West Bank (and Gaza) (89%) is third highest in the region after Israel (95%) and Jordan (90%) <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> .<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bank"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">West Flemish</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Languages.htm">Languages</a></h3>
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<br /><small>This article is a part of</small><p><small>the <b><a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch dialects</a></b> series.</small></th>
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<td style="padding: 0 5px; background: #ececec;"><b>The Dialects</b></td>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/42/4287.png.htm" title="Position of West Flemish/Zealandic within the Dutch speaking area (mainland only)"><img alt="Position of West Flemish/Zealandic within the Dutch speaking area (mainland only)" height="254" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ZEEUWSWESTOOSTVLAAMS.PNG" src="../../images/42/4287.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/42/4287.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Position of West Flemish/Zealandic within the Dutch speaking area (mainland only)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b>West Flemish</b> (West Flemish: <i>Vlaemsch</i>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i>West-Vlaams</i>) is a group of dialects, spoken in parts of the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<p>There is a <!--del_lnk--> dialect continuum between West Flemish and some neighbouring <!--del_lnk--> Dutch dialects, being called <i><a href="../../wp/e/East_Flemish.htm" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></i>, and many linguists still consider West Flemish a Dutch dialect. The main reason to set it apart is that West Flemish remained distinct from the main stream of Dutch regional languages, which had evolved since the 17th century from the Brabantic version of Dutch. This gives West Flemish a distinct sound and flavor.<p>West Flemish is spoken by around 1.05 million people in <!--del_lnk--> West Flanders (in Belgium), 90,000 in the neighbouring <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> coastal district of <!--del_lnk--> Zeeuws-Vlaanderen, and approximately 20,000 in the northern part of the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> département</i> of <!--del_lnk--> Nord where it is classified as one of the <!--del_lnk--> Languages of France.<p>The dialects of the Dutch province of <!--del_lnk--> Zeeland, <!--del_lnk--> Zealandic, are sometimes also classified under <i>West Flemish</i> <a href="../../wp/h/Hollandic.htm" title="Hollandic">Hollandic</a> Dutch but this is sometimes disputed. The dialects of Zeeuws-Vlaanderen however <i>do</i> count as West Flemish variants. In fact, both <!--del_lnk--> regional languages are linked by a <!--del_lnk--> dialect continuum, which proceeds further north into Hollandic.<p>
<br />
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Flemish"</div>
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| ['Dutch language', 'Brabantian', 'Hollandic', 'East Flemish', 'Zuid-Gelders', 'Dutch language', 'Netherlands', 'Belgium', 'France', 'East Flemish', 'Netherlands', 'France', 'Hollandic'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">West Virginia</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.North_American_Geography.htm">North American Geography</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox geography">
<caption style="font-size: larger; padding: 0 0 .1em 0;"><b>State of West Virginia</b></caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding: 0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="text-align:center; background: none;">
<tr>
<td style="width: 130px; vertical-align: middle;"><span style="display: inline;"><span style="display: table-cell; border-collapse: collapse; border: solid 1px #ddd;"><a class="image" href="../../images/228/22858.png.htm" title="Flag of West Virginia"><img alt="Flag of West Virginia" height="66" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_West_Virginia.svg" src="../../images/228/22843.png" width="125" /></a></span></span></td>
<td style="width: 130px; vertical-align: middle;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="State seal of West Virginia" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:True_Color_Seal_of_the_State_of_West_Virginia.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="100" /></td>
</tr>
<tr style="font-size: smaller;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Flag of West Virginia</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Seal of West Virginia</td>
</tr>
<tr style="font-size: smaller;">
<td colspan="2"><i><!--del_lnk--> Nickname(s): Mountain State</i></td>
</tr>
<tr style="font-size: smaller;">
<td colspan="2"><i><!--del_lnk--> Motto(s): <!--del_lnk--> Montani semper liberi</i></td>
</tr>
<tr class="maptable">
<td colspan="2">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/228/22845.png.htm" title="Map of the United States with West Virginia highlighted"><img alt="Map of the United States with West Virginia highlighted" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map_of_USA_highlighting_West_Virginia.png" src="../../images/228/22845.png" width="280" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Official language(s)</b></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Capital</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charleston</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Largest city</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charleston</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b><sup> </sup></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 41<sup>st</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>24,244 sq mi<br /> (62,809 km²)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Width</td>
<td>130 miles (210 km)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Length</td>
<td>240 miles (385 km)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - % water</td>
<td>0.6</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Latitude</td>
<td>37°10'N to 40°40'N</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td style="border-top: 0;"> - Longitude</td>
<td>77°40'W to 82°40'W</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b><sup> </sup></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 37<sup>th</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total (<!--del_lnk--> 2000)</td>
<td>1,808,344</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>75.1/sq mi <br /> 29.0/km² (27<sup>th</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Median income<sup> </sup></td>
<td>$32,589 (50<sup>th</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</b></td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Highest point</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Spruce Knob<br /> 4,863 ft (1,427 m)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Mean</td>
<td>1,500 ft (460 m)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Lowest point</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Potomac River<br /> 240 ft (73 m)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_U.S._states_by_date_of_statehood.htm" title="List of U.S. states by date of statehood">Admission to Union</a></b><sup> </sup></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1863 (35<sup>th</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Governor</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Joe Manchin (D)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Senators</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Robert C. Byrd (D)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jay Rockefeller (D)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Time zone</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eastern: <!--del_lnk--> UTC-5/<!--del_lnk--> -4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Abbreviations</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> WV <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> US-WV</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Web site</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.wv.gov</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>West Virginia</b> is a <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">state</a> of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> in the region of <!--del_lnk--> Appalachia, also known as <i>The Mountain State</i>. West Virginia broke away from the Commonwealth of <!--del_lnk--> Virginia during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> and was admitted to the Union as a separate state on <!--del_lnk--> June 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1863 (an anniversary now celebrated as <i><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Day</i> in the state). It is the only state formed as a direct result of the American Civil War.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Census Bureau considers West Virginia part of the <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_United_States.htm" title="Southern United States">South</a> because much of the state is below the <!--del_lnk--> Mason-Dixon Line, despite its northern panhandle extending as far north as <!--del_lnk--> Staten Island, New York. Many citizens of West Virginia claim they are part of <!--del_lnk--> Appalachia, rather than the Mid-Atlantic or the South, while the state's <!--del_lnk--> Northern Panhandle, and <!--del_lnk--> North-Central region, feel an affinity for <!--del_lnk--> Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Also, those in the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Panhandle feel a connection with the <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> <!--del_lnk--> suburbs in <!--del_lnk--> Maryland and <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, and <!--del_lnk--> southern West Virginians often consider themselves <a href="../../wp/s/Southern_United_States.htm" title="Southern United States">Southerners</a>. Finally, the towns and farms along the mid-<!--del_lnk--> Ohio River have an appearance and culture somewhat resembling the <!--del_lnk--> Midwest.<p>The state is noted for its great natural beauty, its <!--del_lnk--> timber and <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> <a href="../../wp/m/Mining.htm" title="Mining">mining</a> heritage and <a href="../../wp/t/Trade_union.htm" title="Trade union">labor union</a> organizing, mine wars in particular. It is also well known as a tourist destination for those people interested in outdoor activities such as skiing, whitewater rafting, rock climbing, fishing and hunting.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22846.jpg.htm" title="Shaded relief map of the Cumberland Plateau and Ridge-and-valley Appalachians."><img alt="Shaded relief map of the Cumberland Plateau and Ridge-and-valley Appalachians." height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WV_plateau.jpg" src="../../images/228/22846.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22846.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Shaded relief map of the <!--del_lnk--> Cumberland Plateau and <!--del_lnk--> Ridge-and-valley Appalachians.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>West Virginia is bordered by <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania to the north; by <!--del_lnk--> Ohio to the north and west; by <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky to the west; by <!--del_lnk--> Maryland to the north and east; and by <!--del_lnk--> Virginia to the east and south. The <!--del_lnk--> Ohio and <!--del_lnk--> Potomac <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">rivers</a> form parts of the boundaries.<p>West Virginia is the only state in the nation located entirely within the <!--del_lnk--> Appalachian Mountain range, and in which all areas are <!--del_lnk--> mountainous; for this reason it is nicknamed <i>The Mountain State</i>. About 75% of the state is within the <!--del_lnk--> Cumberland Plateau and <!--del_lnk--> Allegheny Plateau regions. Though the relief is not high, the plateau region is extremely rugged in most areas.<p>On the southeastern state line with <!--del_lnk--> Virginia, high peaks in the <!--del_lnk--> Monongahela National Forest region give rise to an island of colder <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> and <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems similar to those of northern <!--del_lnk--> New England and eastern <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>. The highest point in the state is atop <!--del_lnk--> Spruce Knob, which at 4,863 feet (1,482 m) is covered in a <!--del_lnk--> boreal forest of dense <!--del_lnk--> spruce trees at altitudes above 4,000 feet (1,220 m). Spruce Knob lies within the Monongahela National Forest and is a part of the <!--del_lnk--> Spruce Knob-Seneca Rocks National Recreation Area. <!--del_lnk--> A total of six <!--del_lnk--> wilderness areas can also be found within the forest. Outside the forest to the south, the New River Gorge is a 1,000 foot (304 m) deep canyon carved by the <!--del_lnk--> New River. The <!--del_lnk--> National Park Service manages a portion of the gorge and river which has been designated as the <!--del_lnk--> New River Gorge National River, one of only 15 rivers in the U.S. with this level of protection. Magic Island is an <!--del_lnk--> island (now connected to the mainland) in the <!--del_lnk--> Kanawha River near its <!--del_lnk--> confluence with the <!--del_lnk--> Elk River in <!--del_lnk--> Charleston.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22847.jpg.htm" title="The summit of Spruce Knob is often covered in clouds."><img alt="The summit of Spruce Knob is often covered in clouds." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spruce_Knob.jpg" src="../../images/228/22847.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22847.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The summit of <!--del_lnk--> Spruce Knob is often covered in clouds.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Other areas under protection and management include:<table border="0">
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Appalachian National Scenic Trail<li><!--del_lnk--> Bluestone National Scenic River<li><!--del_lnk--> Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge<li><!--del_lnk--> Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gauley River National Recreation Area<li><!--del_lnk--> George Washington National Forest<li><!--del_lnk--> Harpers Ferry National Historical Park<li><!--del_lnk--> Ohio River Islands National Wildlife Refuge</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The native <a href="../../wp/v/Vegetation.htm" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> for most of the state was originally mixed <!--del_lnk--> hardwood <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">forest</a> of <!--del_lnk--> oak, <a href="../../wp/c/Chestnut.htm" title="Chestnut">chestnut</a>, <!--del_lnk--> maple, <!--del_lnk--> beech, and <!--del_lnk--> white pine, with <!--del_lnk--> willow and <!--del_lnk--> American sycamore along the state's waterways. Many of the areas are rich in <a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and scenic beauty, a fact that is appreciated by native West Virginians, who refer to their home as <i>Almost Heaven</i>. Ecologically, most of West Virginia falls into the <!--del_lnk--> Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests <!--del_lnk--> ecoregion.<p>The underlying rock strata are <!--del_lnk--> sandstones, <!--del_lnk--> shales, <!--del_lnk--> bituminous coal beds, and <!--del_lnk--> limestones laid down in a near shore environment from sediments derived from mountains to the east, in a shallow inland sea on the west. Some beds illustrate a <!--del_lnk--> coastal swamp environment, some river delta, some shallow water. Sea level rose and fell many times during the <!--del_lnk--> Mississippian and <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvanian eras, giving a variety of rock strata. The Appalachian Mountains are some of the oldest on earth, having formed over 300 million years ago.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Prehistory" name="Prehistory"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Prehistory</span></h3>
<p>The area now known as West Virginia was a favorite hunting ground of numerous <!--del_lnk--> Native American peoples before the arrival of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="European">European</a> settlers. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various <!--del_lnk--> mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of <!--del_lnk--> Moundsville, <!--del_lnk--> South Charleston, and <!--del_lnk--> Romney. Although little is known about these civilizations, the artifacts uncovered give evidence of a complex, stratified culture that practiced <a href="../../wp/m/Metallurgy.htm" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>.<p><a id="European_exploration_and_settlement" name="European_exploration_and_settlement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">European exploration and settlement</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:200px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/58/5810.jpg.htm" title="Thomas Lee, the first manager of the Ohio Company of Virginia"><img alt="Thomas Lee, the first manager of the Ohio Company of Virginia" height="257" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ThomasLEE.JPG" src="../../images/58/5810.jpg" width="198" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/58/5810.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Lee, the first manager of the <!--del_lnk--> Ohio Company of Virginia</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 1671, General <!--del_lnk--> Abram Wood, at the direction of Royal Governor <!--del_lnk--> William Berkeley of the <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Colony, sent a party which discovered <!--del_lnk--> Kanawha Falls. In 1716, Governor <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Spotswood with about thirty horsemen made an excursion into what is now <!--del_lnk--> Pendleton County. <!--del_lnk--> John Van Metre, an Indian trader, penetrated into the northern portion in 1725. The same year, <!--del_lnk--> German settlers from <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania founded New Mecklenburg, the present <!--del_lnk--> Shepherdstown, on the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac River, and others followed.<p>King <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II of England</a>, in 1661, granted to a company of gentlemen the land between the Potomac and <!--del_lnk--> Rappahannock rivers, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Neck. The grant finally came into the possession of <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, and in 1746, a <!--del_lnk--> stone was erected at the source of the <!--del_lnk--> North Branch Potomac River to mark the western limit of the grant. A considerable part of this land was surveyed by <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> between 1748 and 1751. The diary kept by the surveyor indicates that there were already many squatters, largely of German origin, along the <!--del_lnk--> South Branch Potomac River. Christopher Gist, a surveyor in the employ of the first <!--del_lnk--> Ohio Company, which was composed chiefly of Virginians, explored the country along the <!--del_lnk--> Ohio River north of the mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> Kanawha River between 1751 and 1752. The company sought to have a fourteenth colony established with the name <b><!--del_lnk--> Vandalia</b>. Many settlers crossed the mountains after 1750, though they were hindered by Native American depredations. Presumably, few Native Americans lived within the present limits of the state, but the region was a common hunting ground, crossed also by many war trails. During the <!--del_lnk--> French and Indian War the scattered settlements were almost destroyed.<p>In 1774, the Crown Governor of Virginia <!--del_lnk--> John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, led a force over the mountains, and a body of militia under General Andrew Lewis dealt the <!--del_lnk--> Shawnee Indians, under <!--del_lnk--> Cornstalk, a crushing blow during the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Point Pleasant at the junction of the Kanawha and the Ohio rivers. Native American attacks continued until after the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. During the war, the settlers in Western Virginia were generally active Whigs and many served in the <!--del_lnk--> Continental Army.<p><a id="Trans-Allegheny_Virginia.2C_1776-1861" name="Trans-Allegheny_Virginia.2C_1776-1861"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Trans-Allegheny Virginia, 1776-1861</span></h3>
<p>Social conditions in western Virginia were entirely unlike those in the eastern portion of the state. The population was not homogeneous, as a considerable part of the immigration came by way of Pennsylvania and included Germans, Protestant <!--del_lnk--> Ulster-Scots, and settlers from the states farther north. During the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution, the movement to create a state beyond the Alleghanies was revived and a petition for the establishment of "Westsylvania" was presented to <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Congress.htm" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>, on the grounds that the mountains made an almost impassable barrier on the east. The rugged nature of the country made slavery unprofitable, and time only increased the social, political and economic differences between the two sections of Virginia.<p>The convention which met in 1829 to form a new constitution for Virginia, against the protest of the counties beyond the mountains, required a property qualification for <a href="../../wp/s/Suffrage.htm" title="Suffrage">suffrage</a> and gave the slave-holding counties the benefit of three-fifths of their slave population in apportioning the state's representation in the U.S. House of Representatives. As a result, every county beyond the Alleghenies except one voted to reject the constitution, which nevertheless passed because of eastern support. Though the Virginia constitution of 1850 provided for white male suffrage, the distribution of representation among the counties continued to give control to the section east of the <!--del_lnk--> Blue Ridge Mountains. Another grievance of the west was the large expenditure for internal improvements at state expense by the <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Board of Public Works in the East compared with the scanty proportion allotted to the West.<p><a id="Separation_from_Virginia" name="Separation_from_Virginia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Separation from Virginia</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22849.jpg.htm" title="John S. Carlile, a leader during the First Wheeling Convention"><img alt="John S. Carlile, a leader during the First Wheeling Convention" height="260" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Carlilejohn.jpg" src="../../images/228/22849.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22849.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> John S. Carlile, a leader during the First <!--del_lnk--> Wheeling Convention</div>
</div>
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<p>In 1861, only nine of the forty-six delegates from the area located in present state of West Virginia voted to secede. Almost immediately after the vote to proceed with <!--del_lnk--> secession prevailed in the Virginia General Assembly, a mass meeting at <!--del_lnk--> Clarksburg recommended that each county in northwestern Virginia send delegates to a convention to meet in <!--del_lnk--> Wheeling on <!--del_lnk--> May 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1861. When this First <!--del_lnk--> Wheeling Convention met, 425 delegates from 25 counties were present, but soon there was a division of sentiment. Some delegates favored the immediate formation of a new state, while others argued that, as Virginia's secession had not yet been passed by the required referendum, such action would constitute revolution against the United States. It was decided that if the ordinance was adopted (of which there was little doubt), another convention including the members-elect of the legislature should meet at Wheeling in June. At the election on <!--del_lnk--> May 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1861, secession was ratified by a large majority in the state as a whole, but in the western counties 40,000 votes out of 44,000 were cast against it. Thus, the Restored Government of Virginia was formed with its capital in Wheeling.<p>The Second Wheeling Convention met as agreed on <!--del_lnk--> June 11 and declared that, since the Secession Convention had been called without the consent of the people, all its acts were void, and that all who adhered to it had vacated their offices. An act for the reorganization of the government was passed on <!--del_lnk--> June 19. The next day <!--del_lnk--> Francis H. Pierpont was chosen governor of Virginia, other officers were elected and the convention adjourned. The legislature, composed of the members from the western counties who had been elected on <!--del_lnk--> May 23 and some of the holdover senators who had been elected in 1859, met at Wheeling on <!--del_lnk--> July 1, filled the remainder of the state offices, organized a state government and elected two United States senators who were recognized at <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> At that point, therefore, there were two state governments in Virginia, one pledging allegiance to the United States and one to the <!--del_lnk--> Confederacy.<p>The Wheeling Convention, which had taken a recess until <!--del_lnk--> August 6, then reassembled on <!--del_lnk--> August 20, and called for a popular vote on the formation of a new state and for a convention to frame a constitution if the vote should be favorable. At the election on <!--del_lnk--> October 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1861, 18,489 votes were cast for the new state and only 781 against. The convention began on <!--del_lnk--> November 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1861, and finished its work on <!--del_lnk--> February 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1862, and the instrument was ratified (18,162 for and 514 against) on <!--del_lnk--> April 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1862.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22850.jpg.htm" title="Harpers Ferry (as it appears today) changed hands a dozen times during the American Civil War."><img alt="Harpers Ferry (as it appears today) changed hands a dozen times during the American Civil War." height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Harper%27s_Ferry_seen_from_Maryland_side_of_Potomac_River.jpg" src="../../images/228/22850.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22850.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Harpers Ferry (as it appears today) changed hands a dozen times during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 13, the state legislature of the reorganized government approved the formation of the new state. An application for admission to the Union was made to Congress, and on <!--del_lnk--> December 31 1862, an enabling act was approved by President <a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> admitting West Virginia, on the condition that a provision for the gradual abolition of slavery be inserted in the Constitution. The Convention was reconvened on <!--del_lnk--> February 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1863, and the demand was met. The revised constitution was adopted on <!--del_lnk--> March 26 1863, and on <!--del_lnk--> April 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1863, President Lincoln issued a proclamation admitting the state at the end of sixty days (<!--del_lnk--> June 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1863). Meanwhile officers for the new state were chosen and Governor Pierpont moved his capital to <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria where he asserted jurisdiction over the counties of Virginia within the Federal lines.<p>The question of the constitutionality of the formation of the new state was brought before the <a href="../../wp/s/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States.htm" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> in the following manner: <!--del_lnk--> Berkeley and <!--del_lnk--> Jefferson counties lying on the Potomac east of the mountains, in 1863, with the consent of the reorganized government of Virginia voted in favour of annexation to West Virginia. Many voters absent in the Confederate Army when the vote was taken refused to acknowledge the transfer upon their return. The <!--del_lnk--> Virginia General Assembly repealed the act of secession and in 1866 brought suit against West Virginia asking the court to declare the counties a part of Virginia. Meanwhile, Congress, on <!--del_lnk--> March 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1866, passed a joint resolution recognizing the transfer. The Supreme Court, in 1871, decided in favour of West Virginia.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, West Virginia suffered comparatively little. <!--del_lnk--> George B. McClellan's forces gained possession of the greater part of the territory in the summer of 1861, and Union control was never seriously threatened, in spite of the attempt by <!--del_lnk--> Robert E. Lee in the same year. In 1863, General <!--del_lnk--> John D. Imboden, with 5,000 Confederates, overran a considerable portion of the state. Bands of guerrillas burned and plundered in some sections, and were not entirely suppressed until after the war ended.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22851.jpg.htm" title="First Confederate Memorial, Romney."><img alt="First Confederate Memorial, Romney." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FirstConfederateMemorial.JPG" src="../../images/228/22851.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22851.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> First Confederate Memorial, <!--del_lnk--> Romney.</div>
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<p>The area which became West Virginia furnished about 36,000 soldiers to the Federal armies and somewhat less than 10,000 to the Confederate. The absence in the army of the Confederate sympathizers helps to explain the small vote against the formation of the new state. During the war and for years afterwards partisan feelings ran high. The property of Confederates might be confiscated, and in 1866 a constitutional amendment disfranchising all who had given aid and comfort to the Confederacy was adopted. The addition of the <a href="../../wp/f/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution.htm" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Fifteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution caused a reaction, the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic party secured control in 1870, and in 1871, the constitutional amendment of 1866 was abrogated. The first steps toward this change had been taken, however, by the <!--del_lnk--> Republicans in 1870. On <!--del_lnk--> August 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1872, an entirely new constitution was adopted.<p>Beginning in <!--del_lnk--> Reconstruction, and for several decades thereafter, the two states disputed the new state's share of the pre-war Virginia government's debt, which had mostly been incurred to finance public infrastructure improvements, such as canals, roads, and railroads under the <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Board of Public Works. Virginians, led by former Confederate General <a href="../../wp/w/William_Mahone.htm" title="William Mahone">William Mahone</a>, formed a political coalition which was based upon this theory, the <!--del_lnk--> Readjuster Party. Although West Virginia's first constitution provided for the assumption of a part of the Virginia debt, negotiations opened by Virginia in 1870 were fruitless, and in 1871, that state funded two-thirds of the debt and arbitrarily assigned the remainder to West Virginia. The issue was finally settled in 1915, when the <!--del_lnk--> United States Supreme Court ruled that West Virginia owed Virginia $12,393,929.50. The final installment of this sum was paid off in 1939.<p><a id="Hidden_resources" name="Hidden_resources"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<table border="1" style="float:right; margin: 1em;border-collapse:collapse;">
<caption><b>Historical populations<br /> of West Virginia</b></caption>
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<table>
<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Year</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Population</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1790</td>
<td align="right">55,873</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1800</td>
<td align="right">78,592</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1810</td>
<td align="right">105,469</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1820</td>
<td align="right">136,808</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1830</td>
<td align="right">176,924</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1840</td>
<td align="right">224,537</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1850</td>
<td align="right">302,313</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1860</td>
<td align="right">376,688</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1870</td>
<td align="right">442,014</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1880</td>
<td align="right">618,457</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1890</td>
<td align="right">762,794</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<table>
<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Year</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Population</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1900</td>
<td align="right">958,800</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1910</td>
<td align="right">1,221,119</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1920</td>
<td align="right">1,463,701</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1930</td>
<td align="right">1,729,205</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1940</td>
<td align="right">1,901,974</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1950</td>
<td align="right">2,005,552</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1960</td>
<td align="right">1,860,421</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1970</td>
<td align="right">1,744,237</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td align="right">1,949,644</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
<td align="right">1,793,477</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
<td align="right">1,808,344</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22852.png.htm" title="West Virginia Population Density Map"><img alt="West Virginia Population Density Map" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:West_Virginia_population_map.png" src="../../images/228/22852.png" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22852.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> West Virginia Population Density Map</div>
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</div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> centre of population of West Virginia is located in <!--del_lnk--> Braxton County, in the town of <!--del_lnk--> Gassaway <!--del_lnk--> .<p>As of 2005, West Virginia has an estimated population of 1,816,856, which is an increase of 4,308, or 0.2%, from the prior year and an increase of 8,506, or 0.5%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural decrease since the last census of 3,296 people (that is 108,292 births minus 111,588 deaths) and an increase from net migration of 14,209 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 3,691 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 10,518 people.<table class="wikitable" style="background:white;">
<tr>
<th colspan="6">Demographics of West Virginia <small><!--del_lnk--> (csv)</small></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>By <!--del_lnk--> race</th>
<th>White</th>
<th>Black</th>
<th>AIAN</th>
<th>Asian</th>
<th>NHPI</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="6"><sub>AIAN is American Indian or Alaskan Native - NHPI is Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander</sub></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2000 (total population)</b></td>
<td align="right">96.01%</td>
<td align="right">3.49%</td>
<td align="right">0.59%</td>
<td align="right">0.66%</td>
<td align="right">0.05%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2000 (Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">0.63%</td>
<td align="right">0.04%</td>
<td align="right">0.02%</td>
<td align="right">0.01%</td>
<td align="right">0.01%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2005 (total population)</b></td>
<td align="right">95.99%</td>
<td align="right">3.56%</td>
<td align="right">0.56%</td>
<td align="right">0.69%</td>
<td align="right">0.05%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>2005 (Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">0.80%</td>
<td align="right">0.04%</td>
<td align="right">0.02%</td>
<td align="right">0.01%</td>
<td align="right">0.01%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Growth 2000-2005 (total population)</b></td>
<td align="right">0.46%</td>
<td align="right">2.49%</td>
<td align="right">-3.96%</td>
<td align="right">5.57%</td>
<td align="right">-2.80%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Growth 2000-2005 (non-Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">0.28%</td>
<td align="right">2.30%</td>
<td align="right">-4.24%</td>
<td align="right">5.96%</td>
<td align="right">-0.52%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Growth 2000-2005 (Hispanic only)</b></td>
<td align="right">27.74%</td>
<td align="right">21.51%</td>
<td align="right">5.56%</td>
<td align="right">-20.22%</td>
<td align="right">-16.67%</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Only 1.1% of the state's residents were foreign-born, placing West Virginia last among the 50 states in that statistic. It has the lowest percentage of residents that speak a language other than English in the home (2.7%).<p>The five largest ancestry groups in West Virginia are: <!--del_lnk--> American (23.2%), <!--del_lnk--> German (17.2%), <!--del_lnk--> Irish (13.5%), <!--del_lnk--> English (12%), <!--del_lnk--> Italian (4.8%).<p>Many West Virginians identify their ancestry as "American." It is the largest reported ancestry in most counties in the state, and the state has the highest percentage of residents of "American ancestry" in the nation. This choice often corresponds to <!--del_lnk--> Scots-Irish American heritage.<p>Large numbers of people of German ancestry are present in the northeastern counties of the state.<p>5.6% of West Virginia's population were reported as under 5, 22.3% under 18, and 15.3% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51.4% of the population.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<dd>
</dl>
<p>The economy of West Virginia is one of the most fragile of any <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._state.htm" title="U.S. state">U.S. state</a>. According to <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Census Bureau data, West Virginia is the third lowest in per capita income <!--del_lnk--> , ahead of only <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas and <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi. It also ranks last in median household income.<!--del_lnk--> The proportion of West Virginia's adult population with a bachelor's degree is the lowest in the U.S. at 15.3%.<!--del_lnk--> <p>One of the major resources in West Virginia's economy is <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a>. West Virginia also engaged in oil drilling, but currently only has a few small to medium sized oil and natural gas fields. Farming is also practiced in West Virginia, but on a limited basis because of the mountainous terrain over much of the state.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22853.jpg.htm" title="Bituminous coal seam in southwestern West Virginia"><img alt="Bituminous coal seam in southwestern West Virginia" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coalseam_8618.JPG" src="../../images/228/22853.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22853.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bituminous coal seam in southwestern West Virginia</div>
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</div>
<p>West Virginia personal <!--del_lnk--> income tax is based on federal adjusted gross income (not taxable income), as modified by specific items in West Virginia law. Citizens are taxed within 5 income brackets, which range from 3.0% to 6.5%. Although the state's consumers' <!--del_lnk--> sales tax is levied at 6 cents for $1, 12 cents for $2, 18 cents for $3, and so on, this tax is not a flat 6% applied against the purchase price. Rather, the consumer sales tax is computed on a bracket system.<p>West Virginia counties administer and collect <!--del_lnk--> property taxes, although property tax rates reflect levies for state government, county governments, county boards of education and municipalities. Counties may also impose a <!--del_lnk--> hotel occupancy tax on lodging places not located within the city limits of any municipality that levies such a tax. Municipalities may levy license and <!--del_lnk--> gross receipts taxes on businesses located within the city limits and a hotel occupancy tax on lodging places in the city. Although the Department of Tax and Revenue plays a major role in the administration of this tax, less than one-half of one percent of the property tax collected goes to state government. The primary beneficiaries of the property tax are county boards of education. Property taxes are paid to the <!--del_lnk--> sheriff of each of the state's 55 counties. Each county and municipality can impose its own rates of property taxation within the limits set by the West Virginia Constitution. The West Virginia legislature sets the rate of tax of county boards of education. This rate is used by all county boards of education statewide. However, the total tax rate for county boards of education may differ from county to county because of excess levies. The Department of Tax and Revenue supervises and otherwise assists counties and municipalities in their work of assessment and tax rate determination. The total tax rate is a combination of the tax levies from four state taxing authorities: state, county, schools, and municipal. This total tax rate varies for each of the four classes of property, which consists of personal, real, and intangible properties. Property is assessed according to its use, location, and value as of July 1. All property is reappraised every three years; annual adjustments are made to assessments for property with a change of value. West Virginia does not impose an <!--del_lnk--> inheritance tax. Because of the phase-out of the federal <!--del_lnk--> estate tax credit, West Virginia's estate tax is not imposed on estates of persons who died in 2005.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2>
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<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22854.jpg.htm" title="New River Gorge Bridge"><img alt="New River Gorge Bridge" height="282" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NewRiverGorgeBridgeWV.jpg" src="../../images/228/22854.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22854.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> New River Gorge Bridge</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Highways form the backbone of transportation systems in West Virginia, with over 37,300 miles of public roads in the state. Airports, railroads, and rivers complete the commercial transportation modes for West Virginia. Commercial air travel is facilitated by airports in Charleston, Huntington, Beckley, Lewisburg, Clarksburg, Martinsburg, Morgantown, Wheeling, and Parkersburg. Cities like Charleston, Huntington, Clarksburg, Fairmont, and Logan have bus-based public transit systems. Charleston also has a limited number of <!--del_lnk--> trolley cars that run primarily through the downtown area. <!--del_lnk--> West Virginia University in Morgantown boasts a <!--del_lnk--> PRT (personal rapid transit) system, the state's only <!--del_lnk--> single rail public transit system. Developed by <!--del_lnk--> Boeing, the WVU School of Engineering and the <!--del_lnk--> Department of Transportation, it was a model for low-capacity light transport designed for smaller cities. Recreational transportation opportunities abound in West Virginia, including hiking trails, <!--del_lnk--> rail trails, ATV off road trails, white water rafting rivers, and two tourist railroads (<!--del_lnk--> Cass Scenic Railroad, and the <!--del_lnk--> Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22855.jpg.htm" title="Tolls on the West Virginia Turnpike"><img alt="Tolls on the West Virginia Turnpike" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WVtollbooth.jpg" src="../../images/228/22855.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22855.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tolls on the <!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Turnpike</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>West Virginia is crossed by several <!--del_lnk--> interstate highways. <!--del_lnk--> I-64 enters the state near <!--del_lnk--> White Sulphur Springs in the mountainous east, and exits for <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky in the west, near <!--del_lnk--> Huntington. <!--del_lnk--> I-77 enters from <!--del_lnk--> Virginia in the south, near <!--del_lnk--> Bluefield. It runs north past <!--del_lnk--> Parkersburg before it crosses into <!--del_lnk--> Ohio. <!--del_lnk--> I-64 and <!--del_lnk--> I-77 are merged in a stretch of toll road known as the <!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Turnpike, on which construction began in 1952. It runs from just east of <!--del_lnk--> Charleston south to the exit for <!--del_lnk--> Princeton. <!--del_lnk--> I-68's western terminus is in <!--del_lnk--> Morgantown. From there it runs east into <!--del_lnk--> Maryland. <!--del_lnk--> I-79 enters from Pennsylvania and runs through the state to its southern terminus in <!--del_lnk--> Charleston. <!--del_lnk--> I-70 briefly runs through West Virginia, crossing the northern panhandle through <!--del_lnk--> Wheeling. I-81 also briefly runs through the eastern panhandle where it goes through Martinsburg.<p>Rail lines in the state used to be more prevalent, but many lines have been discontinued because of increased automobile traffic. Many old tracks have been converted to <!--del_lnk--> rail trails for recreational use, and the state is still served by a few commercial lines for hauling coal and by <a href="../../wp/a/Amtrak.htm" title="Amtrak">Amtrak</a>.<p>Because of the mountainous nature of the entire state, West Virginia has several notable tunnels and bridges. The most famous of these is the <!--del_lnk--> New River Gorge Bridge, which was at a time the longest steel-arch bridge in the world with a 3,031 foot (924 m) span. The bridge is also pictured on the West Virginia <!--del_lnk--> state quarter.<p><a id="Law_and_government" name="Law_and_government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Law and government</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>West Virginia's capital and seat of government is the city of <!--del_lnk--> Charleston, located in the southwest area of the state.<p><a id="Legislative_Branch" name="Legislative_Branch"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Legislative Branch</span></h3>
<p>The West Virginia Legislature is <!--del_lnk--> bicameral, consisting of the <!--del_lnk--> House of Delegates and the <!--del_lnk--> Senate. It is a citizen's legislature, meaning that legislative office is not a full-time occupation, but rather a part-time position. Consequently, the legislators often hold a full-time job in their community of residence.<p>Typically, the legislature is in session for 60 days between January and early April. The final day of the regular session ends in a bewildering fury of last-minute legislation in order to meet a constitutionally imposed deadline of midnight. During the remainder of the year, legislators gather periodically for 'special' sessions when called by the governor.<p><a id="Executive_Branch" name="Executive_Branch"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Executive Branch</span></h3>
<p>The governor, elected every four years on the same day as the U.S. Presidential election, is sworn in during the following January.<p>Governors of West Virginia can serve two consecutive terms but must sit out a term before serving a third term in office.<p><a id="Judicial_Branch" name="Judicial_Branch"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Judicial Branch</span></h3>
<p>West Virginia is one of twelve states that does not have a <!--del_lnk--> death penalty.<p>For the purpose of courts of general jurisdiction, the state is divided into 31 judicial circuits. Each circuit is made up of one or more counties. Circuit judges are elected in partisan elections to serve eight-year terms.<p>West Virginia’s highest court is the Supreme Court of Appeals. The Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia is the busiest appellate court of its type in the United States. West Virginia is one of 11 states with a single appellate court. The state constitution allows for the creation of an intermediate court of appeals, but the Legislature has never created one. The Supreme Court is made up of five justices, elected in partisan elections to 12-year terms.<p>West Virginia is an <!--del_lnk--> alcoholic beverage control state. However, unlike most such states, it does not operate retail outlets, having exited that business in 1990. It retains a monopoly on wholesaling of distilled spirits only.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22856.jpg.htm" title="The West Virginia State Capitol"><img alt="The West Virginia State Capitol" height="134" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WV_Capitolbuilding.jpg" src="../../images/228/22856.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22856.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The West Virginia State Capitol</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>West Virginia's politics are largely dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Party, Democrats dominate most local and state offices. West Virginia also has a very strong tradition of union membership. While the state continued its Democratic tradition by supporting <a href="../../wp/b/Bill_Clinton.htm" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> by large margins in 1992 and 1996, a majority of West Virginia voters supported <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> in 2000 and 2004. Bush easily won the state's five electoral votes in 2004 by a margin of 13 percentage points with 56.1% of the vote.<p>The most consistent support for Democrats is found in the <!--del_lnk--> coal fields of <!--del_lnk--> southern West Virginia (especially <!--del_lnk--> McDowell, <!--del_lnk--> Mingo, <!--del_lnk--> Logan, <!--del_lnk--> Wyoming, and <!--del_lnk--> Boone Counties), while <!--del_lnk--> Republicans are most numerous to the east of the <!--del_lnk--> Allegheny Mountains, especially in the state's <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Panhandle and <!--del_lnk--> Potomac Highlands.<p><a id="Important_cities_and_towns" name="Important_cities_and_towns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Important cities and towns</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22857.jpg.htm" title="Charleston is West Virginia's most populous city"><img alt="Charleston is West Virginia's most populous city" height="61" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Charleston_WV_skyline.jpg" src="../../images/228/22857.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22857.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Charleston is West Virginia's most populous city</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Large_cities_.28.2B_10.2C000_population.29" name="Large_cities_.28.2B_10.2C000_population.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Large cities (+ 10,000 population)</span></h3>
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Charleston, 53,421 (2005 estimate: 51,176)<li><!--del_lnk--> Huntington, 51,475 (2005 estimate: 49,198)<li><!--del_lnk--> Parkersburg, 33,099 (2005 estimate: 32,020)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wheeling, 31,419 (2005 estimate: 29,639)<li><!--del_lnk--> Morgantown, 26,809 (2005 estimate: 28,292)<li><!--del_lnk--> Weirton, 20,411 (2005 estimate: 19,544)<li><!--del_lnk--> Fairmont, 19,097 (2005 estimate: 19,049)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beckley, 17,254 (2005 estimate: 16,936)</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Clarksburg, 16,743 (2005 estimate: 16,439)<li><!--del_lnk--> Martinsburg, 14,972 (2005 estimate: 15,996)<li><!--del_lnk--> South Charleston, 13,390 (2005 estimate: 12,700)<li><!--del_lnk--> Teays Valley, 12,704 (2005 estimate: N/A)<li><!--del_lnk--> St. Albans, 11,567 (2005 estimate: 11,105)<li><!--del_lnk--> Bluefield, 11,451 (2005 estimate: 11,119)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vienna, 10,861 (2005 estimate: 10,770)<li><!--del_lnk--> Cross Lanes, 10,353 (2005 estimate: N/A)</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Towns_and_small_cities" name="Towns_and_small_cities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Towns and small cities</span></h3>
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Barboursville<li><!--del_lnk--> Berkeley Springs<li><!--del_lnk--> Bridgeport<li><!--del_lnk--> Buckhannon<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles Town<li><!--del_lnk--> Dunbar<li><!--del_lnk--> Elkins<li><!--del_lnk--> Fayetteville<li><!--del_lnk--> Follansbee</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Grafton<li><!--del_lnk--> Harpers Ferry<li><!--del_lnk--> Hinton<li><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane<li><!--del_lnk--> Kenova<li><!--del_lnk--> Keyser<li><!--del_lnk--> Kingwood<li><!--del_lnk--> Lewisburg<li><!--del_lnk--> Madison</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mannington<li><!--del_lnk--> Marlinton<li><!--del_lnk--> Moorefield<li><!--del_lnk--> Moundsville<li><!--del_lnk--> New Martinsville<li><!--del_lnk--> Nitro<li><!--del_lnk--> Oak Hill<li><!--del_lnk--> Paden City<li><!--del_lnk--> Petersburg</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Philippi<li><!--del_lnk--> Pleasant Valley<li><!--del_lnk--> Point Pleasant<li><!--del_lnk--> Princeton<li><!--del_lnk--> Ranson<li><!--del_lnk--> Ravenswood<li><!--del_lnk--> Richwood<li><!--del_lnk--> Ripley<li><!--del_lnk--> Romney</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Salem<li><!--del_lnk--> Shepherdstown<li><!--del_lnk--> Summersville<li><!--del_lnk--> Welch<li><!--del_lnk--> Wellsburg<li><!--del_lnk--> Weston<li><!--del_lnk--> Westover<li><!--del_lnk--> White Sulphur Springs<li><!--del_lnk--> Williamson</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Metropolitan_Statistical_Areas" name="Metropolitan_Statistical_Areas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Metropolitan Statistical Areas</span></h3>
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Charleston, WV MSA<li>Cumberland, MD-WV MSA<li>Hagerstown-Martinsburg, MD-WV MSA<li>Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY-OH MSA<li>Morgantown, WV MSA<li>Parkersburg-Marietta-Vienna, WV-OH MSA</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li>Pittsburgh, PA-WV MSA<li><!--del_lnk--> Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV MSA<li>Weirton-Steubenville, WV-OH MSA<li>Wheeling, WV-OH MSA<li><!--del_lnk--> Winchester, VA-WV MSA</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Micropolitan_Statistical_Areas" name="Micropolitan_Statistical_Areas"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Micropolitan Statistical Areas</span></h3>
<table border="0">
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li>Beckley, WV <!--del_lnk--> Micropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)<li>Bluefield, WV-VA MSA<li>Clarksburg, WV MSA</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li>Fairmont, WV MSA<li>Oak Hill, WV MSA<li>Point Pleasant, WV-OH MSA</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><a id="Colleges_and_universities" name="Colleges_and_universities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Colleges and universities</span></h3>
<table>
<tr>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Alderson-Broaddus College<li><!--del_lnk--> Appalachian Bible College<li><!--del_lnk--> Bethany College<li><!--del_lnk--> Bluefield State College<li><!--del_lnk--> Concord University<li><!--del_lnk--> Davis and Elkins College<li><!--del_lnk--> Fairmont State University<li><!--del_lnk--> Glenville State College<li><!--del_lnk--> Marshall University<li><!--del_lnk--> Mountain State University<li><!--del_lnk--> Ohio Valley University<li><!--del_lnk--> Salem International University</ul>
</td>
<td valign="top">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Shepherd University<li><!--del_lnk--> University of Charleston<li><!--del_lnk--> West Liberty State College<li><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Northern Community College<li><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine<li><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia State University<li><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia University<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Potomac State College of West Virginia University<li><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia University Institute of Technology<li><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia University at Parkersburg</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Wesleyan College<li><!--del_lnk--> Wheeling Jesuit University</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Professional_sports_teams" name="Professional_sports_teams"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Professional sports teams</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Club</th>
<th>Sport</th>
<th>League</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bluefield Orioles</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" title="Baseball">Baseball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Appalachian League</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Princeton Devil Rays</td>
<td>Baseball</td>
<td>Appalachian League</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Power</td>
<td>Baseball</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South Atlantic League</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wheeling Nailers</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ECHL</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Wild</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">Basketball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> International Basketball League</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Huntington Heroes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Indoor football</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> World Indoor Football League</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ohio Valley Greyhounds</td>
<td>Indoor football</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> United Indoor Football</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> West Virginia Chaos</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Soccer">Soccer</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> USL Premier Development League</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Virginia"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Western Front (World War I)</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Military_History_and_War.htm">Military History and War</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; font-size: 95%; text-align: left;">
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Western Front</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: lightsteelblue;">Part of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14812.jpg.htm" title="Trench warfare on the western front"><img alt="Trench warfare on the western front" height="241" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Trencheswwi2.jpg" src="../../images/284/28436.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /> For most of World War I, Allied and German Forces were stalled in <a href="../../wp/t/Trench_warfare.htm" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a> along the Western Front.</td>
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<td colspan="2">
<table class="infobox" style="margin: 0; cellpadding: 0; padding: 0; border: 0;" width="100%">
<tr>
<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th>
<td>1914 – 1918</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">northeastern France</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-right: 1em;">Result</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Allied victory</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Combatants</th>
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<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/11/1141.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium.svg" src="../../images/11/1141.png" width="20" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a><br /> British Empire<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/13/1305.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Australia<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14818.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Canada-1868-Red.svg" src="../../images/148/14818.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Canada<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1304.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Imperial-India-Blue-Ensign.svg" src="../../images/13/1304.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> India<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14819.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Newfoundland.svg" src="../../images/148/14819.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Newfoundland<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/29/2940.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg" src="../../images/13/1306.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/148/14820.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:South_Africa_Red_Ensign.png" src="../../images/148/14820.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> South Africa<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/12/1293.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/12/1296.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> France and French Overseas Empire<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1311.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy_%281861-1946%29.svg" src="../../images/13/1311.png" width="20" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/5/557.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Portugal.svg" src="../../images/48/4879.png" width="20" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a><br /><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18784.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia.svg" src="../../images/37/3798.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Russia<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/12/1294.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_flag_48_stars.svg" src="../../images/12/1294.png" width="20" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2228.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg" src="../../images/22/2228.png" width="20" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Germany</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Commanders</th>
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<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">No unified command until 1918, then <!--del_lnk--> Maréchal Ferdinand Foch</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> Moltke --> <!--del_lnk--> Falkenhayn --> <!--del_lnk--> Hindenburg and <!--del_lnk--> Ludendorff --> Hindenburg and <!--del_lnk--> Groener</td>
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<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;">Casualties</th>
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<tr>
<td style="border-right: 1px dotted #aaa;" width="50%">~4,800,000</td>
<td style="padding-left: 0.25em;" width="50%">Unknown</td>
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<table class="infobox" style="width: 315px; border-spacing: 2px; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;">
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<th><strong class="selflink">Western Front</strong></th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Frontiers – <!--del_lnk--> Liège – <!--del_lnk--> Antwerp – <!--del_lnk--> Great Retreat – <!--del_lnk--> Race to the Sea – <!--del_lnk--> Neuve Chapelle – <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Ypres – <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Artois – <!--del_lnk--> Hill 70 – <!--del_lnk--> 3rd Artois – <!--del_lnk--> Loos – <!--del_lnk--> Verdun – <!--del_lnk--> Hulluch – <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Somme_%25281916%2529.htm" title="Battle of the Somme (1916)">Somme</a> – <!--del_lnk--> Arras – <!--del_lnk--> Vimy Ridge – <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Aisne – <!--del_lnk--> Messines – <!--del_lnk--> Passchendaele – <!--del_lnk--> Cambrai – <!--del_lnk--> Lys – <!--del_lnk--> 3rd Aisne – <!--del_lnk--> Belleau Wood – <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Marne – <!--del_lnk--> Château-Thierry – <!--del_lnk--> Hamel – <!--del_lnk--> Hundred Days</td>
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<p>Following the outbreak of the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a> in 1914, the <!--del_lnk--> German army opened the <b>Western Front</b> by first invading <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of the Marne. Both sides then dug in along a meandering line of fortified <a href="../../wp/t/Trench_warfare.htm" title="Trench warfare">trenches</a>, stretching from the <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> to the <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Swiss</a> frontier with France. This line remained essentially unchanged for most of the war.<p>Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this <!--del_lnk--> front. The attacks employed massive <!--del_lnk--> artillery bombardments and massed <!--del_lnk--> infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, <!--del_lnk--> machine gun nests, <!--del_lnk--> barbed wire, and <!--del_lnk--> artillery repeatedly inflicted severe casualties on the attackers and counter attacking defenders. As a result, no significant advances were made.<p>In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of <!--del_lnk--> new military technology, including <!--del_lnk--> poison gas, <a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, and <a href="../../wp/t/Tank.htm" title="Tank">tanks</a>. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored.<p>In spite of the generally stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The inexorable advance of the <!--del_lnk--> Allied armies in 1918 persuaded the German commanders that defeat was inevitable, and the government was forced to sue for conditions of an armistice.<p>
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</script><a name="1914_.E2.80.94_German_invasion_of_France_and_Belgium"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">1914 — German invasion of France and Belgium</span></h2>
<p>At the outbreak of the First World War, the German army executed a modified version of the <!--del_lnk--> Schlieffen Plan, designed to quickly attack France through Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. Armies under German generals <!--del_lnk--> Alexander von Kluck and <!--del_lnk--> Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on <!--del_lnk--> 4 August <!--del_lnk--> 1914. <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> had been occupied without opposition on <!--del_lnk--> 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Liège, which lasted from <!--del_lnk--> 5 August to <!--del_lnk--> 16 August. Liège was well fortified and surprised the German army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian army <!--del_lnk--> retreated to <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Namur. Although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their <!--del_lnk--> flank. Another <a href="../../wp/s/Siege.htm" title="Siege">siege</a> followed at Namur, lasting from about the <!--del_lnk--> 20 August until <!--del_lnk--> 23 August.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28437.jpg.htm" title="Map of the Western Front and the Race to the Sea, 1914"><img alt="Map of the Western Front and the Race to the Sea, 1914" height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Western_front_1914.jpg" src="../../images/284/28437.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28437.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the Western Front and the <!--del_lnk--> Race to the Sea, 1914</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/265/26508.jpg.htm" title="French bayonet charge"><img alt="French bayonet charge" height="108" longdesc="/wiki/Image:French_bayonet_charge.jpg" src="../../images/265/26508.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/265/26508.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> French <!--del_lnk--> bayonet charge</div>
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<p>The pre-war French offensive plan, <i><!--del_lnk--> Plan XVII</i>, was intended to capture <!--del_lnk--> Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities. The main offensive was launched on <!--del_lnk--> 14 August with attacks on <!--del_lnk--> Saarburg in Lorraine and <!--del_lnk--> Mülhausen in Alsace. In keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting maximum losses upon the French. The French advanced toward the <!--del_lnk--> Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg before being driven back. The French had captured Mülhausen but abandoned it to reinforce the greatly weakened forces in Lorraine.<p>After marching through Belgium, Luxembourg and the <!--del_lnk--> Ardennes forest, the German army advanced, in the latter half of August, into northern France where they met both the French army, under <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Joffre, and the initial <!--del_lnk--> divisions of the <!--del_lnk--> British Expeditionary Force, under <!--del_lnk--> Sir John French. A series of <!--del_lnk--> engagements known as the <!--del_lnk--> Battles of the Frontiers ensued. Key battles included the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Charleroi and the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Mons. A general Allied retreat followed, resulting in more clashes such as the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Le Cateau, the <!--del_lnk--> Siege of Maubeuge and the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Guise.<p>The German army came within 43 <!--del_lnk--> miles (70 <!--del_lnk--> km) of <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, but at the <!--del_lnk--> First Battle of the Marne (<!--del_lnk--> 6 September – <!--del_lnk--> 12 September), French and British troops were able to force a German retreat, ending their advance into France. The German army retreated north of the <!--del_lnk--> Aisne River and dug in there, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that was to last for the next three years. Following this German setback, the opposing forces tried to outflank each other in the <!--del_lnk--> Race for the Sea, and quickly extended their trench systems from the <a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> to the <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Swiss frontier</a>.<p>On the Entente side, the front was occupied by the armies of the allied countries in lengths according to their respective manpower. From the coast in the north, these were Belgium, Portugal, British Empire and France. As the war progressed, however, units were moved to strengthen the efforts of other nations, mainly on the long French front. Here British divisions were fairly prominent and smaller units from Russia and Italy were engaged partially as an expression of political solidarity. For example, British infantry and Italian artillery cooperated with French V Army in the <!--del_lnk--> Ardre Valley during the <!--del_lnk--> Second Battle of the Marne, in July 1918. At this, later stage in the war, American forces too, were available to be employed in a similar way, though usually in bigger units.<p><a name="1915_.E2.80.94_Stalemate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">1915 — Stalemate</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28438.jpg.htm" title="Map of the Western Front, 1915–16"><img alt="Map of the Western Front, 1915–16" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Western_front_1915-16.jpg" src="../../images/284/28438.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28438.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the Western Front, 1915–16</div>
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<p>Between the coast and the <!--del_lnk--> Vosges was an outward bulge in the trench line, named the <!--del_lnk--> Noyon salient for the captured French town at the maximum point of advance near <!--del_lnk--> Compiègne. Joffre's plan of attack for 1915 was to attack this salient on both flanks in order to cut it off. The British would form the northern attack force by pressing eastward in <!--del_lnk--> Artois, while the French attacked in <!--del_lnk--> Champagne.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 10 March, as part of what was intended as a larger offensive in the Artois region, the <!--del_lnk--> British and <!--del_lnk--> Canadian army <!--del_lnk--> attacked at Neuve Chapelle in an effort to capture the Aubers Ridge. The assault was made by four divisions along a 2 mile (3 km) front. Preceded by a concentrated <!--del_lnk--> bombardment lasting 35 minutes, the initial assault made rapid progress, and the village was captured within four hours. However, the assault slowed because of problems with <a href="../../wp/l/Logistics.htm" title="Logistics">logistics</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Communication.htm" title="Communication">communications</a>. The Germans then brought up <!--del_lnk--> reserves and <!--del_lnk--> counter-attacked, forestalling the attempt to capture the ridge. Since the British had used about one-third of their total supply of <!--del_lnk--> artillery shells, General Sir John French blamed the failure on the shortage of shells, despite the success of the initial attack.<p><a id="Gas_warfare" name="Gas_warfare"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gas warfare</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28439.jpg.htm" title="An artist's rendition of Canadian troops at the Second Battle of Ypres."><img alt="An artist's rendition of Canadian troops at the Second Battle of Ypres." height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Second_Battle_of_Ypres.jpg" src="../../images/284/28439.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28439.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An artist's rendition of <!--del_lnk--> Canadian troops at the <!--del_lnk--> Second Battle of Ypres.</div>
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<p>Despite the German plans to maintain the stalemate with the French and British, German commanders planned an offensive at the <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> town of <!--del_lnk--> Ypres, which the British had captured in November 1914 during the <!--del_lnk--> First Battle of Ypres. This was in order to divert attention away from major offensives in the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Front while disrupting Franco-British planning and to test a new weapon. After a two-day bombardment, on <!--del_lnk--> 22 April, the Germans released <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine gas</a> onto the battlefield which drifted into the British trenches. The green-yellow cloud <!--del_lnk--> asphyxiated the defenders and those in the rear fled in <!--del_lnk--> panic creating an undefended four-mile-wide gap in the Allied line. However, the Germans were unprepared for the level of their success and lacked sufficient reserves to exploit the opening. <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canadian</a> troops quickly arrived and drove back the German advance. This <!--del_lnk--> Second Battle of Ypres marked the first large-scale use of <!--del_lnk--> chemical weapons, where 170 <!--del_lnk--> tonnes were dropped on the allied lines, resulting in the deaths of 5,000 men within minutes, despite being prohibited by the <!--del_lnk--> Hague Convention of 1899.<p>The gas attack was repeated two days later and caused a three-mile withdrawal of the Franco-British line. But the opportunity had been lost. The success of this attack would not be repeated, as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other <!--del_lnk--> countermeasures. An example of the success of these measures came a year later, on <!--del_lnk--> 27 April, when 25 miles (40 km) to the south of Ypres, at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Hulluch, the <!--del_lnk--> 16th (Irish) Division's troops were able to withstand determined German gas attacks.<p><a id="Air_warfare" name="Air_warfare"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Air warfare</span></h3>
<p>This year also saw the introduction of airplanes specifically modified for aerial combat. While planes had already been used in the war for scouting, on April 1 the French pilot <a href="../../wp/f/French_Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="Roland Garros">Roland Garros</a> became the first to shoot down an enemy plane by using machine guns that fired forward through the propeller blades. This was achieved by crudely reinforcing the blades so bullets which hit them were deflected away.<p>Several weeks later Garros was forced to land behind German lines. His plane was captured and sent to the Dutch engineer <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Fokker, who soon developed a significant improvement, the <!--del_lnk--> interrupter gear, in which the machine gun is synchronized with the propellor so that it shoots rounds when the propellor isn't in the line of fire. This advance was quickly ushered into service, in the <!--del_lnk--> Fokker E.1 (<i>Eindekker</i>, or monoplane, Mark 1), the first true fighter aircraft; <!--del_lnk--> Max Immelmann scored the first kill in an <i>Eindekker</i> 1 August.<p>This started a back-and-forth arms race, as both sides developed improved weapons, better engines, etc., which would continue until end of the war. It also inaugurated the cult of the ace, the most famous being the <!--del_lnk--> Red Baron.<p><a id="Continued_Allied_attacks" name="Continued_Allied_attacks"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Continued Allied attacks</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28440.jpg.htm" title="The ruins of Carency after it was recaptured by France."><img alt="The ruins of Carency after it was recaptured by France." height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Capture_of_Carency_aftermath_1915_1.jpg" src="../../images/284/28440.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28440.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The ruins of <!--del_lnk--> Carency after it was recaptured by France.</div>
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<p>The final Allied offensive of the spring was fought at <!--del_lnk--> Artois, with the goal of trying to capture the <!--del_lnk--> Vimy Ridge. The French 10th Army attacked on <!--del_lnk--> 9 May after a six-day bombardment and advanced 3 miles (5 km). However, they retreated as they had come into sights of machine gun nests and the German reinforcements fired artillery at the attackers. By <!--del_lnk--> 15 May the offensive had ground to a halt.<p>During autumn of 1915, the "<!--del_lnk--> Fokker Scourge" began to have an effect on the battlefront as Allied spotter planes were nearly driven from the skies. These <!--del_lnk--> reconnaissance planes were used to direct gunnery and <!--del_lnk--> photograph enemy fortifications, but now the Allies were nearly blinded by German fighters.<p>In September 1915 the Allies launched major offensives with the French <!--del_lnk--> attacking at Champagne and the British at <!--del_lnk--> Loos. The French had spent the summer preparing for this action, with the British assuming control of more of the front in order to free up French troops. The bombardment, which had been carefully targeted by means of <!--del_lnk--> aerial photography, began on <!--del_lnk--> 22 September. The main assault was launched on <!--del_lnk--> 25 September and, at least at first, made good progress in spite of surviving wire entanglements and machine gun posts. However, forseeing this attack, the Germans had developed defensive lines 2 and 4 miles (3 and 6 km) behind the front lines and were able to defend against the French attack which lasted into November.<p>Also on <!--del_lnk--> 25 September, the British began their <!--del_lnk--> assault at Loos, which was meant to supplement the larger Champagne attack. The attack was preceded by a four-day artillery bombardment of 250,000 shells and a release of 5,100 cylinders of <a href="../../wp/c/Chlorine.htm" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> gas. The attack involved two corps in the main assault and two more corps performing diversionary attacks at Ypres. The British suffered heavy losses, especially due to machine gun fire, during the attack and made only limited gains before they ran out of shells. A renewal of the attack on <!--del_lnk--> 13 October fared little better. In December, British General <!--del_lnk--> John French was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Haig as commander of the British forces.<p><a name="1916_.E2.80.94_Artillery_duels_and_attrition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">1916 — Artillery duels and attrition</span></h2>
<p>The German Chief of Staff, <!--del_lnk--> Erich von Falkenhayn, believed that a breakthrough might no longer be possible, and instead focused on forcing a French capitulation by inflicting massive casualties. His new goal was to "bleed France white".<p>As such, he adopted two new strategies. The first was the use of <!--del_lnk--> unrestricted submarine warfare to cut off Allied supplies arriving from overseas. The second would be targeted, high-casualty attacks against the French ground troops. To inflict the maximum possible casualties, he planned to attack a position from which the French could not retreat for reason of both strategic positions and <!--del_lnk--> national pride and thus trap the French. The town of <!--del_lnk--> Verdun was chosen for this because it was an important stronghold, surrounded by a ring of forts, that lay near the German lines and because it guarded the direct route to <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>. The operation was codenamed <i>Gericht</i>, German for "court", but meant "place of execution".<p>Falkenhayn limited the size of the front to 3–4 miles (5–7 km) to concentrate their firepower and to prevent a breakthrough from a counteroffensive. He also kept tight control of the main reserve, feeding in just enough troops to keep the battle going. In preparation for their attack, the Germans had amassed a concentration of aircraft near the fortress. In the opening phase, they swept the air space of enemy spotters which allowed the accurate German artillery spotters and bombers to operate without interference. However, by May, the French countered by deploying <i>escadrilles de chasse</i> with superior <!--del_lnk--> Nieuport fighters. The tight air space over Verdun turned into an aerial battlefield, and illustrated the value of tactical <!--del_lnk--> air superiority, as each side sought to dominate air reconnaissance.<p><a id="Battle_of_Verdun" name="Battle_of_Verdun"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Battle of Verdun</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28441.jpg.htm" title="The remains of German soldiers at Verdun."><img alt="The remains of German soldiers at Verdun." height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:German_dead_at_Verdun.jpg" src="../../images/284/28441.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28441.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The remains of German soldiers at Verdun.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Verdun began on 21 February 1916 after a nine-day delay due to snow and blizzards. After a massive eight-hour artillery bombardment, the Germans did not expect much resistance as they slowly advanced on Verdun and its forts. However, heavy French resistance was countered by the introduction of <!--del_lnk--> flamethrowers by the Germans. The French lost control of almost all of their forts, including <!--del_lnk--> Fort Douaumont. Nonetheless, French reinforcements halted the German advance by 28 February.<p>The Germans turned their focus to Le Mort Homme to the north from which the French were successfully shelling them. After some of the most intense fighting of the campaign, the hill was taken by the Germans in late May. After a change in French command at Verdun from the defensive-minded <!--del_lnk--> Philippe Pétain to the offensive-minded <!--del_lnk--> Robert Nivelle the French attempted to re-capture Fort Douaumont on 22 May but were easily repulsed. The Germans captured <!--del_lnk--> Fort Vaux on 7 June and, with the aid of the gas <!--del_lnk--> phosgene, came within 1,200 yards (1 km) of the last ridge over Verdun before stopping on 23 June.<p>Over the summer, the French slowly advanced. With the development of the <!--del_lnk--> rolling barrage, the French recaptured Fort Vaux in November, and by December 1916 they had pushed the Germans back 1.3 miles (2 km) from Fort Douaumont.<p><a id="Battle_of_the_Somme" name="Battle_of_the_Somme"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Battle of the Somme</span></h3>
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<p>In the spring allied commanders had been concerned about the ability of the French army to withstand the enormous losses at Verdun. The original plans for an attack around the river Somme were modified to let the British make the main effort. This would serve to relieve pressure on the French, as well as the <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russians</a> who had also suffered great losses. On 1 July, after a week of heavy rain, British divisions in <!--del_lnk--> Picardy launched an <!--del_lnk--> attack around the river Somme, supported by five French divisions on their right flank. The attack had been preceded by seven days of heavy artillery bombardment. The experienced French forces were successful in advancing but the British artillery cover had neither blasted away barbed wire, nor destroyed German trenches as effectively as was planned. They suffered the greatest number of casualties (killed, wounded and missing) in a single day in the history of the British army, about 57,000.<p>Having assessed the air combat over Verdun, the Allies had new aircraft for the attack in the Somme valley. The Verdun lesson learnt, the Allies' tactical aim became the achievement of <!--del_lnk--> air superiority and the German planes were, indeed, largely swept from the skies over the Somme. The success of the Allied air offensive caused a reorganization of the German air arm, and both sides began using large formations of aircraft rather than relying on individual combat.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23724.jpg.htm" title="British infantry advance near Gingy."><img alt="British infantry advance near Gingy." height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:British_infantry_Morval_25_September_1916.jpg" src="../../images/237/23724.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23724.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> British infantry advance near Gingy.</div>
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<p>After regrouping, the battle continued throughout July and August, with some success for the British despite the reinforcement of the German lines. By August General Haig had concluded that a breakthrough was unlikely, and instead switched tactics to a series of <!--del_lnk--> small unit actions. The effect was to straighten out the front line, which was thought necessary in preparation for a massive artillery bombardment with a major push.<p>The final phase of the battle of the Somme saw the first use of the <a href="../../wp/t/Tank.htm" title="Tank">tank</a> on the battlefield. The Allies prepared an attack that would involve 13 British and Imperial divisions and four French corps. The attack made early progress, advancing 3,500–4,500 yards (3.2–4.1 km) in places, but the tanks had little effect due to their lack of numbers and mechanical unreliability. The final phase of the battle took place in October and early November, again producing limited gains with heavy loss of life. All told, the Somme battle had made penetrations of only five miles (8 km), and failed to reach the original objectives. The Allies had suffered over 600,000 casualties and the Germans over 460,000, though these figures are disputed.<p>The Somme led directly to major new developments in infantry organization and tactics; despite the terrible losses of 1 July, some divisions had managed to achieve their objectives with minimal casualties. In examining the reasons behind losses and achievements, the British, and the Colonial contingents, reintroduced the concept of the infantry platoon, following in the footsteps of the French and German armies who were already groping their way towards the use of small tactical units. At the time of the Somme, British senior commanders insisted that the company (120 men) was the smallest unit of maneuver; less than a year later, the section of 10 men would be so. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Hindenburg_line" name="Hindenburg_line"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hindenburg line</span></h3>
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<dd>
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<p>In August 1916 the German leadership along the western front had changed as Falkenhayn resigned and was replaced by Generals <!--del_lnk--> Paul von Hindenburg and <!--del_lnk--> Erich Ludendorff. The new leaders soon recognized that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted the offensive capabilities of the German army. They decided that the German army in the west would go over to the strategic defensive for most of 1917, while the Central powers would attack elsewhere.<p>During the Somme battle and through the winter months, the Germans created a <!--del_lnk--> prepared defensive position behind a section of their front that would be called the Hindenburg Line. This was intended to shorten the German front, freeing a number of divisions for other duties. This line of fortifications ran from <!--del_lnk--> Arras south to <!--del_lnk--> St Quentin. British long-range reconnaissance aircraft first spotted the construction of the Hindenburg Line in November 1916.<p><a name="1917_.E2.80.94_British_Empire_takes_the_lead"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">1917 — British Empire takes the lead</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28442.jpg.htm" title="Map of the Western Front, 1917"><img alt="Map of the Western Front, 1917" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Western_Front_1917.jpg" src="../../images/284/28442.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28442.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the Western Front, 1917</div>
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<p>The staged withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line was named <i>Operation Alberich</i> by the Germans. It was begun on <!--del_lnk--> 9 February and completed <!--del_lnk--> 5 April, leaving behind a <!--del_lnk--> devastated territory to be occupied by the Allies. The withdrawal ranged from 6 to 31 miles (10 to 50 km) from the original front lines. This withdrawal negated the French strategy of attacking both flanks of the Noyon salient, as it no longer existed. However, offensive advances by the British continued as the <!--del_lnk--> High Command claimed, with some justice, that this withdrawal resulted from the battering the Germans received during the Battle of the Somme.<p>Meanwhile, on <!--del_lnk--> 6 April the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> declared war on Germany. Back in early 1915 following the sinking of the <!--del_lnk--> Lusitania, Germany had stopped their unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic because of concerns of drawing the United States into the conflict. With the growing discontent of the German public due to the food shortages, however, the government resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917. They had calculated that a successful submarine siege of Britain would force that country out of the war within six months, while American forces would take a year to become a serious factor on the western front. The <!--del_lnk--> submarine had a brief period of success before Britain resorted to the convoy system, bringing a dramatic reduction in shipping losses.<p>In April 1917 the British Empire forces launched an attack starting the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Arras. Despite the success of the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Corps and the <!--del_lnk--> British 5th Infantry Division, in breaking through German lines at <!--del_lnk--> Vimy Ridge, the Allies could not capitalize due to the refusal to provide reinforcements to the region.<p>During the winter of 1916–17, German air tactics had been improved, a fighter training school was opened at <!--del_lnk--> Valenciennes and better aircraft with twin guns were introduced. The result was near disastrous losses for Allied air power, particularly for the British, who were struggling with outmoded aircraft, poor training and weak tactics. As a result the Allied air successes over the Somme would not be repeated, and heavy losses were inflicted by the Germans. During their attack at Arras, the British lost 316 <!--del_lnk--> air crews compared to 114 lost by the Germans. This became known to the RFC as <!--del_lnk--> Bloody April.<p><a id="French_morale" name="French_morale"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">French morale</span></h3>
<p>The same month, French General <!--del_lnk--> Robert Nivelle ordered a new offensive against the German trenches, promising that it would be a war-winner. The attack, dubbed the <!--del_lnk--> Nivelle Offensive (also known as <!--del_lnk--> Chemin des Dames, after the area where the offensive took place), would be 1.2 million men strong, to be preceded by a week-long artillery bombardment and accompanied by tanks. However, the operation proceeded poorly as the French troops had to negotiate rough, upward-sloping terrain. In addition, detailed planning had been dislocated by the voluntary German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line, secrecy had been compromised, and German planes gained control of the sky making reconnaissance difficult. This allowed the <!--del_lnk--> creeping barrage to move too far ahead of the advancing troops. Within a week 100,000 French troops were dead. Despite the heavy casualties and his promise to halt the offensive if it did not produce a breakthrough, Nivelle ordered the attack continued into May.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 3 May the weary French 2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun, refused their orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons. Their officers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not implemented. The <!--del_lnk--> mutinies afflicted 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert. Instead, appeals to patriotism and duty encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although they refused to participate in further offensive action. By <!--del_lnk--> 15 May Nivelle was removed from command, replaced by General <!--del_lnk--> Henri Philippe Pétain, who suspended large-scale attacks. The French would go on the defensive for the next year, leaving the burden of attack to Britain and her Empire.<p><a id="British_offensives.2C_American_troops_arrive" name="British_offensives.2C_American_troops_arrive"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">British offensives, American troops arrive</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 7 June a British offensive was launched on <!--del_lnk--> Messines ridge, south of Ypres, to retake the ground lost in the First Battle of Ypres in 1914. Since 1915 engineers had been digging tunnels under the ridge, and 455 <!--del_lnk--> tonnes (1,000,000 <!--del_lnk--> lb) of ammonal explosives had been planted in 21 mines under the enemy lines. Following four days of heavy bombardment, the explosives in 19 of these mines were set off resulting in the deaths of 10,000 Germans. The offensive that followed again relied on heavy bombardment, but these failed to dislodge the Germans. The offensive, though initially stunningly successful, faltered due to the flooded, muddy ground, and both sides suffered heavy casualties.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 11 July <!--del_lnk--> 1917 during this battle, the Germans introduced a new weapon into the war when they fired gas shells delivered by artillery. The limited size of an artillery shell required that a more potent gas be deployed, and so the Germans employed <!--del_lnk--> mustard gas, a powerful blistering agent. The artillery deployment allowed heavy concentrations of the gas to be used on selected targets. Mustard gas was also a persistent agent, which could linger for up to several days at a site, an additional demoralizing factor for their opponents. Along with <!--del_lnk--> phosgene, gas would be used lavishly by both German and Allied forces in later battles, as the Allies also began to increase production of <a href="../../wp/p/Poison_gas_in_World_War_I.htm" title="Poison gas in World War I">gas for chemical warfare</a>.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 25 June the first U.S. troops began to arrive in France, forming the <!--del_lnk--> American Expeditionary Force. However, the American units did not enter the trenches in <!--del_lnk--> divisional strength until October. The incoming troops required training and equipment before they could join in the effort, and for several months American units were relegated to support efforts. In spite of this, however, their presence provided a much-needed boost to Allied morale.<p>Beginning in late July and continuing into October the struggle around Ypres was renewed with the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Passchendaele (technically the Third Battle of Ypres, of which Passchendaele was the final phase). The battle had the original aim of pushing through the German lines and threatening the submarine bases on the Belgian coast, but was later restricted to advancing the British Army onto higher (and drier) ground around Ypres, no longer constantly under observation from German artillery. <!--del_lnk--> Canadian veterans from the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Vimy Ridge and the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Hill 70 joined the depleted <!--del_lnk--> ANZAC and British forces and took the village of Passchendaele on <!--del_lnk--> 30 October despite extremely heavy rain and casualties (suffering around 16,000 casualties). Again the offensive produced large numbers of casualties for relatively little gain, though the British made small but inexorable gains during periods of drier weather. The ground was generally muddy and pocketed by shell craters, making supply missions and further advancement very difficult. Both sides lost a combined total of over a half million men during this offensive. The battle has become a byword for bloody and futile slaughter among British historians, whilst the Germans called Passchendaele "the greatest martyrdom of the War". It is one of the two battles (the other is the Battle of the Somme) which have done most to earn British Commander in Chief Sir <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Haig his controversial reputation.<p><a id="Battle_of_Cambrai" name="Battle_of_Cambrai"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Battle of Cambrai</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 20 November the British launched the first massed tank attack during the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Cambrai. The British attacked with 324 tanks, with one-third held in reserve, and twelve divisions, against two German divisions. To maintain surprise, there was no preparatory bombardment; only a curtain of smoke was laid down before the tanks. The machines carried <!--del_lnk--> fascines on their fronts to bridge trenches and 4 m-wide (12-foot-wide) German tank traps. Except for the <!--del_lnk--> 51st (Highland) Division, who did not advance in columns behind the tanks but as a line across the field, the initial attack was a success for the British. The British forces penetrated further in six hours than had been achieved at the Third Ypres in four months, and at a cost of only 4,000 British casualties.<p>However, the advance produced an awkward salient and a surprise German counteroffensive on <!--del_lnk--> 30 November drove the British back to their starting lines. Despite the reversal, the attack had been seen as a success by the Allies as it proved that tanks could overcome trench defences. The battle had also seen the first massed use of German <i><!--del_lnk--> stosstruppen</i> on the western front, which used infantry <!--del_lnk--> infiltration tactics to successfully penetrate the allied lines.<p><a name="1918_.E2.80.94_Final_offensives"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">1918 — Final offensives</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28443.jpg.htm" title="Map of the final German offensives, 1918"><img alt="Map of the final German offensives, 1918" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Western_front_1918_german.jpg" src="../../images/284/28443.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28443.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the final German offensives, 1918</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Following the successful Allied attack and penetration of the German defences at Cambrai, Ludendorff determined that the only opportunity for German victory now lay in a decisive attack along the western front during the spring, before American manpower became a significant presence. On <!--del_lnk--> 3 March <!--del_lnk--> 1918, the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed, and Russia withdrew from the war. This would now have a dramatic effect on the conflict as 44 divisions were now released from <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Front for deployment to the west. This would give them an advantage of 192 divisions to the Allied 173 divisions, which allowed Germany to pull veteran units from the line and retrain them as <i><!--del_lnk--> sturmtruppen</i>. In contrast, the Allies still lacked a unified command and suffered from morale and manpower problems: the British and French armies were sorely depleted, and American troops had not yet transitioned into a combat role.<p>Ludendorff's strategy would be to launch a massive offensive against the British designed to separate them from the French and drive them back to the channel ports. The attack would combine the new storm troop tactics with ground attack aircraft and a carefully planned artillery barrage that would include gas attacks.<p><a id="German_spring_offensives" name="German_spring_offensives"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">German spring offensives</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><i>Operation Michael</i>, the first of the German <!--del_lnk--> spring offensives, very nearly succeeded in driving the French and British armies apart, advancing about 40 miles (65 km) during the first eight days and moving the front lines more than 60 miles (100 km) west, within shelling distance of Paris for the first time since 1914.<p>As a result of the battle, the two Allies finally agreed on a unified system of command. General <!--del_lnk--> Ferdinand Foch was appointed commander of all Allied forces in France. The unified Allies were now better able to respond to each of the German drives, and the offensive turned into a battle of attrition.<p>In May the American divisions also began to play an increasing role, winning their first victory at Cantigny. By the summer, 300,000 American soldiers were arriving every month. A total of 2.1 million American troops would be deployed on this front before the war came to an end. The rapidly increasing American presence served as a counter for the large numbers of redeployed German forces.<p><a id="Final_allied_offensives" name="Final_allied_offensives"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Final allied offensives</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28444.jpg.htm" title="Map of the final Allied offensives, 1918"><img alt="Map of the final Allied offensives, 1918" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Western_front_1918_allied.jpg" src="../../images/284/28444.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28444.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the final Allied offensives, 1918</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In July Foch initiated a <!--del_lnk--> planned offensive against the Marne salient produced during the German attacks. This attack was successful in eliminating the salient by August. A <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Amiens.htm" title="Battle of Amiens">second major offensive</a> was launched two days after the first ended at Amiens to the north. This attack would include Franco-British forces, but was spearheaded by Australian and Canadian troops along with a mass of 600 tanks and supported by 800 aircraft. The assault proved highly successful, leading Hindenburg to name <!--del_lnk--> 8 August as the "Black Day of the German Army".<p>The German army's manpower had been severely depleted after four years of war, and its economy and society were under great internal strain. The <!--del_lnk--> Hundred Days Offensive beginning in August proved the final straw, and following this string of military defeats, German troops began to surrender in large numbers. As the Allied forces broke the German lines at great cost, the German <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Monarchy collapsed, and the two near-dictatorial commanders of the army, Hindenburg and Ludendorff, stepped aside. Battles were still raging when the <!--del_lnk--> German Revolution put a new government in power that quickly signed an <!--del_lnk--> armistice which stopped all fighting on the Western Front on <!--del_lnk--> Armistice Day (<!--del_lnk--> 11 November <!--del_lnk--> 1918).<p><a id="Consequences" name="Consequences"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Consequences</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The war along the western front led the German government and its allies to sue for peace in spite of German success elsewhere. As a result the terms of the peace were dictated by France, Britain and the United States, during the 1919 <!--del_lnk--> Paris Peace Conference. The result was the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, signed in June 1919. The original terms of the treaty would cripple Germany as an economic and military power, so the military delegation refused to sign. Instead, it was agreed to by a delegation of the new German government.<p>The Versailles treaty returned the border provinces of Alsace-Lorraine to <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, thus limiting coal required by German industry. It also severely limited the German armed forces by restricting the size of the army to 100,000 and disallowing a navy or air force. The navy was sailed to <!--del_lnk--> Scapa Flow under the terms of surrender but was later <!--del_lnk--> scuttled as an act of defiance by its crews. The west bank of the Rhine would be demilitarized and the <!--del_lnk--> Kiel Canal opened to international traffic. The treaties also drastically reshaped Eastern Europe.<table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em;">
<caption><i>Comparison of Casualties from<br /> Major Western Front Battles</i></caption>
<tr>
<th>Battle</th>
<th>Year</th>
<th>Allies</th>
<th>German</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1st Marne</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1914</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">263,000</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">250,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Verdun</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1916</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">377,000+</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">336,000+</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Somme_%25281916%2529.htm" title="Battle of the Somme (1916)">Somme</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1916</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">623,907</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">465,000+</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2nd Aisne</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1917</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">187,000</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">168,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michael</td>
<td style="text-align: center;">1918</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">255,000</td>
<td style="text-align: right;">239,000</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Germany in 1919 was bankrupt, the people living in a state of semi-starvation, and having no commerce with the remainder of the world. The allies occupied the Rhine cities of Cologne, Koblenz and Mainz, with restoration dependent on payment of reparations. Among the German populace, the myth arose that the German army had not been defeated, which would later be exploited by <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> party propaganda to partly justify the overthrow of the <a href="../../wp/w/Weimar_Republic.htm" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>. (<i>See</i> <!--del_lnk--> Dolchstoßlegende.)<p>France suffered heavy damage in the war. In addition to loss of life, the industrial north-east of the country had been devastated by the war. (Once it was clear that Germany was going to lose, Ludendorff had ordered the destruction of the mines in France and Belgium. His goal was to cripple the industries of Germany's main European rival.) France would later build a massive series of fortifications along the German border known as the <!--del_lnk--> Maginot Line, banking on these structures to prevent future German aggression.<p>The war in the trenches left a generation of maimed soldiers and war widows. The unprecedented butchery had a lasting effect on popular attitudes toward war, resulting in an Allied reluctance to pursue an aggressive policy toward <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> (himself a decorated veteran of the war). The repercussions of that struggle are still being felt to this day.<p><a id="Dramatizations" name="Dramatizations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Dramatizations</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> All Quiet on the Western Front</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Erich Maria Remarque (1929 novel)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> All Quiet on the Western Front</i> (1930 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> All Quiet on the Western Front</i> (1979 TV film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Big Parade</i> (1925 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Birdsong</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Sebastian Faulks (1994 novel)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blackadder Goes Forth</i> (1989 TV series)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> The Dawn Patrol"" (1930 and 1938 film)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> The General", <!--del_lnk--> C.S. Forester (1932 novel)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Generals Die in Bed</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Yale Harrison (1936 novel)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Johnny Got His Gun</i> (1971 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Legends of the Fall</i> (1994 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Lost Battalion</i> (1919 film, 2001 TV remake)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Passchendaele</i> (2006 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Paths of Glory</i> (1957 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Rage of Angels</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Alan Fisher (1997 novel)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Sergeant York" (1940 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Wars</i> (1983 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> What Price Glory</i> (1926 and 1952 films)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Wings</i> (1927 film)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles</i> (1992-1996 TV series)</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_%28World_War_I%29"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Western Roman Empire</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Ancient_History_Classical_History_and_Mythology.htm">Ancient History, Classical History and Mythology</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.htm">European Geography</a></h3>
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<caption style="margin-left:inherit; font-size:135%; padding-bottom:0.5em; line-height:1.1em;"><b><span style="font-variant:small-caps;">Imperivm Romanvm Pars Occidentalis</span></b><br /><b>Western Roman Empire</b></caption>
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<p>Division of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td>
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<table style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:none;" width="275">
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<td style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;" width="50px"><a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">←</a> <a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title="Flag"><img alt="Flag" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/100/10028.png" width="30" /></a><br />
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:105%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> 395 – <!--del_lnk--> 476</b></td>
<td style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;" width="50px"><a href="#before-after" title="">↓</a></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus</td>
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<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52348.png.htm" title="Location of Western Roman Empire bith"><img alt="Location of Western Roman Empire bith" height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Extent_of_Western_Roman_Empire_395.png" src="../../images/523/52348.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div> The Western Roman Empire in 395.</td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top" width="50%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Capital</b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top" width="50%"><a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a><small><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> 395-<!--del_lnk--> 402)</small><br /><!--del_lnk--> Ravenna<small><br /> (<!--del_lnk--> 402-<!--del_lnk--> 476)</small></td>
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<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><b>Language(s)</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Latin</td>
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<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Religion</b></td>
<td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"><a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top;"><a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td>
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<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Emperor</b></td>
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<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 395–423</td>
<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Honorius</td>
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<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 475-476</td>
<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Romulus Augustulus</td>
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<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><b><!--del_lnk--> Consul</b></td>
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<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 395</td>
<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top">Flavius Anicius Hermogenianus Olybrius, Flavius Anicius Probinus</td>
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<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 476</td>
<td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><!--del_lnk--> Basiliscus, <!--del_lnk--> Flavius Armatus</td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Legislature</b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Roman Senate</td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><b>Historical era</b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Late Antiquity</td>
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<td style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top"> - Division of Theodosius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 395</td>
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<td style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top"> - Deposition of Romulus Augustulus</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 476</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b></td>
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<td style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"> - <!--del_lnk--> 395</td>
<td>4,410,000 km<sup>2</sup><br /> 1,702,711 sq mi</td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><b><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Solidus, <!--del_lnk--> Aureus, <!--del_lnk--> Denarius, <!--del_lnk--> Sestertius, <!--del_lnk--> As</td>
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<div id="before-after">
</div><b>Preceded by</b></td>
<td align="center"><b>Succeeded by</b></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Odoacer</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Visigothic Kingdom</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Ostrogothic kingdom</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Burgundian Kingdom</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Vandalic Kingdom</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of the Sueves</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Domain of Soissons</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Romano-British Kingdoms</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><!--del_lnk--> Frankish Empire</td>
<td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a class="image" href="../../images/523/52350.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sin_bandera.svg" src="../../images/523/52350.png" width="20" /></a></td>
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<p>The <b>Western Roman Empire</b> is the western half of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> after its division by <!--del_lnk--> Diocletian in <!--del_lnk--> 286. It existed intermittently in several periods between the <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd century</a> and the <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a>, after Diocletian's <!--del_lnk--> Tetrarchy and the reunifications associated with <!--del_lnk--> Constantine the Great, and <!--del_lnk--> Julian the Apostate. <!--del_lnk--> Theodosius I was the last Roman Emperor who ruled over a unified Roman empire. After his death in <!--del_lnk--> 395, the Roman Empire was permanently divided. The Western Roman Empire ended officially with the abdication of <a href="../../wp/r/Romulus_Augustus.htm" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a> under pressure of <!--del_lnk--> Odoacer on <!--del_lnk--> 4 September <!--del_lnk--> 476, and unofficially with the death of <!--del_lnk--> Julius Nepos in <!--del_lnk--> 480.<p>Despite brief periods of reconquest by its counterpart, the <b>Eastern Roman Empire</b>, widely known as the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, the Western Roman Empire would not rise again. The Byzantine Empire survived for another <!--del_lnk--> millennium before being eventually conquered by the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1453.<p>As the Western Roman Empire fell, a new era began in <!--del_lnk--> Western European history: the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
<p>As the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republic expanded, it naturally reached a point in which the central government in <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> could not expect to rule effectively the distant provinces. This was because of slow communications and relatively slow transportation methods. The news of an enemy invasion, a revolt, an epidemic outbreak or of a natural disaster was carried by ship or by mounted postal service (the <!--del_lnk--> Cursus publicus) and therefore needed quite some time to reach Rome. A similar amount of time was required for a response and a reaction. Therefore the provinces were administrated by <!--del_lnk--> governors who <!--del_lnk--> de facto ruled them in the name of the Roman republic.<p>Shortly before the Roman Empire, the territories of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republic had been divided between the members of the <!--del_lnk--> Second Triumvirate, composed by <a href="../../wp/a/Augustus.htm" title="Augustus">Octavian</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mark_Antony.htm" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.<p>Antony received all the provinces in the East, namely <!--del_lnk--> Achaea, <!--del_lnk--> Macedonia and <!--del_lnk--> Epirus (roughly modern <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Bithynia, <!--del_lnk--> Pontus and <!--del_lnk--> Asia (roughly modern <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>), <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Cyrenaica. This part had been previously conquered by <a href="../../wp/a/Alexander_the_Great.htm" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> 4th century BC, and a large portion of the local <!--del_lnk--> aristocracy were of Greek and Macedonian origin. The majority of the royal dynasties were in fact descendants of his generals. This region had been assimilated to a large degree by the Greek culture, and <!--del_lnk--> Greek was the <!--del_lnk--> lingua-franca in most of the larger cities.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52351.png.htm" title="The Roman Republic before the conquests of Octavian"><img alt="The Roman Republic before the conquests of Octavian" class="thumbimage" height="184" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Roman_Republic-44BC.png" src="../../images/523/52351.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52351.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republic before the conquests of <a href="../../wp/a/Augustus.htm" title="Augustus">Octavian</a></div>
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<p>Octavian, on the other hand, had obtained the Roman provinces of the West: <!--del_lnk--> Italia (modern <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Gaul (modern <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Gallia Belgica (parts of modern <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>) and <!--del_lnk--> Hispania (modern <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>). This part also had many Greek and Carthaginian colonies on the coastal areas, but the area had been culturally dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> Celtic tribes like the <!--del_lnk--> Gauls and the <!--del_lnk--> Celtiberians.<p>Lepidus was given the minor province of <!--del_lnk--> Africa (modern <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>) to govern. After some political and military developments, Octavian took the province of Africa away from Lepidus and took possession of the Greek-colonized island of <!--del_lnk--> Sicilia (modern <!--del_lnk--> Sicily).<p>After the defeat of Mark Antony, the victorious Octavian controlled the whole <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> from Rome. During his reign, his friend <!--del_lnk--> Agrippa temporarily ruled over the eastern provinces as his personal representative. This happened again during the rule of <!--del_lnk--> Tiberius who sent his <!--del_lnk--> heir-apparent <!--del_lnk--> Germanicus to the east.<p>The Roman Empire had many different cultures, and all of them were subject to a gradual process of <!--del_lnk--> Romanization. Greek was also spoken in the West and Latin was also spoken the East. Greek culture as a whole was hardly an antagonist to Latin culture, in fact it helped to unify culturally the Roman Empire and both of these cultures were equal partners in the <!--del_lnk--> Greco-Roman world. Nevertheless, later military developments with its political consequences divided the Roman Empire, and much later the Byzantine Empire would regroup around Greek culture.<p><a id="Rebellions.2C_uprisings_and_political_consequences" name="Rebellions.2C_uprisings_and_political_consequences"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Rebellions, uprisings and political consequences</span></h2>
<p>In peacetime, it was relatively easy to rule the empire from its capital city Rome. An eventual <!--del_lnk--> rebellion was expected and would happen from time to time: a general or a governor would gain the loyalty of his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and simple bribes. A conquered tribe would rebel, or a conquered city would revolt. The legions were spread around the borders and the rebel leader would, in normal circumstances, have only one or two legions under his command. Loyal legions would be detached from other points of the empire and would eventually drown the rebellion in blood. This happened even more easily in case of a small local native uprising as the rebels would normally have no great military experience. Unless the emperor was weak, incompetent, hated, and/or universally despised, these rebellions would be local and isolated events.<p>During real wartime, however, which could develop from a rebellion or an uprising, like the massive <!--del_lnk--> Great Jewish Revolt, this was totally and dangerously different. In a full-blown <!--del_lnk--> military campaign, the <!--del_lnk--> legions under the command of generals like <!--del_lnk--> Vespasian were of a much greater number. Therefore to be certain of the commander's loyalty, a paranoid or wise emperor would hold some members of the general's family as <!--del_lnk--> hostages. In effect, <!--del_lnk--> Nero held <!--del_lnk--> Domitian and <!--del_lnk--> Quintus Petillius Cerialis the governor of <!--del_lnk--> Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and the brother-in-law of Vespasian. The rule of Nero only ended with the revolt of the <!--del_lnk--> Praetorian Guard who had been bribed in the name of <!--del_lnk--> Galba. The <!--del_lnk--> Praetorian Guard was a figurative "sword of <!--del_lnk--> Damocles" whose loyalty was bought and who became increasingly greedy. Following their example, the legions at the borders also increasingly participated in the <!--del_lnk--> civil wars.<p>The main enemy in the West was arguably the <!--del_lnk--> Germanic tribes behind the rivers <a href="../../wp/r/Rhine.htm" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> and <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a>. Octavian had tried to conquer them but ultimately failed - they were greatly feared.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/104/10416.png.htm" title="the empire of Parthia, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent, c. 60 BC"><img alt="the empire of Parthia, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent, c. 60 BC" class="thumbimage" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationParthia.PNG" src="../../images/104/10416.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">the empire of <!--del_lnk--> Parthia, the arch-rival of Rome, at its greatest extent, c. <!--del_lnk--> 60 BC</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Parthia, in the East, on the other hand, was too far away to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, but the threat itself was ultimately impossible to destroy.<p>In the case of a Roman civil war these two enemies would seize the opportunity to invade Roman territory in order to raid and plunder. The two respective military frontiers became a matter of major political importance because of the high number of legions stationed there. The local generals would often rebel and start new civil wars. To control the western border from Rome was reasonably easy since it was relatively close. To control both frontiers at the same time during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and <!--del_lnk--> vice-versa. Emperors were increasingly near the troops in order to control them, and no single emperor could be at the two frontiers at the same time. This problem plagued the ruling emperors, and many future emperors followed this path to power.<p><a id="Economic_stagnation_in_the_West" name="Economic_stagnation_in_the_West"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economic stagnation in the West</span></h2>
<p>Rome and the <!--del_lnk--> Italian peninsula began to experience an economic slowdown as industries and money began to move outward. By the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the economic stagnation of <!--del_lnk--> Italia was seen in the <!--del_lnk--> provincial-born Emperors, such as <!--del_lnk--> Trajan and <!--del_lnk--> Hadrian. Economic problems increased in strength and frequency.<p><a id="Crisis_of_the_3rd_century" name="Crisis_of_the_3rd_century"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Crisis of the 3rd century</span></h2>
<p>Starting on the <!--del_lnk--> 18 March <!--del_lnk--> 235, with the assassination of the Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Severus, the Roman Empire fell into a period of fifty years of civil war, known today as the <!--del_lnk--> Crisis of the Third Century. The rise of the warlike <!--del_lnk--> Sassanid dynasty in <!--del_lnk--> Parthia had created a major threat to Rome in the east. Demonstrating the increased danger, Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Valerian was captured by <!--del_lnk--> Shapur I in <!--del_lnk--> 259. His eldest son and heir-apparent, <!--del_lnk--> Gallienus, succeeded and was fighting in the eastern frontier. The son of Gallienus, <!--del_lnk--> Saloninus, and the <!--del_lnk--> Praetorian Prefect Silvanus, were residing in Colonia Agrippina (modern <a href="../../wp/c/Cologne.htm" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>) trying to maintain the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, the local governor of the German provinces, <!--del_lnk--> Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus rebelled and assaulted Colonia Agrippina, killing Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed an independent state known as the <!--del_lnk--> Gallic Empire emerged.<p>Its <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> was Augusta Treverorum (modern <!--del_lnk--> Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces and over all of <!--del_lnk--> Hispania and <!--del_lnk--> Britannia. It had its own <!--del_lnk--> senate, and a partial list of its <!--del_lnk--> consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the <!--del_lnk--> Germanic tribes than other Romans. However, in the reign of <!--del_lnk--> Claudius Gothicus (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were returned to Roman rule.<p>At roughly the same time, the eastern provinces seceded as the Empire of <!--del_lnk--> Palmyra, under the rule of Queen <!--del_lnk--> Zenobia.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 272, Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Aurelian finally managed to subdue Palmyra and reclaim its territory for the empire. With the East secure, he turned his attention to the West, and in the next year, the Gallic Empire also fell. Because of a secret deal between Aurelian and the Gallic Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Tetricus I and his son <!--del_lnk--> Tetricus II, the Gallic army was swiftly defeated. In exchange, Aurelian spared their lives and gave the two former rebels important positions in Italy.<p><a id="Tetrarchy" name="Tetrarchy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tetrarchy</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52353.jpg.htm" title="Sculpture of the Roman Tetrarchy."><img alt="Sculpture of the Roman Tetrarchy." class="thumbimage" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The-tetrarchs.jpg" src="../../images/523/52353.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52353.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sculpture of the Roman Tetrarchy.</div>
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<p>The external borders were mostly quiet for the remainder of the Crisis of the Third Century, although between the death of Aurelian in <!--del_lnk--> 275 and the accession of <!--del_lnk--> Diocletian ten years later, at least eight emperors or would-be emperors were killed, many assassinated by their own troops.<p>Under <!--del_lnk--> Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In <!--del_lnk--> 286, through the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> Tetrarchy, he gave the western part to <!--del_lnk--> Maximian as <!--del_lnk--> Augustus and named <!--del_lnk--> Constantius Chlorus as his subordinate (<!--del_lnk--> Caesar). This system effectively divided the empire into four parts and created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the <a href="../../wp/3/3rd_century.htm" title="3rd century">3rd century</a>. In the West, the capitals were Maximian's <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a> and Constantius' <!--del_lnk--> Trier. On <!--del_lnk--> 1 May <!--del_lnk--> 305, the two senior Augusti stepped down and were replaced by their respective Caesars.<p><a id="Constantine" name="Constantine"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Constantine</span></h2>
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<p>The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in <!--del_lnk--> 306, and his son <!--del_lnk--> Constantine was proclaimed Augustus of the West by the legions in Britain. A crisis followed as several claimants attempted to rule the Western half. In <!--del_lnk--> 308, the Augustus of the East, <!--del_lnk--> Galerius, arranged a conference at <!--del_lnk--> Carnuntum which revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the West between Constantine and a newcomer named <!--del_lnk--> Licinius. Constantine was far more interested in reconquering the whole empire. Through a series of battles in the East and the West, Licinius and Constantine stabilized their respective parts of the Roman Empire by <!--del_lnk--> 314, and they now competed for sole control of a reunified state. Constantine emerged victorious in <!--del_lnk--> 324 after the surrender and the murder of Licinius following the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Chrysopolis.<p>The Tetrarchy was dead, but the idea of dividing the Roman Empire between two emperors had been proven too good to be simply ignored and forgotten. Very strong emperors would reunite it under their single rule, but with their death the Roman Empire would be divided again and again between the East and the West.<p><a id="Second_division" name="Second_division"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Second division</span></h2>
<p>The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but with the death of Constantine in <!--del_lnk--> 337, civil war erupted among his three sons, dividing the empire into three parts. The West was reunified in <!--del_lnk--> 340, and a complete reunification of the whole empire occurred in <!--del_lnk--> 353, with <!--del_lnk--> Constantius II.<p>Constantius II focused most of his power in the East, and is often regarded as the first emperor of the Byzantine Empire. Under his rule, the city of <!--del_lnk--> Byzantium, only recently refounded as <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople, was fully developed as a capital.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson <!--del_lnk--> Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, took power. Julian was killed carrying on Constantius II's war against <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 363 and was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Jovian who ruled only until <!--del_lnk--> 364.<p><a id="Final_division" name="Final_division"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Final division</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52355.png.htm" title="The division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I, ca.395 AD superimposed on modern borders. Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire"><img alt="The division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I, ca.395 AD superimposed on modern borders. Western Roman Empire Eastern Roman Empire" class="thumbimage" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Theodosius_I%27s_empire.png" src="../../images/523/52355.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52355.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I, ca.395 AD superimposed on modern borders. <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#B53637; color:#B53637;"> </span> Western Roman Empire</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#8F36B5; color:#8F36B5;"> </span> Eastern Roman Empire</span></div>
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<p>Following the death of <!--del_lnk--> Jovian, the empire fell again into a new period of civil war similar to the Crisis of the Third Century. In <!--del_lnk--> 364 <!--del_lnk--> Valentinian I emerged. He immediately divided the empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother <!--del_lnk--> Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half as the conflicts with outside forces intensified, especially with the <!--del_lnk--> Huns and the <!--del_lnk--> Goths. A serious problem in the West was a political reaction caused by the indigenous paganism against the Christianizing emperors. In <!--del_lnk--> 379 <!--del_lnk--> Valentinian I's son and successor <!--del_lnk--> Gratian declined to wear the mantle of <!--del_lnk--> pontifex maximus, and in <!--del_lnk--> 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the pagan altar from the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Curia, and gave the title of <!--del_lnk--> Pontifex Maximus to the <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">Pope</a>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 388, a powerful and popular general named <!--del_lnk--> Magnus Maximus seized power in the west and forced Gratian's son <!--del_lnk--> Valentinian II to flee to the east and ask for the aid of the Eastern Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Theodosius I who quickly restored him to power. He also caused a ban on the native paganism to be implemented in the west in <!--del_lnk--> 391, enforcing <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. In <!--del_lnk--> 392 the <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Frankish</a> and pagan <i><!--del_lnk--> magister militum</i> <!--del_lnk--> Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II, and a senator named <!--del_lnk--> Eugenius was proclaimed emperor until he was defeated in <!--del_lnk--> 394 by Theodosius I, who, having ruled both East and West for a year, died in 395. This was the last time in which a single ruler ruled over both parts of the Roman Empire.<p>A short period of stability under Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Flavius Augustus Honorius (controlled by <!--del_lnk--> Flavius Stilicho) ended at Stilicho's death in <!--del_lnk--> 408. After this, the two empires truly diverged, as the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, while the West began to collapse entirely.<p><a id="Economic_factors" name="Economic_factors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economic factors</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52357.png.htm" title=" Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100-500 AD"><img alt=" Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100-500 AD" class="thumbimage" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Invasions_of_the_Roman_Empire_1.png" src="../../images/523/52357.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52357.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100-500 AD</div>
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<p>While the West was experiencing an economic decline throughout the late empire, the East was not so economically decadent, especially as Emperors like <!--del_lnk--> Constantine the Great and <!--del_lnk--> Constantius II began pouring vast sums of money into the eastern economy. The economic decline of the West aided in the eventual collapse of this area of the empire. Without sufficient taxes, the state could not maintain an expensive professional army and resorted to hiring mercenaries.<p>As the central power weakened, the State also lost control of its borders and provinces and the vital control over the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Roman Emperors tried to keep outside forces away from controlling sections of the sea, but once the <!--del_lnk--> Vandals conquered <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, the imperial authorities had to cover too much ground with too few resources. The Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. Most invaders required a third of the land they conquered from their Roman subjects, and this could turn into much more, as different tribes conquered the same province.<p>Tens of square kilometres of carefully developed land was abandoned due to lack of economic viability and of political stability. Because most of the economy of <!--del_lnk--> Classical antiquity was based upon agriculture, this was a severe economic blow. This occurred because most plots of land require a certain investment of time and money in simple maintenance to maintain production. Unfortunately, this meant that any attempt to recover the West by the East was very difficult, and the huge decline in the local economy made these new reconquests too expensive to maintain.<p><a id="Conquest_of_Rome_and_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" name="Conquest_of_Rome_and_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conquest of Rome and fall of the Western Roman Empire</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52359.png.htm" title="The Western and Eastern Roman Empires by 476"><img alt="The Western and Eastern Roman Empires by 476" class="thumbimage" height="98" longdesc="/wiki/Image:628px-Western_and_Eastern_Roman_Empires_476AD%283%29.PNG" src="../../images/523/52359.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52359.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Western and <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern</a> Roman Empires by 476</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52360.jpg.htm" title="Romulus Augustus on a gold Tremissis"><img alt="Romulus Augustus on a gold Tremissis" class="thumbimage" height="142" longdesc="/wiki/Image:RomulusAugustus.jpg" src="../../images/523/52360.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52360.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/r/Romulus_Augustus.htm" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a> on a gold <!--del_lnk--> Tremissis</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52361.jpg.htm" title="Julius Nepos on a gold Tremissis"><img alt="Julius Nepos on a gold Tremissis" class="thumbimage" height="77" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tremissis_Julius_Nepos-RIC_3221.jpg" src="../../images/523/52361.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52361.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Julius Nepos on a gold <!--del_lnk--> Tremissis</div>
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<p>With the death of Stilicho in <!--del_lnk--> 408, <!--del_lnk--> Honorius was left in charge, and although he ruled until his death in <!--del_lnk--> 423, his reign was filled with usurpations and invasions, particularly by the Vandals and <!--del_lnk--> Visigoths. In <!--del_lnk--> 410, Rome was sacked by outside forces for the first time since the Gallic invasions of the <!--del_lnk--> 4th century BC. The instability caused by usurpers throughout the Western Empire helped these tribes in their conquests, and in the <a href="../../wp/5/5th_century.htm" title="5th century">5th century</a> the Germanic tribes became usurpers themselves. In <!--del_lnk--> 475, <!--del_lnk--> Orestes, a former secretary of <a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" title="Attila the Hun">Attila the Hun</a> drove Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Julius Nepos out of <!--del_lnk--> Ravenna and proclaimed his own son <a href="../../wp/r/Romulus_Augustus.htm" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a> as emperor.<p>Although some isolated pockets of Roman rule continued (in Dalmatia under emperor <!--del_lnk--> Julius Nepos and north-western <!--del_lnk--> Gaul under <!--del_lnk--> Syagrius ), the control of Rome over the West had effectively ended. In <!--del_lnk--> 476, Orestes refused to grant the <!--del_lnk--> Heruli led by <!--del_lnk--> Odoacer federated status, and Odoacer sacked Rome and sent the imperial insignia to Constantinople, installing himself as king over Italy.<p><a id="Last_emperor" name="Last_emperor"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Last emperor</span></h3>
<p>Historical convention has determined that the Western Roman Empire ended on <!--del_lnk--> 4 September <!--del_lnk--> 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus. However, the issue in practice is not clear-cut.<p>Julius Nepos still claimed to be Emperor of the West, ruling the <!--del_lnk--> rump state of <!--del_lnk--> Dalmatia, and was recognized as such by Byzantine Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Zeno and by <!--del_lnk--> Syagrius, who had managed to preserve a Roman <!--del_lnk--> enclave in northern Gaul, known today as the <!--del_lnk--> Domain of Soissons. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with Zeno. The Byzantine emperor eventually did grant Odoacer <!--del_lnk--> patrician status as a recognition of his authority and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno however insisted that Odoacer payed homage to Nepos as western emperor. Odoacer accepted this condition and even issued coins in Nepos' name throughout Italy. This however was mainly an empty political gesture as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. Nepos was eventually murdered in <!--del_lnk--> 480 and Odoacer quickly invaded and conquered Dalmatia.<p><a id="Theodoric" name="Theodoric"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Theodoric</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/213/21325.png.htm" title="The Ostrogothic Kingdom, which rose from the ruins of the late Western Roman Empire"><img alt="The Ostrogothic Kingdom, which rose from the ruins of the late Western Roman Empire" class="thumbimage" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ostrogothic_Kingdom.png" src="../../images/213/21325.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/213/21325.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Ostrogothic Kingdom, which rose from the ruins of the late Western Roman Empire</div>
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<p>The last hope for a reunited Empire came in <!--del_lnk--> 493, as Odoacer was replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> Ostrogoth <!--del_lnk--> Theodoric the Great. Theodoric had been recruited by Zeno to reconquer the western portion of the empire, Rome most importantly. <!--del_lnk--> De jure he was a subordinate, a <!--del_lnk--> viceroy of the emperor of the East. <!--del_lnk--> De facto Theodoric was an equal.<p>Following Theodoric's death in <!--del_lnk--> 526, the West no longer resembled the East. The West was now fully controlled by invading outside tribes, while the East had retreated and Hellenized. While the East would make some attempts to recapture the West, it was never again the old Roman Empire.<p><a id="Byzantine_reconquest" name="Byzantine_reconquest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Byzantine reconquest</span></h2>
<p>Throughout the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the eastern Byzantine Empire laid claims on areas of the West which had been occupied by several tribes. In the <a href="../../wp/6/6th_century.htm" title="6th century">6th century</a>, the Byzantine Empire managed to reconquer large areas of the former Western Roman Empire. The most successful were the campaigns of the Byzantine generals <!--del_lnk--> Belisarius and <!--del_lnk--> Narses on behalf of Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Justinian I from <!--del_lnk--> 533 to <!--del_lnk--> 554. The Vandal-occupied former Roman territory in <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> was regained, particularly the territory centred around the city of <!--del_lnk--> Carthage. The campaign eventually moved into Italy and reconquered it completely. Minor territories were taken as far west as the southern coast of the <!--del_lnk--> Iberian Peninsula.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52362.png.htm" title="Byzantine Empire in 550. The re-conquests of Justinian I are in green"><img alt="Byzantine Empire in 550. The re-conquests of Justinian I are in green" class="thumbimage" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Byzantium550.png" src="../../images/523/52362.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52362.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 550. The re-conquests of <!--del_lnk--> Justinian I are in green</div>
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<p>It appeared at the time that perhaps Rome could be reconstituted. However, the tribal influence had caused far too much damage to these former Roman provinces, both economically and culturally. Not only were they extremely costly to maintain, the invasion and propagation of the Germanic tribes throughout these territories meant that much of the Roman culture and identity that had held the empire together had been destroyed or severely damaged.<p>Although some eastern emperors occasionally attempted to reconquer some parts of the West, none were as successful as <!--del_lnk--> Justinian. The division between the two areas grew, resulting in a growing rivalry. While the Eastern Roman Empire continued after Justinian, the eastern emperors focused mainly on defending its traditional territory. The East no longer had the necessary military strength, spelling the end of any hope for reunification.<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52364.gif.htm" title="Romance languages in Europe"><img alt="Romance languages in Europe" class="thumbimage" height="145" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LatinEurope.gif" src="../../images/523/52364.gif" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/523/52364.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Romance languages in Europe</div>
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<p>As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who had conquered the provinces felt the need to uphold many Roman laws and traditions as they felt appropriate. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianised, but most of them were followers of <!--del_lnk--> Arianism. They quickly converted to the Catholic faith, gaining more loyalty by the local Romanized population and at the same time recognition and support by the powerful <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. Although they initially continued to recognise their indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Roman Law and gradually incorporated it as well.<p>Roman Law, particularly the <!--del_lnk--> Corpus Juris Civilis collected by order of Justinian I, is the ancient basis on which the modern <!--del_lnk--> Civil law stands. In contrast, <!--del_lnk--> Common law is based on the Germanic <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon law.<p><!--del_lnk--> Latin as a language never really disappeared. It combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving origin to many modern <!--del_lnk--> Romance languages such as: <!--del_lnk--> Italian, <!--del_lnk--> French, <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish (language)">Spanish</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese, <!--del_lnk--> Romanian and <!--del_lnk--> Romansh, and influenced many <!--del_lnk--> Germanic languages such as <!--del_lnk--> English, <!--del_lnk--> German, <!--del_lnk--> Dutch and many others to a certain extent. It survives in its "purer" form as the language of the Roman Catholic Church (the <!--del_lnk--> Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until <!--del_lnk--> 1965) and was used as a <!--del_lnk--> lingua franca between many nations. It remained the language of medicine, law, diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin), of intellectuals and scholarship.<p>The <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> was expanded with the letters J, K, W and Z and is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. <!--del_lnk--> Roman numerals continue to be used but were mostly replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Arabic numerals.<p>The ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler continued to seduce many powerful rulers. <a href="../../wp/c/Charlemagne.htm" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, King of the <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Franks</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Lombards, was even crowned as Roman Emperor by <!--del_lnk--> Pope Leo III in <!--del_lnk--> 800. Emperors of the <a href="../../wp/h/Holy_Roman_Empire.htm" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> like <!--del_lnk--> Frederick I Barbarossa, <a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick II</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_V%252C_Holy_Roman_Emperor.htm" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, and mighty Sultans like <a href="../../wp/s/Suleiman_the_Magnificent.htm" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, among others, tried to a certain extent to resurrect it, but none of their attempts were successful.<p>A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Roman Catholic Church. The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late <!--del_lnk--> 5th Century. As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c.<a href="../../wp/9/9th_century.htm" title="9th century">9th</a> and <!--del_lnk--> 10th centuries) the central, western and northern parts of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> had been largely converted to the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Faith and acknowledged the Pope as the <!--del_lnk--> Vicar of Christ.<p><a id="List_of_Western_Roman_emperors" name="List_of_Western_Roman_emperors"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">List of Western Roman emperors</span></h2>
<p><a id="Gallic_Emperors_.28259_to_273.29" name="Gallic_Emperors_.28259_to_273.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gallic Emperors (259 to 273)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Postumus: 259 to 268<li><!--del_lnk--> Laelianus: 268 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Marcus Aurelius Marius: 268<li><!--del_lnk--> Victorinus: 268 to 271<li><!--del_lnk--> Domitianus: 271 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Tetricus I: 271 to 273 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tetricus II: 271 to 273 <i>Son and co-emperor of Tetricus I</i></ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Tetrarchy_.28293_to_313.29" name="Tetrarchy_.28293_to_313.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tetrarchy (293 to 313)</span></h3>
<p><i>Augusti</i> are shown with their <i>Caesares</i> and regents further indented<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Maximian: 293 to 305 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Constantius Chlorus: 293 to 305</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Constantius Chlorus: 305 to 306 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Flavius Valerius Severus: 305 to 306</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Flavius Valerius Severus: 306 to 307 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Constantine I: 306 to 313</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Maxentius/<!--del_lnk--> Maximian: 307 to 308<li><!--del_lnk--> Licinius: 308 to 313<li><!--del_lnk--> Maxentius: 308 to 312 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Domitius Alexander: 308 to 309 <i>African usurper</i></ul>
<p><a id="Constantinian_dynasty_.28313_to_363.29" name="Constantinian_dynasty_.28313_to_363.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Constantinian dynasty (313 to 363)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Constantine I: 313 to 337 <i>Sole emperor of the whole Roman Empire 324 to 337</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Constantine II: 337 to 340 <i>Emperor of Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Constans I: 337 to 350 <i>Initially emperor of Italy and Africa; emperor of the west 340 to 350</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Magnentius: 350 to 353 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Constantius II: 353 to 361 <i>Sole emperor</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Julian: 355 to 361</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Julian: 361 to 363</ul>
<p><a id="Non-dynastic_.28363_to_364.29" name="Non-dynastic_.28363_to_364.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Non-dynastic (363 to 364)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Jovian: 363 to 364</ul>
<p><a id="Valentinian_dynasty_.28364_to_392.29" name="Valentinian_dynasty_.28364_to_392.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Valentinian dynasty (364 to 392)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Valentinian I: 364 to 375 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gratian: 367 to 375</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gratian: 375 to 383 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Valentinian II: 375 to 383</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Magnus Maximus: 383 to 388 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Valentinian II: 383 to 392</ul>
<p><a id="Non-dynastic_.28392_to_394.29" name="Non-dynastic_.28392_to_394.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Non-dynastic (392 to 394)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Eugenius: 392 to 394</ul>
<p><a id="Theodosian_dynasty_.28394_to_455.29" name="Theodosian_dynasty_.28394_to_455.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Theodosian dynasty (394 to 455)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Theodosius I: 394 to 395 <i>Sole emperor</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Honorius: 395 to 423 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Flavius Stilicho: 395 to 408 <i><!--del_lnk--> Power behind the throne</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Constantius III: 421</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Constantine III: 407 to 411 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Priscus Attalus: 409 to 410/414 to 415 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Jovinus: 411 to 412 <i>Usurper</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Valentinian III: 423 to 455 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Galla Placidia: 423 to 433 <i>Regent</i><li><!--del_lnk--> Aëtius: 433 to 454 <i>Regent</i></ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Joannes: 423 to 425 <i>Usurper</i></ul>
<p><a id="Non-dynastic_.28455_to_480.29" name="Non-dynastic_.28455_to_480.29"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Non-dynastic (455 to 480)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Petronius Maximus: 455<li><!--del_lnk--> Avitus: 455 to 456 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ricimer: 456 to 472 <i>Power behind the throne</i></ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Majorian: 457 to 461<li><!--del_lnk--> Libius Severus: 461 to 465<li><!--del_lnk--> Anthemius: 465 to 472<li><!--del_lnk--> Olybrius: 472<li><!--del_lnk--> Glycerius: 473 to 474<li><!--del_lnk--> Julius Nepos: 474 to 480 <i>In exile 475 to 480</i><li><a href="../../wp/r/Romulus_Augustus.htm" title="Romulus Augustus">Romulus Augustus</a>: 475 to 476 <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Flavius Orestes: 475 to 476 <i>Power behind the throne</i></ul>
</ul>
<p>Flavius Orestes was killed by revolting Germanic <!--del_lnk--> mercenaries. Their chieftain, <!--del_lnk--> Odoacer, assumed control of Italy as a <!--del_lnk--> de jure representative of Julius Nepos and <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Roman Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Zeno.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Western Sahara</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.African_Countries.htm">African Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;">الصحراء الغربية<br /><i>Al-Ṣaḥrā' al-Ġarbiyyah</i><br /> Western Sahara</span></b></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/145/14542.png.htm" title="Location of Western Sahara"><img alt="Location of Western Sahara" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationWesternSahara.png" src="../../images/145/14542.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Capital</th>
<td>n/a</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Largest city</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/El_Aai%25C3%25BAn.htm" title="El Aaiún">Al `Uyūn (العيون)</a> <small>(<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>)</small><br /> El Aaiún <small>(<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a><sup>2</sup>)</small><br /> Laâyoune <small>(<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a><sup>2</sup>)</small></td>
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<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a><br /> (<a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> widely spoken)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;">Divided<sup>1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th>Disputed</th>
<td> </td>
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<td> - Relinquished by <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1975 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> SADR proclaimed</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1976 </td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 266,000 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 77th)<br /> 102,703 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
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<td> - Jul 2005 estimate</td>
<td>341,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 177th)</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>1.3/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 228th)<br /> 3.4/sq mi</td>
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<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Moroccan <!--del_lnk--> dirham (<code><!--del_lnk--> MAD</code>)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC+0)</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td>
</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+212<sup>3</sup></td>
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<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> Mostly administrated by <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> as its <!--del_lnk--> Southern Provinces. The "<!--del_lnk--> Free Zone" is the area that the <!--del_lnk--> Polisario Front claim to control on behalf of the <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on February 27, 1976).<br /><sup>2</sup> <!--del_lnk--> Transliterations.<br /><sup>3</sup> Code for Morocco; no code specific to Western Sahara has been issued by the <!--del_lnk--> ITU.</small></td>
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</table>
<p><b>Western Sahara</b> (<a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <b>الصحراء الغربية</b>; <!--del_lnk--> transliterated: <b>al-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah</b>; <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <b>Sahara Occidental</b>) is one of the <!--del_lnk--> most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly consisting of <a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">desert</a> flatlands. It is a territory of northwestern <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, bordered by <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> to the north, <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> in the northeast, <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> to the east and south, and the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> on the west. The largest city is <a href="../../wp/e/El_Aai%25C3%25BAn.htm" title="El Aaiún">El Aaiún</a> (Laâyoune), which is home to a majority of the population of the territory.<p>Western Sahara has been on the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories since the 60s when it was a Spanish colony.<p>The Kingdom of <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Polisario Front's <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) dispute control of the territory. Since a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>-sponsored cease-fire agreement in 1991, most of the territory has been administered by Morocco, the remainder by the SADR as the <!--del_lnk--> Free Zone. The SADR is <!--del_lnk--> recognized by 43 states, and a full member of the <a href="../../wp/a/African_Union.htm" title="African Union">African Union</a>. Moroccan territorial integrity has been supported by members of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arab_League.htm" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, and by 25 states.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>The earliest inhabitants of the Western Sahara in historical times were black agriculturalists called Bafour. Later they were to be replaced by the Berber population that still lives there. There may also have been some <!--del_lnk--> Phoenician contacts but with hardly any remaining influence.<p>The arrival of <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> in the 8th century played a major role in the development of relationships between Western Sahara and the neighbouring regions. Trade developed further and the region became a passage of <!--del_lnk--> caravans especially between <!--del_lnk--> Marrakech and <!--del_lnk--> Tombouctou in <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a>. Soon <!--del_lnk--> Almoravids were able to control the area.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Beni Hassan were the <!--del_lnk--> Arab bedouin tribes, that invaded the northern border-area of the Sahara in the 14th and 15th century. From them the Berbers took, over time, the <!--del_lnk--> Hassaniya language and a large part of their present cultural tradition.<p><a id="Spanish_province" name="Spanish_province"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Spanish province</span></h3>
<p>During the first decade of the 20th century, after an agreement among the colonial powers at the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Conference in 1884, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> took possession of the Western Sahara and declared it to be a Spanish protectorate. As internal political and social pressures in mainland Spain built up towards the end of <!--del_lnk--> Francisco Franco's rule, and as an effect of the global trend in <!--del_lnk--> decolonization, Spain began rapidly and even chaotically divesting itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. Spain planned to divest itself of the Sahara, and in 1974-75 issued promises of a <!--del_lnk--> referendum on <!--del_lnk--> independence. This had been demanded by the <!--del_lnk--> Polisario Front, a <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawi <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> organization fighting the Spanish since 1973.<p>However, the territory's neighbours also showed interest in the Spanish Sahara. Both <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> claimed sovereignty over the territory based on competing traditional claims, arguing that its was artificially separated from their territories by the European colonial powers. The third neighbour of Spanish Sahara, <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, viewed these demands with suspicion, influenced also by its long-running rivalry with Morocco. After arguing for a process of decolonization guided by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, the government of <!--del_lnk--> Houari Boumédiènne committed itself in 1975 to assisting the Polisario Front, which opposed both Moroccan and Mauritanian claims and demanded full independence.<p>The UN attempted to settle these disputes through a <!--del_lnk--> visiting mission in late 1975, as well as a <!--del_lnk--> verdict from the <a href="../../wp/i/International_Court_of_Justice.htm" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> (ICJ), which declared that the Sahrawi people possessed the right of <!--del_lnk--> self-determination. On <!--del_lnk--> November 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1975 the <!--del_lnk--> Green March into Western Sahara began when 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of <!--del_lnk--> Tarfaya in southern Morocco and waited for a signal from King Hassan II of Morocco to cross into Western Sahara, in order to claim it for <!--del_lnk--> Greater Morocco.<p><a id="Demands_for_independence" name="Demands_for_independence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Demands for independence</span></h3>
<p>After the death of <!--del_lnk--> Franco in November, the new Spanish government abandoned Western Sahara in December, repatriating even Spanish corpses from its cemeteries. Morocco then annexed the northern two-thirds of Western Sahara as its <!--del_lnk--> Southern Provinces, while Mauritania took the southern third as <!--del_lnk--> Tiris al-Gharbiyya. This however met staunch opposition from the Polisario, which had by now gained backing from <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> and waged a <!--del_lnk--> guerrilla campaign. In 1979, following Mauritania's withdrawal due to pressures from Polisario, Morocco extended its control to the rest of the territory, and gradually contained the guerrillas through setting up the <!--del_lnk--> Moroccan Wall. The war ended in a 1991 <!--del_lnk--> cease-fire, overseen by the <!--del_lnk--> peacekeeping mission <!--del_lnk--> MINURSO, under the terms of the <!--del_lnk--> UN's <!--del_lnk--> Settlement Plan.<p><a id="Stalling_of_the_independence_referendum" name="Stalling_of_the_independence_referendum"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stalling of the independence referendum</span></h3>
<p>The referendum, originally scheduled for 1992, was planned to give the indigenous population the option between independence or inclusion to Morocco. <!--del_lnk--> As of 2006, however, it has not taken place. At the heart of the dispute lies the question of who can be registered as an indigenous voter. In 1997, the <!--del_lnk--> Houston Agreement made another attempt to implement the referendum, but failed.<p>Both sides blame each other for the stalling of the referendum. But while the Polisario has consistently asked for the UN to go ahead with the vote, standing only to lose from the status quo, Morocco has been troubled by the risk of losing a referendum or receiving a large enough vote against annexation to undermine years of nationalist rhetoric from the government. Indeed, shortly after the Houston Agreement, the kingdom officially declared that it was "no longer necessary" to include an option of independence on the ballot, offering instead autonomy. <!--del_lnk--> Erik Jensen, who played an administrative role in MINURSO, wrote that neither side would agree to a voter registration in which they were destined to lose (see <i>Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate</i>).<p><a id="Baker_Plan" name="Baker_Plan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Baker Plan</span></h3>
<p>A <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>-backed document known as the "<!--del_lnk--> Baker <!--del_lnk--> peace plan" was discussed by the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Security Council in 2000, and envisioned a future <b><!--del_lnk--> Western Sahara Authority (WSA)</b>, to be followed after five years by the referendum. It was rejected by both sides, although it was initially derived from a Moroccan proposal. According to Baker's draft, tens of thousands of post-annexation immigrants from Morocco proper (viewed by Polisario as settlers, but by Morocco as legitimate inhabitants of the area) would be granted the vote in the Sahrawi independence referendum, and the ballot would be split three-ways by the inclusion of an unspecified "<!--del_lnk--> autonomy", further undermining the independence camp. Also, Morocco was allowed to keep its army in the area and to retain the control over all security issues during both the autonomy years and the election.<p>In 2003, a new version of the plan was made official, with some additions spelling out the powers of the WSA, making it less reliant on the Moroccan <!--del_lnk--> devolution. It also provided further detail on the referendum process in order to make it harder to stall or subvert. This second draft, commonly known as Baker II, was accepted by the Polisario as a "basis of negotiations" to the surprise of many. This appeared to abandon Polisario's previous position of only negotiating based on the standards of voter identification from 1991. After that, the draft quickly garnered widespread international support, culminating in the UN Security Council's unanimous endorsement of the plan in the summer of 2003.<p><a id="Western_Sahara_today" name="Western_Sahara_today"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Western Sahara today</span></h3>
<p>Today the Baker II document appears politically dead, with Baker having resigned his post at the UN in 2004. His resignation followed several months of failed attempts to get Morocco to enter into formal negotiations on the plan, but he met with rejection. The new king, <!--del_lnk--> Mohammed VI of Morocco, opposes the concept of a referendum on independence, and has said Morocco will never agree to one. In the same time, he supports, through his advising <!--del_lnk--> Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS), a <!--del_lnk--> self-governing Western Sahara as an <!--del_lnk--> autonomous community within Morocco. His father, <!--del_lnk--> Hassan II of Morocco, initially supported the idea in principle in 1982, and in signed contracts in 1991 and 1997.<p>The UN has put forth no replacement strategy after the breakdown of Baker II, and renewed fighting may be a possibility. In 2005, <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Secretary-General <a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a> reported increased military activity on both sides of the front and breaches of several cease-fire provisions against strengthening military fortifications.<p>Morocco has repeatedly tried to get <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> into bilateral negotiations, receiving vocal support from <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and occasionally (and currently) from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. These negotiations would define the exact limits of a Western Sahara autonomy under Moroccan rule, but only after Morocco's "inalienable right" to the territory was recognized as a precondition to the talks. The Algerian government has consistently refused, claiming it has neither the will nor the right to negotiate on the behalf of the Polisario Front.<p>Demonstrations and riots by supporters of independence and/or a referendum broke out in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara in May 2005, and were met by police. Several international <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a> organizations have expressed concern at what they termed abuse by Moroccan security forces, and a number of Sahrawi activists have been jailed. Pro-independence Sahrawi sources, including the Polisario, have given these demonstrations the name "<!--del_lnk--> Independence Intifada", while sources supporting the Moroccan claims have attempted to minimize the events as being of limited importance. International press and other media coverage has been sparse, and reporting is complicated by the Moroccan government's policy of strictly controlling independent media coverage within the territory.<p>Demonstrations and protests are still occurring in late 2006, after Morocco declared in February that it was contemplating a plan for devolving a limited variant of autonomy to the territory, but still explicitly refused any referendum on independence. The Polisario Front has intermittently threatened to resume fighting, referring to the Moroccan refusal of a referendum as a breach of the <!--del_lnk--> cease-fire terms, but most observers seem to consider armed conflict unlikely.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14544.jpg.htm" title="Police checkpoint at suburbs of Laayoune."><img alt="Police checkpoint at suburbs of Laayoune." height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Laayoune-miltary_checkpoint.jpg" src="../../images/145/14544.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The legal status of the territory and the question of its <!--del_lnk--> sovereignty remains unresolved; the territory is contested between <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Polisario Front. It is considered a non self-governed territory by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>.<p>The government of <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> is a formally constitutional <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> under Muhammad VI with a bicameral <!--del_lnk--> parliament. The last elections to the lower house were deemed reasonably free and fair by international observers, but the capacity to appoint the government, dissolve parliament and other powers, remains in the hands of the monarch. The Morocco-controlled parts of Western Sahara are divided into several <!--del_lnk--> provinces treated as integral parts of the kingdom. The Moroccan government heavily subsidizes the Saharan provinces under its control with cut-rate fuel and related subsidies, to appease nationalist dissent and attract immigrants - or settlers - from loyalist Sahrawi and other communities in Morocco proper.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> exiled government of the self-proclaimed <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) is a form of single-party parliamentary and <!--del_lnk--> presidential system, but according to its constitution, this will be changed into a multi-party system at the achievement of independence. It is presently based at the <!--del_lnk--> Tindouf <!--del_lnk--> refugee camps in <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, which it controls. It also claims to control the part of Western Sahara to the east of the <!--del_lnk--> Moroccan Wall, as the "<!--del_lnk--> Free Zone". This area is more or less unpopulated and the Morrocan government views it as a <!--del_lnk--> no-man's land patrolled by <!--del_lnk--> UN troops.<p><a id="Human_rights" name="Human_rights"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Human rights</span></h3>
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<p>The Western Sahara conflict has resulted in severe <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a> abuses, most notably the <!--del_lnk--> displacement of tens of thousands of Sahrawi civilians from the country, the forced expropriation and expulsion of tens of thousends of Moroccan civilians by the Algerian government from Algeria as well as violations of human rights and serious breaches of the <!--del_lnk--> Geneva Conventions by the Polisario Front and Algerian government.<p>Both Morocco and the Polisario accuse each other of violating the human rights of the populations under their control, in the <!--del_lnk--> Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara and the <!--del_lnk--> Tindouf refugee camps in <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, respectively. Morocco and organisations such as <!--del_lnk--> France Libertés consider Algeria to be directly responsible for any crimes committed on its territory, and accuse the country of having been directly involved in such violations.<p>Morocco has been repeatedly criticised by international human rights organizations such as <!--del_lnk--> Amnesty International<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> , <!--del_lnk--> Human Rights Watch<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> and the <!--del_lnk--> World Organization Against Torture<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> , <!--del_lnk--> Freedom House<!--del_lnk--> , <!--del_lnk--> Reporters Without Borders<!--del_lnk--> , the <!--del_lnk--> International Committee of the Red Cross and the <!--del_lnk--> UN High Commissioner for Human Rights<!--del_lnk--> for its actions in Western Sahara.<p>Polisario has received criticism from the French organization <!--del_lnk--> France Libertes on its treatment of Moroccan <!--del_lnk--> prisoners-of-war, and on its general behaviour in the Tindouf refugee camps in reports by the <!--del_lnk--> Belgian organization <!--del_lnk--> ESISC, or European Strategic Intelligence and Security Centre.. A number of <!--del_lnk--> former Polisario officials who have defected to Morocco accuse the organisation of abuse of human rights and sequestration of the population in Tindouf .<p>During the war (1975-91), both sides accused each other of targeting <!--del_lnk--> civilians. Moroccan claims of Polisario <a href="../../wp/t/Terrorism.htm" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> has generally little to no support abroad, with the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="EU">EU</a> and <!--del_lnk--> UN all refusing to include the group on their <!--del_lnk--> lists of terrorist organizations. Polisario leaders maintain that they are ideologically opposed to terrorism, and insist that collective punishment and <!--del_lnk--> forced disappearances among Sahrawi civilians<!--del_lnk--> should be considered <!--del_lnk--> state terrorism on the part of Morocco<!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Administrative_division" name="Administrative_division"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative division</span></h2>
<p>Currently, Western Sahara is largely administered by Morocco. The extent of Morocco's administration is north and west of the <!--del_lnk--> border wall, approximately two-thirds of the territory. The official Moroccan government name for Western Sahara is the "<!--del_lnk--> Southern Provinces", which indicate <!--del_lnk--> Río de Oro and <!--del_lnk--> Saguia el-Hamra. When the territory was a dependency of <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, the same two subdivisions existed. The <!--del_lnk--> remaining area is largely empty and control of it is claimed by the Polisario Front as liberated territory. It is divided into military zones for military/administrative purposes and for MINURSO peace-keeping, but the absence of a settled population has made further administrative structures unnecessary. For information on the subdivisions of the <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in the <!--del_lnk--> refugee camps of Algeria, see <!--del_lnk--> Tindouf.<p>During the joint Moroccan-Mauritanian control of the area, the Mauritanian-controlled part, roughly corresponding to Saquia el-Hamra, was known as <!--del_lnk--> Tiris al-Gharbiyya.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14545.png.htm" title="NASA photo of El Aaiún."><img alt="NASA photo of El Aaiún." height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:El_Aai%C3%BAn_13.22342W_27.14668N.png" src="../../images/145/14545.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Western Sahara is located in Northern <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, bordering the North <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, between <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>. It also borders <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> to the northeast. The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, but is rich in <!--del_lnk--> phosphates in <!--del_lnk--> Bou Craa.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Aside from its rich <!--del_lnk--> phosphate deposits and <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a> waters, Western Sahara has few natural resources and lacks sufficient rainfall for most agricultural activities. There is speculation that there may be rich off-shore <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> fields, but the debate persists as to whether these resources can be profitably exploited, and if this would be legally permitted due to the non-<!--del_lnk--> decolonized status of Western Sahara (see below).<p>Western Sahara's economy is centred around <!--del_lnk--> nomadic <!--del_lnk--> herding, fishing, and phosphate mining. Most food for the urban population is imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan government. The government has encouraged citizens to relocate to the territory by giving <!--del_lnk--> subsidies and <!--del_lnk--> price controls on basic goods. These heavy subsidies have created a state-dominated economy in the Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara, with the Moroccan government as the single biggest employer.<p><a id="Exploitation_debate" name="Exploitation_debate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Exploitation debate</span></h3>
<p>After reasonably exploitable oil fields were located in neighbouring Mauritania, speculation intensified on the possibility of major oil resources being located off the coast of Western Sahara. Despite the fact that findings remain inconclusive, both Morocco and the Polisario have made deals with oil and gas exploration companies. US and French companies (notably <!--del_lnk--> Total and <!--del_lnk--> Kerr-McGee) began prospecting on behalf of Morocco.<p>In 2002, <!--del_lnk--> Hans Corell, Under-Secretary General of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and head of its <!--del_lnk--> Office of Legal Affairs issued a legal opinion on the matter. This opinion stated that while <i>exploration</i> of the area was permitted, <i>exploitation</i> was not, on the basis that Morocco is not a recognized administrative power of the territory, and thus lacks the capacity to issue such licenses. After pressures from corporate ethics-groups, Total S.A. pulled out.<p>In May 2006 the remaining company Kerr-McGee also left following sales of numerous share holders like the National Norwegian Oil Fund, due to continued pressure from NGOs and corporate groups.<p>Despite the UN report and the development regarding the exploration of oil, the European Union wants to exploit fishing resources in waters outside Western Sahara and has signed a fishing treaty with Morocco.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<p>The indigenous population of Western Sahara is known as <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawis. These are <!--del_lnk--> Hassaniya-speaking tribes of mixed <!--del_lnk--> Arab-<!--del_lnk--> Berber heritage, effectively continuations of the <a href="../../wp/t/Tribe.htm" title="Tribe">tribal</a> groupings of Hassaniya speaking <!--del_lnk--> Moorish tribes extending south into <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> and north into <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> as well as east into <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>. The Sahrawis are traditionally <!--del_lnk--> nomadic <!--del_lnk--> bedouins, and can be found in all surrounding countries. War and conflict has lead to major displacements of the population.<p>As of July 2004, an estimated 267,405 people (excluding the Moroccan army of some 160,000) live in the <!--del_lnk--> Moroccan-controlled parts of Western Sahara. Morocco has engaged in "Moroccanization" of the area, bringing in large numbers of settlers in anticipation of a UN-administered referendum on independence. While many of them are from <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawi tribal groups extending up into southern Morocco, some are also non-Sahrawi Moroccans from other regions. The settler population is today thought to outnumber the indigenous Western Sahara Sahrawis. The precise size and composition of the population is subject to political controversy.<p>The Polisario-controlled parts of Western Sahara are barren and have no resident population, but they are travelled by small numbers of Sahrawis herding <a href="../../wp/c/Camel.htm" title="Camel">camels</a>, going back and forth between the Tindouf area and Mauritania. However, the presence of mines scattered throughout the territory by both the Polisario and the Moroccan army makes it a dangerous way of life.<p><a id="The_Spanish_census_and_MINURSO" name="The_Spanish_census_and_MINURSO"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The Spanish census and MINURSO</span></h3>
<p>A 1974 Spanish census claimed there were some 74,000 Sahrawis in the area at the time (in addition to approximately 20,000 Spanish residents), but this number is likely to be on the low side, due to the difficulty in counting a nomad people.<p>In December of 1999 the United Nations' <!--del_lnk--> MINURSO mission announced that it had identified 86,425 eligible voters for the independence referendum that was supposed to be held under the 1991 Settlement agreement and the 1997 Houston accords. By "eligible voter" the UN referred to any Sahrawi over 18 years of age that was part of the Spanish census or could prove his/her descent from someone who was. These 86,425 Sahrawis were dispersed between Moroccan-controlled Western Sahara and the refugee camps in Algeria, as well as smaller numbers in Mauritania and other places of exile. These numbers cover only Sahrawis 'indigenous' to the Western Sahara during the Spanish colonial period, not the total number of "ethnic" Sahrawis (i.e, members of Sahrawi tribal groupings). The number was highly politically significant due to the expected organization of a referendum on independence.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, home base of the Polisario, hold approximately 165,000 Sahrawi refugees from the area according to the last count made by the UN. Morocco disputes this number, saying it is much lower, and insists that many if not most of the refugees are non-Sahrawi Africans who have relocated there in order to profit from aid efforts. The <!--del_lnk--> UNHCR and the numerous other aid agencies that are present in the camps have found no evidence of this.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p>The major ethnic group of the Western Sahara are the <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawis, a <!--del_lnk--> nomadic or <!--del_lnk--> Bedouin tribal or ethnic group speaking <!--del_lnk--> Ḥassānīya dialect of <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, also spoken in much of <a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>. They are of mixed Arab-<!--del_lnk--> Berber descent, but claim descent from the <!--del_lnk--> Beni Hassan, a <!--del_lnk--> Yemeni tribe supposed to have migrated across the desert in the 11th century.<p>Physically indistinguishable from the Hassaniya speaking <!--del_lnk--> Moors of Mauritania, the Sahwari people differ from their neighbors partly due to different tribal affiliations (as tribal confederations cut across present modern boundaries) and partly as a consequence of their exposure to <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> <!--del_lnk--> colonial domination. Surrounding territories were generally under French colonial rule.<p>Like other neighboring Saharan Bedouin and Hassaniya groups, the Sahrawis are <!--del_lnk--> Muslims of the <!--del_lnk--> Sunni sect and the <!--del_lnk--> Maliki law school. Local religious custom <!--del_lnk--> 'urf is, like other Saharan groups, heavily influenced by pre-Islamic <!--del_lnk--> Berber and <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> practices, and differs substantially from urban practices. For example, Sahrawi <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> has traditionally functioned without <a href="../../wp/m/Mosque.htm" title="Mosque">mosques</a> in the normal sense of the word, in an adaptation to nomadic life.<p>The originally <!--del_lnk--> clan- and <a href="../../wp/t/Tribe.htm" title="Tribe">tribe</a>-based society underwent a massive social upheaval in 1975, when a part of the population was forced into <!--del_lnk--> exile and settled in the <!--del_lnk--> refugee camps of <!--del_lnk--> Tindouf, Algeria. Families were broken up by the fight. For developments among this population, see <!--del_lnk--> Sahrawi and <!--del_lnk--> Tindouf Province.<p>The Moroccan government considerably invested in the social and economic development of the Moroccan controlled Western Sahara with special emphasis on education, modernisation and infrastructure. El-Aaiun in particular has been the target of heavy government investment, and has grown rapidly. Several thousand Sahrawis study in Moroccan universities. Literacy rates are appreciated at some 50% of the population.<p>To date, there have been few thorough studies of the culture due in part to the political situation. Some language and culture studies, mainly by <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> researchers, have been performed on Sahrawi communities in northern Mauritania.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sahara"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Western painting</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Art.Art.htm">Art</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/158/15860.jpg.htm" title="Jan Vermeer, Girl with a Pearl Earring, known as the "Mona Lisa of the North" 1665-1667"><img alt="Jan Vermeer, Girl with a Pearl Earring, known as the "Mona Lisa of the North" 1665-1667" class="thumbimage" height="303" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jan_Vermeer_van_Delft_007.jpg" src="../../images/158/15860.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The history of <b>Western painting</b> represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from <!--del_lnk--> Antiquity. Until the early 20th century it relied primarily on <!--del_lnk--> representational and <!--del_lnk--> Classical motifs, after which time more purely <a href="../../wp/a/Abstract_art.htm" title="Abstract art">abstract</a> and <!--del_lnk--> conceptual modes gained favour.<p>Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later. <!--del_lnk--> African art, <!--del_lnk--> Islamic art, <!--del_lnk--> Indian art, <!--del_lnk--> Chinese art, and <!--del_lnk--> Japanese art each had significant influence on Western art, and, eventually, vice-versa.<p>Initially serving <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religious</a> patronage, Western painting later found audiences in the <!--del_lnk--> aristocracy and the <!--del_lnk--> middle class. From the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> through the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> painters worked for the church and a wealthy aristocracy. Beginning with the <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> era artists received private commissions from a more educated and prosperous middle class. By the 19th century painters became liberated from the demands of their patronage to only depict scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history. The idea "<!--del_lnk--> art for art's sake" began to find expression in the work of painters like <!--del_lnk--> Francisco de Goya, <a href="../../wp/j/John_Constable.htm" title="John Constable">John Constable</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> J.M.W. Turner.<p>Western painting's zenith takes place in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, during the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in conjunction with the refinement of <a href="../../wp/d/Drawing.htm" title="Drawing">drawing</a>, use of <!--del_lnk--> perspective, ambitious <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <!--del_lnk--> tapestry, <a href="../../wp/s/Stained_glass.htm" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, and the period before and after the advent of the <!--del_lnk--> printing press. Following the depth of discovery and the complex of innovations of the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> the rich heritage of Western painting (from the <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Contemporary art) continues into the 21st century.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Pre-history" name="Pre-history"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Pre-history</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/209/20920.jpg.htm" title="Image:Lascaux.jpg"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/158/15864.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Lascaux, <i><!--del_lnk--> aurochs</i><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/158/15868.jpg.htm" title="Image:Paleo ptg lascaux unicorn.jpg"><img alt="" height="92" src="../../images/158/15868.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Lascaux, <i><!--del_lnk--> unicorn</i><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9108.jpg.htm" title="Image:Lascaux2.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/91/9108.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Lascaux<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/158/15870.jpg.htm" title="Image:Lascaux-salle-des-taureaux.jpg"><img alt="" height="85" src="../../images/158/15870.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Lascaux<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/158/15892.jpg.htm" title="Image:Lascaux-nef.jpg"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/158/15892.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Lascaux<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9106.jpg.htm" title="Image:CavePainting1.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/91/9106.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Cave Painting<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/159/15900.jpg.htm" title="Image:Cosquer.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/159/15900.jpg" width="106" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Cosquer cave, <i><!--del_lnk--> painted <a href="../../wp/b/Bison.htm" title="Bison">bison</a></i><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/159/15912.jpg.htm" title="Image:Rock art bull.jpg"><img alt="" height="79" src="../../images/159/15912.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Spanish cave painting of <i><!--del_lnk--> Bulls</i><p>
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<p>The <a href="../../wp/h/History_of_painting.htm" title="History of painting">history of painting</a> reaches back in time to artifacts from pre-historic humans, and spans all cultures. The oldest known paintings are at the <!--del_lnk--> Grotte Chauvet in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, claimed by some historians to be about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and painted using <!--del_lnk--> red ochre and black pigment and show horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo, mammoth, or humans often hunting. There are examples of <!--del_lnk--> cave paintings all over the world—in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> etc. Various conjectures have been made as to the meaning these paintings had to the people who made them. Prehistoric men may have painted animals to "catch" their <!--del_lnk--> soul or <!--del_lnk--> spirit in order to hunt them more easily, or the paintings may represent an <!--del_lnk--> animistic vision and homage to surrounding <a href="../../wp/n/Nature.htm" title="Nature">nature</a>, or they may be the result of a basic need of <!--del_lnk--> expression that is <!--del_lnk--> innate to human beings, or they may be recordings of the life experiences of the artists and related stories from the members of their circle.<p><a id="Western_painting" name="Western_painting"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Western painting</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Egypt.2C_Greece_and_Rome" name="Egypt.2C_Greece_and_Rome"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Egypt, Greece and Rome</span></h3>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11503.jpg.htm" title="Image:Egypt paint.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/115/11503.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11516.jpg.htm" title="Image:Maler der Grabkammer der Nefertari 004.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/115/11516.jpg" width="81" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, <small><i>Queen Nefertari</i></small><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11542.jpg.htm" title="Image:KnossosFrescoRepro06827.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/115/11542.jpg" width="81" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Knossos<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 43px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11521.jpg.htm" title="Image:Egyptian papyrus.jpg"><img alt="" height="60" src="../../images/115/11521.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, <!--del_lnk--> papyrus<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9112.jpg.htm" title="Image:Orpheus7.jpg"><img alt="" height="79" src="../../images/91/9112.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Greek art<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11547.jpg.htm" title="Image:Pompejanischer Maler um 80 v. Chr. 001.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/115/11547.jpg" width="105" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Roman art, <a href="../../wp/p/Pompeii.htm" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9113.jpg.htm" title="Image:Roman mithological painting.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/91/9113.jpg" width="79" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Roman art<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/159/15927.jpg.htm" title="Image:Fayum-boy-MNW.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/159/15927.jpg" width="89" /></a></div>
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<p>Boy from <!--del_lnk--> Al-Fayum, 2nd century.<p>
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<p><a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, a civilization with strong traditions of <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Sculpture.htm" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> (both originally painted in bright colours), had many mural paintings in temples and buildings, and painted illustrations to <!--del_lnk--> papyrus <!--del_lnk--> manuscripts. Egyptian wall painting and decorative painting is often graphic, sometimes more symbolic than realistic. Egyptian painting depicts figures in bold outline and flat <!--del_lnk--> silhouette, in which symmetry is a constant characteristic. <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian painting has close connection with its written language - called <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian hieroglyphs. The Egyptians also painted on linen, remnants of which survive today. Painted symbols are found amongst the first forms of written language.<p>To the north of <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> was the <a href="../../wp/m/Minoan_civilization.htm" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a> on the island of <!--del_lnk--> Crete. The wall paintings found in the palace of <!--del_lnk--> Knossos are similar to those of the <!--del_lnk--> Egyptians but much more free in style.<p>Around 1100 B.C., tribes from the north of <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> conquered Greece and its art took a new direction. The culture of <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Greece.htm" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> is noteworthy for its outstanding contributions to the visual arts. Painting on <!--del_lnk--> pottery of Ancient Greece and <!--del_lnk--> ceramics gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way society in Ancient Greece functioned. Many fine examples of <!--del_lnk--> Black-figure vase painting and <!--del_lnk--> Red-figure vase painting still exist. Some famous Greek painters who worked on wood panels and are mentioned in texts are <!--del_lnk--> Apelles, <!--del_lnk--> Zeuxis and Parrhasius; however, no examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, only written descriptions by their contemporaries or later Romans. Zeuxis lived in 5-6 BC and was said to be the first to use <!--del_lnk--> sfumato. According to <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder, the realism of his paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes. Apelles is described as the greatest painter of <!--del_lnk--> Antiquity, and is noted for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant colour, and modeling.<p><!--del_lnk--> Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as descendant from ancient Greek painting. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman works are wall paintings, many from villas in <!--del_lnk--> Campania, in Southern Italy. Such painting can be grouped into 4 main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples of <!--del_lnk--> trompe-l'oeil, psuedo-perspective, and pure landscape. Almost the only painted portraits surviving from the Ancient world are a large number of coffin-portraits of bust form found in the <!--del_lnk--> Late Antique cemetery of <!--del_lnk--> Al-Fayum. Although these were neither of the best period nor the highest quality, they are impressive in themselves, and suggest the quality of the finest ancient work. A very small number of <!--del_lnk--> miniatures from Late Antique illustrated books also survive, as well as a rather larger number of copies of them from the Early Medieval period.<p><a id="Middle_Ages" name="Middle_Ages"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Middle Ages</span></h3>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11550.jpg.htm" title="Image:CottonGenesisFragment26vAbrahamAndAngels.JPG"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/115/11550.jpg" width="86" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Cotton Genesis <small>A miniature of <i><!--del_lnk--> Abraham Meeting <!--del_lnk--> Angels</i></small><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9120.jpg.htm" title="Image:Byzantine art1.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9120.jpg" width="84" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Byzantine art<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/159/15929.jpg.htm" title="Image:ChristPantocratorStCatherines.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/159/15929.jpg" width="66" /></a></div>
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<p>Byzantine <!--del_lnk--> icon, 6th century<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11553.jpg.htm" title="Image:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 003.jpg"><img alt="" height="88" src="../../images/115/11553.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Byzantine art mosaics in <!--del_lnk--> Ravenna<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/159/15932.gif.htm" title="Image:EchternachGospelsLionImage.GIF"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/159/15932.gif" width="94" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Insular art 7th century<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11561.jpg.htm" title="Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Janvier.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/115/11561.jpg" width="77" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Limbourg Brothers<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9124.jpg.htm" title="Image:Book of hours1.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/91/9124.jpg" width="83" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Book of Hours<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9126.jpg.htm" title="Image:Hastings book of the hours.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9126.jpg" width="87" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Book of Hours<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/115/11585.jpg.htm" title="Image:Codexaureus 25.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/115/11585.jpg" width="85" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Carolingian<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/116/11627.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ebbo.Gospels.St.Mark.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/116/11627.jpg" width="92" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Carolingian <small><i><!--del_lnk--> Saint Mark</i></small><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/116/11658.jpg.htm" title="Image:Giottino pieta.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/116/11658.jpg" width="78" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Giottino<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/117/11721.jpg.htm" title="Image:Madonna dei denti.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/117/11721.jpg" width="55" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Vitale da Bologna<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 14px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/117/11740.jpg.htm" title="Image:Simone Martini 072.jpg"><img alt="" height="117" src="../../images/117/11740.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Simone Martini<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9122.jpg.htm" title="Image:Cimabue crucifix.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9122.jpg" width="97" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Cimabue<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9136.jpg.htm" title="Image:Giotto mural painting.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9136.jpg" width="116" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Giotto<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/159/15934.jpg.htm" title="Image:Eyck selbst.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/159/15934.jpg" width="85" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jan van Eyck, self-portrait?, 1433<p>
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<p>The rise of Christianity imparted a different spirit and aim to painting styles. <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine art, once its style was established by the 6th century, placed great emphasis on retaining traditional <!--del_lnk--> iconography and style, and has changed relatively little through the thousand years of the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and the continuing traditions of Greek and Russian <!--del_lnk--> Othodox <!--del_lnk--> icon-painting. Byzantine painting has a particularly hieratic feeling and icons were and still are seen as a reflection of the divine. There were also many wall-paintings in <!--del_lnk--> fresco, but fewer of these have survived than Byzantine <!--del_lnk--> mosaics. In general Byzantium art borders on <!--del_lnk--> abstraction, in its flatness and highly stylised depictions of figures and landscape. However there are periods, especially in the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Macedonian art of around the 10th century, when Byzantine art became more flexible in approach.<p>In post-Antique Catholic Europe the first distinctive artistic style to emerge that included painting was the <!--del_lnk--> Insular art of the British Isles, where the only surviving examples (and quite likely the only medium in which painting was used) are miniatures in <!--del_lnk--> Illuminated manuscripts such as the <a href="../../wp/b/Book_of_Kells.htm" title="Book of Kells">Book of Kells</a>. These are most famous for their abstract decoration, although figures, and sometimes scenes, were also depicted, especially in <!--del_lnk--> Evangelist portraits. <!--del_lnk--> Carolingian and <!--del_lnk--> Ottonian art also survives mostly in manuscripts, although some wall-painting remain, and more are documented. The art of this period combines Insular and "barbarian" influences with a strong Byzantine influence and an aspiration to recover classical monumentality and poise.<p>Walls of <!--del_lnk--> Romanesque and <!--del_lnk--> Gothic churches were decorated with <!--del_lnk--> frescoes as well as sculpture and many of the few remaining <!--del_lnk--> murals have great intensity, and combine the decorative energy of Insular art with a new monumentality in the treatment of figures. Far more miniatures in <!--del_lnk--> Illuminated manuscripts survive from the period, showing the same characteristics, which continue into the <!--del_lnk--> Gothic period.<p>Panel painting becomes more common during the <!--del_lnk--> Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Medieval art and <!--del_lnk--> Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and <!--del_lnk--> perspective in Italy with <!--del_lnk--> Cimabue and then his pupil <!--del_lnk--> Giotto. From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much more free and innovative. They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of painting in western culture. Cimabue, within the Byzantine tradition, used a more realistic and dramatic approach to his art. His pupil, Giotto, took these innovations to a higher level which in turn set the foundations for the western painting tradition. Both artists were pioneers in the move towards naturalism.<p>Churches were built with more and more windows and the use of colorful <a href="../../wp/s/Stained_glass.htm" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a> become a staple in decoration. One of the most famous examples of this is found in the <!--del_lnk--> cathedral of <!--del_lnk--> Notre Dame de Paris. By the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th century</a> Western societies were both richer and more cultivated and painters found new patrons in the nobility and even the <!--del_lnk--> bourgeoisie. Illuminated manuscripts took on a new character and slim, fashionably dressed court women were shown in their landscapes. This style soon became known as International style and <!--del_lnk--> tempera panel paintings and altarpieces gained importance.<p><a id="Renaissance_and_Mannerism" name="Renaissance_and_Mannerism"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Renaissance and Mannerism</span></h3>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/117/11778.jpg.htm" title="Image:Fra Angelico 037.jpg"><img alt="" height="84" src="../../images/117/11778.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Fra Angelico<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/119/11923.jpg.htm" title="Image:Madonna and Child (Filippo Lippi).jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/119/11923.jpg" width="79" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Filippo Lippi<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/119/11951.jpg.htm" title="Image:Andrea Mantegna 036.jpg"><img alt="" height="92" src="../../images/119/11951.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Andrea Mantegna<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/120/12006.jpg.htm" title="Image:Masaccio-TheExpulsionOfAdamAndEveFromEden-Restoration.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/120/12006.jpg" width="97" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Masaccio <small><i>The Expulsion Of Adam and Eve from Eden,</i> before and after restoration</small><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9139.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ucello2.jpg"><img alt="" height="88" src="../../images/91/9139.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Paolo Uccello<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/120/12060.jpg.htm" title="Image:Mona Lisa.jpeg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/120/12060.jpg" width="77" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Leonardo Da Vinci<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9141.jpg.htm" title="Image:Madonna raphael.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9141.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/r/Raphael.htm" title="Raphael">Raphael</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/120/12067.jpg.htm" title="Image:Michelangelo-creation.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/120/12067.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/m/Michelangelo.htm" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9142.jpg.htm" title="Image:Audurer.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9142.jpg" width="87" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 21px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/121/12122.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bellini, Giovanni ~ St Francis in the Desert, c1480, Tempera and oil on panel Frick Collection, New York.jpg"><img alt="" height="104" src="../../images/121/12122.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Bellini<p>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Titian<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 35px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/122/12287.jpg.htm" title="Image:Birth of Venus.jpg"><img alt="" height="75" src="../../images/122/12287.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Sandro Botticelli<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/122/12294.jpg.htm" title="Image:Giorgione tempest.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/122/12294.jpg" width="107" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Giorgione<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/272/27290.jpg.htm" title="Image:Jan van Eyck 001.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/123/12320.jpg" width="87" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jan van Eyck<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/123/12321.jpg.htm" title="Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 065.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/123/12321.jpg" width="95" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Hans Holbein the Younger<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/123/12322.jpg.htm" title="Image:El Greco View of Toledo.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/123/12322.jpg" width="107" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> El Greco<p>
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<p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> (French for 'rebirth'), a cultural movement roughly spanning the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a> through the mid <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a>, heralded the study of classical sources, as well as advances in science which profoundly influenced European intellectual and artistic life. In Italy artists like <!--del_lnk--> Paolo Uccello, <!--del_lnk--> Fra Angelico, <!--del_lnk--> Masaccio, <!--del_lnk--> Piero della Francesca, <!--del_lnk--> Andrea Mantegna, <!--del_lnk--> Filippo Lippi, <!--del_lnk--> Giorgione, <!--del_lnk--> Tintoretto, <!--del_lnk--> Sandro Botticelli, <!--del_lnk--> Leonardo Da Vinci, <!--del_lnk--> Michelangelo Buonarroti, <a href="../../wp/r/Raphael.htm" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Bellini and <!--del_lnk--> Titian took painting to a higher level through the use of <!--del_lnk--> perspective, the study of <!--del_lnk--> human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques.<p>Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Renaissance such as <!--del_lnk--> Hans Holbein the Younger, <a href="../../wp/a/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer.htm" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lucas Cranach, <!--del_lnk--> Matthias Grünewald, <!--del_lnk--> Hieronymous Bosch, and <!--del_lnk--> Pieter Brueghel represent a different approach from their Italian colleagues, one that is more realistic and less idealized. The adoption of oil painting (whose invention was traditionally, but erroneously, credited to <!--del_lnk--> Jan Van Eyck), made possible a new <!--del_lnk--> verisimilitude in depicting reality. Unlike the Italians, whose work drew heavily from the art of ancient Greece and Rome, the northerners retained a stylistic residue of the sculpture and <!--del_lnk--> illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages.<p>Renaissance painting reflects the revolution of ideas and science (<a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" title="Geography">geography</a>) that occurred in this period, the <!--del_lnk--> Reformation, and the invention of the <!--del_lnk--> printing press. Dürer, considered one of the greatest of printmakers, states that painters are not mere <!--del_lnk--> artisans but <!--del_lnk--> thinkers as well. With the development of <!--del_lnk--> easel painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture. Following centuries dominated by religious imagery, secular subject matter slowly returned to Western painting. Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own imaginations in their paintings. Those who could afford the expense could become patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family.<p>In the 16th century, movable pictures which could be hung easily on walls, rather than paintings affixed to permanent structures, came into popular demand .<p>The <!--del_lnk--> High Renaissance gave rise to a stylized art known as <!--del_lnk--> Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterized art at the dawn of the sixteenth century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of <!--del_lnk--> Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of <!--del_lnk--> Pontormo and the emotional intensity of <!--del_lnk--> El Greco.<p><a id="Baroque_and_Rococo" name="Baroque_and_Rococo"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Baroque and Rococo</span></h3>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9147.jpg.htm" title="Image:Caravaggio bacchus.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9147.jpg" width="101" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/c/Caravaggio.htm" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/123/12325.jpg.htm" title="Image:Rubens - Judgement of Paris.jpg"><img alt="" height="85" src="../../images/123/12325.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9148.jpg.htm" title="Image:Vermeer.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/91/9148.jpg" width="105" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jan Vermeer<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 23px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/123/12332.jpg.htm" title="Image:RembrandtNightwatch.jpg"><img alt="" height="100" src="../../images/123/12332.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Rembrandt van Rijn<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/123/12348.jpg.htm" title="Image:Velazquez-Meninas.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/123/12348.jpg" width="105" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Diego Velazquez<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/123/12362.jpg.htm" title="Image:Poussin RapeSabineLouvre.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/123/12362.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Poussin<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/123/12370.jpg.htm" title="Image:The Death of Hyacinth.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/123/12370.jpg" width="97" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Battista Tiepolo<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/124/12411.jpg.htm" title="Image:WatteauPierrot.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/124/12411.jpg" width="93" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Antoine Watteau<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/124/12413.jpg.htm" title="Image:Fragonard, The Swing.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/124/12413.jpg" width="95" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jean-Honoré Fragonard<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 24px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/124/12415.jpg.htm" title="Image:Marie-Louise O'Murphy (1737-1818) painted by Francois Boucher (1703–1770).jpg"><img alt="" height="97" src="../../images/124/12415.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> François Boucher<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/124/12419.jpg.htm" title="Image:Thomas Gainsborough 008.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/124/12419.jpg" width="79" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Gainsborough.htm" title="Thomas Gainsborough">Thomas Gainsborough</a><p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/124/12421.jpg.htm" title="Image:Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin 029.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/124/12421.jpg" width="99" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin<p>
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<p>During the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a>, painting is characterized as <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a>. Among the greatest painters of the <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> are <a href="../../wp/c/Caravaggio.htm" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Rembrandt, <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Rubens</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Velazquez, <!--del_lnk--> Poussin, and <!--del_lnk--> Vermeer. Caravaggio is an heir of the <a href="../../wp/h/Humanism.htm" title="Humanism">humanist</a> painting of the <!--del_lnk--> High Renaissance. His <!--del_lnk--> realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using <!--del_lnk--> chiaroscuro light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, <!--del_lnk--> Le Nain and <!--del_lnk--> La Tour. The Flemish painter <!--del_lnk--> Antony Van Dyck developed a graceful but imposing portrait syle that was very influential, especially in England.<p>The prosperity of seventeenth century Holland led to an enormous production of art by large numbers of painters who were mostly highly specialised and painted only <!--del_lnk--> genre scenes, <!--del_lnk--> landscapes, <!--del_lnk--> Still-lifes, <!--del_lnk--> portraits or <!--del_lnk--> History paintings. Technical standards were very high, and <!--del_lnk--> Dutch Golden Age painting established a new repertoire of subjects that was very influential until the arrival of <!--del_lnk--> Modernism.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Rococo.htm" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> followed as a lighter extension of Baroque, often frivolous and erotic. The French masters <!--del_lnk--> Watteau, <!--del_lnk--> Boucher and <!--del_lnk--> Fragonard represent the style, as do <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin who was considered by some as the best French painter of the 18th century - the Anti-Rococo. <!--del_lnk--> Portraiture was an important component of painting in all countries, but especially in England, where the leaders were <a href="../../wp/w/William_Hogarth.htm" title="William Hogarth">William Hogarth</a> in a blunt realist style, and <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Gainsborough.htm" title="Thomas Gainsborough">Thomas Gainsborough</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Joshua Reynolds in more flattering styles influenced by Van Dyck.<p><a name="19th_century:_Neo-classicism.2C_Romanticism.2C_Impressionism.2C_Hudson_River_School"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">19th century: Neo-classicism, Romanticism, Impressionism, Hudson River School</span></h2>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 34px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/155/15539.jpg.htm" title="Image:David - The Death of Socrates.jpg"><img alt="" height="78" src="../../images/155/15539.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/j/Jacques-Louis_David.htm" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1787<p>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/124/12423.jpg.htm" title="Image:Constable DeadhamVale.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/124/12423.jpg" width="93" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/j/John_Constable.htm" title="John Constable">John Constable</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1802<p>
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</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/124/12450.jpg.htm" title="Image:IngresBainTurc.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/124/12450.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres <!--del_lnk--> 1862<p>
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<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 23px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/52/5215.jpg.htm" title="Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg"><img alt="" height="99" src="../../images/125/12568.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Eugène Delacroix, <!--del_lnk--> 1830<p>
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<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/48/4895.jpg.htm" title="Image:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes 023.jpg"><img alt="" height="92" src="../../images/126/12673.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Francisco de Goya <!--del_lnk--> 1814<p>
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<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 32px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/128/12812.jpg.htm" title="Image:Floss der medusa.jpg"><img alt="" height="82" src="../../images/128/12812.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Théodore Géricault <!--del_lnk--> 1819<p>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9166.jpg.htm" title="Image:Caspar1.jpg"><img alt="" height="89" src="../../images/91/9166.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Caspar David Friedrich c.<!--del_lnk--> 1820<p>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/48/4896.jpg.htm" title="Image:Turner, J. M. W. - The Fighting Téméraire tugged to her last Berth to be broken.jpg"><img alt="" height="89" src="../../images/91/9165.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/j/J._M._W._Turner.htm" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1838<p>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 45px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/128/12861.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ornans.jpg"><img alt="" height="56" src="../../images/128/12861.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Gustave Courbet <!--del_lnk--> 1849-<!--del_lnk--> 1850<p>
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</div>
</div>
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<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 38px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/128/12893.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bierstadt-storm-in-the-rocky-mountains-1886.jpg"><img alt="" height="69" src="../../images/128/12893.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Albert Bierstadt <!--del_lnk--> 1886<p>
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</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/128/12896.jpg.htm" title="Image:Corot.villedavray.750pix.jpg"><img alt="" height="89" src="../../images/128/12896.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Camille Corot c.<!--del_lnk--> 1867<p>
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</div>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/129/12909.jpg.htm" title="Image:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant, 1872.jpg"><img alt="" height="92" src="../../images/129/12909.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/c/Claude_Monet.htm" title="Claude Monet">Claude Monet</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1872<p>
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<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/129/12921.jpg.htm" title="Image:Renoir21.jpg"><img alt="" height="88" src="../../images/129/12921.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Pierre-Auguste Renoir <!--del_lnk--> 1876<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/129/12992.jpg.htm" title="Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 012.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/129/12992.jpg" width="87" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Edgar Degas <!--del_lnk--> 1876<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/82/8212.jpg.htm" title="Image:Edouard Manet. A Bar at the Folies-Bergère.JPG"><img alt="" height="89" src="../../images/130/13024.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2589douard_Manet.htm" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1882<p>
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</div>
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</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/130/13047.jpg.htm" title="Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 128.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/130/13047.jpg" width="96" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1888<p>
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<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 25px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/130/13083.jpg.htm" title="Image:VanGogh-starry night.jpg"><img alt="" height="96" src="../../images/130/13083.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1889<p>
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</td>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 50px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/130/13084.jpg.htm" title="Image:Where.jpg"><img alt="" height="45" src="../../images/130/13084.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Paul Gauguin <!--del_lnk--> 1897-<!--del_lnk--> 1898<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/130/13087.jpg.htm" title="Image:Georges Seurat - Un dimanche après-midi à l'Île de la Grande Jatte.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/130/13087.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Georges Seurat <!--del_lnk--> 1884-<!--del_lnk--> 1886<p>
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</div>
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</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 22px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/131/13109.jpg.htm" title="Image:Paul Cézanne 047.jpg"><img alt="" height="102" src="../../images/131/13109.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/p/Paul_C%25C3%25A9zanne.htm" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1906<p>
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</table>
<p>After <a href="../../wp/r/Rococo.htm" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> there arose in the late 18th century, in <a href="../../wp/a/Architecture.htm" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, and then in painting severe <!--del_lnk--> neo-classicism, best represented by such artists as <!--del_lnk--> David and his heir <!--del_lnk--> Ingres. Ingres' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that was to characterize <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>. This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above mankind's will. There is a <!--del_lnk--> pantheist philosophy (see <!--del_lnk--> Spinoza and <!--del_lnk--> Hegel) within this conception that opposes <a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> ideals by seeing mankind's destiny in a more tragic or pessimistic light. The idea that human beings are not above the forces of <a href="../../wp/n/Nature.htm" title="Nature">Nature</a> is in contradiction to <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Greek and <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict the <!--del_lnk--> sublime, ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness.<p>Romantic painters turned <!--del_lnk--> landscape painting into a major genre, considered until then as a minor genre or as a decorative background for figure compositions. Some of the major painters of this period are <!--del_lnk--> Eugene Delacroix, <!--del_lnk--> Théodore Géricault, <a href="../../wp/j/J._M._W._Turner.htm" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Caspar David Friedrich and <a href="../../wp/j/John_Constable.htm" title="John Constable">John Constable</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Francisco de Goya's late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational, while the work of <!--del_lnk--> Arnold Böcklin evokes mystery and the paintings of <!--del_lnk--> Aesthetic movement artist <!--del_lnk--> James McNeill Whistler evoke both sophistication and <!--del_lnk--> decadence. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> the Romantic tradition of landscape painting was known as the <!--del_lnk--> Hudson River School. Important painters of that school include <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Cole, <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Church, <!--del_lnk--> Albert Bierstadt, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Moran, and <!--del_lnk--> John Frederick Kensett among others. <!--del_lnk--> Luminism was another important movement in American landscape painting related to the Hudson River School.<p>The leading <!--del_lnk--> Barbizon School painter <!--del_lnk--> Camille Corot painted sometimes as a romantic, sometimes as a <!--del_lnk--> Realist who looks ahead to <a href="../../wp/i/Impressionism.htm" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a>. A major force in the turn towards <!--del_lnk--> Realism at mid-century was <!--del_lnk--> Gustave Courbet. In the latter third of the century Impressionists like <a href="../../wp/%25/%25C3%2589douard_Manet.htm" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Claude_Monet.htm" title="Claude Monet">Claude Monet</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Pierre-Auguste Renoir, <!--del_lnk--> Camille Pissarro, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Sisley, <!--del_lnk--> Berthe Morisot, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Cassatt, and <!--del_lnk--> Edgar Degas and the slightly younger post-Impressionists like <!--del_lnk--> Vincent Van Gogh, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Gauguin, <!--del_lnk--> Georges Seurat, and <!--del_lnk--> Paul Cezanne lead art up to the edge of <!--del_lnk--> modernism.<p><a name="20th_century"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">20th century</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 23px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/131/13110.png.htm" title="Image:Matisse TheDessert.png"><img alt="" height="100" src="../../images/131/13110.png" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><a href="../../wp/h/Henri_Matisse.htm" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1908, <!--del_lnk--> Fauvism<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/131/13116.jpg.htm" title="Image:Les Demoiselles D'Avignon.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/131/13116.jpg" width="109" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1907, early <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">Cubism</a><p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/132/13217.jpg.htm" title="Image:Violcand.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/132/13217.jpg" width="97" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Georges Braque <!--del_lnk--> 1910, <!--del_lnk--> Analytic Cubism<p>
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</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Giorgio de Chirico <!--del_lnk--> 1914, pre-<!--del_lnk--> Surrealism<p>
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</div>
</td>
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<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/132/13282.jpg.htm" title="Image:Kandinsky WWI.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/132/13282.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Wassily Kandinsky <!--del_lnk--> 1913, birth of <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Art<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/133/13305.jpg.htm" title="Image:Malevici06.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/133/13305.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Kasimir Malevich <!--del_lnk--> 1916, <!--del_lnk--> Suprematism<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Piet Mondrian <!--del_lnk--> 1921, <!--del_lnk--> De Stijl<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/134/13429.jpg.htm" title="Image:KleeSP.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/134/13429.jpg" width="109" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Paul Klee <!--del_lnk--> 1922, <!--del_lnk--> Bauhaus<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Marcel Duchamp <!--del_lnk--> 1915-<!--del_lnk--> 1923, <a href="../../wp/d/Dada.htm" title="Dada">Dada</a><p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Max Ernst <!--del_lnk--> 1923, early <!--del_lnk--> Surrealism<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Rene Magritte <!--del_lnk--> 1928-<!--del_lnk--> 1929, <!--del_lnk--> Surrealism<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Salvador Dali <!--del_lnk--> 1931, <!--del_lnk--> Surrealism (super-realism)<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Grant Wood <!--del_lnk--> 1930, American <!--del_lnk--> Social Realism, <!--del_lnk--> Regionalism<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/134/13471.jpg.htm" title="Image:Frida Kahlo (self portrait).jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/134/13471.jpg" width="89" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Frida Kahlo <!--del_lnk--> 1940, Latin America <!--del_lnk--> Symbolism<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Edward Hopper <!--del_lnk--> 1942, <!--del_lnk--> American Scene painting<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Francis Bacon <!--del_lnk--> 1953, British <a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a><p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Willem De Kooning <!--del_lnk--> 1952-<!--del_lnk--> 1953, Figurative <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Expressionism<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/91/9179.jpg.htm" title="Image:Pollock composit.jpg"><img alt="" height="88" src="../../images/91/9179.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Jackson Pollock <!--del_lnk--> 1950, <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Expressionism<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Franz Kline <!--del_lnk--> 1954, <!--del_lnk--> Action Painting<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Clyfford Still <!--del_lnk--> 1957, <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Expressionism/<!--del_lnk--> Colour Field painting<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Helen Frankenthaler <!--del_lnk--> 1952, early <!--del_lnk--> Colour Field painting<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Robert Rauschenberg <!--del_lnk--> 1963, <!--del_lnk--> Combine<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Richard Diebenkorn <!--del_lnk--> 1963, <!--del_lnk--> Bay Area Figurative Movement<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Fairfield Porter <!--del_lnk--> 1971-<!--del_lnk--> 1972, East Coast <!--del_lnk--> Figurative painting<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Roy Lichtenstein <!--del_lnk--> 1963, <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art<p>
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</div>
</div>
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<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><a href="../../wp/a/Andy_Warhol.htm" title="Andy Warhol">Andy Warhol</a> <!--del_lnk--> 1962, <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art (use of repetition)<p>
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</td>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> David Hockney <!--del_lnk--> 1967, English <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Josef Albers <!--del_lnk--> 1965, <!--del_lnk--> Geometric abstraction<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Frank Stella <!--del_lnk--> 1967, <!--del_lnk--> Shaped Canvas<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 44px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/137/13760.jpg.htm" title="Image:BlackGreyBeat.jpg"><img alt="" height="58" src="../../images/137/13760.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Gene Davis <!--del_lnk--> 1964, <!--del_lnk--> Washington Colour School<p>
<br />
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 41px 0; width: 150px;"><a href="../../images/137/13789.jpg.htm" title="Image:P0055av Ring.jpg"><img alt="" height="64" src="../../images/137/13789.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Ronald Davis <!--del_lnk--> 1968, <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Illusionism<p>
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</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Landfield <!--del_lnk--> 1971, <!--del_lnk--> Lyrical Abstraction<p>
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<div class="gallerybox" style="width: 150px;">
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Philip Guston <!--del_lnk--> 1973, pre-<!--del_lnk--> Neo-expressionism<p>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Susan Rothenberg <!--del_lnk--> 1979, <!--del_lnk--> Neo-expressionism<p>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Eric Fischl <!--del_lnk--> 1981, Figurative <!--del_lnk--> Neo-expressionism<p>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Anselm Kiefer <!--del_lnk--> 1983, European <!--del_lnk--> Neo-expressionism<p>
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<p>The heritage of painters like <a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" title="Van Gogh">Van Gogh</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Cézanne, <!--del_lnk--> Gauguin, and <!--del_lnk--> Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century <a href="../../wp/h/Henri_Matisse.htm" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a> and several other young artists revolutionized the <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> art world with "wild," multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called <!--del_lnk--> Fauvism. <a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a> made his first <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">cubist</a> paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: <!--del_lnk--> cube, <a href="../../wp/s/Sphere.htm" title="Sphere">sphere</a> and <!--del_lnk--> cone.<div class="thumb tleft">
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<p>After <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">cubism</a> several movements emerged; <!--del_lnk--> Futurism (<!--del_lnk--> Balla), <a href="../../wp/a/Abstract_art.htm" title="Abstract art">Abstract</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Kandinsky, <!--del_lnk--> Der Blaue Reiter), <!--del_lnk--> Bauhaus (<!--del_lnk--> Klee), <!--del_lnk--> De Stijl (<!--del_lnk--> Mondrian), <!--del_lnk--> Suprematism (<!--del_lnk--> Malevich), <a href="../../wp/c/Constructivism_%2528art%2529.htm" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivism</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Tatlin), <!--del_lnk--> Dadaism (<!--del_lnk--> Duchamp, <!--del_lnk--> Arp) and <!--del_lnk--> Surrealism (<!--del_lnk--> De Chirico, <!--del_lnk--> Miró, <!--del_lnk--> Magritte, <a href="../../wp/s/Salvador_Dal%25C3%25AD.htm" title="Salvador Dalí">Dalí</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ernst). Modern painting influenced all visual arts, from architecture to design and became an experimental laboratory in which artists stretched the limits of this medium to his extreme. Additionally, Van Gogh's painting had great influence in <a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a> which can be seen in <!--del_lnk--> Die Brücke, a group lead by German painter <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Kirchner and in <!--del_lnk--> Edvard Munch or <!--del_lnk--> Egon Schiele's work.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> USA during the period between <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> painters tended to go to Europe for recognition. Artists like <!--del_lnk--> Marsden Hartley, <!--del_lnk--> Patrick Henry Bruce, <!--del_lnk--> Gerald Murphy and <!--del_lnk--> Stuart Davis, created reputations abroad. In <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Albert Pinkham Ryder and <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Blakelock were influential and important figures in advanced American painting between 1900 and 1920. During the 1920s photographer <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Stieglitz exhibited <!--del_lnk--> Georgia O'Keefe, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Dove, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Henry Maurer, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Demuth, <!--del_lnk--> John Marin and other artists including European Masters <a href="../../wp/h/Henri_Matisse.htm" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Auguste_Rodin.htm" title="Auguste Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Henri Rousseau, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Cezanne, and <a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, at his gallery <i><!--del_lnk--> the 291.</i><div class="thumb tright">
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<p>During the 1930s and the <!--del_lnk--> Great Depression, <!--del_lnk--> Surrealism, late <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Bauhaus, <!--del_lnk--> De Stijl, <a href="../../wp/d/Dada.htm" title="Dada">Dada</a>, and colorist painters like <a href="../../wp/h/Henri_Matisse.htm" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Bonnard characterized the European art scene. While in America <!--del_lnk--> American Scene painting and the <!--del_lnk--> Social Realism and <!--del_lnk--> Regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like <!--del_lnk--> Ben Shahn, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Hart Benton, <!--del_lnk--> Grant Wood, <!--del_lnk--> George Tooker, <!--del_lnk--> John Steuart Curry, <!--del_lnk--> Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent. In Latin America the <!--del_lnk--> muralist movement with <!--del_lnk--> Diego Rivera, <!--del_lnk--> David Siqueiros, <!--del_lnk--> José Orozco, <!--del_lnk--> Pedro Nel Gómez and <!--del_lnk--> Santiago Martinez Delgado and the <!--del_lnk--> Symbolist paintings by <!--del_lnk--> Frida Kahlo was a renaissance of the arts for the region, with a use of colour and historic, and political messages.<p>Post-<!--del_lnk--> Second World War American painting called <!--del_lnk--> Abstract expressionism included artists like <!--del_lnk--> Jackson Pollock, <!--del_lnk--> Willem de Kooning, <!--del_lnk--> Arshile Gorky, <!--del_lnk--> Mark Rothko, <!--del_lnk--> Hans Hofmann, <!--del_lnk--> Clyfford Still, <!--del_lnk--> Adolph Gottlieb, <!--del_lnk--> Philip Guston, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Motherwell, and <!--del_lnk--> Franz Kline, among others.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/91/9179.jpg.htm" title="Jackson Pollock 1950, Abstract Expressionism"><img alt="Jackson Pollock 1950, Abstract Expressionism" class="thumbimage" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pollock_composit.jpg" src="../../images/159/15938.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/91/9179.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Jackson Pollock <!--del_lnk--> 1950, <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Expressionism</div>
</div>
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<p>American <!--del_lnk--> Abstract expressionism got its name in 1946 from the art critic <!--del_lnk--> Robert Coates. It is seen as combining the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German <a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" title="Expressionism">Expressionists</a> with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as <!--del_lnk--> Futurism, the <!--del_lnk--> Bauhaus and Synthetic <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>. Additionally, it has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, rather nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock's energetic "<!--del_lnk--> action paintings", with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to the violent and grotesque <i>Women</i> series of <!--del_lnk--> Willem de Kooning (which are <!--del_lnk--> figurative paintings) and to the serenely shimmering blocks of colour in <!--del_lnk--> Mark Rothko's work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), yet all three are classified as abstract expressionists.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>In Europe there was the continuation of <!--del_lnk--> Surrealism, <a href="../../wp/c/Cubism.htm" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dada.htm" title="Dada">Dada</a> and the works of <!--del_lnk--> Matisse. Also in Europe, <!--del_lnk--> Tachisme (the European equivalent to Abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation. <!--del_lnk--> Serge Poliakoff, <!--del_lnk--> Nicolas de Staël, <!--del_lnk--> Georges Mathieu, <!--del_lnk--> Vieira da Silva, <!--del_lnk--> Jean Dubuffet, <!--del_lnk--> Yves Klein and <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Soulages among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting.<div class="thumb tleft">
</div>
<p>Abstract painting in America evolved into movements such as <!--del_lnk--> Neo-Dada, <!--del_lnk--> colour field painting, <!--del_lnk--> Post painterly abstraction, <!--del_lnk--> Op Art, <!--del_lnk--> hard-edge painting, <!--del_lnk--> Minimal art, <!--del_lnk--> shaped canvas painting, <!--del_lnk--> Lyrical Abstraction, <!--del_lnk--> Neo-expressionism and the continuation of <!--del_lnk--> Abstract expressionism. As a response to the tendency toward abstraction imagery emerged through various new movements.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Pop-Art is exemplified by artists: <a href="../../wp/a/Andy_Warhol.htm" title="Andy Warhol">Andy Warhol</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Claes Oldenburg, <!--del_lnk--> James Rosenquist, <!--del_lnk--> Jim Dine, <!--del_lnk--> Tom Wesselmann and <!--del_lnk--> Roy Lichtenstein among others. <!--del_lnk--> Pop art merges popular and mass culture with fine art, while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the mix. In 1962 the <!--del_lnk--> Sidney Janis Gallery mounted <i>The New Realists</i> the first major <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. <!--del_lnk--> Sidney Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through the <!--del_lnk--> New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in England in 1958 the term "Pop Art" was used by <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Alloway to describe paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected Abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favour of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. The early works of <!--del_lnk--> David Hockney and the works of <!--del_lnk--> Richard Hamilton and <!--del_lnk--> Eduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement. While in the downtown scene in <!--del_lnk--> New York's <!--del_lnk--> East Village 10th Street galleries artists were formulating an American version of <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art. <!--del_lnk--> Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show <!--del_lnk--> Tom Wesselmann and <!--del_lnk--> James Rosenquist. Later <!--del_lnk--> Leo Castelli exhibited other American artists including the bulk of the careers of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and his use of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a connection between the radical works of Duchamp, and <!--del_lnk--> Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists - with a sense of humor; and Pop Artists like <!--del_lnk--> Claes Oldenburg, <a href="../../wp/a/Andy_Warhol.htm" title="Andy Warhol">Andy Warhol</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Roy Lichtenstein and the others.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>While throughout the 20th century many painters continued to practice landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, like <!--del_lnk--> Fairfield Porter, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Hopper, <!--del_lnk--> Balthus, <!--del_lnk--> Francis Bacon, <!--del_lnk--> Lucian Freud, <!--del_lnk--> Philip Pearlstein, <!--del_lnk--> David Hockney, <!--del_lnk--> Chuck Close, <!--del_lnk--> Susan Rothenberg, <!--del_lnk--> Eric Fischl, <!--del_lnk--> Vija Celmins and <!--del_lnk--> Alex Katz.<p>During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting. Critics like <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Crimp viewed the work of artists like <!--del_lnk--> Ad Reinhardt, and declared the 'death of painting'. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: <!--del_lnk--> Postminimalism, <!--del_lnk--> Earth art, <!--del_lnk--> Video art, <!--del_lnk--> Installation art, <!--del_lnk--> arte povera, <!--del_lnk--> performance art, <!--del_lnk--> body art, <!--del_lnk--> fluxus, <!--del_lnk--> mail art, the <!--del_lnk--> situationists and <!--del_lnk--> conceptual art among others.<p>However during the 1960s and 1970s abstract painting continued to develop in America through varied styles. <!--del_lnk--> Neo-Dada, <!--del_lnk--> Colour field painting, <!--del_lnk--> Lyrical Abstraction, <!--del_lnk--> Op art, <!--del_lnk--> hard-edge painting, <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Illusionism, <!--del_lnk--> minimal painting, and the continuation of <!--del_lnk--> Abstract expressionism as well as other new movements.<p>Colour Field painting initially referred to a particular type of <!--del_lnk--> abstract expressionism, especially the work of <!--del_lnk--> Mark Rothko, <!--del_lnk--> Clyfford Still, <!--del_lnk--> Barnett Newman, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Motherwell and <!--del_lnk--> Adolph Gottlieb. <!--del_lnk--> Art critic <!--del_lnk--> Clement Greenberg perceived Colour Field painting as related to but different from <!--del_lnk--> Action painting. During the early to mid-1960s Colour Field painting was the term used to describe artists like <!--del_lnk--> Jules Olitski, <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Noland, and <!--del_lnk--> Helen Frankenthaler, whose works were related to second generation abstract expressionism, and to younger artists like <!--del_lnk--> Larry Zox, and <!--del_lnk--> Frank Stella, - all moving in a new direction. Artists like <!--del_lnk--> Clyfford Still, <!--del_lnk--> Mark Rothko, <!--del_lnk--> Hans Hofmann, <!--del_lnk--> Morris Louis, <!--del_lnk--> Jules Olitski, <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Noland, <!--del_lnk--> Helen Frankenthaler, <!--del_lnk--> Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. During the 1960s Colour Field painting and <!--del_lnk--> Minimal art were often closely associated with each other. In actuality by the early 1970s both movements became decidedly diverse.<div class="thumb tleft">
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Neo-Dada is also a movement that started 1n the 1950s and 1960s and was related to <!--del_lnk--> Abstract expressionism. Featuring the emergence of combined manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of <!--del_lnk--> Jasper Johns and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Rauschenberg, whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and <!--del_lnk--> Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Rauschenberg, <!--del_lnk--> Jasper Johns, <!--del_lnk--> Larry Rivers, <!--del_lnk--> John Chamberlain, <!--del_lnk--> Claes Oldenburg, <!--del_lnk--> George Segal, <!--del_lnk--> Jim Dine, and <!--del_lnk--> Edward Kienholz among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and Pop Art; creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art.<div class="thumb tright">
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<p>Another related movement of the late 1960s <!--del_lnk--> Lyrical Abstraction is a term that was originally coined by Larry Aldrich (the founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum, Ridgefield Connecticut) in <!--del_lnk--> 1969 to describe what Aldrich said he saw in the studios of many artists at that time. It is also the name of an exhibition that originated in the Aldrich Museum and traveled to the <!--del_lnk--> Whitney Museum of American Art and other museums throughout the United States between 1969 and <!--del_lnk--> 1971.<p>During the 1960s and 1970s artists as powerful and influential as <!--del_lnk--> Robert Motherwell, <!--del_lnk--> Adolph Gottlieb, <!--del_lnk--> Phillip Guston, <!--del_lnk--> Lee Krasner, <!--del_lnk--> Cy Twombly, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Rauschenberg, <!--del_lnk--> Jasper Johns, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Diebenkorn, <!--del_lnk--> Elmer Bischoff, <!--del_lnk--> Agnes Martin, <!--del_lnk--> Al Held, <!--del_lnk--> Sam Francis, <!--del_lnk--> Ellsworth Kelly, <!--del_lnk--> Morris Louis, <!--del_lnk--> Helen Frankenthaler, <!--del_lnk--> Gene Davis, <!--del_lnk--> Frank Stella, <!--del_lnk--> Kenneth Noland, <!--del_lnk--> Joan Mitchell, <!--del_lnk--> Friedel Dzubas, and younger artists like <!--del_lnk--> Brice Marden, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Mangold, <!--del_lnk--> Sam Gilliam, <!--del_lnk--> Sean Scully, <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Murray, <!--del_lnk--> Larry Poons, <!--del_lnk--> Walter Darby Bannard, <!--del_lnk--> Larry Zox, <!--del_lnk--> Ronnie Landfield, <!--del_lnk--> Ronald Davis, <!--del_lnk--> Dan Christensen, Joan Snyder, <!--del_lnk--> Ross Bleckner, <!--del_lnk--> Archie Rand, <!--del_lnk--> Susan Crile, and dozens of others produced vital and influential paintings.<p>In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was also a return to painting that occurred almost simultaneously in Italy, Germany, France and Britain. These movements were called <!--del_lnk--> Transavantguardia, <!--del_lnk--> Neue Wilde, <!--del_lnk--> Figuration Libre, <!--del_lnk--> Neo-expressionism and the <!--del_lnk--> School of London respectively. These painting were characterized by large formats, free expressive mark making, figuration, myth and imagination. All work in this genre came to be labeled <!--del_lnk--> neo-expressionism. Critical reaction was divided. Some critics regarded it as driven by profit motivations by large commercial galleries. This type of art largely disappeared after the art crash of the late 1980s.<p>Painting still holds a respected position in <!--del_lnk--> contemporary art. Art is an open field no longer divided by the objective versus non-objective dichotomy. Artists can achieve critical success whether their images are representational or abstract. What has currency is content, exploring the boundaries of the medium, and a refusal to recapitulate the works of the past as an end goal.<p><a id="Contemporary_painting_in_the_21st_century" name="Contemporary_painting_in_the_21st_century"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Contemporary painting in the 21st century</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><small><i>to be continued</i></small></ul>
<p>At the beginning of the 21st century Contemporary painting and <!--del_lnk--> Contemporary art in general continues in several contigious modes, characterized by the idea of <!--del_lnk--> pluralism. The "<!--del_lnk--> crisis" in painting and current art and current <!--del_lnk--> art criticism today is brought about by <!--del_lnk--> pluralism. There is no consensus as to a representative style of the age. There is an <i>anything goes</i> attitude that prevails; an "everything going on," and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; except for an aesthetic traffic jam, with no firm and clear direction, with every lane on the artistic <!--del_lnk--> superhighway filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles.<p><!--del_lnk--> Hard-edge painting, <!--del_lnk--> Geometric abstraction, <!--del_lnk--> Hyperrealism, <!--del_lnk--> Photorealism, <a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Minimalism, <!--del_lnk--> Lyrical Abstraction, <!--del_lnk--> Pop Art, <!--del_lnk--> Op Art, <!--del_lnk--> Abstract Expressionism, <!--del_lnk--> Colour Field painting, <!--del_lnk--> Monochrome painting, <!--del_lnk--> Neo-expressionism, <!--del_lnk--> Collage, <!--del_lnk--> Intermedia painting, <!--del_lnk--> Assemblage painting, <!--del_lnk--> Computer art painting, <!--del_lnk--> Conceptual art painting, <!--del_lnk--> Postmodern painting, <!--del_lnk--> Neo-Dada painting, <!--del_lnk--> Shaped canvas painting, environmental <!--del_lnk--> mural painting, traditional <!--del_lnk--> figure painting, <!--del_lnk--> Landscape painting, <!--del_lnk--> Portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_painting"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Architecture.htm">Architecture</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14547.jpg.htm" title="The Abbey's western façade"><img alt="The Abbey's western façade" height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster_abbey_west.jpg" src="../../images/145/14547.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14547.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Abbey's western façade</div>
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<p><b>The Collegiate Church of St Peter, Westminster</b>, which is almost always referred to as <b>Westminster Abbey</b>, is a mainly <!--del_lnk--> Gothic <!--del_lnk--> church, on the scale of a <!--del_lnk--> cathedral (and indeed often considered one), in <!--del_lnk--> Westminster, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, just to the west of the <a href="../../wp/p/Palace_of_Westminster.htm" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a>. It is the traditional place of <!--del_lnk--> coronation and <!--del_lnk--> burial site for <!--del_lnk--> English monarchs.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>According to <!--del_lnk--> tradition a shrine was first founded in <!--del_lnk--> 616 on the present site, then known as <!--del_lnk--> Thorn Ey (Thorn Island); its tradition of miraculous consecration after a fisherman on the <a href="../../wp/r/River_Thames.htm" title="River Thames">River Thames</a> saw a vision of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Peter justified the presents of salmon from the Thames fishermen that the Abbey received. In the 960s or early 970s <!--del_lnk--> Saint Dunstan, assisted by King <!--del_lnk--> Edgar planted a community of <!--del_lnk--> Benedictine <!--del_lnk--> monks here. The stone Abbey was built around <!--del_lnk--> 1045–<!--del_lnk--> 1050 by King <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a>, who had selected the site for his burial: it was consecrated on <!--del_lnk--> December 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1065, immediately before the Confessor's funeral. It was the site of the last Saxon coronation of his successor King <!--del_lnk--> Harold.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14548.jpg.htm" title="A plan dated 1894."><img alt="A plan dated 1894." height="358" longdesc="/wiki/Image:London_westminster_1894.jpg" src="../../images/145/14548.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14548.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A plan dated 1894.</div>
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<p>The only extant depiction of the original <a href="../../wp/a/Abbey.htm" title="Abbey">Abbey</a>, in the <!--del_lnk--> Romanesque style that is called <!--del_lnk--> "Norman" in England, together with the adjacent Palace of Westminster, is in the <!--del_lnk--> Bayeux Tapestry. Increased endowments supported a community increased from Dunstan's dozen to about eighty monks (Harvey 1993 p 2).<p>The Abbot and learned monks, in close proximity to the royal Palace of Westminster, the seat of government from the later twelfth century, became a powerful force in the centuries after the Norman Conquest: the Abbot was often employed on royal service and in due course took his place in the House of Lords as of right. Released from the burdens of spiritual leadership, which passed to the reformed <!--del_lnk--> Cluniac movement after the mid-tenth century, and occupied with the administration of great landed properties, some of which lay far from Westminster, "the Benedictines achieved a remarkable degree of identification with the secular life of their times, and particularly with upper-class life", Barbara Harvey concluded, to the extent that her depiction of daily life (Harvey 1993) provides a wider view of the concerns of the English gentry in the High and Late Middle Ages. The proximity of the Palace of Westminster did not extend to providing monks or abbots with high royal connections; in social origin the Benedictines of Westminster were as modest as most of the order. The abbot remained lord of the manor of Westminster as a town of two to three thousand persons grew around it: as a consumer and employer on a grand scale the monastery helped fuel the town economy, and relations with the town remained unusually cordial, but no enfranchising charter was issued during the Middle Ages (Harvey 1993 p 6f). The abbey built shops and dwellings on the west side, encroaching upon the sanctuary.<p>The Abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings, but none were buried there until <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_III_of_England.htm" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a>, intensely devoted to the cult of the Confessor, rebuilt the Abbey in <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-French Gothic style as a shrine to honour <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> and as a suitably regal setting for Henry's own <!--del_lnk--> tomb, under the highest Gothic nave in England. The Confessor's <!--del_lnk--> shrine subsequently played a great part in his canonisation. The work continued between <!--del_lnk--> 1245-<!--del_lnk--> 1517 and was largely finished by the architect <!--del_lnk--> Henry Yevele in the reign of King <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_II_of_England.htm" title="Richard II of England">Richard II</a>. <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> added a <!--del_lnk--> Perpendicular style chapel dedicated to the <!--del_lnk--> Virgin Mary in <!--del_lnk--> 1503 (known as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Henry VII Chapel</i>). Much of the stone came from <!--del_lnk--> Caen, in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Caen stone), the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Portland (<!--del_lnk--> Portland stone) and the <!--del_lnk--> Loire Valley region of France ( <!--del_lnk--> tuffeau limestone).<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14549.jpg.htm" title="The choir in 1848."><img alt="The choir in 1848." height="321" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster_Abbey_Choir_ILN_1848.jpg" src="../../images/145/14549.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14549.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The choir in 1848.</div>
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<p>In 1535, the Abbey's annual income of £2400-2800 during the assessment attendant on the <!--del_lnk--> Dissolution of the Monasteries rendered it second in wealth only to <!--del_lnk--> Glastonbury Abbey. <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> had assumed direct royal control in <!--del_lnk--> 1539 and granted the Abbey cathedral status by charter in <!--del_lnk--> 1540, simultaneously issuing letters patent establishing the diocese of Westminster. By granting the Abbey cathedral status Henry VIII gained an excuse to spare it from the destruction or dissolution which he inflicted on most English abbeys during this period. Westminster was a cathedral only until <!--del_lnk--> 1550. The expression "robbing Peter to pay Paul" may arise from this period when money meant for the Abbey, which was dedicated to <!--del_lnk--> St Peter, was diverted to the treasury of <a href="../../wp/s/St_Paul%2527s_Cathedral.htm" title="St Paul's Cathedral">St Paul's Cathedral</a>.<p>The Abbey was restored to the Benedictines under the Catholic <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" title="Mary I of England">Queen Mary</a>, but they were again ejected under <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Queen Elizabeth I</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1559. In <!--del_lnk--> 1579, Elizabeth re-established Westminster as a "<!--del_lnk--> Royal Peculiar" — a church responsible directly to the <!--del_lnk--> sovereign, rather than to a diocesan bishop — and made it the <b>Collegiate Church of St Peter</b>, (that is a church with an attached chapter of canons, headed by a dean). The last Abbot was made the first Dean. It suffered damage during the turbulent <!--del_lnk--> 1640s, when it was attacked by <!--del_lnk--> Puritan <!--del_lnk--> iconoclasts, but was again protected by its close ties to the state during the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth period. <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a> was given an elaborate funeral there in <!--del_lnk--> 1658, only to be disinterred in January <!--del_lnk--> 1661 and posthumously hanged from a nearby gibbet.<p>The abbey's two western towers were built between <!--del_lnk--> 1722 and <!--del_lnk--> 1745 by <!--del_lnk--> Nicholas Hawksmoor, constructed from <!--del_lnk--> Portland stone to an early example of a <!--del_lnk--> Gothic Revival design. Further rebuilding and restoration occurred in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> under Sir <!--del_lnk--> George Gilbert Scott.<p>Until the 19th century, Westminster was the third seat of learning in England, after <!--del_lnk--> Oxford and <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a>. It was here that the first third of the <!--del_lnk--> King James Bible Old Testament and the last half of the New Testament were translated. The <!--del_lnk--> New English Bible was also put together here in the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>.<div style="clear: both">
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<p><a id="Coronations" name="Coronations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Coronations</span></h2>
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<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14550.jpg.htm" title="King Edward's Chair"><img alt="King Edward's Chair" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SanktEdvardsstol_westminster.jpg" src="../../images/145/14550.jpg" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14550.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> King Edward's Chair</div>
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<p>Since the coronations in 1066 of both <!--del_lnk--> King Harold and <!--del_lnk--> William the Conqueror, all English and British monarchs (except <!--del_lnk--> Lady Jane Grey - although it is highly debatable whether she was, either in theory or practice, the Queen of England - <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_V_of_England.htm" title="Edward V of England">Edward V</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_VIII_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Edward VIII of the United Kingdom">Edward VIII</a>, who did not have coronations) have been crowned in the Abbey. The <a href="../../wp/a/Archbishop_of_Canterbury.htm" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> is the traditional <!--del_lnk--> cleric in the <!--del_lnk--> coronation ceremony. <!--del_lnk--> St Edward's Chair, the throne on which <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> sovereigns are seated at the moment of coronation, is housed within the Abbey; from 1296 to 1996 the chair also housed the <!--del_lnk--> Stone of Scone upon which the kings of Scotland are crowned, but pending another coronation the Stone is now kept in Scotland.<p>According to <!--del_lnk--> H.V. Morton's <i>In Search of London</i>, a ghostly monk is said to appear in the Abbey on the eve of a monarch's coronation. The book states that the monk was last seen prior to the coronation of <a href="../../wp/g/George_VI_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George VI of the United Kingdom">George VI</a> in 1937. (The book was published in 1951; it is unknown if the monk was seen prior to <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a>'s coronation in 1953.)<div style="clear: both">
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<p><a id="Burials_and_Memorials" name="Burials_and_Memorials"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Burials and Memorials</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14551.jpg.htm" title="The Abbey at night, from Dean's Yard. Artificial light reveals the exoskeleton formed by flying buttresses"><img alt="The Abbey at night, from Dean's Yard. Artificial light reveals the exoskeleton formed by flying buttresses" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster_abbey_night.jpg" src="../../images/145/14551.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14551.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Abbey at night, from Dean's Yard. Artificial light reveals the <!--del_lnk--> exoskeleton formed by <!--del_lnk--> flying buttresses</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_III_of_England.htm" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a> rebuilt the Abbey in honour of the Royal Saint <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> whose relics were placed in a <!--del_lnk--> shrine in the sanctuary. Henry III was interred nearby in a superb <!--del_lnk--> chest tomb with <!--del_lnk--> effigial monument, as were many of the <!--del_lnk--> Plantagenet kings of England, their wives and other relatives. Subsequently, most Kings and Queens of England were buried here, although <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_VIII_of_England.htm" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a> are buried at <!--del_lnk--> St George's Chapel, <a href="../../wp/w/Windsor_Castle.htm" title="Windsor Castle">Windsor Castle</a>, as are all monarchs and royals after <a href="../../wp/g/George_II_of_Great_Britain.htm" title="George II of Great Britain">George II</a>.<p>In 2005 the original ancient burial tomb of <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a> was discovered, beneath the 1268 <!--del_lnk--> Cosmati mosaic pavement, in front of the High Altar. A series of royal tombs dating back to the 13th and 14th centuries was also discovered using <!--del_lnk--> ground-penetrating radar.<p>Aristocrats were buried in side chapels and monks and people associated with the <a href="../../wp/a/Abbey.htm" title="Abbey">Abbey</a> were buried in the Cloisters and other areas. One of these was <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Chaucer, who was buried here as he had apartments in the Abbey where he was employed as master of the Kings Works. Other poets were buried around Chaucer in what became known as <!--del_lnk--> Poets' Corner. Abbey musicians such as <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Purcell.htm" title="Henry Purcell">Henry Purcell</a> were also buried in their place of work. Subsequently it became an honour to be buried or memorialised here. The practice spread from aristocrats and poets to generals, admirals, politicians, scientists, doctors, etc., etc. These include:<p><a id="Buried" name="Buried"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Buried</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14552.jpg.htm" title="Westminster Abbey with a procession of Knights of the Bath, by Canaletto, 1749"><img alt="Westminster Abbey with a procession of Knights of the Bath, by Canaletto, 1749" height="244" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster_Abbey_by_Canaletto%2C_1749.jpg" src="../../images/145/14552.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14552.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Westminster Abbey with a procession of <!--del_lnk--> Knights of the Bath, by <a href="../../wp/c/Canaletto.htm" title="Canaletto">Canaletto</a>, 1749</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Nave" name="Nave"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Nave</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Clement Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee<li><!--del_lnk--> Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts<li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald<li><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a><li><a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Saint Edward the Confessor</a><li><!--del_lnk--> George Graham<li><a href="../../wp/b/Ben_Jonson.htm" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a><li><a href="../../wp/d/David_Livingstone.htm" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a><li><a href="../../wp/j/James_Clerk_Maxwell.htm" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a><li><a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a><li><a href="../../wp/e/Ernest_Rutherford.htm" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford</a><li><a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Stephenson.htm" title="Robert Stephenson">Robert Stephenson</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox<li><!--del_lnk--> J.J. Thomson<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Thomson%252C_1st_Baron_Kelvin.htm" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Tompion<li><!--del_lnk--> The Unknown Warrior<li><!--del_lnk--> George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham<li><!--del_lnk--> Charles Lyell</ul>
<p><a id="North_Transept" name="North_Transept"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">North <!--del_lnk--> Transept</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a><li><!--del_lnk--> William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Pitt_the_Younger.htm" title="William Pitt the Younger">William Pitt the Younger</a></ul>
<p><a id="South_Transept" name="South_Transept"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">South Transept</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14553.jpg.htm" title=" The North entrance of Westminster Abbey"><img alt=" The North entrance of Westminster Abbey" height="331" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster.abbey.northentrance.arp.500pix.jpg" src="../../images/145/14553.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14553.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The North entrance of Westminster Abbey</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Poets' Corner</i><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Adam<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Browning<li><!--del_lnk--> William Camden<li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Campbell<li><!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Chaucer<li><!--del_lnk--> William Congreve<li><!--del_lnk--> Abraham Cowley<li><!--del_lnk--> William Davenant<li><a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Dickens.htm" title="Charles Dickens">Charles Dickens</a><li><!--del_lnk--> John Dryden<li><!--del_lnk--> Adam Fox<li><!--del_lnk--> David Garrick<li><!--del_lnk--> John Gay<li><!--del_lnk--> George Frederick Handel<li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Hardy<li><!--del_lnk--> Dr Samuel Johnson<li><a href="../../wp/r/Rudyard_Kipling.htm" title="Rudyard Kipling">Rudyard Kipling</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Macaulay<li><!--del_lnk--> John Masefield<li><a href="../../wp/l/Laurence_Olivier.htm" title="Laurence Olivier">Laurence Olivier, Baron Olivier</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Parr<li><!--del_lnk--> Dante Rossetti<li><!--del_lnk--> Richard Brinsley Sheridan<li><!--del_lnk--> Edmund Spenser<li><!--del_lnk--> Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson</ul>
<p><a id="Cloisters" name="Cloisters"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Cloisters</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Aphra Behn<li><!--del_lnk--> Percy Dearmer<li><!--del_lnk--> General John Burgoyne</ul>
<p><a id="North_Choir_Aisle" name="North_Choir_Aisle"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">North Choir Aisle</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Purcell.htm" title="Henry Purcell">Henry Purcell</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Ralph Vaughan Williams</ul>
<p><a id="Chapel_of_St_Paul" name="Chapel_of_St_Paul"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Chapel of St Paul</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sir Rowland Hill</ul>
<p><a id="Commemorated" name="Commemorated"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Commemorated</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14554.jpg.htm" title="Christian martyrs from across the world are depicted in statues above the Great West Door"><img alt="Christian martyrs from across the world are depicted in statues above the Great West Door" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster_Abbey_C20th_martyrs.jpg" src="../../images/145/14554.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14554.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Christian <!--del_lnk--> martyrs from across the world are depicted in statues above the Great West Door</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>, buried at <a href="../../wp/s/Stratford-upon-Avon.htm" title="Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a><li><a href="../../wp/w/Winston_Churchill.htm" title="Winston Churchill">Sir Winston Churchill</a>, buried at <!--del_lnk--> Bladon, <!--del_lnk--> Oxfordshire<li><a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Disraeli%252C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.htm" title="Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield">Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</a>, buried at <!--del_lnk--> Hughenden Manor, <!--del_lnk--> Buckinghamshire<li><!--del_lnk--> Adam Lindsay Gordon, buried in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Lord Baden-Powell, buried in <!--del_lnk--> Nyeri, Kenya<li><a href="../../wp/p/Paul_Dirac.htm" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>, buried in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Oscar Wilde (in a stained glass window unveiled in 1995), buried in Paris <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, buried at <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge, Massachusetts<li><!--del_lnk--> General James Wolfe<li>Ten 20th-century Christian <!--del_lnk--> martyrs from across the world are depicted in statues above the Great West Door. Unveiled in <!--del_lnk--> 1998 by Her Majesty The Queen, these are, from left to right: <ul>
<li>St. <!--del_lnk--> Maximilian Kolbe<li><!--del_lnk--> Manche Masemola<li><!--del_lnk--> Janani Luwum<li><!--del_lnk--> Grand Duchess Elizabeth of Russia<li><a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Luther_King%252C_Jr..htm" title="Martin Luther King, Jr.">Martin Luther King, Jr.</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Óscar Romero<li><!--del_lnk--> Dietrich Bonhoeffer<li><!--del_lnk--> Esther John<li><!--del_lnk--> Lucian Tapiedi<li><!--del_lnk--> Wang Zhiming</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Removed" name="Removed"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Removed</span></h3>
<p>The following were buried in the abbey but later removed on the orders of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>:<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Protector<li><!--del_lnk--> Admiral Robert Blake<li><!--del_lnk--> John Pym</ul>
<p><a id="Schools" name="Schools"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Schools</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Westminster School and <!--del_lnk--> Westminster Abbey Choir School are also in the precincts of the Abbey. It was natural for the learned and literate monks to be entrusted with education, and <!--del_lnk--> Benedictine monks were required by the Pope to maintain a charity school in <!--del_lnk--> 1179; Westminster School may have been founded even earlier for children or novices, and the legendary <!--del_lnk--> Croyland Chronicle relates a story of <a href="../../wp/1/11th_century.htm" title="11th century">11th century</a> king <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_the_Confessor.htm" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a>'s Queen <!--del_lnk--> Editha chatting to a schoolboy in the cloisters, and sending him off to the Palace larder for a treat.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Nearest <a href="../../wp/l/London_Underground.htm" title="London Underground">London Underground</a> stations: <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> St. James's Park (District, Circle lines)<li><!--del_lnk--> Westminster (Jubilee, District, Circle lines)</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Chapter" name="Chapter"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Chapter</span></h2>
<p>The Abbey is a collegiate church organised into the College of St Peter, which comprises the Dean and four residentiary Canons (one of whom is also <!--del_lnk--> Rector of <!--del_lnk--> St Margaret's Church, Westminster, and Speaker's Chaplain), and seventeen other persons who are members ex officio, as well as twelve <!--del_lnk--> lay vicars and ten choristers. The seventeen are the <!--del_lnk--> Receiver-General and <!--del_lnk--> Chapter Clerk, the <!--del_lnk--> Registrar, the <!--del_lnk--> Auditor, the Legal Secretary and the <!--del_lnk--> Clerk of the Works (the administrative officers). Those more directly concerned with liturgical and ceremonial operations include the <!--del_lnk--> Precentor, the Chaplain and <!--del_lnk--> Sacrist, the Organist, and the (honorary) High <!--del_lnk--> Steward and High <!--del_lnk--> Bailiff. The Abbey and its property is in the care of the Librarian, the Keeper of the Muniments, and the Surveyor of the Fabric. Lastly, the educational role of the Abbey is reflected in the presence of the Headmaster of the Choir School, the Headmaster and Under Master of <!--del_lnk--> Westminster School, and the Master of The <!--del_lnk--> Queen's Scholars.<p>The Abbey is governed by the Dean and Chapter established under the Elizabethan statute of 1560. This consists of the Dean and the four residentiary Canons.<p><a id="List_of_Abbots.2C_Deans.2C_and_the_Bishop_of_Westminster" name="List_of_Abbots.2C_Deans.2C_and_the_Bishop_of_Westminster"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">List of Abbots, Deans, and the Bishop of Westminster</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14555.jpg.htm" title="Westminster Abbey, as seen from the west"><img alt="Westminster Abbey, as seen from the west" height="271" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster_Abbey_London_900px.jpg" src="../../images/145/14555.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14555.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Westminster Abbey, as seen from the west</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14556.jpg.htm" title="Westminster Abbey's West Door in sunshine"><img alt="Westminster Abbey's West Door in sunshine" height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Westminster_Abbey_West_Door.jpg" src="../../images/145/14556.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14556.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Westminster Abbey's West Door in sunshine</div>
</div>
</div>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Abbots</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Edwin</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1049 — <i>c.</i> <!--del_lnk--> 1071</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey of Jumièges</td>
<td style="white-space:nowrap"><i>c.</i> <!--del_lnk--> 1071 — <i>c.</i> <!--del_lnk--> 1075</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vitalis of Bernay</td>
<td><i>c.</i> <!--del_lnk--> 1076 — <!--del_lnk--> 1085</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gilbert Crispin</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1085 — <!--del_lnk--> 1117</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Herbert</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1121 — <i>c.</i> <!--del_lnk--> 1136</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gervase de Blois</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1138 — <i>c.</i> <!--del_lnk--> 1157</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Laurence of Durham</td>
<td><i>c.</i> <!--del_lnk--> 1158 — <!--del_lnk--> 1173</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Walter of Winchester</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1175 — <!--del_lnk--> 1190</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Postard</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1191 — <!--del_lnk--> 1200</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ralph de Arundel (<i>alias Papillon</i>)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1200 — <!--del_lnk--> 1214</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William de Humez</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1214 — <!--del_lnk--> 1222</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard de Berkying</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1222 — <!--del_lnk--> 1246</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard de Crokesley</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1246 — <!--del_lnk--> 1258</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Phillip de Lewisham</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1258</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard de Ware</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1258 — <!--del_lnk--> 1283</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Walter de Wenlok</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1283 — <!--del_lnk--> 1307</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="white-space:nowrap"><!--del_lnk--> Richard de Kedyngton (<i>alias Sudbury</i>)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1308 — <!--del_lnk--> 1315</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William de Curtlyngton</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1315 — <!--del_lnk--> 1333</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thomas de Henley</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1333 — <!--del_lnk--> 1344</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Simon de Bircheston</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1344 — <!--del_lnk--> 1349</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Simon de Langham</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1349 — <!--del_lnk--> 1362</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="white-space:nowrap"><!--del_lnk--> Nicholas de Litlyngton</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1362 — <!--del_lnk--> 1386</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William de Colchester</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1386 — <!--del_lnk--> 1420</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Edmund Kyrton</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1440 — <!--del_lnk--> 1462</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> George Norwich</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1463 — <!--del_lnk--> 1469</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Millyng</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1469 — <!--del_lnk--> 1474</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Esteney</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1474 — <!--del_lnk--> 1498</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> George Fascet</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1498 — <!--del_lnk--> 1500</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Islip</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1500 — <!--del_lnk--> 1532</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Boston</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1533 — <!--del_lnk--> 1540</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Bishop<br /><i>intra- <!--del_lnk--> Reformation</i></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Thirlby</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1540 — <!--del_lnk--> 1550</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Deans<br /><i>intra- <!--del_lnk--> Reformation</i></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Benson (<i>Abbot Boston</i>)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1540 — <!--del_lnk--> 1549</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard Cox</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1549 — <!--del_lnk--> 1553</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hugh Weston</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1553 — <!--del_lnk--> 1556</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Abbot<br /><i>restored by <a href="../../wp/m/Mary_I_of_England.htm" title="Mary I of England">Mary I of England</a></i></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Feckenham</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1556 — <!--del_lnk--> 1559</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Deans<br /><i>post- <!--del_lnk--> Reformation</i></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Bill</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1560 — <!--del_lnk--> 1561</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gabriel Goodman</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1561 — <!--del_lnk--> 1601</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lancelot Andrewes</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1601 — <!--del_lnk--> 1605</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard Neile</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1605 — <!--del_lnk--> 1610</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> George Montaigne</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1610 — <!--del_lnk--> 1617</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Robert Tounson</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1617 — <!--del_lnk--> 1620</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ben Williams</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1620 — <!--del_lnk--> 1644</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard Steward (never installed) </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1644 — <!--del_lnk--> 1651</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Earle</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1660 — <!--del_lnk--> 1662</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Dolben </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1662 — <!--del_lnk--> 1683</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Sprat </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1683 — <!--del_lnk--> 1713</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Francis Atterbury </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1713 — <!--del_lnk--> 1723</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Bradford </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1723 — <!--del_lnk--> 1731</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Joseph Wilcocks </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1731 — <!--del_lnk--> 1756</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Zachary Pearce </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1756 — <!--del_lnk--> 1768</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Thomas </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1768 — <!--del_lnk--> 1793</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Horsley </td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1793 — <!--del_lnk--> 1802</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Vincent</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1802 — <!--del_lnk--> 1815</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Ireland</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1816 — <!--del_lnk--> 1842</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Turton</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1842 — <!--del_lnk--> 1845</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Samuel Wilberforce</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1845</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Buckland</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1845 — <!--del_lnk--> 1856</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Richard Chenevix Trench</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1856 — <!--del_lnk--> 1864</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Arthur Penrhyn Stanley</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1864 — <!--del_lnk--> 1881</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> George Granville Bradley</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1881 — <!--del_lnk--> 1902</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Joseph Armitage Robinson</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1902 — <!--del_lnk--> 1911</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Herbert Edward Ryle</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1911 — <!--del_lnk--> 1925</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Foxley Norris</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1925 — <!--del_lnk--> 1937</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Paul de Labilliere</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1938 — <!--del_lnk--> 1946</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alan Don</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1946 — <!--del_lnk--> 1959</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eric Symes Abbott, <!--del_lnk--> KCVO</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1959 — <!--del_lnk--> 1974</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Edward Carpenter, <!--del_lnk--> KCVO</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1974 — <!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michael Mayne, <!--del_lnk--> KCVO</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1986 — <!--del_lnk--> 1996</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> (Arthur) Wesley Carr, <!--del_lnk--> KCVO</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1997 — <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Robert Hall,</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2007 —</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ol class="references">
<li id="_note-0"><b>^</b> <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth period<li id="_note-Roch">^ <sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup> <sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup> <sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup> <sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup> <sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup> <sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup> <sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup> <sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup> For a time it was customary for the Deanery of Westminster to go along with the <!--del_lnk--> Bishopric of Rochester. These deans held both offices concurrently.</ol>
<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/145/14557.jpg.htm" title="Image:Westminster.abbey.westfront.london.arp.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/145/14557.jpg" width="92" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The west front</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/145/14558.jpg.htm" title="Image:Westminster.abbey.tombofhenry.london.arp.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/145/14558.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The tomb of King Henry III in the Abbey. Henry was crowned king at the age of nine, reigning from 1216 to 1272.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/145/14559.jpg.htm" title="Image:Westminsterabbeyfromeye.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/145/14559.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Rear side view from the nearby <!--del_lnk--> London Eye</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 43px 0;"><a href="../../images/145/14560.jpg.htm" title="Image:Westa.jpg"><img alt="" height="60" src="../../images/145/14560.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Quicktime Virtual Reality Panorama of Westminster Abbey Daytime <!--del_lnk--> Quicktime Virtual Reality Panorama of Westminster Abbey.</div>
</div>
</td>
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</table>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Abbey"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Westminster System</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Politics_and_government.htm">Politics and government</a></h3>
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<th>The <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">Politics</a> series:<br />
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15263.jpg.htm" title="The Houses of Parliament in London"><img alt="The Houses of Parliament in London" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Houses.of.parliament.overall.arp.jpg" src="../../images/82/8253.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The <b>Westminster system</b> is a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democratic</a> parliamentary system of government modelled after that of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> system, as used in the <a href="../../wp/p/Palace_of_Westminster.htm" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a>, the location of the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a>. The system is a series of procedures for operating a <!--del_lnk--> legislature. It is also used, or was once used, in most <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth and ex-Commonwealth nations, beginning with the <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canadian</a> <!--del_lnk--> provinces in the mid-<a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>. It is also used in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jamaica.htm" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Malta.htm" title="Malta">Malta</a>. There are other <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary systems</a>, for example those of <!--del_lnk--> Germany and <!--del_lnk--> Italy, whose procedures differ considerably from the Westminster system.<p>
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</script><a id="Key_characteristics" name="Key_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Key characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Important features of the Westminster system include:<ul>
<li>A <!--del_lnk--> head of state who is the nominal or theoretical source of executive power, holds numerous <!--del_lnk--> reserve powers, but in practice is a ceremonial <!--del_lnk--> figurehead. Such examples include the <!--del_lnk--> British Sovereign or the <!--del_lnk--> President of India.<li>A <!--del_lnk--> de facto <!--del_lnk--> executive branch usually made up of members of the legislature with the senior members of the executive in a <!--del_lnk--> Cabinet; such members execute executive authority on behalf of the <!--del_lnk--> nominal or theoretical executive authority.<li>The presence of <!--del_lnk--> opposition parties;<li>An <a href="../../wp/e/Election.htm" title="Election">elected</a> <!--del_lnk--> legislature, or a system in which one of <!--del_lnk--> two houses is elected and the other <!--del_lnk--> appointed;<li>The ability of the <!--del_lnk--> lower house of parliament to, by default, dismiss a government by "withholding (or blocking) Supply" (rejecting a budget), passing a no-confidence motion, or defeating a confidence motion. The Westminster system enables a government to be defeated, or forced into a <!--del_lnk--> general election, independently of a new government being chosen.<li>The ability for a parliament to be dissolved and elections called at any time.</ul>
<p>Most of the procedures of the Westminster system have originated with the <!--del_lnk--> conventions, practices and <!--del_lnk--> precedents of the UK parliament, which are a part of what is known as the <!--del_lnk--> British constitution. Unlike the UK, most countries that use the Westminster system have <!--del_lnk--> codified the system in a written <!--del_lnk--> constitution. However convention, practices and precedents continue to play a significant role in these countries, as many constitutions do not specify important elements of procedure: for example, older constitutions using the Westminster system, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian constitution and the <!--del_lnk--> Australian constitution, may not even mention the existence of the Cabinet and the title of the head of the government (<!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister), because these offices' existence and role evolved outside the primary constitutional text.<p><a id="Operation" name="Operation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Operation</span></h2>
<p>In a Westminster system, some members of parliament are elected by popular vote, while others are appointed. All Westminster-based parliaments have a <!--del_lnk--> House of Commons, comprised of local, elected representatives of the people, and a smaller upper house, which can come in a variety of different forms, such as the british <a href="../../wp/h/House_of_Lords.htm" title="House of Lords">House of Lords</a> (with membership previously determined only by heredity, but changed to a mixed election-heredity system), or the <a href="../../wp/c/Canadian_Senate.htm" title="Canadian Senate">Canadian Senate</a> (appointed by the Prime Minister). In Britan, the Commons is the de facto legislative body, while the House of Lords practices restraint in exercizing its constitutional powers and serves as a consultative body. In other Westminster countries, however, the equivalent upper house of parliament can sometimes exercize considerable power. The head of government is usually chosen by being invited to form a government (that is, an <!--del_lnk--> administration), by the <!--del_lnk--> head of state or the representative of the head of state (that is, the <!--del_lnk--> governor-general), not by parliamentary vote (see <!--del_lnk--> Kissing Hands.) There are notable exceptions to the above in the Republic of Ireland, where the <!--del_lnk--> President of Ireland has a <!--del_lnk--> mandate through <!--del_lnk--> direct election, and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Taoiseach</i> (prime minister) prior to appointment by the President of Ireland is nominated by the democratically elected lower house, <i><!--del_lnk--> Dáil Éireann</i>.<p>Because of the mandate and the potentially significant constitutional powers of the Irish president, some authorities believe the Irish constitution is as similar to <!--del_lnk--> semi-presidential systems, as it is to Westminster. Similarly, under the constitutions of some Commonwealth countries, a president or Governor-General may possess clearly significant <!--del_lnk--> reserve powers. One example is the <!--del_lnk--> Australian constitutional crisis of 1975, in which the Governor-General dismissed the Prime Minister, who held a majority in the <!--del_lnk--> Australian House of Representatives. Because of constitutional differences, the formal powers of presidents and Governors-General vary greatly from one country to another. However, as Governors-General are not directly elected, they lack the popular mandate held, for example, by an Irish president. Because of this, Governors-General rarely risk the public disapproval which would result from them making unilateral and/or controversial uses of their powers.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> head of government, usually called the <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister, must be able either (a) to control a majority of seats within the lower house, (b) to ensure the existence of no <!--del_lnk--> absolute majority against them. If the parliament passes a <!--del_lnk--> resolution of no confidence or if the government fails to pass a major <!--del_lnk--> bill such as the <!--del_lnk--> budget, then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a parliamentary <!--del_lnk--> dissolution so that new public elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny their mandate.<p>In addition to a majority in the <!--del_lnk--> Australian House of Representatives, an Australian prime minister must also secure a Senate which is willing to pass budgets. This is a practical matter to allow the government to govern, and the support of the Senate is in no way required to form government; government is formed in the lower house alone. Many political scientists have held that the <!--del_lnk--> Australian system of government was consciously devised as a blend or hybrid of the Westminster and the <!--del_lnk--> United States systems of government, especially since the <!--del_lnk--> Australian Senate is a very powerful upper house. This notion is expressed in the nickname "<i>Washminster system</i>". For example, the Australian Senate maintains similar powers to those held by the US Senate or the British House of Lords, prior to 1911, to block supply to a party with a majority in the House of Representatives.<p>Although the dissolution of the legislature and the call for new elections is formally done by the head of state, by convention the head of state acts according to the wishes of the head of government.<p>In exceptional circumstances the head of state may either refuse a dissolution request, as in the <!--del_lnk--> King-Byng Affair, or <!--del_lnk--> dismiss the government, as in the Australian crisis of 1975. Either action is likely to bend or break existing conventions. The <!--del_lnk--> Lascelles Principles were an attempt to create a convention to cover similar situations, but have not been tested in practice.<p><a id="Cabinet_government" name="Cabinet_government"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cabinet government</span></h3>
<p>In his book "The English Constitution" which was published in <!--del_lnk--> 1876, <!--del_lnk--> Walter Bagehot emphasised the divide of the constitution into two components: the Dignified (that part which is symbolic) and the Efficient (the way things actually work and get done) and called the Efficient "<!--del_lnk--> Cabinet Government". Although there have been many works since emphasising different aspects of the "Efficient", no one has seriously questioned Bagehot's premise that the divide exists in the Westminster system.<p>Members of the Cabinet are collectively seen as responsible for government policy. All Cabinet decisions are made by consensus, a vote is never taken in a Cabinet meeting. All ministers, whether senior and in the Cabinet, or junior ministers, must support the policy of the government publicly regardless of any private reservations. When a <!--del_lnk--> Cabinet reshuffle is imminent, a lot of time is taken up in the conversations of politicians and in the news media, speculating on who will, or will not, be moved in and out of the Cabinet by the Prime Minister, because the appointment of ministers to the Cabinet and threat of dismissal from the Cabinet, is the single most powerful constitutional power which a Prime Minister has in the political control of the Government in the Westminster system.<p>Linked to Cabinet government is the idea, at least in theory, that ministers are responsible for the actions of their departments. It is no longer considered to be an issue of resignation if the actions of members of their department, over whom the minister has no direct control, make mistakes or formulate procedures which are not in accordance with agreed policy decisions. One of the major powers of the Prime Minister under the Westminster system is to be the arbitrator of when a fellow minister is accountable for the actions of his or her department.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Official Opposition and other major political parties not in the Government, will mirror the governmental organisation with their own <!--del_lnk--> Shadow Cabinet made up of <!--del_lnk--> Shadow Ministers.<p><a id="Consequences" name="Consequences"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Consequences</span></h3>
<p>The Westminster system tends to have extremely well-disciplined legislative parties in which it is highly unusual for a legislator to vote against their party, and in which no-confidence votes are very rare. Also, Westminster systems tend to have strong cabinets in which cabinet members are politicians with independent bases of support. Conversely, legislative committees in Westminster systems tend to be weak, though they often have the ability to force a government to reveal certain pieces of information.<p><a id="Ceremonies" name="Ceremonies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ceremonies</span></h2>
<p>The Westminster system has a very distinct appearance when functioning, with many British customs incorporated into day-to-day government function. A Westminster-style parliament is usually a long, rectangular room, with two rows of seats and desks on either side. The chairs are positioned so that the two rows are facing each other. The intended purpose of this arrangement is to create a visual representation of the adversarial nature of parliamentary government. Traditionally, the opposition parties will sit in one row of seats, and the government party will sit in the other. Of course, sometimes a <!--del_lnk--> majority government is so large that it must use the "opposition" seats as well. In the lower house at Westminster (the House of Commons) there are lines on the floor in front of the government and opposition benches that members may cross only when exiting the chamber. The distance between the lines is the length of two <!--del_lnk--> swords.<p>At one end of the room sits a large chair, for the <!--del_lnk--> Speaker of the House. The speaker usually wears a black robe, and in many countries, a <!--del_lnk--> wig. Robed parliamentary <!--del_lnk--> clerks often sit at narrow tables between the two rows of seats, as well.<p>Other ceremonies sometimes associated with the Westminster system include an annual <!--del_lnk--> Speech from the Throne (or equivalent) in which the Head of State gives a special address (written by the government) to parliament about what kind of policies to expect in the coming year, and lengthy <!--del_lnk--> State Opening of Parliament ceremonies that often involve the presentation of a large <!--del_lnk--> ceremonial mace.<p><a id="Some_countries_under_the_Westminster_system" name="Some_countries_under_the_Westminster_system"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Some countries under the Westminster system</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/85/8564.jpg.htm" title="The Malaysian Parliament is modelled after the Westminster system."><img alt="The Malaysian Parliament is modelled after the Westminster system." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:MalaysianParliament.jpg" src="../../images/85/8564.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/85/8564.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Malaysian Parliament is modelled after the Westminster system.</div>
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<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Australia<li><!--del_lnk--> Barbados<li><!--del_lnk--> Canada<li><!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Dominica<li><!--del_lnk--> Guyana<li><!--del_lnk--> India<li><!--del_lnk--> Republic of Ireland<li><!--del_lnk--> Jamaica<li><!--del_lnk--> Malaysia<li><!--del_lnk--> Malta<li><!--del_lnk--> New Zealand<li><!--del_lnk--> Singapore<li><!--del_lnk--> The Republic of South Africa (partially)<li><!--del_lnk--> Trinidad and Tobago<li>The <a href="../../wp/p/Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Politics of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_System"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Weston-super-Mare</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2"><big><b>Weston-super-Mare</b></big></th>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Statistics</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Population:</td>
<td>71,758</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Ordnance Survey</th>
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<td style="width: 50%;"><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ST324615</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Administration</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> District:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> North Somerset</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Region:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South West England</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Constituent country:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign state</a>:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Other</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial county:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Somerset</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Historic county:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Somerset</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Services</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Police force:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Avon and Somerset Police</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Fire and rescue:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Avon</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Ambulance:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South Western</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Post office and telephone</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Post town:</td>
<td>WESTON-SUPER-MARE</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Postal district:</td>
<td>BS22, BS23, BS24</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Dialling code:</td>
<td>01934</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Politics</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> UK Parliament:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Weston-super-Mare</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South West England</td>
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<p><b>Weston-super-Mare</b> is an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> seaside resort town in <!--del_lnk--> North Somerset, population 71,758 (<!--del_lnk--> 2001 Census). It is situated on the <!--del_lnk--> Bristol Channel approximately 18 miles (28 km) south west of <a href="../../wp/b/Bristol.htm" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>. The town has spread along the coast between the bounding high ground of <!--del_lnk--> Worlebury Hill and <!--del_lnk--> Brean Down. It is well known for its sandy beaches, although at low tide the sea can be over a mile from the beachfront, and a substantial trek across the mud is necessary in order to reach the "sea". However, attempting to reach the sea at these times is inadvisable as the sand gives way to mud which is very deep and has cost several people their lives over the years. Driving on the beach catches people out as they drive too close to the sea and break through the sand to the underlying mud and are then stuck. Several cars get washed out to the sea every year. Weston-super-Mare is the most populous <!--del_lnk--> civil parish in England.<p><i>Weston</i> comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon for the west <i>tun</i> or settlement. The descriptive part of its name is unusual because it is in medieval <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> and was first recorded by an unknown medieval church clerk, presumably to distinguish it from other Westons in the area. It is a popular myth that the description was a later Victorian invention. It means literally "on sea". It is pronounced <i>mair</i> rather than <i>mahrey</i>, however.<p>Early in the nineteenth century, Weston was a small windswept village of about 30 houses, located behind a line of sand dunes fronting the sea. The Pigott family of <!--del_lnk--> Brockley, who were the local Lords of the Manor, had a summer residence at Grove House. Weston owes its growth and prosperity to the <!--del_lnk--> Victorian era boom in seaside holidays. Construction of the first hotel in the village started in 1808, it was called the Royal Hotel. Along with nearby <!--del_lnk--> Burnham-on-Sea, Weston benefited from proximity to Bristol, <!--del_lnk--> Bath and <!--del_lnk--> South Wales.<p><a href="../../wp/i/Isambard_Kingdom_Brunel.htm" title="Isambard Kingdom Brunel">Isambard Kingdom Brunel</a> and his family lived in Weston, at Swiss Villa (eastern corner of Alexandra Parade and Swiss Road), for a number of months whilst he was supervising the construction of the Bristol & Exeter Railway in the area. With the opening of the railway, thousands of visitors came to the town from Bristol, The Midlands and further afield, on works outings and <!--del_lnk--> Bank Holidays. Also, many mining families came across the Bristol Channel from South Wales by <!--del_lnk--> paddle steamer. To cater for them, Birnbeck <!--del_lnk--> Pier was completed in 1867, offering in its heyday <!--del_lnk--> amusement arcades, tea rooms, <!--del_lnk--> funfair rides and a <a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" title="Photography">photographic</a> studio. However, it now stands in a derelict state and is in danger of collapsing into the sea. It is still possible for visitors to marvel at the structure from behind the barbed wire.<p>Large areas of land were released for development from the 1850s onwards. Large detached villas, for the middle classes, were built on the southern slopes of Worlebury Hill. Semi-detached and terraced housing were built on the low 'moorland', behind the sea front. Many of these houses have now been turned into <!--del_lnk--> bedsits by their owners.<p>In 1885 the first transatlantic telegraph cable of the <!--del_lnk--> Commercial Cable Company was brought ashore and the company started a long association with the town, ending in 1962.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14561.jpg.htm" title="The Grand Pier and beach at low tide."><img alt="The Grand Pier and beach at low tide." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WestonPier.jpg" src="../../images/145/14561.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14561.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Grand Pier and beach at low tide.</div>
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<p>Local traders, unhappy that visitors were not coming as far as the centre of the town, began the construction of a new pier closer to the main streets. Opened in 1904, and known as the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Pier, it was originally planned to be 1.5 miles (2.4 km) long. It still stands in truncated form today, although amusements and cafes have replaced the original <!--del_lnk--> music-hall theatre it supported, with the present building dating from 1933. Further development occurred after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, with the Winter Gardens and Pavilion (1927), the Open Air Pool and an <!--del_lnk--> airfield all dating from the inter-war period. <!--del_lnk--> Art Deco influences can be seen in much of the town's architecture from this period.<p>During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> many <!--del_lnk--> evacuees were accommodated in the town. Weston suffered several bombing raids, damaging parts of the town centre, particularly Orchard Street and Boulevard. War industries, such as aircraft and pump manufacture, were dispersed to the town. Many US troops were billeted in Weston. They and their equipment vanished practically overnight, with the run-up to <!--del_lnk--> D-Day.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14562.jpg.htm" title="The town hall."><img alt="The town hall." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WestonTownHall.jpg" src="../../images/145/14562.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14562.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The town hall.</div>
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<p>Since the 1970s Weston has suffered a large decline in popularity, like virtually all British seaside resorts. The advent of cheap foreign holidays and the break-up of large industries like mining contributed, as working communities became less likely to holiday together. The town had become a centre of industries such as <!--del_lnk--> helicopter production. Road transport links were improved with the <!--del_lnk--> M5 motorway running close by, and the town now supports several light industries and distribution depots, and functions partly as a <!--del_lnk--> dormitory town for Bristol. <!--del_lnk--> Philip Harris Ltd moved their production unit to the town in the 1970s to join their biological supplies division, which moved from Sheffield in 1965. Some biological supplies work still continues under different owners. It is worth noting, though, that the two largest employers are the luminaries of the local council and the academicians of Weston College.<p>The tourist traffic has never completely vanished and Weston nowadays could be considered to be weathering hard times moderately well. It has a <!--del_lnk--> shopping centre, helicopter museum, a sea-life centre (currently called the <i>SeaQuarium</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> miniature railway. There is also a derelict pier to the north of the town, a derelict theatre, swimming pool and sauna on Knightstone Island, although this island is now under development as a luxury housing and cultural complex with many of the existing buildings being retained due to their listed status. There is also the derelict "Tropicana" leisure complex approximately halfway down the sea front. However this to will be subject to regeneration - with a private developer having been selected to take forward the re-development of the Tropicana. The new development entitled 'Life Station@Tropicana' will include a covered swimming pool, cinema and bowling complex.<p>The town as a whole has expanded its size considerably and at one time in the eighties was the fastest growing municipality in Europe. Building continues apace, though notably the fashionable South side of town towards Bleadon has avoided this. In times past, motorists have been prevented from driving through Bleadon by security men, was due to a bridge being replaced and to stop through traffic going down narrow roads .<p>A large "carrot" shaped sculpture entitled 'The Silica' has been installed in the town centre recently to symbolise man's harmony with the sea. This was part of North Somerset Council's ongoing civic pride initiative that has sought to revitalise Weston-super-Mare's public spaces - which had suffered a period of decline. Other public space improvments have been made throughout the town such as improvements to the street scene in Grove Park Village. There has been some controversy in the town over whether the silica enhanced the town or was a waste of money. However, this debate centred round a misunderstanding of the government funds used to pay for the sculpture. Many local residents did not realise that the money came from central government and had to be used on public art/improvements to the street scene environment. Consequently there calls for the money to be re-directed to other public services could not be acted upon by North Somerset Council without the funding being withdrawn by central government.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14563.jpg.htm" title="Deutsche Marine Sea King 41 from MFG5 in "30 years of the Sea King" special paint scheme at the Beach Gardens during 2005 International HeliDays"><img alt="Deutsche Marine Sea King 41 from MFG5 in "30 years of the Sea King" special paint scheme at the Beach Gardens during 2005 International HeliDays" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:89%2B55_55_SeaKing_02.JPG" src="../../images/145/14563.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14563.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Deutsche Marine <!--del_lnk--> Sea King 41 from MFG5 in "30 years of the Sea King" special paint scheme at the Beach Gardens during 2005 International HeliDays</div>
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<p>The T4 on the beach music event is a recent addition, where well known <!--del_lnk--> bands and <!--del_lnk--> singers perform up to three of their hits, all aspects bar the <!--del_lnk--> vocals being mimed. International HeliDays is usually staged at the Beach Gardens over a long weekend around the end of July, where helicopters from around the world are displayed, in association with the <!--del_lnk--> Helicopter Museum. It is essential not to forget the Enduro, which attracts thousands of bikes, nor the Carnival, whose brightly illuminated floats light up the streets as winter approaches.<p>Residential areas include Oldmixon and the Bourneville estate, which exhibit many fine examples of post war and late twentieth century architecture. The Coronation Estate, with its streets imaginatively named after places the royal couple visited following the coronation, continues to earn its soubriquet, the 'Nowa Huta' of the West. Antisocial behaviour on this estate and on the Bovril, as it is locally known, is generally ignored by the town fathers. The indiscriminate placing of pylons is sometimes blamed for the physical peculiarities of people from this area.<p>Made an <!--del_lnk--> urban district in 1894, Weston-super-Mare became a <!--del_lnk--> municipal borough in 1937. In 1974, under the <!--del_lnk--> Local Government Act 1972, it was merged into the <!--del_lnk--> Woodspring district of the <!--del_lnk--> County of Avon, and became a <!--del_lnk--> Charter Trustees town. When Avon was split up in 1996, it became the administrative headquarters of <!--del_lnk--> North Somerset, one of the successor authorities. Weston-super-Mare regained a town council in 2000, becoming a civil parish. Politics is dominated by small cliques of ambitious activists, and carpetbaggers are occasionally parachuted in by the main parties. Local political life languishes, though, and public opinion is represented by the serried trivialities of the Weston Mercury, based on the Boulevard. There are those who maintain that Weston should be categorised as an anarcho-syndicalist commune, in the light of the paucity of policing.<p>Well-known former residents of the town include author, politician and supporter of women's rights <!--del_lnk--> Jeffrey Archer, guitarist <!--del_lnk--> Ritchie Blackmore, actor <!--del_lnk--> John Cleese, actress <!--del_lnk--> Mandy Miller, author <!--del_lnk--> Roald Dahl, journalist <!--del_lnk--> Jill Dando and actor <!--del_lnk--> Rupert Graves. The writer <!--del_lnk--> Bill Bryson had a wet time visiting, recounted in <i><!--del_lnk--> Notes from a Small Island</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Stanley Eddington, one of the foremost <!--del_lnk--> astrophysicists of the early twentieth century grew up in the town. Attlee's <!--del_lnk--> Minister of Defence, <!--del_lnk--> A.V. Alexander was also raised in Weston-super-Mare. All of these pale into othing in comparison with Jill Dando.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Little Britain television series, the character <!--del_lnk--> Vicky Pollard claims to have seen the pop group <!--del_lnk--> Blazin' Squad in Weston-super-Mare.<p>The town's motto is "Ever Forward". It is twinned with <!--del_lnk--> Hildesheim which is in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>. As the vast majority of inhabitants of Weston are old enough to remember the Blitz, the cordiality of relations is not without its limits.<p>The upper part of the beach is sandy but, as the sea retreats a long way with the tide exposing mud flats, the town is sometimes unkindly known as "Weston-super-Mud". The tidal range in this part of the <!--del_lnk--> Severn Estuary is one of the largest in the world and the beach / mud flats are on a gentle slope. Consequently it is only at the part of the tide cycle where high tide is in the early morning and late afternoon that the sea comes well up the beach. Many day visitors see little of the sea because of this and also must be confused to see a long pier with little or no water under it.<p>The tidal rise and fall is often said to be the second largest in the world after the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Fundy in Canada and can be as great as 13 m (42 feet). (<!--del_lnk--> Ungava Bay has recently been found to have a tidal range greater than the Severn.) This tidal movement contributes to the deposition of mud from the <a href="../../wp/r/River_Severn.htm" title="River Severn">River Severn</a> in bays such as the one at Weston. Chemically the channel is reasonably clean.<p>The town's local football team is <!--del_lnk--> Weston Super Mare Football Club.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weston-super-Mare"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Westport Country Playhouse</h1>
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<p>The <b>Westport Country Playhouse</b> is a <a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" title="Theatre">theatre</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Westport, <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut, founded in 1930 by <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Langner and his wife Armina Marshall. It is a <!--del_lnk--> non-profit theatre currently run by <!--del_lnk--> Tazewell Thompson, <!--del_lnk--> Anne Keefe, and <!--del_lnk--> Joanne Woodward. It recently underwent a $30.6 million renovation, and now has a 578-seat theatre space. The Playhouse is one of the best-known <!--del_lnk--> regional theatres in Connecticut, having been described as a "<a href="../../wp/m/Mecca.htm" title="Mecca">mecca</a>" for apprentices and interns.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The building that is now the Westport Country Playhouse was originally constructed in 1835 as a <!--del_lnk--> tannery by R&H Haight, owned by Henry Haight. After Haight's death in 1860, the plant was purchased by Charles H. Kemper.<p>In 1930, the former tannery, which had been unused since the 1920s, was purchased for $14,000 by <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Langner. Cleon Throckmorten, a <!--del_lnk--> Broadway designer, was commissioned to renovate the interior of the building.<p>In 1931, the curtain went up on the first production at the Westport Country Playhouse. In order to more easily transfer Playhouse productions to Broadway, the stage was built to match the specifications of Broadway’s Times Square Theatre on 42nd Street. The idea proved immediately useful when the playhouse's first production, <i>The Streets of New York</i> (starring <!--del_lnk--> Dorothy Gish), transferred to Broadway. Dozens of new works followed suit over the years.<p>When it came to casting, Langner turned to well-known actor acquaintances and friends such as <!--del_lnk--> Eugene O'Neill and <!--del_lnk--> George Bernard Shaw when he needed new plays. The Playhouse's strong launch enhanced its reputation among the acting community. Wealthy theatre patrons and supporters in nearby <!--del_lnk--> Fairfield County towns helped it survive and thrive.<p>In the 1940s, the Playhouse began its apprentice program for young theatre professionals. Over the years, Playhouse apprentices have included composer/lyricist <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Sondheim, screenwriter <!--del_lnk--> Frank Perry, television host <!--del_lnk--> Sally Jesse Raphael, composer <!--del_lnk--> Mary Rodgers, actor <!--del_lnk--> Carey Elwes, and actress <!--del_lnk--> Tammy Grimes. The educational apprenticeship programs are still running.<p>The Playhouse closed due to <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> from 1942 to 1945. In the late 1940s and 1950s, the playhouse's successes included world premieres of <!--del_lnk--> William Inge's <i><!--del_lnk--> Come Back, Little Sheba</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Horton Foote's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Trip to Bountiful</i>, both of which went on to Broadway.<p>Since the Langners stepped down in 1959, the administration has included James B. McKenzie from 1959 to 2000 and actress <!--del_lnk--> Joanne Woodward, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Newman's wife, who took over as artistic director in 2000. Newman is now part-owner of a restaurant next to the theatre.<p>By <!--del_lnk--> 2000, more than 700 plays had been produced and almost four million people had attended the theatre.<p>In 2002 the playhouse transferred its first production to <!--del_lnk--> Broadway after more than 35 years.<p>Woodward and Alison Harris, executive director, led a $30.6 million renovation, transforming the old barn into a modern, year-round theatre facility. The renovated theatre reopened in 2005. Woodward stepped down from her job in January 2006, and was followed by <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actor</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">opera</a> and <!--del_lnk--> theatre director, and playwright <!--del_lnk--> Tazewell Thompson. However, Woodward and Newman have both continued to contribute to the Playhouse's "Campaign for a New Era".<p>Harris, executive director since 2000, announced in 2005 that she would not be renewing her contract when it expired in 2006, and in the summer of 2006 she resigned.<p>The Playhouse has provided a stage for many new <!--del_lnk--> playwrights over the years. <!--del_lnk--> David Wiltse is the current playwright in residence, writing one play for the playhouse to produce each year.<p><a id="Campaign_for_a_New_Era" name="Campaign_for_a_New_Era"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Campaign for a New Era</span></h3>
<p>The Campaign for a New Era is the fundraising effort by the Westport Country Playhouse to help pay for its $30.6 million, 18-month renovation. Donations of more than $1,000 are recognized within the Playhouse's lobby and programs. Some of the largest donations came from the state of <!--del_lnk--> Connecticut, the <!--del_lnk--> Devlin Foundation, the <!--del_lnk--> Lucille Lortel foundation, Elizabeth & Stanley Morten, and <!--del_lnk--> Joanne Woodward & <!--del_lnk--> Paul Newman.<p><a id="Technical" name="Technical"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Technical</span></h2>
<p><a id="Seating" name="Seating"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Seating</span></h3>
<p>The Playhouse currently has a total of 578 seats. This is lower seating capacity than before the renovation, but the seats are now individual and cushioned, as opposed to the former wooden pews, while retaining the historic look of the former pews. Further, fewer of the current seats are considered "limited view" since the renovations.<p>The 578 seats are distributed as follows:<ul>
<li><b>424 <!--del_lnk--> orchestra</b><ul>
<li>234 centre orchestra<li>93 house left orchestra<li>97 house right orchestra</ul>
<li><b>154 <!--del_lnk--> mezzanine</b><ul>
<li>118 centre mezzanine<li>18 left mezzanine boxes<li>18 right mezzanine boxes</ul>
</ul>
<p>Several seats in both the orchestra and mezzanine can be removed or modified to be <!--del_lnk--> wheelchair accessible.<p><a id="Stage" name="Stage"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stage</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/s/Stage_%2528theatre%2529.htm" title="Stage (theatre)">Stage</a></b>: <ul>
<li>Height: 3 feet 2 inches (.97m) above house floor<li>Depth: 26 feet 2 inches (7.98m) deep from plaster line to back wall, 2 feet 1 inch (.64m) apron below plaster line, 28 feet 3 inches (8.61m) total depth<li>Wing Space: 13 feet 6 inches (4.11m) clear <!--del_lnk--> stage right, 24 feet 6 inches (7.47m) clear <!--del_lnk--> stage left</ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Proscenium</b>: <ul>
<li>Height: 15 feet 3 inches (4.65m) above stage floor<li>Width: 32 feet 9 inches (9.98m) wide</ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Orchestra pit</b>: <ul>
<li>Depth: 9 feet 3 inches (2.82m) below stage floor</ul>
</ul>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22859.jpg.htm" title="The Playhouse's fly gallery"><img alt="The Playhouse's fly gallery" height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Playhouse_gallery.jpg" src="../../images/228/22859.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22859.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Playhouse's fly gallery</div>
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<p><a id="Fly_system" name="Fly_system"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Fly system</span></h3>
<p>The Playhouse has a <!--del_lnk--> counterweight fly system currently employing 22 <!--del_lnk--> battens, with space for future installations. The height from the stage to the grid is 40 feet (12.19m), with an effective fly range from 3 feet 10 inches (1.17m) to 38 feet (11.58m). Each <!--del_lnk--> arbor is 6 feet tall with a capacity for 1200 pounds (544 kg). The locking rail is on the <!--del_lnk--> stage right wall, and the loading bridge is 32 feet 3 inches (9.83m) above the stage floor.<p>Although the fly system and grid are designed for loads to be hung parallel to the <!--del_lnk--> proscenium, smaller loads can be hung perpendicular using cables independent of the actual arbor system. These have to be flown in and out manually from the grid, so perpendicularly hung loads are generally stationary during performances.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22860.jpg.htm" title="Some lighting instruments of the Playhouse"><img alt="Some lighting instruments of the Playhouse" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Playhouse_instruments.jpg" src="../../images/228/22860.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22860.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Some <!--del_lnk--> lighting instruments of the Playhouse</div>
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<p><a id="Lighting" name="Lighting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lighting</span></h3>
<p>Lighting is controlled from a Strand 520 <!--del_lnk--> console in a control booth at the back of the house. For <!--del_lnk--> technical rehearsals, a control position can be set up in the centre of the theatre.<p>The Playhouse's <!--del_lnk--> stage lighting instruments include:<ul>
<li>2 - <!--del_lnk--> ETC Source Four 19° <!--del_lnk--> ERS<li>61 - ETC Source Four 26° ERS<li>58 - ETC Source Four 36° ERS<li>24 - ETC Source Four 50° ERS<li>18 - Altman 6 inch 500w <!--del_lnk--> Fresnels<li>7 - Altman 1 kw triple unit far cycs<li>42 - <!--del_lnk--> PAR 64<li>7 - T-6 six cell, three circuit, 4 foot 6 inches<li>6 - Birdies</ul>
<p>Colour scrollers, irises, top hats, and barn doors (all lighting instrument attachments) are also available. On-stage film and projection equipment are only available through special arrangement.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<p>Of the hundreds of interns and apprentices who have passed through the Playhouse's educational programs, several have gone on to attain notoriety. Some graudates include <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Sondheim, <!--del_lnk--> Frank Perry, <!--del_lnk--> Tammy Grimes, <!--del_lnk--> Sally Jessy Raphael, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Rodgers and <!--del_lnk--> Christina Crawford. Others have been related to notable performers. The 1959 alumni alone include Jon de Vries (son of Westport playwright <!--del_lnk--> Peter de Vries), Tim Sinnemann (son of <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood director <!--del_lnk--> Fred Sinnemann), and Lisa Whitman (granddaughter of <!--del_lnk--> Cornelia Otis Skinner). A large number of Playhouse interns and apprentices have made careers in the theatre or in related activities.<p><a id="Woodward_Internship_Program" name="Woodward_Internship_Program"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Woodward Internship Program</span></h3>
<p>The Westport Country Playhouse provides summer and school year internships to students ages 19 and older from around the country. The interns are entrusted with considerable responsibilities and treated as staff members while they engage in an intensive learning experience. Each intern is hired for a specific position, but interns are expected to work as a team and pitch in where necessary, including, but not limited to, running crew, ushering, concessions and parking.<p>The program is named in honour of Joanne Woodward, the current Artistic Director Emeritus. Accepted applicants must be serious minded, highly motivated and able to commit a minimum of twelve weeks, with long working hours as many as 7 days a week. Applicants should be a college students, graduate students or recent graduates, with basic training and experience in theatre already completed, prepared to take the next step towards a professional theatre career.<p><a id="Woodward_Apprenticeship_Program" name="Woodward_Apprenticeship_Program"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Woodward Apprenticeship Program</span></h3>
<p>The Westport Country Playhouse also has a summer <!--del_lnk--> apprenticeship program for students aged 15 to 18. Each year, approximately 10 apprentices are selected from those who apply. The program lasts approximately eight weeks, usually starting in June and ending in August. The apprenticeship is 7 to 12 hours per day, often 7 days per week, and, with rare exceptions, there is little time off. Many of the apprentices live in Westport and neighboring towns, but some come from other states.<p>The program is designed to give the apprentices experience in every aspect of working in a professional theatre. Each apprentice is part of the <!--del_lnk--> running crew for one show during the summer season. Alternately, apprentices can volunteer to work on a show before or after the apprenticeship. During performances, those who are not on the current running crew do <!--del_lnk--> front of house work, including ushering, parking cars, and managing concessions.<p>Before and after performances, time is divided into classes, work rotations, and artist hours. The classes cover a range of subjects, including script analysis, <!--del_lnk--> acting, <!--del_lnk--> directing, <!--del_lnk--> auditioning, and <!--del_lnk--> dialects. During work rotations, apprentices help the Playhouse crews complete tasks in areas including <!--del_lnk--> props, <!--del_lnk--> set construction, and <!--del_lnk--> scenic painting as well as taining in the <!--del_lnk--> box office. Artist hours are open discussions with professionals from all fields of theatre; past artists have included actors <!--del_lnk--> Gene Wilder and <!--del_lnk--> Paul Newman, producer <!--del_lnk--> Bill Haber, and the casts and crews of current shows.<p>The program culminates with the Apprentice Showcase, with the apprentices writing, designing, and performing a play. All apprentices are encouraged to take part in the writing process, which takes place throughout the second half of the program. Once the script has been finalized, the roles and technical positions are assigned among the apprentices. There is one week of rehearsal, and one free admission performance. The schedule is designed to simulate that of a traditional summer stock theatre. <p><a id="Current_administration" name="Current_administration"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Current administration</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22861.jpg.htm" title="The rehearsal room of the Playhouse"><img alt="The rehearsal room of the Playhouse" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Playhouse_Rehersalroom.jpg" src="../../images/228/22861.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22861.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The rehearsal room of the Playhouse</div>
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<p>The current administration of the Playhouse includes:<p><a id="Board_of_Directors" name="Board_of_Directors"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Board of Directors</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b>Chairman</b>: Elisabeth Morton<li><b>President</b>: John A. Vaccaro<li><b>Vice Presidents</b>: Harold Baily, Jr. and Sharon Sullivan<li><b>Treasurer</b>: Steven Wolff<li><b>Secretary</b>: Ann Sheffer</ul>
<p><a id="Staff" name="Staff"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Staff</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b>Artistic Director</b>: <!--del_lnk--> Tazewell Thompson<li><b>Executive Director</b>: Position currently vacant<li><b>Associate Artistic Director</b>:<li><b>Artistic Director Emeritus</b>: <!--del_lnk--> Joanne Woodward</ul>
<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b>Production Coordinator</b>: Liz Liles<li><b>Technical Director</b>: John Mosele<li><b>Master Electrician</b>: Janie Flowers<li><b>Company Manager</b>: Bruce Miller</ul>
<p><a id="Notable_performers" name="Notable_performers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable performers</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Many notable performers have enhanced the Westport Country Playhouse stage from 1930 to the present, including such well-known names as <!--del_lnk--> Kitty Carlisle, <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Fonda.htm" title="Henry Fonda">Henry Fonda</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Olivia de Havilland, <!--del_lnk--> Eva Gabor, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Allinson and <a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Fonda.htm" title="Jane Fonda">Jane Fonda</a>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westport_Country_Playhouse"</div>
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| ['Theatre', 'Mecca', 'World War II', 'Actor', 'Opera', 'Stage (theatre)', 'Henry Fonda', 'Jane Fonda'] |
Weyauwega_derailment | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Recent_History.htm">Recent History</a></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22862.png.htm" title="Location of Weyauwega, Wisconsin"><img alt="Location of Weyauwega, Wisconsin" height="212" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WIMap-doton-Weyauwega.png" src="../../images/228/22862.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The <b>Weyauwega derailment</b> was a <!--del_lnk--> railroad accident that occurred in <!--del_lnk--> Weyauwega, Wisconsin, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> in the early morning hours of <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1996. The derailed train was carrying a large quantity of hazardous material, which immediately caught fire. The fire, which involved the train cars themselves and an adjacent <!--del_lnk--> feed mill, burned for more than two weeks after the actual derailment, and resulted in the <!--del_lnk--> emergency evacuation of 2,300 people for 16 days; notably, the entire city of Weyauwega was evacuated, with about 1,700 evacuees alone.<p>
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</script><a id="Derailment_and_fire" name="Derailment_and_fire"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Derailment and fire</span></h2>
<p>At approximately 5:49 am, an 81 car <!--del_lnk--> Wisconsin Central train traveling from <!--del_lnk--> Stevens Point, Wisconsin to <!--del_lnk--> Neenah, Wisconsin, approached the city of Weyauwega at 48.3 miles per hour, travelling on a downward grade. The first sixteen cars of the train passed a <!--del_lnk--> turnout without incident, after which 37 cars behind them derailed at the location of the switch, at 5:49:32 AM. A subsequent NTSB investigation found the cause of the derailment to be a broken rail within the turnout that was the result of an undetected bolt hole fracture. The derailed cars included 7 <!--del_lnk--> tank cars of <!--del_lnk--> liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 7 tank cars of <!--del_lnk--> propane and two tank cars of <a href="../../wp/s/Sodium_hydroxide.htm" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a>. The derailment ruptured three of the tank cars and spilled both LPG and propane, which immediately ignited. The conductor of the train cut the train after the first nine cars, and proceeded onward 1.5 miles. He informed local law enforcement of the hazardous material the train was carrying, and was instructed to tell the fire chief.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22863.jpg.htm" title="An overhead view of the derailment March 5, 1996"><img alt="An overhead view of the derailment March 5, 1996" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WeyauwegaDerailment151259.jpg" src="../../images/228/22863.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22863.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An overhead view of the derailment March 5, 1996</div>
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<p>When the local fire crew arrived on the scene five minutes after the derailment, fireballs were exploding up to 300 <!--del_lnk--> feet (90 <!--del_lnk--> m) high that were visible for nearly 13 <!--del_lnk--> miles (21 <!--del_lnk--> km). Fire spread to a nearby feed mill and storage building that were both difficult to access by the fire crew because the derailed train was blocking the <!--del_lnk--> grade crossing. High tension power lines were also torn down by the derailment, which caused secondary electrical fires. In total, seven of the tank cars of LPG and propane leaked, and the two sodium hydroxide tank cars leaked their contents. Electricity and <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> service to 25% of the city of Weyauwega was disrupted, and city water services had to be shut off because of a rupture in a <!--del_lnk--> water main.<p>Jim Baehnman, the Assistant Fire Chief (the commanding Fire Chief, Gary Hecker, was on vacation the day that the accident occurred) quickly determined that the accident was beyond the scope of Weyauwega's fire department. Fire crews from 10 surrounding departments were called in to help with the recovery. At a time between 10 minutes and one hour after the derailment, it became known that propane and LPG were involved in this derailment; this was at the time the train's conductor was able to get a ride from a local resident to the Weyauwega fire station, where this information was relayed.<p>One hour after the derailment, Wisconsin Central Railroad informed responding firefighters that the tank cars could withstand approximately 90 minutes of fire. Additionally, the head end of the train was rolled back to the accident scene, and pulled away seven cars of the train that were not derailed. At this point, a decision was made by the fire chief to pull firefighters back from the derailment, because of the risk of a <!--del_lnk--> BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion). This evacuation of personnel was two blocks for one hour, then 1 mile, and finally 1.5 miles; the initial evacuation was done so quickly that fire hoses in use were abandoned and froze where they lay.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22864.jpg.htm" title="Derailed cars in the western section of the accident site"><img alt="Derailed cars in the western section of the accident site" height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WeyauwegaDerailment151265.jpg" src="../../images/228/22864.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22864.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Derailed cars in the western section of the accident site</div>
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<p>Baehnman also made the decision to evacuate the entire city of Weyauwega, a decision which displaced approximately 1,700 residents of the city, and 600 additional people in surrounding rural areas. The scope of the resulting fire and leaking of chemicals kept residents evacuated for just over two weeks, and many of the fires that erupted as a result of the derailment burned for most of the 18-day evacuation.<p>The weather may have helped ease the situation for firefighters; the ambient temperature at the time of the derailment was only 10 F and there was still snow on the ground. Both factors may have helped prevent a BLEVE explosion within the first hour of the disaster, while emergency personnel were still on site. Ultimately, one of the cars containing LPG <i>was</i> involved in a BLEVE, causing a large fireball several hours after the accident. On <!--del_lnk--> March 20, officials in charge of the evacuation and disaster recovery declared the town safe for residents to return to their homes.<p><a id="Pets_in_the_evacuation_zone" name="Pets_in_the_evacuation_zone"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pets in the evacuation zone</span></h2>
<p>Residents who were worried about pets that they left behind started illegally re-entering the 1.5 mile evacuation zone within two days of the derailment to rescue them. Just over half of the population evacuated without their pets. The acting Fire Chief declared that the situation was too dangerous to the public and emergency personnel to mount a pet rescue. Fearing a worse disaster, his decision was overruled by the Governor's office; the Emergency Operations Centre organized an official pet rescue to take place on <!--del_lnk--> March 8. The <!--del_lnk--> National Guard was activated to help with the recovery efforts; they escorted pet owners back to their residences to rescue their pets, then stayed to help fire crews with the accident recovery.<p><a id="Litigation_and_costs" name="Litigation_and_costs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Litigation and costs</span></h2>
<p>Nine individuals who were affected by the evacuation filed a class action suit seeking punitive and treble damages against Wisconsin Central on <!--del_lnk--> March 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1996. By the end of the year, thirteen more families and two business joined the suit against the railroad, and another business filed a separate suit for damages in <!--del_lnk--> Waupaca County District Court. Another company filed a separate suit in US District Court for damages. Both of the separate suits were eventually dismissed. In 1998, the railroad estimated the costs from the derailment and class action suit to be valued at <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">$</a>28 million, of which Wisconsin Central had paid $27.2 million by the end of 1998.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyauwega_derailment"</div>
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| ['United States', 'Sodium hydroxide', 'Natural gas', 'United States dollar'] |
Weymouth | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2"><big><b>Weymouth</b></big></th>
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<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2">
<div style="float:;clear:;width:154px">
<div style="position:relative;border:solid silver 1px;padding:0px;width:150px"><a class="image" href="../../images/228/22865.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Uk_outline_map.png" src="../../images/228/22865.png" width="150" /></a><br />
<div style="position:absolute;z-index:200; top:86.6%; left:65.7%;height:0;width:0;margin:0;padding:0;">
<div style="position:relative;top:-4px;left:-4px;width:8px;text-align:center;z-index:201"><a class="image" href="../../images/171/17100.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="8" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Locator_Dot.svg" src="../../images/38/3826.png" width="8" /></a></div>
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<div style="font-size:90%">
</div>
</td>
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<tr>
<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Statistics</th>
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<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Population:</td>
<td>51,760 (Weymouth)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Ordnance Survey</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 50%;"><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> SY6779</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Administration</th>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> District:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Weymouth and Portland</td>
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<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shire county:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a></td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Region:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South West England</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Constituent country:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_sovereign_states.htm" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign state</a>:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Other</th>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial county:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a></td>
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<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Services</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Police force:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dorset Police</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Fire and rescue:</td>
<td>Dorset Fire and Rescue</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ambulance:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South Western</td>
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<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Post office and telephone</th>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Post town:</td>
<td>Weymouth</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Postal district:</td>
<td>DT3, DT4</td>
</tr>
<tr style="vertical-align: top;">
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dialling code:</td>
<td>01305</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2">Politics</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> UK Parliament:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South Dorset</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> South West England</td>
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<th bgcolor="#EFEFEF" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15221.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="21" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_England.svg" src="../../images/12/1258.png" width="35" /></a></th>
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<p><b>Weymouth</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> town in <a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, situated on a sheltered bay at the mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> River Wey on the <a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> coast. The town is eight miles south of <!--del_lnk--> Dorchester, and five miles north of the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Portland. Weymouth had a population of 51,760 in 2004, and is part of the borough of <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth and Portland.<p>Weymouth and Portland have a history stretching back to the <!--del_lnk--> 12th Century, with the area playing a part in the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, the settlement of the Americas, the Georgian Era, and <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Whilst fishing and trading in the port has declined in importance since its peak in earlier centuries, tourism has had a strong presence in the town since the <!--del_lnk--> 18th Century. Weymouth continues to be a popular tourist <!--del_lnk--> resort, and the town's successful economy depends on its harbour and the beaches of <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth Bay. Weymouth is a gateway town situated approximately half-way along the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site, a 95 mile stretch of coast, important for its varied geology and many unique landforms. The South Coast of England, in which Weymouth lies, is very often the sunniest part of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Weymouth harbour is now home to cross-channel ferries, pleasure boats and private yachts, and nearby Portland Harbour is home to the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy.<p>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/139/13953.jpg.htm" title="Weymouth Bay, by John Constable "><img alt="Weymouth Bay, by John Constable " height="141" longdesc="/wiki/Image:John_Constable_027.jpg" src="../../images/228/22866.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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</div>
</div>
<p>Weymouth originated as a settlement on a constricted site to the south and west of Weymouth Harbour, an outlying part of the village of <!--del_lnk--> Wyke Regis. A settlement here is not noted until the <a href="../../wp/1/13th_century.htm" title="13th century">13th century</a>, the likelihood being that the town developed from the mid <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a> onwards. By 1252 it was sufficiently established as a seaport to become a chartered <!--del_lnk--> borough. <!--del_lnk--> Melcombe Regis developed quite separately on the peninsula of land to the north of the harbour, being mentioned as a licenced 'wool port' in 1310.<p>Melcombe Regis is thought to be the first port at which the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Death.htm" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> came into <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, aboard a visiting <!--del_lnk--> spice ship in June 1348. In their early history Weymouth and Melcombe Regis were rivals for trade and industry, but the towns were united in an <!--del_lnk--> Act of Parliament in 1571 to form the double borough of <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth and Melcombe Regis. Since then both towns have become known simply as Weymouth, despite Melcombe Regis being the part of town in which the main beach and tourist attractions are. The town now also encompasses the outlying suburbs of <!--del_lnk--> Upwey, <!--del_lnk--> Broadwey, <!--del_lnk--> Preston, <!--del_lnk--> Wyke Regis, <!--del_lnk--> Chickerell, <!--del_lnk--> Southill, <!--del_lnk--> Radipole and <!--del_lnk--> Littlemoor.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War (1642-51) more than 500 people were killed in the Battle of Weymouth on <!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1645. Later, in the 18th Century, on board the ship "Charity", emigrants from the town crossed the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> and settled in <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth, Massachusetts. More townspeople emigrated to the Americas to bolster the population of <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth, Nova Scotia. The first settlers of Salem (then called Naumking), Massachusetts, later infamous for its "Witch Trials", came from Weymouth, Dorset. There is now a monument to that effect on the side of Weymouth Harbour.<p>The notable architect Sir <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Wren.htm" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> was the Member of Parliament for Weymouth for 1702, and also held control of nearby Portland's quarries from 1675 to 1717. Interestingly, when he designed <!--del_lnk--> St Pauls Cathedral, Wren had it built out of <!--del_lnk--> Portland Stone, the famous stone originating from Portland's quarries. Sir <!--del_lnk--> James Thornhill was born in 'The White Hart' <!--del_lnk--> public house in Weymouth and in 1722 became MP for Melcome Regis. In later life he became a famous artist, and coincidentally, decorated the interior of St Paul's Cathedral.<p>The town is amongst the first modern <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourist</a> destinations, after <!--del_lnk--> King George III made Weymouth his summer holiday residence on fourteen occasions between 1789 and 1805. A mounted <!--del_lnk--> white horse representing King George is carved into the <!--del_lnk--> chalk <!--del_lnk--> hills of Osmington to the east of the town. A myth developed that, because the horse faces away from the town, the King took offence, believing it was a sign that the townspeople did not welcome him, and that the designer subsequently killed himself. This myth has been disproved as King George died before its completion.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:262px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22867.jpg.htm" title="The promenade displays Georgian architecture "><img alt="The promenade displays Georgian architecture " height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Weymouth_Promenade.jpg" src="../../images/228/22867.jpg" width="260" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22867.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The promenade displays <!--del_lnk--> Georgian architecture</div>
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<p>The seafront of Weymouth's <!--del_lnk--> Esplanade is composed almost entirely of Georgian terraces, which have been converted into apartments, shops, hotels and guest houses. The buildings were constructed in the Georgian and Regency periods between 1770 and 1855, designed by prominent arcitects such as James Hamilton, and were mostly commissioned by wealthy businessmen, many of whom had already been involved in the growth of the city of <!--del_lnk--> Bath. Almost all of these terraces still survive, and form a long, continuous arc of buildings which face <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth Bay, along most of the length of the Esplanade.<p>Weymouth and Portland were important in World War II, and were subjected to bombings by German planes, as were many locations along the South Coast. <!--del_lnk--> Portland harbour was home to a large naval base, and Weymouth was home to <!--del_lnk--> Nothe Fort, together an important part of the <!--del_lnk--> D-Day preparations and <!--del_lnk--> Bouncing bomb development. The Bouncing bomb was tested in the <!--del_lnk--> Fleet <!--del_lnk--> lagoon to the west of the town. Weymouth's history is documented at the Brewers Quay Timewalk museum, a tourist attraction and former <!--del_lnk--> brewery on the southern shore of Weymouth Harbour.<p><a id="Politics_and_demographics" name="Politics_and_demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics and demographics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22868.png.htm" title="Weymouth and Portland shown within Dorset"><img alt="Weymouth and Portland shown within Dorset" height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DorsetWeymouthPortland.png" src="../../images/228/22868.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22868.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weymouth and Portland shown within Dorset</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> district of Weymouth and Portland was formed on <!--del_lnk--> April 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1974 under the <!--del_lnk--> Local Government Act 1972, and was a merger between the <!--del_lnk--> borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis and the nearby <!--del_lnk--> Portland urban district. The <!--del_lnk--> Mayor of Weymouth and Portland is Howard Legg, with David Harris as Deputy Mayor; both are members of the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrat party. Weymouth and Portland and <!--del_lnk--> Purbeck <!--del_lnk--> districts are in the <!--del_lnk--> Dorset South parliamentary <!--del_lnk--> constituency, created in 1885. The constituency elects one <!--del_lnk--> Member of Parliament. The current MP for Dorset South is <!--del_lnk--> Jim Knight, a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Labour Party, who currently holds the post of <!--del_lnk--> Minister of State for Schools.<p>Dorset South was the second most marginal seat in the 2001 <!--del_lnk--> elections, being only won by 153 votes. At the 2002 general election, Jim Knight was elected the member of Parliament for <!--del_lnk--> Dorset South, which was the only constituency in which Labour gained votes from the <!--del_lnk--> Conservative party in that year. This may have been due to a high-profile anti-Conservative tactical voting campaign which was conducted in Dorset by MP Billy Bragg. Whilst Jim Knight was expecting to have a difficult 2005 election, he won with a margin of 1,812 votes. This was in contrast to many other areas, where Labour suffered a noticeable decline in the popular vote.<table align="right" border="1" class="toc" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 10pt">
<tr>
<th>Year</th>
<th>Population</th>
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<tr>
<td>1971</td>
<td align="right">42,370</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1981</td>
<td align="right">45,090</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1991</td>
<td align="right">48.350</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2001</td>
<td align="right">50,920</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2004</td>
<td align="right">51,760</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table align="right" border="1" class="toc" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 10pt">
<tr>
<th>Age</th>
<th>Percentage</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>0-15</td>
<td align="right">18.3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>16+17</td>
<td align="right">2.3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>18-44</td>
<td align="right">32.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>45-59</td>
<td align="right">20.8</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>60-84</td>
<td align="right">23.2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>85+</td>
<td align="right">3.1</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In 2004 Weymouth's <!--del_lnk--> population was 51,760, in an estimated built up area of 1850 <!--del_lnk--> hectares (18.5km²). This gives an approximate population density of 28 residents per hectare. In 2005 there were 23,405 dwellings in Weymouth. The population of the town has grown steadily over the past 35 years, mainly as a result of migration. As is the case with many seaside towns, there is an above average number of older residents (60 - 84), however the largest proportion of the population is between the ages of 18 to 44. The population is largely of native English origin, with 98.8% of residents being of white background.<p>The area's crime rates are below average compared to the UK, with Weymouth's rate of 13.4 crimes per 1000 households lower than that of <!--del_lnk--> England and Wales (14.4/1000). However, Weymouth's crime rates are above those of the <!--del_lnk--> South West England average of 10.7 per 1000. The town's house prices are relatively high by UK standards, yet around average for most of the south of England. The average price of a detatched <a href="../../wp/h/House.htm" title="House">house</a> in 2005 was £278,284, with an average <!--del_lnk--> apartment or <!--del_lnk--> maisonette costing £134,812.<p><a id="Geology.2C_geography_and_ecology" name="Geology.2C_geography_and_ecology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geology, geography and ecology</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22869.png.htm" title="Weymouth lies on weak sand and clay rock (dark green)"><img alt="Weymouth lies on weak sand and clay rock (dark green)" height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dorset_geology.png" src="../../images/228/22869.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22869.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weymouth lies on weak sand and clay rock (dark green)</div>
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<p>Weymouth is situated on weak sand and clay rock which in most places along the Dorset coast, except for narrow bands at <!--del_lnk--> Lulworth Cove, <!--del_lnk--> Swanage and <!--del_lnk--> Durdle Door, has been eroded and transported away. At Weymouth the weak rock has been protected by <!--del_lnk--> Chesil Beach and the strong <!--del_lnk--> limestone Isle of Portland that lies just offshore. The Isle of Portland also affects the tides of the area, producing an unusual double low <a href="../../wp/t/Tide.htm" title="Tide">tide</a> in Weymouth bay.<p>The borough has two lakes which are both <!--del_lnk--> RSPB <!--del_lnk--> Nature Reserves, <!--del_lnk--> Radipole Lake in the town centre, and <!--del_lnk--> Lodmoor near Preston. Radipole lake, the largest Nature Reserve, and mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> River Wey before it flows into the harbour, is a large important habitat for many species of <!--del_lnk--> birds and <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>. Radipole is an important tourist attraction, as along with Weymouth Beach, it is situated very close to the main town centre and shops.<p>Weymouth is the largest town in the area, larger than the county town of <!--del_lnk--> Dorchester, which lies just to the north, and hence is a centre of activity for many of the nearby population. Weymouth is separated from Dorchester by the <!--del_lnk--> South Dorset Downs, a steep ridge of <!--del_lnk--> chalk. The countryside surrounding Weymouth, which lies on the South Dorset Downs, is less agricultural than the valleys in the centre and north of <a href="../../wp/d/Dorset.htm" title="Dorset">Dorset</a>, but has some <!--del_lnk--> dairy and <a href="../../wp/a/Arable_land.htm" title="Arable land">arable</a> farms. This area contains numerous small <!--del_lnk--> villages, including <!--del_lnk--> Wyke Regis, <!--del_lnk--> Chickerell, and <!--del_lnk--> Osmington Mills. Many of the nearest villages have become the outskirts of the main town.<p>As Weymouth is low lying (below sea level in some areas), the eastern areas of the town have been flooded several times from the sea during extreme low pressure storms, until in the <!--del_lnk--> 1980s and <!--del_lnk--> 1990s a high <!--del_lnk--> sea wall was constructed around the harbour and at Preston beach. <!--del_lnk--> Beach nourishment and <!--del_lnk--> groynes ensure that the sand beach, important both for tourism and as a natural defence against the sea, is wide and has a shallow incline.<p>Another effect of Weymouth's low lying nature, and the ameliorating effect of the lakes and the warm seas which surround the town, is that winter frost is rare: on average 8 times a year. Days with snow lying are equally rare: on average 0 to 6 days a year. Almost all winters have 0 or 1 days with snow lying; it may snow or sleet a few times in a winter, yet snow almost never settles on the ground. The town, along with other low lying and coastal areas in the south west, experience the mildest winters in the UK. The borough's growing season lasts from 9 to 12 months a year.<p>Due to its location in the south west of England, Weymouth has a <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a> climate with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures. The average annual mean temperature in Weymouth from years 1971 to 2000 was 10.2 to 12<!--del_lnk--> °C. The warmest month is July, with an maximum average <!--del_lnk--> temperature range of 12<!--del_lnk--> °C to 21.7 °C. The coolest month is February, with an maximum average temperature range of 1.9°C to 9.9°C. The borough, along with the rest of the South Coast, often has has the sunniest weather in Britain. The resort averaged 1768 hours of sunshine annually between the years 1971 and 2000, and between 1990 and 2005 there were five years in which the town had over 2000 hours, a rare event in the UK. Weymouth's average annual rainfall is below UK average at 751.7mm (see <!--del_lnk--> rainfall in the United Kingdom for comparisons).<p><a id="Tourism_and_industry" name="Tourism_and_industry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tourism and industry</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22870.jpg.htm" title="Nothe Fort is one of several maritime-related museums in the town."><img alt="Nothe Fort is one of several maritime-related museums in the town." height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:050706_005_dorset_nothe.jpg" src="../../images/228/22870.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22870.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Nothe Fort is one of several maritime-related museums in the town.</div>
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<p>Tourism has for a long time been the largest industry in Weymouth, though this has declined slightly since its peak in the late 1990s. As well as its large, shallow sandy <!--del_lnk--> beach and two lakes (<!--del_lnk--> Radipole and <!--del_lnk--> Lodmoor), Weymouth has several <!--del_lnk--> museums, an <a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" title="Aquarium">aquarium</a>, a skate park and a large shopping centre. There are several caravan and <!--del_lnk--> camping sites, mainly just out of town, as well as many <!--del_lnk--> hotels on the seafront, and hundreds of small guesthouses near the town centre. The town is also a gateway town situated approximately half-way along the <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO <!--del_lnk--> Jurassic Coast <a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>, a 95 <!--del_lnk--> mile stretch of coast, important for its varied geology and many unique <a href="../../wp/l/Landform.htm" title="Landform">landforms</a>.<p>The town's theatre is built on a peninsula of reclaimed land between the harbour and the Esplanade. The <!--del_lnk--> Pavilion theatre was built in 1960, after the old Ritz theatre was destroyed by <a href="../../wp/f/Fire.htm" title="Fire">fire</a> in 1954. The Pavilion is owned and operated by <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth & Portland Borough Council. It was announced in 2006 that the Pavilion complex and surroundings will be entirely redeveloped from 2007 to 2011, in time for the <!--del_lnk--> 2012 Summer Olympics. The 10 <!--del_lnk--> acre site will include a new <a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" title="Theatre">theatre</a>, a <!--del_lnk--> World Heritage Site visitor centre, a new <!--del_lnk--> ferry terminal, a 4-star <!--del_lnk--> hotel, an undercover <!--del_lnk--> car park, a shopping arcade, offices, luxury and low cost <!--del_lnk--> apartments, houses, public squares, promenades, and a 300 berth <!--del_lnk--> marina.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22871.jpg.htm" title="Weymouth Outer Harbour"><img alt="Weymouth Outer Harbour" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Weymouth_Harbour_from_the_south_side_showing_The_George_Inn.jpg" src="../../images/228/22871.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22871.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weymouth Outer Harbour</div>
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<p>Weymouth harbour is situated in the centre of the town, and although it was the reason for its foundation, the harbour effectively separates the two areas of <!--del_lnk--> Melcombe Regis (the main town centre) and Weymouth (the southern harbourside) from eachother. The harbour was historically home to a large fishing fleet, and for many centuries was an important passenger, trade and cargo port. Goods handled in the harbour included wool and spices, and in the 20th Century, Weymouth was a bulk importer of fertiliser.<p>The harbour is long and narrow, and formed the <!--del_lnk--> estuary of the <!--del_lnk--> River Wey, until the building of a bridge which separated the harbour's <!--del_lnk--> backwaters from <!--del_lnk--> Radipole Lake. The Inner Harbour is a recently refurbished <!--del_lnk--> marina with hundreds of berths for pleasure <!--del_lnk--> boats, cruisers and <!--del_lnk--> sailing boats. The old harbourside, which is near the seaward end of the harbour, still hosts a fishing fleet, and is a terminus for ferries to the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> and the French port of <!--del_lnk--> St Malo. There are also boats offering pleasure trips along the Jurassic Coast and to the Isle of Portland, and there is still a small passenger ferry service across the harbour, linking the Brewer's Quay shopping centre to the main town centre. In 2005 the town centre had 292 shops, 404,000 square feet of floorspace, and the area had almost 40 hectares of industrial estate.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22872.jpg.htm" title="The Weymouth Harbour Tramway (or 'Quay Branch') in 2005"><img alt="The Weymouth Harbour Tramway (or 'Quay Branch') in 2005" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tramway_near_Ferrys_corner.jpg" src="../../images/228/22872.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22872.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth Harbour Tramway (or 'Quay Branch') in 2005</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Weymouth railway station is the terminus of the <!--del_lnk--> route from London Waterloo and the <!--del_lnk--> route from Westbury and Bristol. Although its size had been fully appropriate for the intense rail traffic that came into and out of Weymouth on busy summer Saturdays, it was oversized by the time it was demolished in 1986. A smaller, modern station took up part of the site, while the rest of the old station site was given over to commercial development. Parts of the South West Main Line west of <!--del_lnk--> Poole have been reduced from dual to single track, reducing the capacity. As part of 2012 Olympic preparations local councils have lobbied the Department for Transport to relay the track and increase services to London and Bristol, as well as introducing new direct services to Exeter.<p>An unusual feature of railways in Weymouth was that until 1987 scheduled trains ran through the public streets along the <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth Harbour Tramway to the Quay Station at the eastern entrance to the harbour, for trains to travel to the European mainland by sea. Due to declining business, goods traffic ceased in <!--del_lnk--> 1972, whilst passenger services continued until 1987, when these services ceased from lack of use as well. The Quay Station now houses the <!--del_lnk--> Condor Ferries Terminal. Condor Ferries' main <!--del_lnk--> UK <!--del_lnk--> port is Weymouth, and the <!--del_lnk--> HSC Condor Express runs from Weymouth Harbour to the <a href="../../wp/c/Channel_Islands.htm" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> of <a href="../../wp/g/Guernsey.htm" title="Guernsey">Guernsey</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jersey.htm" title="Jersey">Jersey</a> and to the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> port of <!--del_lnk--> St Malo.<p>The town is on the <!--del_lnk--> A354 road, which connects the town to the <!--del_lnk--> A35 <!--del_lnk--> trunk road in Dorchester, and which terminates at <!--del_lnk--> Easton on the Isle of Portland. The A353 road runs east from the town to the south of <!--del_lnk--> Warmwell, where it connects with the A352 road to the <!--del_lnk--> Isle of Purbeck and <!--del_lnk--> Wareham. Contracts for local bus services are held by <!--del_lnk--> First Group, which bought the local Southern National company. In the 1980s the town centre was bypassed by the route to Portland, but the government's road building policy changed before the proposed relief road could be completed. Currently, the busy A354 follows its original route through the suburbs of Upwey and Broadwey, where traffic problems are common at peak tourist times, and particularly on the regualar event days such as the town's annual carnival.<p>In addition to lack of support from central government, the project has been held up by opposition from residents and <!--del_lnk--> environmental groups, who object to the proposed route's partial destruction of a local nature reserve, which is an <!--del_lnk--> AONB and <!--del_lnk--> SSSI. With Weymouth scheduled to host 2012 Olympic sailing events the project has reopened with the local authorities favouring a more environmentally friendly proposal than in the 1990s.<p><a id="Sport_and_recreation" name="Sport_and_recreation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sport and recreation</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22873.jpg.htm" title="Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy."><img alt="Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy." height="108" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Uk_dor_sailingacademy.JPG" src="../../images/228/22873.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22873.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy.</div>
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<p>The local football team, <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth F.C., have remained outside the <!--del_lnk--> Football League but, in common with many other non-League clubs, they became professional in 2005. The team have enjoyed erratic success at their level over the years, on at least two occasions reaching the third round of the <!--del_lnk--> FA Cup, the highest club competition level. At the end of the 2005-06 season they were crowned Champions of the <!--del_lnk--> Conference South (the sixth level of English football) meaning that they will play in the <!--del_lnk--> Conference National (the fifth level) for the first time since 1989. Their current home is the out-of-town Wessex Stadium, but until 1987 the team played at a ground near the town centre, now the site of an <!--del_lnk--> Asda supermarket. The club's move predated the move to new out-of-town grounds by professional league clubs, and came at a time when there had been no new league football stadia opened in England for 32 years. The stadium is now set to be rebuilt again on land occupied by a pitch-and-putt golf course, coincidentally with Asda again building on the previous stadium site. Weymouth's record attendance for the Wessex Stadium is 6,000 against <!--del_lnk--> Nottingham Forest in the FA Cup in the 2005-2006 Season.<p>Just south of Weymouth in <!--del_lnk--> Portland Harbour is the <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy, where the sailing events at the <!--del_lnk--> 2012 Olympics will take place. The main reason that the resort was chosen to host these events was due to the fact that the Sailing Academy had only recently been built, so little new on-site facilities were needed. <!--del_lnk--> Weymouth and Portland's waters have also been credited by the Royal Yachting Association as amongst the best in Northern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. The town regularly hosts local, national and international sailing events in its waters. These events include the J/24 World Championships in 2005, staging trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics, the ISAF World Championship 2006, the BUSA Fleet Racing Championships, and the RYA Youth National Championships. In addition to sailing, the waters of Weymouth Bay are frequently a venue for other watersports. The reliable sailing wind is also very useful for <!--del_lnk--> windsurfing and <!--del_lnk--> kitesurfing. The sheltered waters in Portland Harbour and near Weymouth are used regularly for <!--del_lnk--> angling, <!--del_lnk--> diving to several shipwrecks, <!--del_lnk--> snorkelling, <!--del_lnk--> canoeing, <!--del_lnk--> jet skiing, <!--del_lnk--> water skiing, and <!--del_lnk--> swimming.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weymouth"</div>
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<p>The <b>Weyto</b> language is believed to be an <!--del_lnk--> extinct language formerly spoken in the <!--del_lnk--> Lake Tana region of <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> by a small group of <a href="../../wp/h/Hippopotamus.htm" title="Hippopotamus">hippopotamus</a> hunters who now speak <!--del_lnk--> Amharic.<p>The Weyto language was first mentioned by the Scottish traveler <!--del_lnk--> James Bruce, who spoke Amharic, passed through the area about <!--del_lnk--> 1770 and reported that "the Wayto speak a language radically different from any of those in <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Abyssinia">Abyssinia</a>," but was unable to obtain any "certain information" on it, despite prevailing upon the king to send for two Weyto men for him to ask questions, which they would "neither answer nor understand" even when threatened with hanging. The next European to report on them, <!--del_lnk--> Eugen Mittwoch, described them as uniformly speaking a dialect of Amharic (Mittwoch 1907). This report was confirmed by <!--del_lnk--> Marcel Griaule when he passed through in <!--del_lnk--> 1928, although he added that at one point a Weyto sung a song (sadly unrecorded) "in the dead language of the Wohitos" whose meaning the singer himself did not understand, except for a handful of words for hippopotamus body parts which, he says, had remained in use.<p>This Amharic dialect is described by <!--del_lnk--> Marcel Cohen (1939) as featuring a fair number of words derived from Amharic roots but twisted in sound or meaning in order to confuse outsiders, making it a sort of <!--del_lnk--> argot; in addition to these, it had a small number of <!--del_lnk--> Cushitic <!--del_lnk--> loanwords not found in standard Amharic, and a large number of <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> loanwords mainly related to <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>. Of the substantial wordlist collected by Griaule, Cohen only considered six terms to be etymologically obscure: <i>šəlkərít</i> "fish-scale", <i>qəntat</i> "wing", <i>čəgəmbit</i> "mosquito", <i>annessa</i> "shoulder", <i><sup>ə</sup>nk<sup>i</sup>es</i> "hippopotamus thigh", <i>wazəməs</i> "hippopotamus spine." By 1965, the visiting anthropologist <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Gamst found "no surviving native words, not even relating to their hunting and fishing work tasks." (Gamst 1965.)<p>The paucity of the data available has not prevented speculation on the classification of their original language; Cohen suggested that it might have been either an <!--del_lnk--> Agaw language or a non-Amharic <!--del_lnk--> Semitic language, while Dimmendaal (1989) says it "probably belonged to Cushitic" (as does Agaw), and Gamst (1965) says "...it can be assumed that if the Wäyto did not speak Amharic 200 years ago, their language must have been Agäw..." According to the <!--del_lnk--> Ethnologue, Bender et al. (1976) saw it as Cushitic, while Bender 1983 saw it as either <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Sudanic or <!--del_lnk--> Awngi. It thus effectively remains <!--del_lnk--> unclassified, largely for lack of data, but possibly related to Agaw.<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyto_language"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14564.jpg.htm" title="A Fin whale"><img alt="A Fin whale" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fin_whale_from_air.jpg" src="../../images/145/14564.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14564.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> Fin whale</div>
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<p>The term <i><b>whale</b></i> is ambiguous: it can refer to all <i><!--del_lnk--> cetaceans</i>, to just the larger ones, or only to members of particular <!--del_lnk--> families within the order <i>Cetacea</i>. The last definition is the one followed here. Whales are those cetaceans which are neither <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a> (i.e. members of the families <!--del_lnk--> Delphinidae or <!--del_lnk--> Platanistoidea) nor <!--del_lnk--> porpoises. This can lead to some confusion because <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">Orcas</a> ("Killer Whales") and <!--del_lnk--> Pilot whales have "whale" in their name, but they are dolphins for the purpose of <!--del_lnk--> classification.<p>
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</script><a id="Origins_and_taxonomy" name="Origins_and_taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins and taxonomy</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14565.jpg.htm" title="Humpback Whale breaching"><img alt="Humpback Whale breaching" height="198" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Humpbackwhale37.jpg" src="../../images/145/14565.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14565.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/h/Humpback_Whale.htm" title="Humpback Whale">Humpback Whale</a> breaching</div>
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<p>All whales, dolphins and porpoises are descendants of land-living mammals, most likely of the <!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyl <!--del_lnk--> order. They entered the water roughly 50 million years ago. <p>Cetaceans are divided into two suborders:<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> baleen whales are characterized by <!--del_lnk--> baleen, a sieve-like structure in the upper jaw made of <!--del_lnk--> keratin, which they use to filter <!--del_lnk--> plankton from the water. They are the largest species of whale.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> toothed whales have teeth and prey on fish, squid, or both. An outstanding ability of this group is to sense their surrounding environment through <!--del_lnk--> echolocation.</ul>
<p>A complete up-to-date taxonomical listing of all <!--del_lnk--> cetacean species, including all whales, is maintained at the <!--del_lnk--> Cetacea article.<p><a id="Anatomy" name="Anatomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/145/14566.png.htm" title="Physical characteristics of a baleen whale"><img alt="Physical characteristics of a baleen whale" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Baleen_Whale_Physical_Characteristics.png" src="../../images/145/14566.png" width="350" /></a></span></div>
<p>Like all <!--del_lnk--> mammals, whales breathe air into <!--del_lnk--> lungs, are <!--del_lnk--> warm-blooded, feed their young <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a> from <!--del_lnk--> mammary glands, and have some (although very little) <!--del_lnk--> hair. A young scientist, <!--del_lnk--> Eric Alexander Ivanov, in 1911, was the first to discover that the whale's ancestors lived on land, and that whales have adapted to a fully aquatic life. At first his findings were not accepted by the scientific community, but were later proved correct. Ivanov worked with others to stop whaling in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Eric Ivanov died shortly after his goal was achieved.<p>The body is fusiform, resembling the streamlined form of a <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>. The forelimbs, also called flippers, are paddle-shaped. The end of the tail holds the fluke, or tail fins, which provide propulsion by vertical movement. Although whales generally do not possess hind limbs, some whales (such as <!--del_lnk--> sperm whales and <!--del_lnk--> baleen whales) sometimes have rudimentary hind limbs; some even with feet and digits. Most species of whale bear a fin on their backs known as a <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fin.<p>Beneath the <!--del_lnk--> skin lies a layer of <!--del_lnk--> fat, the <!--del_lnk--> blubber. It serves as an <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> reservoir and also as <!--del_lnk--> insulation. Whales have a four-chambered <!--del_lnk--> heart. The <!--del_lnk--> neck <!--del_lnk--> vertebrae are fused in most whales, which provides stability during <!--del_lnk--> swimming at the expense of flexibility.<p>Whales breathe through <!--del_lnk--> blowholes, located on the top of the head so the animal can remain submerged. <!--del_lnk--> Baleen whales have two; <!--del_lnk--> toothed whales have one. The shapes of whales' spouts when exhaling after a dive, when seen from the right angle, differ between species. Whales have a unique respiratory system that lets them stay underwater for long periods of time without taking in <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. Some whales, such as the <a href="../../wp/s/Sperm_Whale.htm" title="Sperm Whale">Sperm Whale</a>, can stay underwater for up to two hours holding a single breath. The <a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Whale.htm" title="Blue Whale">Blue Whale</a> is the largest known mammal that has ever lived, and the largest living animal, at up to 30 m (93ft) long and 180 tons.<p>Their <!--del_lnk--> skin has evolved hydrophilic properties. Its surface is covered with microscopic pores surrounded by nanoridges. Between these ridges there is a rubber-like gel which is excreted from the gaps between the skin cells. This gel contains enzymes that attack microbes, and the edge of the ridges makes it hard for smaller organisms to get attached.<p>Whale flukes often can be used as identifying markings, as is the case for <!--del_lnk--> humpback whales. This is the method by which the publicized errant <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey the whale was identified in three separate sightings.<p><a id="Anatomy_of_the_ear" name="Anatomy_of_the_ear"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy of the ear</span></h3>
<p>While there are direct similarities between the <!--del_lnk--> ears of whales and <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a>, whales’ ears have specific adaptations to their underwater environment. In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance matcher between the outside air’s low-impedance and the cochlear fluid’s high-impedance. In aquatic mammals like whales, however, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through outer ear to middle ear, whales receive sound through their lower <!--del_lnk--> jaw, where it passes through a low-impedance, fat-filled cavity.<p><a id="Behaviour" name="Behaviour"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14567.jpg.htm" title="Humpback whale tail flip off coast of Moloka'i, Hawaii, 2005"><img alt="Humpback whale tail flip off coast of Moloka'i, Hawaii, 2005" height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Whale_tail_flip.jpg" src="../../images/145/14567.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14567.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Humpback whale tail flip off coast of Moloka'i, Hawaii, 2005</div>
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<p>Whales are widely classed as <!--del_lnk--> predators, but their food ranges from microscopic plankton to very large fish. Males are called bulls; females, cows. The young are called calves.<p>Because of their environment (and unlike many animals), whales are conscious breathers: they decide when to breathe. All mammals <a href="../../wp/s/Sleep.htm" title="Sleep">sleep</a>, including whales, but they cannot afford to fall into an unconscious state for too long, since they need to be conscious in order to breathe. It is thought that only one hemisphere of their brains sleeps at a time, so that whales are never completely asleep, but still get the rest they need. Whales are thought to sleep around 8 hours a day.<p>Whales also communicate with each other using lyrical sounds. Being so large and powerful these sounds are also extremely loud and can be heard for many miles. They have been known to generate about 20,000 acoustic watts of sound at 163 decibels. <p>Females give birth to a single calf. Nursing time is long (more than one year in many species), which is associated with a strong bond between mother and young. In most whales reproductive maturity occurs late, typically at seven to ten years. This strategy of reproduction spawns few offspring, but provides each with a high rate of survival.<p>The genital organs are retracted into cavities of the body during swimming, so as to be streamlined and reduce drag. Most whales do not maintain fixed partnerships during mating; in many species the females have several mates each season. At birth the newborn is delivered tail-first, so the risk of drowning is minimized. Whale mothers nurse the young by actively squirting the fatty milk into their mouths, a milk that according to German naturalist <!--del_lnk--> Dieffenbach, bears great similarities to cow's milk. Biologists compare the consistency of whale milk to cottage cheese; it must be thick, or else it will dissipate into the surrounding water.<p><a id="Intelligence" name="Intelligence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Intelligence</span></h2>
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<p>A once traditional but now discredited indicator of intelligence is overall <a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" title="Brain">brain</a> size, since humans have bigger brains than most other animals. Whales have the largest brain of any animal. A typical sperm whale brain weighs about 7.8 kg, whereas a typical human brain weighs about 1.5 kg. While it may seem that this would indicate that five times greater intelligence, in mammals brain size is in approximate ratio to body size, and most of the extra capacity is used to manage the larger body. A slightly better indicator is the brain-body ratio: the size of the brain compared to body mass. Here humans have a decisive advantage. A human brain comprises about 2% of the human body mass, while the sperm whale's brain comprises only 0.02% of its body mass. A <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cow">cow</a>'s brain is four times as large as a whale's on this measurement. On the other hand, a large proportion of a whale's body mass is <!--del_lnk--> blubber, which requires no brain power, and this distorts the ratio somewhat. However, because cetacean brains function quite differently from the human brain, even if whales had matching body/brain weight ratio to humans, it is not a conclusive indication of high intelligence. Simply, "overall" brain size is not a decisive criterion because it is now known that different parts of the brain regulate different functions, mostly physiological. <!--del_lnk--> Hummingbirds have an even higher brain-to-body ratio than humans. The next consideration is the structure of the brain. It is generally agreed that the growth of the <!--del_lnk--> neocortex, both absolutely and relative to the rest of the brain, during human evolution, has been responsible for the evolution of intelligence, however defined. In most mammals the neocortex has six layers, and its different functional areas (vision, hearing, etc) are sharply differentiated. The whale neocortex, on the other hand, has only five layers, and there is little differentiation of these layers according to function. This has led some to argue that the whale brain has not significantly evolved since the distant ancestors of the whale took to a marine lifestyle about 50 million years ago.<p>Many people, particularly in the West, believe that cetaceans in general, and whales in particular, are highly <!--del_lnk--> intelligent animals. This belief has become one of a central argument against <!--del_lnk--> whaling (killing whales for food or other commercial reasons). Proponents of whale and dolphin intelligence cite the social behaviour of whales and their apparent capacity for communication as evidence of a sophisticated intellect, though scientists often carefully point out the difference between the social traits and intelligence of animals, which laymen often confuse. Given the radically different environment of whales and humans, and the size of whales compared to <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a> or <a href="../../wp/c/Chimpanzee.htm" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, for instance, it is extremely difficult to test these views experimentally.<p>The particular dispute in case of cetaceans is the conflict between social ability and abstract problem solving ability. Cetaceans, particularly dolphins, are highly social, and in addition they are generally friendly to humans. Some tests even indicate that they may even be social to the point of being self-aware. This has been the primary cause of perception among the public that cetaceans can be considered to be highly intelligent. However, canines and many other pack animals are also social (and are often perceived by the public to be intelligent due to such behaviour) but their problem solving abilities are usually rated lower than those of pigs. Dolphins also do poorly in (abstract) problem solving, which is considered a more rigorous indication of intelligence. Another misconception common amongst the public is to jump to the conclusion that if dolphins are intelligent, then that must mean that other cetaceans are intelligent: or, for that matter, if dolphins are not intelligent, then other cetaceans are not intelligent.<p>"Into the Brains of Whales" by Mark Peter Simmonds was published in the Journal of Applied Animal Behaviour Science 100 (2006) 103-116. In this article it is asserted that behavior and social structures are accurate indicators of intelligence. On this premise, the author argue that that whales and dolphins are highly intelligent though most of his argument is based on dolphins, as it is impossible or too costly to conduct experiment or observation on whales. One indicator of intelligence, it is argued, is self-awareness. It is argued, though the finding is still disputed, that Bottlenose dolphins have been shown to be able to recognize themselves in a mirror. This behaviour had previously only been recorded in humans, elephant and apes. Also, the use of tools is another example of intelligence. An example of this form of intelligence has been observed in Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins who carry sponges on their beaks to protect themselves when foraging for food. Further evidence of "intelligence", as defined by Simmonds are emotions typically seen in humans such as grief, parental love and joy, though these are fairly common trait of many mammals especially pack animals. Another example of intelligence are complex social interactions and structures. These traits are seen in dolphins and whales. An example being that whales were observed to have a cohesion and reliance upon each other and that despite risk of dehydration, being stranded and risking shark attack, a group of false killer whales floated for 3 days in the shallows of the straits of Florida, USA to protect an injured male from shark attack. The whales became agitated when attempts by rescuers were made to separate them. The whales only calmed when reunited.<p>On the other hand, another, and some argue to be more rigorus, definition of intelligience is "the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience." In the case of dolphins, some assert that they do poorly in this respect. In a paper published in Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, Paul Manger argue that the size of cecetarian brain is the evolutionary result of need to keep brain warm. Further Manger stated that, "You put an animal in a box, even a lab rat or gerbil, and the first thing it wants to do is climb out of it. If you don't put a lid on top of the bowl a goldfish it will eventually jump out to enlarge the environment it is living in,... But a dolphin will never do that. In the marine parks, the dividers to keep the dolphins apart are only a foot or two above the water between the different pools."<!--del_lnk--> <p>From an evolutionary point of view, this is consistent with the principles of <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. Intelligence does not arise spontaneously: like any other animal capacity, it evolves under the pressure of the animal's environment. The human brain has evolved under the pressure of natural selection in a hostile terrestrial environment. The key primate characteristics - <!--del_lnk--> bipedalism and the <!--del_lnk--> opposable thumb - gave the early <!--del_lnk--> hominids the ability to manipulate their environment through the use of <a href="../../wp/t/Technology.htm" title="Technology">technology</a> (by making tools). This unique adaptation created a <!--del_lnk--> virtuous cycle: more intelligence and consequent tool-making gave hominids with a decisive evolutionary advantage, leading to larger and more sophisticated brains functions, and thus to more tool-making. This process is one of the proposed explanations of the exponential growth of <!--del_lnk--> hominid intelligence over the past million years.<p>By contrast, the whale has faced no such environmental stimuli to brain evolution. Whales live in an unchanging and benign environment with few natural <!--del_lnk--> predators. Their sole adaptation to their marine environment has been increasing size. The whale's lifestyle consists of swimming and eating, tasks which <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> perform perfectly competently with very small brains in relative term. From an evolutionary point of view, there is no reason for whales to have evolved intelligence, since their survival does not require them to perform any tasks for which intelligence is necessary.<p>Some whale species have a sophisticated <!--del_lnk--> social system. It is suggested that they can recognise and differentiate each individual whale. Many other animals, including <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a>, have complex social systems, and many others, such as birds, have sophisticated communications. Whales also have very acute hearing with well developed section of brain which govern this function, which gives them advanced echo-location capacities analogous to <!--del_lnk--> sonar - but so do bats. All this has led a number of, though far from all, zoologists to a conclusion that there is no convincing evidence for whale intelligence. A better understanding of whale communications and <!--del_lnk--> whale behaviour may solve this problem eventually.<p><a id="Whales_and_humans" name="Whales_and_humans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Whales and humans</span></h2>
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<p>Some species of large whales are endangered as a result of large-scale <!--del_lnk--> whaling during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. For centuries large whales have been hunted for oil, meat, baleen and <!--del_lnk--> ambergris (a perfume ingredient from the intestine of <!--del_lnk--> sperm whales). By the middle of the 20th century, whaling left many populations severely depleted. The <!--del_lnk--> International Whaling Commission introduced an open-ended moratorium on all commercial whaling in 1986. For various reasons some exceptions to this moratorium exist; current whaling nations are <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> and the aboriginal communities of <!--del_lnk--> Siberia, <!--del_lnk--> Alaska and northern <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>. For details, see <!--del_lnk--> whaling.<p>Several species of small whales are caught as <!--del_lnk--> bycatch in fisheries for other species. In the tuna fishery in the Eastern Tropical Pacific thousands of dolphins would drown in purse-seine nets, until measures to prevent this were introduced. Fishing gear and deployment modifications, and eco-labelling (<i>dolphin-safe</i> or <i>dolphin-friendly</i> brands of canned tuna), have contributed to an estimated 96% reduction in the mortality of dolphins by tuna fishing vessels in recent years. In many countries, small whales are still hunted for food, oil, meat or bait.<p>Environmentalists have long argued that some cetaceans, including whales, are endangered by <!--del_lnk--> sonar used by advanced navies. In 2003 British and Spanish scientists suggested in <i><!--del_lnk--> Nature</i> that sonar is connected to whale beachings and to signs that the beached whales have experienced decompression sickness. Mass <!--del_lnk--> whale beachings occur in many species, mostly beaked whales that use echolocation systems for deep diving). The frequency and size of beachings around the world, recorded over the last 1,000 years in religious tracts and more recently in scientific surveys, has been used to estimate the changing population size of various whale species by assuming that the proportion of the total whale population beaching in any one year is constant.<p>Despite the concerns raised about sonar which may invalidate this assumption, this population estimate technique is still popular today. Researchers in the area (<!--del_lnk--> Talpalar & Grossman, 2005) support the view that it is the combination of the high pressure environment of deep-diving with the disturbing effect of the sonar which causes decompression sickness and stranding of whales. Thus, an exaggerated startle response occurring during deep diving may alter orientation cues and produce rapid ascent.<p>Following public concern, the U.S. Defense department has been ordered by the U.S. judiciary to strictly limit use of its <!--del_lnk--> Low Frequency Active Sonar during peacetime. Attempts by the UK-based <!--del_lnk--> Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society to obtain a <!--del_lnk--> public inquiry into the possible dangers of the Royal Navy's equivalent (the "2087" sonar launched in December 2004) have so far failed. The <a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> on the other hand has requested that EU members refrain from using the powerful sonar system until an environmental impact study has been carried out.<p>Conservationists are concerned that seismic testing used for oil and gas exploration may also damage the hearing and echolocation capabilities of whales. They also suggest that disturbances in magnetic fields caused by the testing may also be responsible for beaching. <p>Some scientists and environmentalists suggest that some whale species are also endangered due to a number of other human activities such as the unregulated use of fishing gear, that often catch anything that swims into them, whales collisions with ships, toxins and the combination of toxins <!--del_lnk--> POPs among other threats.<p><a id="Whales_in_culture" name="Whales_in_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Whales in culture</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>A <!--del_lnk--> kenning in <i><!--del_lnk--> Beowulf</i> refers to the <a href="../../wp/s/Sea.htm" title="Sea">sea</a> as the "whale-road".<li><!--del_lnk--> Procopius mentions a whale, nicknamed <i>Porphyrio</i> by the <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>, who depleted fisheries in the <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Marmara.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> King James Version of the Bible mentions whales four times: "And God created great whales" (<!--del_lnk--> Genesis 1:21); "Am I a sea, or a whale, that thou settest a watch over me? (<!--del_lnk--> Job 7:12); "Thou art like a young lion of the nations, and thou art as a whale in the seas (<!--del_lnk--> Ezekiel 32:2); and "For as Jonas [sic] was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth" (<!--del_lnk--> Matthew 12:40). <ul>
<li>Nevertheless, the passages in question do not unambiguously refer to whales; modern translations tend to use other terms; for example the <!--del_lnk--> New International Version uses "creatures of the sea"; "monster of the deep"; "monster"; and "huge fish" respectively.<li>The story of <!--del_lnk--> Jonah being swallowed by a whale is mentioned in the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> as well.</ul>
<li>A <!--del_lnk--> whaling voyage is the plot of <!--del_lnk--> Herman Melville's <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Moby-Dick.</i> In the book, Melville classed whales as "a spouting <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> with a horizontal <!--del_lnk--> tail", this despite <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a> suggesting otherwise the <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">previous century</a>. (His <!--del_lnk--> narrator acknowledged "the grounds upon which <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a> would fain have banished the whales from the waters" but writes that when he presented them to "my friends Simeon Macey and Charley Coffin, of <!--del_lnk--> Nantucket ... they united in the opinion that the reasons set forth were altogether insufficient. Charley profanely hinted they were <!--del_lnk--> humbug" (Chapter 32).) Melville's book is a classic of <!--del_lnk--> American literature: part <!--del_lnk--> adventure novel, part <!--del_lnk--> metaphysical <!--del_lnk--> allegory, and part <!--del_lnk--> natural history; it is essentially a summary of <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> knowledge about the <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and cultural significance of the whale.<li>Some cultures associate some level of <!--del_lnk--> divinity with the whale, such as in some places in <a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Vietnamese, who occasionally hold funerals for beached whales, a throwback to Vietnam's ancient sea-based <!--del_lnk--> Austro-asiatic culture.<li>Festivals celebrating whales have sprung in both <!--del_lnk--> Sitka and <!--del_lnk--> Kodiak <!--del_lnk--> Alaska. They feature speakers on <!--del_lnk--> marine biology and celebrate the creatures with art, music, <!--del_lnk--> whale watching cruises, and symposiums.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Whale shark</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Whale shark</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/145/14568.jpg.htm" title="Whale shark in the Georgia Aquarium."><img alt="Whale shark in the Georgia Aquarium." height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Whale_shark_Georgia_aquarium.jpg" src="../../images/145/14568.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Whale shark in the <!--del_lnk--> Georgia Aquarium.</small></div>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/11/1109.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_VU.svg" src="../../images/11/1109.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Vulnerable (VU)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chondrichthyes<br />
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<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elasmobranchii<br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Orectolobiformes<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Rhincodontidae</b><br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Rhincodon</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Smith, 1829</small></td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>R. typus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Rhincodon typus</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Smith, <!--del_lnk--> 1828)</small></td>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/145/14569.png.htm" title="Range of whale shark"><img alt="Range of whale shark" height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Whale_shark_distmap.png" src="../../images/145/14569.png" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Range of whale shark</small></div>
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<p>The <b>whale shark</b>, <i>Rhincodon typus</i>, is a gentle and slow <!--del_lnk--> filter feeding <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">shark</a> that is the largest living <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a> species. This distinctively-marked shark is the only member of its <!--del_lnk--> genus <i><b>Rhincodon</b></i> and its <a href="../../wp/f/Family.htm" title="Family">family</a>, <i><b>Rhincodontidae</b></i> (called Rhinodontes before 1984), which is grouped into the subclass <!--del_lnk--> Elasmobranchii in the class <!--del_lnk--> Chondrichthyes. The shark is found in tropical and warm oceans and lives in the open sea. The species is believed to have originated about 60 million years ago.<p>
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</script><a id="Naming" name="Naming"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Naming</span></h2>
<p>The species was first identified in April <!--del_lnk--> 1828 following the harpooning of a 4.6 m (15 ft) specimen in <!--del_lnk--> Table Bay, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. It was described the following year by <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Smith, a military doctor associated with British troops stationed in <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Town.htm" title="Cape Town">Cape Town</a>. He proceeded to publish a more detailed description of the species in <!--del_lnk--> 1849. The name "whale shark" comes from the fish's large size and eating habits; that is, a shark as large as a <a href="../../wp/w/Whale.htm" title="Whale">whale</a> that shares a similar filter feeder eating mode.<p><a id="Distribution_and_habitat" name="Distribution_and_habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution and habitat</span></h2>
<p>The whale shark inhabits the world's tropical and warm-temperate oceans. While thought to be primarily <!--del_lnk--> pelagic, seasonal feeding aggregations of the sharks occur at several coastal sites such as <!--del_lnk--> Ningaloo Reef in <!--del_lnk--> Western Australia; <!--del_lnk--> Útila in <a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Donsol in the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>; and <!--del_lnk--> Pemba and <!--del_lnk--> Zanzibar off the coast of <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>. Its range is restricted to about ±30 ° latitude. It is found to a depth of 700 m. The whale shark is solitary and rarely seen in groups unless feeding at locations with an abundance of food. Males range over longer distances than females (which appear to favour specific locations).<p><a id="Anatomy_and_appearance" name="Anatomy_and_appearance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy and appearance</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14570.gif.htm" title="A size comparison of a whale shark and a human."><img alt="A size comparison of a whale shark and a human." height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rhtyp_u0_white_bg.gif" src="../../images/145/14570.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14570.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A size comparison of a whale shark and a human.</div>
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<p>As a <!--del_lnk--> filter feeder it has a capacious mouth which can be up to 1.5 m (5 ft) wide and can contain up to 300 rows of tiny teeth. It has five large pairs of <!--del_lnk--> gills. Two small eyes are located towards the front of the shark's wide, flat head. The body is mostly grey with a white belly; three prominent ridges run along each side of the animal and the skin is marked with a 'checkerboard' of pale yellow spots and stripes. These spots are unique to each whale shark and because of this they can be used to identify each animal and hence make an accurate population count. Its skin can be up to 10 cm (about 4 in.) thick. The shark has two pairs each of <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fins and <!--del_lnk--> pectoral fins. A juvenile whale shark's tail has a larger upper fin than lower fin while the adult tail becomes semi-lunate (or crescent-shaped). The shark's <!--del_lnk--> spiracles are just behind the eyes.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14571.jpg.htm" title="Whale shark in main tank at Osaka Aquarium."><img alt="Whale shark in main tank at Osaka Aquarium." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:03-05-JPN012.jpg" src="../../images/145/14571.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14571.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Whale shark in main tank at <!--del_lnk--> Osaka Aquarium.</div>
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<p>The whale shark is not an efficient swimmer since the entire body is used for swimming, which is unusual for sharks and contributes to an average speed of only around 5 km/h. The largest specimen regarded as accurately recorded was caught on <!--del_lnk--> November 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1947, near the island of Baba, not far from <a href="../../wp/k/Karachi.htm" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. It was 12.65 m (41.5 ft) long, weighed more than 21.5 tons (47,300 lb), and had a girth of 7 m (23 ft). Stories exist of vastly larger specimens - Quoted lengths of 18 m (59 ft) are not uncommon in the popular shark literature - but no scientific records exist to support their existence. In 1868 the Irish natural scientist E. Perceval Wright spent time in the <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a>, during which he managed to obtain several small whale shark specimens, but claimed to have observed specimens in excess of 15 m (49 ft), and tells of reports of specimens surpassing 21 m (69 ft).<p>In a 1925 publication, <!--del_lnk--> Hugh M. Smith describes a huge whale shark caught in a bamboo fish trap in <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> in 1919. The shark was too heavy to pull ashore, but Smith estimated that the shark was at least 17 m (55.7 ft) and weighed approximately 37 tonnes (81,500 lb), which have been exaggerated to an accurate measurement of 17.98 m and weight 43 tonnes in recent years. There have even been claims of whale sharks of up to 23 m (75 ft). In 1934 a ship named the "Maurguani" came across a whale shark in the Southern Pacific ocean, rammed it, and the shark consequently became stuck on the prow of the ship, supposedly with 4.6 m (15 ft) on one side and 12.2 m (40 ft) on the other. No reliable documentation exists of those claims and they remain little more than "fish-stories".<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14572.jpg.htm" title="A whale shark in the Maldives."><img alt="A whale shark in the Maldives." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rhincodon_typus.jpg" src="../../images/145/14572.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14572.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A whale shark in the <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>.</div>
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<p>The whale shark is a filter feeder - one of only three known filter feeding shark species (along with the <a href="../../wp/b/Basking_shark.htm" title="Basking shark">basking shark</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> megamouth shark). It feeds on <!--del_lnk--> phytoplankton, macro-<!--del_lnk--> algae, <!--del_lnk--> plankton, <a href="../../wp/k/Krill.htm" title="Krill">krill</a> and small <!--del_lnk--> nektonic life, such as small <!--del_lnk--> squid or <a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>. The many rows of teeth play no role in feeding - instead the shark sucks in a mouthful of water, closes its mouth and expels the water through its gills. During the slight delay between closing the mouth and opening the gill flaps, plankton is trapped against the <!--del_lnk--> dermal denticles which line its gill plates and <!--del_lnk--> pharynx. This fine sieve-like apparatus, which is a unique modification of the gill rakers, prevents the passage of anything but fluid out through the gills (anything above 2 to 3 mm in diameter is trapped). Any material caught in the filter between the gill bars is swallowed. Whale sharks have been observed "coughing" and it is presumed that this is a method of clearing a build up of food particles in the gill rakers. The shark can circulate water at a rate up to 1.7 L/s (3.5 US pint/s). The whale shark is an active feeder and targets concentrations of plankton or fish by <!--del_lnk--> olfactory cues rather than simply 'vacuuming' constantly. Whale sharks congregate at reefs off the <a href="../../wp/b/Belize.htm" title="Belize">Belizean</a> <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean coast, supplementing their ordinary diet by feeding on the <!--del_lnk--> roe of giant cubera snappers, which spawn in these waters between the full and quarter moons of May, June and July, .<p>The whale shark does not need to swim forward when feeding; it is often observed in a vertical position, 'bobbing' up and down swallowing water and actively filtering it for food.<p><a id="Behaviour_towards_divers" name="Behaviour_towards_divers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour towards divers</span></h2>
<p>This species, despite its enormous size, does not pose any significant danger to humans. Divers and snorkelers can swim with this giant fish without any risk apart from unintentionally being hit by the shark's large tail fin.<p>The shark is often seen by divers in <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>, the <a href="../../wp/m/Maldives.htm" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>, the <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Western Australia (<!--del_lnk--> Ningaloo Reef), Gladden Spit Marine Reserve in <a href="../../wp/b/Belize.htm" title="Belize">Belize</a>, Sodwana Bay (<!--del_lnk--> Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park) in South-Africa and at the <!--del_lnk--> Galapagos islands. They are regularly seen from December to May in the Philippines ( at <!--del_lnk--> Donsol). Lucky divers have also come across whale sharks in the <a href="../../wp/s/Seychelles.htm" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> and in <a href="../../wp/p/Puerto_Rico.htm" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>. Between December and September, they are well known to swim along the bay of La Paz in the Mexican <!--del_lnk--> Baja California. Sometimes, they are accompanied by smaller fish.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> reproductive habits of the whale shark are obscure. Based on the study of a single egg recovered off the coast of <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> in 1956, it was believed to be <!--del_lnk--> oviparous, but the capture of a female in July 1996 which was pregnant with 300 pups indicates that they are <!--del_lnk--> viviparous with <!--del_lnk--> ovoviviparous development. The eggs remain in the body and the females give birth to live young which are 40 to 60 cm long. It is believed that they reach sexual maturity at around 30 years and the life span has been estimated to be between 60 and 150 years.<p><a id="Conservation_status" name="Conservation_status"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Conservation status</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14573.jpg.htm" title="Two whale sharks in the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium."><img alt="Two whale sharks in the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium." height="127" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Okinawa_Churaumi_Aquarium.jpg" src="../../images/145/14573.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The whale shark is targeted by <!--del_lnk--> artisanal and <!--del_lnk--> commercial fisheries in several areas where they seasonally aggregate. The population is unknown and the species is considered vulnerable by the <!--del_lnk--> IUCN. Whale sharks are known to frequent the waters off <!--del_lnk--> Donsol in the <!--del_lnk--> Sorsogon province of the Philippines.<p><a id="Whale_sharks_in_captivity" name="Whale_sharks_in_captivity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Whale sharks in captivity</span></h2>
<p>A whale shark is featured as the main attraction of <!--del_lnk--> Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan and as of 2005, three whale sharks are being studied in <!--del_lnk--> captivity at the <!--del_lnk--> Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>. Four whale sharks, two males, Ralph and Norton, and two females, Alice and Trixie, are held in the <!--del_lnk--> Georgia Aquarium, in <a href="../../wp/a/Atlanta%252C_Georgia.htm" title="Atlanta">Atlanta</a>. The two females were added on June 3, 2006 in hopes that reproduction in whale sharks could be studied in captivity. All four whale sharks were imported from <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_shark"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Whale song</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28445.jpg.htm" title="Humpback whales are well known for their songs"><img alt="Humpback whales are well known for their songs" height="166" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Humpback_underwater.jpg" src="../../images/284/28445.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Whale song</b> is the <a href="../../wp/s/Sound.htm" title="Sound">sound</a> made by <a href="../../wp/w/Whale.htm" title="Whale">whales</a> to <!--del_lnk--> communicate. The word "<!--del_lnk--> song" is used in particular to describe the pattern of regular and predictable sounds made by some species of whales (notably the <a href="../../wp/h/Humpback_Whale.htm" title="Humpback Whale">humpback</a>) in a way that is reminiscent of <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a> singing.<p>The mechanisms used to produce sound vary from one family of <!--del_lnk--> cetaceans to another. <!--del_lnk--> Marine mammals, such as <a href="../../wp/w/Whale.htm" title="Whale">whales</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dolphin.htm" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> porpoises, are much more dependent on sound for communication and sensation than land mammals are (excluding humans), as other senses are of limited effectiveness in water. <!--del_lnk--> Sight is limited for marine mammals because of the way water absorbs <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Smell is also limited, as molecules diffuse more slowly in water than air, which makes smelling less effective. In addition, the speed of <a href="../../wp/s/Sound.htm" title="Sound">sound</a> in water is roughly four times that in the atmosphere at <!--del_lnk--> sea level. Because sea-mammals are so dependent on hearing to communicate and feed, environmentalists and <!--del_lnk--> cetologists are concerned that they are being harmed by the increased ambient noise in the world's oceans caused by ships and marine seismic surveys.<p>
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</script><a id="Production_of_sound" name="Production_of_sound"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production of sound</span></h2>
<p>Humans produce sound by expelling air through the <!--del_lnk--> larynx. The <!--del_lnk--> vocal cords within the larynx open and close as necessary to separate the stream of air into discrete pockets of air. These pockets are shaped by the <!--del_lnk--> throat, <!--del_lnk--> tongue, and <!--del_lnk--> lips into the desired sound.<p>Cetacean sound production differs markedly from this mechanism. The precise mechanism differs in the two major suborders of cetaceans: the <i>Odontoceti</i> (<!--del_lnk--> toothed whales—including dolphins) and the <i>Mysticeti</i> (<!--del_lnk--> baleen whales—including the largest whales, such as the <a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Whale.htm" title="Blue Whale">Blue Whale</a>).<p><a id="Toothed_whale_sound_production" name="Toothed_whale_sound_production"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Toothed whale sound production</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28446.png.htm" title="Idealized dolphin head showing the regions involved in sound production. This image was redrawn from Cranford (2000)."><img alt="Idealized dolphin head showing the regions involved in sound production. This image was redrawn from Cranford (2000)." height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dolphin_head_sound_production.PNG" src="../../images/284/28446.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28446.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Idealized dolphin head showing the regions involved in sound production. This image was redrawn from Cranford (2000).</div>
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<p>Toothed whales do not make the long, low-frequency sounds known as the whale song. Instead they produce rapid bursts of high-frequency clicks and whistles. Single clicks are generally used for <!--del_lnk--> echolocation whereas collections of clicks and whistles are used for communication. Though a large pod of dolphins will make a veritable cacophony of different noises, very little is known about the meaning of the sound. Frankell quotes one researcher characterizing listening to such a school as like listening to a group of children at a playground.<p>The multiple sounds themselves are produced by passing air through a structure in the head rather like the human nasal passage called the phonic lips. As the air passes through this narrow passage, the phonic lip membranes are sucked together, causing the surrounding tissue to vibrate. These vibrations can, as with the vibrations in the human larynx, be consciously controlled with great sensitivity. The vibrations pass through the tissue of the head to the <!--del_lnk--> melon, which shapes and directs the sound into a beam of sound for echolocation. Every toothed whale except the <!--del_lnk--> sperm whale has two sets of phonic lips and is thus capable of making two sounds independently. Once the air has passed the phonic lips it enters the <!--del_lnk--> vestibular sac. From there the air may be recycled back into the lower part of the nasal complex, ready to be used for sound creation again, or passed out through the blowhole.<p>The <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> name for phonic lips—<i>museau de singe</i>—translates to "monkey lips," which the phonic lip structure is supposed to resemble. New cranial analysis using <!--del_lnk--> computed axial and <!--del_lnk--> single photon emission computed tomography scans in 2004 showed that, at least in the case of bottlenose dolphins, air may be supplied to the nasal complex from the lungs by the <!--del_lnk--> palatopharyngeal sphincter, enabling the sound creation process to continue for as long as the dolphin is able to hold their breath .<p><a id="Baleen_whale_sound_production" name="Baleen_whale_sound_production"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Baleen whale sound production</span></h3>
<p>Baleen whales do not have phonic lip structure. Instead they have a larynx that appears to play a role in sound production, but it lacks vocal chords and scientists remain uncertain as to the exact mechanism. The process, however, cannot be completely analogous to humans because whales do not have to exhale in order to produce sound. It is likely that they recycle air around the body for this purpose. Cranial sinuses may also be used to create the sounds, but again researchers are currently unclear how.<p><a id="Purpose_of_whale-created_sounds" name="Purpose_of_whale-created_sounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Purpose of whale-created sounds</span></h2>
<p>While the complex and haunting sounds of the Humpback Whale (and some Blue Whales) are believed to be primarily used in <!--del_lnk--> sexual selection (see section below), the simpler sounds of other whales have a year-round use. While toothed dolphins (including the <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">Orca</a>) are capable of using <!--del_lnk--> echolocation (essentially the emission of ultra-sonic beams of sound waves) to detect the size and nature of objects very precisely, baleen whales do not have this capability. Further, unlike some fish such as <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">sharks</a>, a whale's sense of smell is not highly developed. Thus given the poor visibility of aquatic environments and the fact that sound travels so well in water, human-audible sounds play a role in such whales' navigation. For instance, the depth of water or the existence of a large obstruction ahead may be detected by loud noises made by baleen whales.<p><a id="The_song_of_the_Humpback_Whale" name="The_song_of_the_Humpback_Whale"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The song of the Humpback Whale</span></h2>
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<div style="width:257px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28447.png.htm" title="Humpback Whale song spectrogram,— Play audio (OGG format, 57 kB)"><img alt="Humpback Whale song spectrogram,— Play audio (OGG format, 57 kB)" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Humpback_song_spectrogram.png" src="../../images/284/28447.png" width="255" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28447.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Humpback Whale song spectrogram,<br /> — <b><!--del_lnk--> Play audio (OGG format, 57 kB)</b></div>
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<p>Two groups of whales, the Humpback Whale and the subspecies of Blue Whale found in the <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Ocean.htm" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, are known to produce the repetitious sounds at varying frequencies known as whale song. Marine biologist Philip Clapham describes the song as "probably the most complex [songs] in the animal kingdom" .<p>Male Humpback Whales perform these vocalizations only during the mating season, and so it is surmised the purpose of songs is to aid sexual selection. Whether the songs are a competitive behavior between males seeking the same mate, a means of defining territory or a "flirting" behaviour from a male to a female is not known and the subject of on-going research. Males have been observed singing while simultaneously acting as an "escort" whale in the immediate vicinity of a female. Singing has also been recorded in competitive groups of whales that are composed of one female and multiple males.<p>Interest in whale song was aroused by researchers Roger Payne and Scott McVay, who analysed the songs in 1971. The songs follow a distinct hierarchical structure. The base units of the song (sometimes loosely called the "<!--del_lnk--> notes") are single uninterrupted emissions of sound that last up to a few seconds. These sounds vary in frequency from 20 Hz to 10 kHz (the typical human range of hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz). The units may be <!--del_lnk--> frequency modulated (i.e., the pitch of the sound may go up, down, or stay the same during the note) or <!--del_lnk--> amplitude modulated (get louder or quieter). However the adjustment of bandwidth on a spectrogram representation of the song reveals the essentially <!--del_lnk--> pulsed nature of the FM sounds.<p>A collection of four or six units is known as a sub-<!--del_lnk--> phrase, lasting perhaps ten seconds (see also <!--del_lnk--> phrase (music)). A collection of two sub-phrases is a phrase. A whale will typically repeat the same phrase over and over for two to four minutes. This is known as a theme. A collection of themes is known as a song. The whale will repeat the same song, which last up to 30 or so minutes, over and over again over the course of hours or even days. This "<!--del_lnk--> Russian doll" hierarchy of sounds has captured the imagination of scientists.<p>All the whales in an area sing virtually the same song at any point in time and the song is constantly and slowly evolving over time. For example, over the course of a month a particular unit that started as an "upsweep" (increasing in frequency) may slowly flatten to become a constant note. Another unit may get steadily louder. The pace of evolution of a whale's song also changes—some years the song may change quite rapidly, whereas in other years little variation may be recorded.<div class="center">
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<div style="width:602px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28448.png.htm" title="Idealized schematic of the song of a Humpback Whale.Redrawn from Payne, et al. (1983)"><img alt="Idealized schematic of the song of a Humpback Whale.Redrawn from Payne, et al. (1983)" height="60" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Humpback_song.PNG" src="../../images/284/28448.png" width="600" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28448.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Idealized schematic of the song of a Humpback Whale.<br /> Redrawn from Payne, et al. (1983)</div>
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<p>Whales occupying the same geographical areas (which can be as large as entire ocean basins) tend to sing similar songs, with only slight variations. Whales from non-overlapping regions sing entirely different songs.<p>As the song evolves it appears that old patterns are not revisited. An analysis of 19 years of whale songs found that while general patterns in song could be spotted, the same combinations never recurred.<p>Humpback Whales may also make stand-alone sounds that do not form part of a song, particularly during courtship rituals. Finally, Humpbacks make a third class of sound called the feeding call. This is a long sound (5 to 10 s duration) of near constant frequency. Humpbacks generally feed cooperatively by gathering in groups, swimming underneath shoals of fish and all lunging up vertically through the fish and out of the water together. Prior to these lunges, whales make their feeding call. The exact purpose of the call is not known, but research suggests that fish do know what it means. When the sound was played back to them, a group of herring responded to the sound by moving away from the call, even though no whale was present.<p>Some scientists have proposed that humpback whale song may serve an <!--del_lnk--> echolocative purpose , but has been subject to disagreement .<p><a id="Other_whale_sounds" name="Other_whale_sounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other whale sounds</span></h2>
<p>Most baleen whales make sounds at about 15–20 <!--del_lnk--> Hertz. However, <!--del_lnk--> marine biologists at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution reported in the <i><!--del_lnk--> New Scientist</i> in December 2004 that they had been tracking a whale in the North Pacific for 12 years that was "singing" at 52 Hz. The scientists are currently unable to explain this dramatic difference from the norm; however, they are sure the whale is a baleen and extremely unlikely to be a new species, suggesting that currently known species may have a wider vocal range than previously thought.<p>Most other whales and dolphins produce sounds of varying degrees of complexity. Of particular interest is the <!--del_lnk--> Beluga (the "sea canary") which produces an immense variety of whistles, clicks and pulses.<p><a id="Human_interaction" name="Human_interaction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Human interaction</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28449.jpg.htm" title="Voyager Golden Records carried whale songs into outer space with other sounds representing planet Earth."><img alt="Voyager Golden Records carried whale songs into outer space with other sounds representing planet Earth." height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GPN-2000-001976.jpg" src="../../images/284/28449.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/284/28449.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Voyager Golden Records carried whale songs into <!--del_lnk--> outer space with other sounds representing planet Earth.</div>
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<p>Though some observers suggest that undue fascination has been placed on the whales' songs simply because the animals are under the sea, most marine mammal scientists believe that sound plays a particularly vital role in the development and well-being of cetaceans. It may be argued those against <!--del_lnk--> whaling have <!--del_lnk--> anthropomorphized the behaviour in an attempt to bolster their case. Conversely pro-whaling nations are perhaps disposed to downplay the meaning of the sounds, noting for example that little account is taken of the "moo" of <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>.<p>Researchers use <!--del_lnk--> hydrophones (often adapted from their original military use in tracking submarines) to ascertain the exact location of the origin of whale noises. Their methods allow them also to detect how far through an ocean a sound travels. Research by Dr Christopher Clark of <a href="../../wp/c/Cornell_University.htm" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a> conducted using thirty years worth of military data showed that whale noises travel up to 3,000 km. As well as providing information about song production, the data allows researchers to follow the migratory path of whales throughout the "singing" (mating) season.<p>Prior to the introduction of human noise production, Clark says the noises may have travelled right from one side of an ocean to the other. His research indicates that ambient noise from boats is doubling each decade. This has the effect of halving the range of whale noises. Those who believe that whale songs are significant to the continued well-being of whale populations are particularly concerned by this increase in ambient noise. Other research has shown that increased boat traffic in, for example, the waters off <a href="../../wp/v/Vancouver.htm" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, has caused some <a href="../../wp/o/Orca.htm" title="Orca">Orca</a> to change the frequency and increase the amplitude of their sounds, in an apparent attempt to make themselves heard. <!--del_lnk--> Environmentalists fear that such boat activity is putting undue stress on the animals as well as making it difficult to find a mate.<p><a id="Whale_song_in_fiction" name="Whale_song_in_fiction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Whale song in fiction</span></h2>
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<li>The song of <a href="../../wp/h/Humpback_Whale.htm" title="Humpback Whale">Humpback Whales</a> was a significant plot element of the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home</i>.<li>In the animated film <i><!--del_lnk--> Finding Nemo</i>, the (fish) character Dory believed she could "speak whale", which she performed entirely in English with a whale's sing-song voice.<li>In the 2003 <i><!--del_lnk--> Whale Song (novel)</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Cheryl Kaye Tardif, killer whales and their vocalization play a key role in the story.<li>Whale song was the main plot device in the book <i><!--del_lnk--> Fluke, or, I Know Why the Winged Whale Sings</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Moore.<li>Whale song is also a factor in the worldview of <!--del_lnk--> uplifted dolphins in <!--del_lnk--> David Brin's <!--del_lnk--> Uplift and Uplift Storm trilogies, comprising elements of religion, philosophy, cosmology and poetry.</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Selected discography</span></h2>
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<li><i>Songs of the Humpback Whale</i> (SWR 118) was originally released in 1970 by <!--del_lnk--> CRM Records from recordings made by <!--del_lnk--> Roger Payne and others. The LP was later re-released by <!--del_lnk--> Capitol Records, and released on CD by BGO-Beat Goes On in 2001.<li><i>Deep Voices: The Second Whale Record</i> (Capitol Records ST-11598) was released on LP in 1977 from additional recordings made by <!--del_lnk--> Roger Payne, and re-released on CD in 1995 by Living Music. It includes recordings of humpbacks, blues, and rights.<li><i>Northern Whales</i> (MGE 19) was released by <!--del_lnk--> Music Gallery Editions from recordings made by Pierre Ouellet, John Ford, and others affiliated with <!--del_lnk--> Interspecies Music and Communication Research. It includes recordings of belugas, narwhals, orca, and bearded seals.<li><i>Sounds of the Earth: Humpback Whales</i> (Oreade Music) was released on CD in 1999.<li><i>Rapture of the Deep: Humpback Whale Singing</i> (Compass Recordings) was released on CD in 2001.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Listening</span></h2>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Whale Songs at the Avant Garde Project has FLAC files made from high-quality LP transcriptions available for free download.</ul>
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<h2>What next for Tsunami Orphans</h2><p><strong>01/01/2005</strong></p>
<p>The immediate trauma of the tsunami and the established wisdom for dealing with children is summarised on our Tsunami trauma for children page</p><p>So now there is (some) food and water, what next for Tsunami Orphans?<br />SOS Children has a great deal of experience in handling children who have lost there parents. We are currently running a family tracing programme in Uganda to reunite child soldiers with their families and have run many similar programmes including post genocide in Rwanda, in Kosovo and elsewhere with refugees.</p><p>Our first priority is to determine immediately all possibilities of reunion with the wider family (parents, grandparents and/or other relatives). Having local staff on the ground in most of the Tsunami areas helps a lot with this. Children often only speak local languages and there will be knowledge in the local community about their wider family. Also local staff with local knowledge is the best protection against child traffickers or others who may wish to take children for nasty reasons. </p><p>At the same time we continue caring for all the children and helping them cope with the stress and trauma whilst finding out as much as we can. We take children's privacy very seriously and generally do not release e.g. photos or pictures of children in our care until we can establish whether they have a family and whether we will become their guardian. This is a big disadvantage for funding-raising as stories and pictures are very effective at pulling on people's hearts.</p><p>What next? If we cannot trace any family where we have too many children to take into our existing communities we set up an SOS emergency village. Children start being grouped into family units and given "mothers" to care for them. We always keep siblings together and we try to keep children we match into a family unit together forever after with the same mother. A family unit might be 10 children, one mother, sleeping four to a room. An SOS community would have 12-15 such units with a few "spare" carers (SOS Aunt's or sometimes retired SOS Mothers) also around to help the children. Then we provide minimum facilities such as a well for the wider community. Some of the SOS communities are grouped around a small farm to provide food for the orphans, or food and clothes are paid for by sponsors. If there is no schooling available in the area we ask our supporters if they are able to help set one up. </p><p>If we cannot accommodate the children by extending existing communities we build new ones. We are generally given land and labour is cheap but concrete is expensive and we want to build building which will last. Sometimes construction firms or others offer to sponsor the construction of a village. Once the children have a "proper" SOS family they are available to sponsor. We encourage sponsors to write to their children, visit them and even send them small gifts at Christmas. We think that it helps children to come to terms with their lose if they know people elsewhere care. </p><p>Sometimes family turns up later. Sometimes they turn up years later and we tell sponsors the best news they could possibly hear. When one Rwandan girl was reunited with her family after several years the Rotary club who sponsored her sent us a message "How dare you make a room of grown men cry" </p><p>We are no longer offering sponsorships for tsunami orphans: the need in Africa and South America is far greater. Please Sponsor a Child elsewhere in the world where the need is greatest.</p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Wheat</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a></h3>
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<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Wheat</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/145/14574.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="305" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Koeh-274.jpg" src="../../images/145/14574.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
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<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Plantae<br />
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<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liliopsida<br />
</td>
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Poales<br />
</td>
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Poaceae<br />
</td>
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<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pooideae<br />
</td>
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<td>Tribe:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Triticeae<br />
</td>
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Triticum</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a></small></td>
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<center>Species</center>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> T. aestivum</i><br /><i>T. aethiopicum</i><br /><i>T. araraticum</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. boeoticum</i><br /><i>T. carthlicum</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. compactum</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. dicoccoides</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. dicoccon</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. durum</i><br /><i>T. ispahanicum</i><br /><i>T. karamyschevii</i><br /><i>T. macha</i><br /><i>T. militinae</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. monococcum</i><br /><i>T. polonicum</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. spelta</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> T. sphaerococcum</i><br /><i>T. timopheevii</i><br /><i>T. turanicum</i><br /><i>T. turgidum</i><br /><i>T. urartu</i><br /><i>T. vavilovii</i><br /><i>T. zhukovskyi</i><br /><small>References:<br /> <!--del_lnk--> ITIS 42236 2002-09-22</small></td>
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<p><b>Wheat</b> (<i>Triticum</i> spp.) is a <!--del_lnk--> grass that is cultivated worldwide. Globally, it is the most important human food grain and ranks second in total production as a <a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" title="Cereal">cereal crop</a> behind <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a>; the third being <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a>. Wheat <!--del_lnk--> grain is a <!--del_lnk--> staple food used to make <!--del_lnk--> flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads; cookies, cakes, pasta, noodles and couscous; and for <!--del_lnk--> fermentation to make <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" title="Alcohol">alcohol</a>, <!--del_lnk--> vodka or <a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> husk of the grain, separated when milling white flour, is <a href="../../wp/b/Bran.htm" title="Bran">bran</a>. Wheat is planted to a limited extent as a <!--del_lnk--> forage crop for livestock and the <!--del_lnk--> straw can be used as fodder for livestock or as a construction material for roofing <!--del_lnk--> thatch.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14575.jpg.htm" title="Wheat"><img alt="Wheat" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WheatPennsylvania1943.jpg" src="../../images/145/14575.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The first cereal known to have been domesticated, wheat originated in <!--del_lnk--> southwest Asia in the area known as the <!--del_lnk--> Fertile Crescent. The earliest archaeological evidence for wheat cultivation comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Levant and <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. Around 10,000 years ago, wild <!--del_lnk--> einkorn and <!--del_lnk--> emmer wheat were domesticated as part of the <!--del_lnk--> origins of agriculture in the fertile crescent. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the selection of mutant forms with tough ears which remained attached to the ear during the harvest process, and larger grains. (Selection for these traits is an important part of crop <!--del_lnk--> domestication). Because of the loss of seed dispersal mechanisms, domesticated wheats cannot survive in the wild.<p>The cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent during the <!--del_lnk--> Neolithic period. By 5,000 B.P., wheat had reached <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>. A millennium later it reached <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>. Agricultural cultivation using <!--del_lnk--> horse collar leveraged plows (3000 years B.P.) increased cereal grain productivity yields, as did the use of <!--del_lnk--> seed drills which replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century. Yields of wheat continued to increase, as new land came under cultivation and with improved agricultural husbandry involving the use of <a href="../../wp/f/Fertilizer.htm" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, threshing machines and reaping machines (the '<!--del_lnk--> combine harvester'), <!--del_lnk--> tractor-draw cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see <!--del_lnk--> green revolution and <!--del_lnk--> Norin 10 wheat). With population growth rates falling, while yields continue to rise, the acreage devoted to wheat may now begin to decline for the first time in modern <!--del_lnk--> human history.<p><a id="Genetics_and_breeding" name="Genetics_and_breeding"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Genetics and breeding</span></h2>
<p>Wheat genetics is more complicated than that of most other domesticated species. Some wheat species occur as stable <!--del_lnk--> polyploids, having more than two sets of <!--del_lnk--> diploid <!--del_lnk--> chromosomes.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Einkorn wheat (<i>T. monococcum</i>) is diploid (2 chromosomes).</ul>
<ul>
<li>Most tetraploid wheats (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> emmer and <!--del_lnk--> durum wheat) are derived from wild emmer, <i>T. dicoccoides</i>. Wild emmer is the result of a hybridization between two diploid wild grasses, <i>T. urartu</i> and a wild goatgrass such as <i>Aegilops searsii</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> Ae. speltoides</i>. The hybridization that formed wild emmer occurred in the wild, long before domestication.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields. Either emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass (<i><!--del_lnk--> Aegilops tauschii</i>) to make the <!--del_lnk--> hexaploid (6 chromosomes) wheats, <!--del_lnk--> spelt wheat and <!--del_lnk--> bread wheat.</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Heterosis or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize) occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a> because wheat flowers are complete and normally <!--del_lnk--> self-pollinate. Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents, plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercially success, in Europe (particularly <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>), the USA and South Africa. F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny many (ten or more) generations before release selections are identified to released as a variety or cultivar.<p><a id="Hulled_versus_free-threshing_wheat" name="Hulled_versus_free-threshing_wheat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Hulled versus free-threshing wheat</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:102px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14576.jpg.htm" title="Spikelets of a hulled wheat, einkorn"><img alt="Spikelets of a hulled wheat, einkorn" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Usdaeinkorn1.jpg" src="../../images/145/14576.jpg" width="100" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14576.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Spikelets of a hulled wheat, einkorn</div>
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<p>Four wild species of wheat, and in the domesticated <!--del_lnk--> einkorn, <!--del_lnk--> emmer and <!--del_lnk--> spelt wheats are hulled (in German, <i>Spelzweizen</i>). This more primitive morphology consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains, and (in domesticated wheats) a semi-brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing. The result is that when threshed, the wheat ear breaks up into spikelets. To obtain the grain, further processing, such as milling or pounding, is needed to remove the hulls or husks. In contrast, in free-threshing (or naked) forms such as durum wheat and common wheat, the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough. On threshing, the chaff breaks up, releasing the grains. Hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain.<p><a id="Naming" name="Naming"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Naming</span></h2>
<p>There are many taxonomic classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate article on <!--del_lnk--> Wheat taxonomy. It is good to keep in mind that the name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another. Within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by growing season, such as <!--del_lnk--> winter wheat vs. spring wheat, by <!--del_lnk--> gluten content, such as hard wheat (high protein content) vs. soft wheat (high starch content), or by grain colour (red, white or amber).<dl>
<dt>Major cultivated species of wheat</dl>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Common Wheat</b> or <b>Bread wheat</b> - (<i>T. aestivum</i>) A <!--del_lnk--> hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Durum</b> - (<i>T. durum</i>) The only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat today.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Einkorn</b> - (<i>T. monococcum</i>) A <!--del_lnk--> diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. One of the earliest cultivated, but rarely planted today.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Emmer</b> - (<i>T. dicoccon</i>) A <!--del_lnk--> tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Spelt</b> - (<i>T. spelta</i>) Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities.<li><b>Kamut®</b> or <b><!--del_lnk--> QK-77</b> - (<i>T. polonicum</i> or <i>T. durum</i>) A trademarked tetraploid cultivar grown in small quantities that is extensively marketed. Originally from the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Kaploid</b> - (<i>T. Kapioto</i>) This is a type of wheat that is grown only in the tropical regions of Australia. Some people call it the shitty wheat. Because of this unfortunate name, it has been removed from some supermarkets around the country.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Stephens</b> - A soft white variety that has been a popular choice for many year in the inland Pacific Northwest due to its high yield potential and winter hardiness.</ul>
<p><a id="Economics" name="Economics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14577.jpg.htm" title="Sack of wheat"><img alt="Sack of wheat" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wheat_in_sack.jpg" src="../../images/145/14577.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14578.jpg.htm" title="Cracked wheat"><img alt="Cracked wheat" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cracked_wheat.jpg" src="../../images/145/14578.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14578.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cracked wheat</div>
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</div>
<p>Harvested wheat grain is classified according to grain properties (see below) for the purposes of the <!--del_lnk--> commodities market. Wheat buyers use the classifications to help determine which wheat to purchase as each class has special uses. Wheat producers determine which classes of wheat are the most profitable to cultivate with this system.<p>Wheat is widely cultivated as a <!--del_lnk--> cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a <!--del_lnk--> temperate climate even with a moderately short <!--del_lnk--> growing season, and yields a versatile, high-quality <!--del_lnk--> flour that is widely used in <!--del_lnk--> baking. Most <a href="../../wp/b/Bread.htm" title="Bread">breads</a> are made with wheat flour, including many breads named for the other grains they contain like most <!--del_lnk--> rye and <a href="../../wp/o/Oat.htm" title="Oat">oat</a> breads. <!--del_lnk--> Many other popular foods are made from wheat flour as well, resulting in a large demand for the grain even in economies with a significant food <!--del_lnk--> surplus.<p><a id="Costs_and_Returns" name="Costs_and_Returns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Costs and Returns</span></h2>
<p>In Western Europe target wheat yields attainable are around 8 <!--del_lnk--> tonnes / <!--del_lnk--> hectare. Until recently a tonne of wheat was worth around 90 <!--del_lnk--> euros / tonne, giving a total income of 630 euros per hectare for an average yield of 7 tonnes / hectare. <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> subsidies available in 2006 add 400 euros / hectare, giving a total income of 1,030 euros. In some instances the <!--del_lnk--> straw yield of around 4 tonnes per hectare may be saleable at between 9 and 30 euros / tonne.<p><a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">Seed</a>, <!--del_lnk--> fertiliser and <!--del_lnk--> pesticides cost around 60 euros, 100 and 160 euros respectively. <!--del_lnk--> Labour cost comes to about 200 euros, <!--del_lnk--> Power and <!--del_lnk--> Machinery 200, while <!--del_lnk--> rent and <!--del_lnk--> overheads come to around 250 euros per hectare for a large scale <!--del_lnk--> arable farm of over 200 hectares. Smaller farms would have higher costs due to economy of scale differences. With total costs of 970 euros a small <!--del_lnk--> profit of 60 euros per hectare, or 12,000 euros per year income for 200 hectares is available to the farmer for living expenses and <!--del_lnk--> loan repayments.<p>The recent world price rises (2006) for wheat as a commodity could bring in as much as 400 euros per hectare extra for producers.<p><!--del_lnk--> Organic wheat typically halves yield attainable but costs less as there are no fertiliser and pesticide costs. Seed costs are typically higher, however, and arguably labour and machinery costs are higher as the organic crop, and more importantly the whole rotation and cropping on such a farm, is more difficult to manage correctly.<p><a id="Production_and_consumption_statistics" name="Production_and_consumption_statistics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production and consumption statistics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14579.jpg.htm" title="A mature wheat field"><img alt="A mature wheat field" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wheat.jpg" src="../../images/145/14579.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14579.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A mature wheat field</div>
</div>
</div>
<table align="left" class="wikitable" style="clear:left">
<tr>
<th colspan="2">Top Ten Wheat Producers - 2005<br /> (million metric ton)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="Flag of People's Republic of China"><img alt="Flag of People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">China</a></td>
<td align="right">96</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/179/17939.png.htm" title="Flag of India"><img alt="Flag of India" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_India.svg" src="../../images/6/607.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a></td>
<td align="right">72</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
<td align="right">57</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/592.png.htm" title="Flag of Russia"><img alt="Flag of Russia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/592.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a></td>
<td align="right">46</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
<td align="right">37</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18768.png.htm" title="Flag of Canada"><img alt="Flag of Canada" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg" src="../../images/7/738.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a></td>
<td align="right">26</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Flag of Australia"><img alt="Flag of Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></td>
<td align="right">24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
<td align="right">24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/610.png.htm" title="Flag of Pakistan"><img alt="Flag of Pakistan" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg" src="../../images/6/610.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></td>
<td align="right">22</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/512.png.htm" title="Flag of Turkey"><img alt="Flag of Turkey" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Turkey.svg" src="../../images/5/512.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td>
<td align="right">21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>World Total</b></td>
<td align="right"><b>626</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><i>Source:<br /><!--del_lnk--> UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)</i><!--del_lnk--> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In 1997, global per capita wheat consumption was 101 kg, with the highest per capita consumption (623 kg) found in <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>.<p><a id="Agronomy" name="Agronomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Agronomy</span></h2>
<p><a id="Crop_development" name="Crop_development"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Crop development</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14580.jpg.htm" title="Wheat spikelet with the three anthers sticking out."><img alt="Wheat spikelet with the three anthers sticking out." height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spiklet.JPG" src="../../images/145/14580.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14580.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wheat spikelet with the three anthers sticking out.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>While winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze, wheat normally requires between 110 and 130 days between planting and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions.<p>Crop management decisions require the knowledge of stage of development of the crop. In particular, spring <a href="../../wp/f/Fertilizer.htm" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> applications, <!--del_lnk--> herbicides, <!--del_lnk--> fungicides, <!--del_lnk--> growth regulators are typically applied at specific stages of plant development.<p>For example, current recommendations often indicate the second application of nitrogen be done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1 cm in size (Z31 on <!--del_lnk--> Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also interesting to identify periods of higher risk, in terms of climate. For example, the meïosis stage is extremely susceptible to low temperatures (under 4 °C) or high temperatures (over 25 °C). Farmers also benefit from knowing when the flag leaf (last leaf) appears as this leaf represents about 75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period and as such should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.<p>Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the <!--del_lnk--> Feekes and <!--del_lnk--> Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.<p><a id="Wheat_stages" name="Wheat_stages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Wheat stages</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Wheat at the anthesis stage (face and side view)</ul>
<table>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14581.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WheatFlower1.jpg" src="../../images/145/14581.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14581.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14582.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WheatFlower3.JPG" src="../../images/145/14582.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14582.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ul>
<li>Wheat a few days old</ul>
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14583.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:IMG_4238.JPG" src="../../images/145/14583.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14583.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li>Wheat in spring</ul>
<div class="thumb tnone">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14584.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wheat_in_spring.JPG" src="../../images/145/14584.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14584.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Diseases" name="Diseases"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diseases</span></h3>
<p>Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant diseases vary between 10-25% in Missouri<!--del_lnk--> . A wide range of organisms infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi.<p><a id="Pests" name="Pests"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pests</span></h3>
<p>Wheat is used as a food plant by the <!--del_lnk--> larvae of some <!--del_lnk--> Lepidoptera species including <!--del_lnk--> The Flame, <!--del_lnk--> Rustic Shoulder-knot, <!--del_lnk--> Setaceous Hebrew Character and <!--del_lnk--> Turnip Moth.<p><a id="Wheat_in_the_United_States" name="Wheat_in_the_United_States"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wheat in the United States</span></h2>
<table align="center">
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14585.jpg.htm" title="Wheat harvest on the Palouse."><img alt="Wheat harvest on the Palouse." height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wheat_harvest.jpg" src="../../images/145/14585.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14585.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wheat harvest on the Palouse.</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14586.jpg.htm" title="Combining wheat in Hemingway, South Carolina."><img alt="Combining wheat in Hemingway, South Carolina." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CombineWheat0654.JPG" src="../../images/145/14586.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14586.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Combining wheat in Hemingway, South Carolina.</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14587.jpg.htm" title="Combining wheat in Washington."><img alt="Combining wheat in Washington." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Harvestingwheatwashigton.JPG" src="../../images/145/14587.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/145/14587.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Combining wheat in Washington.</div>
</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Classes used in the United States are<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Durum</b> — Very hard, translucent, light colored grain used to make <!--del_lnk--> semolina flour for <!--del_lnk--> pasta.<li><b>Hard Red Spring</b> — Hard, brownish, high <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> wheat used for bread and hard baked goods. Bread Flour and high gluten flours are commonly made from hard red spring wheat. It is primarily traded at the <!--del_lnk--> Minneapolis Grain Exchange.<li><b>Hard Red Winter</b> — Hard, brownish, mellow high protein wheat used for bread, hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein in pastry flour for pie crusts. Some brands of unbleached all-purpose flours are commonly made from hard red winter wheat alone. It is primarily trade by the <!--del_lnk--> Kansas City Board of Trade.<li><b>Soft Red Winter</b> — Soft, low protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, and muffins. Cake Flour, for example, is made from soft red winter wheat. It is primarily traded by the <!--del_lnk--> Chicago Board of Trade<li><b>Hard White</b> — Hard, light colored, opaque, chalky, medium protein wheat planted in dry, temperate areas. Used for bread and brewing<li><b>Soft White</b> — Soft, light colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas. Used for pie crusts and pastry. Pastry flour, for example, is sometimes made from soft white winter wheat.</ul>
<p>Hard wheats are harder to process and red wheats may need bleaching. Therefore, soft and white wheats usually command higher prices than hard and red wheats on the commodities market.<p><i>Much of the following text is taken from the</i> <!--del_lnk--> Household Cyclopedia <i>of 1881:</i><p>Wheat may be classed under two principal divisions, though each of these admits of several subdivisions. The first is composed of all the varieties of red wheat. The second division comprehends the whole varieties of white wheat, which again may be arranged under two distinct heads, namely, thick-chaffed and thin-chaffed.<p>Thick-chaffed wheat varieties were the most widely used before <!--del_lnk--> 1799, as they generally make the best quality flour, and in dry seasons, equal the yields of thin-chaffed varieties. However, thick-chaffed varieties are particularly susceptible to <!--del_lnk--> mildew, while thin-chaffed varieties are quite hardy and in general are more resistant to mildew. Consequently, a widespread outbreak of mildew in 1799 began a gradual decline in the popularity of thick-chaffed varieties.<p><a id="Wheat_as_a_symbol" name="Wheat_as_a_symbol"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wheat as a symbol</span></h2>
<p>Wheat is also used as a symbol, mostly the symbol of the working class.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/145/14588.png.htm" title="Image:Soviet coat of arms.png"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/145/14588.png" width="117" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>symbol <!--del_lnk--> Soviet coat of arms</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Where Did Our Love Go</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Musical_Recordings_and_compositions.htm">Musical Recordings and compositions</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table class="infobox" style="width: 20em;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;">"Where Did Our Love Go"</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt=""Where Did Our Love Go" cover" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Supremes-where-did-our-love-go-45cover.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></td>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Single by <a href="../../wp/t/The_Supremes.htm" title="The Supremes">The Supremes</a></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">from the album <i><!--del_lnk--> Where Did Our Love Go</i></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Released</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> June 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1964</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Format</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 7" single</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Recorded</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Hitsville USA (Studio A); <!--del_lnk--> April 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1964</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Soul/<!--del_lnk--> pop</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td colspan="2">2:33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Motown<br /><small>M 1060</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Writer(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Holland-Dozier-Holland</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Producer(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Brian Holland<br /><!--del_lnk--> Lamont Dozier</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Chart positions</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3">
<ul>
<li>#1 <small>(<!--del_lnk--> US Pop Singles)</small><li>#3 <small>(<!--del_lnk--> UK Singles Chart)</small></ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: khaki; text-align: center;"><a href="../../wp/t/The_Supremes.htm" title="The Supremes">The Supremes</a> singles chronology</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;">
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top">"Run Run Run"<br /> (1964)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="center">"Where Did Our Love Go"<br /> (1964)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top">"<!--del_lnk--> Baby Love"<br /> (1964)</td>
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<p>"<b>Where Did Our Love Go</b>" is a <!--del_lnk--> 1964 hit song recorded by <a href="../../wp/t/The_Supremes.htm" title="The Supremes">The Supremes</a> for the <!--del_lnk--> Motown label. Written and produced by Motown's main production team <!--del_lnk--> Holland-Dozier-Holland, "Where Did Our Love Go" was the first single by the Supremes to go to the number-one position on the <!--del_lnk--> Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, a position it held for two weeks, from <!--del_lnk--> August 16 to <!--del_lnk--> August 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1964. It was also the first of five Supremes songs in a row to reach number one (the others are "<!--del_lnk--> Baby Love", "<!--del_lnk--> Come See About Me", "<!--del_lnk--> Stop! In the Name of Love", and "<!--del_lnk--> Back in My Arms Again").<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Holland-Dozier-Holland had originally composed the song and prepared the instrumental track for <!--del_lnk--> The Marvelettes to record it. The Marvelettes rejected the song, thinking it childish, and H-D-H offered it to the Supremes, who by early 1964 had only one top-forty hit, "When the Lovelights Starts Shining Through His Eyes", and eight failed singles. Although the Supremes were apprehensive at first about the song, they decided that they really didn't have a choice in the matter.<p>Upon learning the Supremes had chosen to record "Where Did Our Love Go", the Marvelettes warned the girls to stand up for themselves and not just take anything H-D-H would give them. As a result, when the song was recorded on <!--del_lnk--> April 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1964, there was a bit of animosity on the part of the Supremes towards singing the song. <!--del_lnk--> Lamont Dozier was forced at one point to redo the arrangement of the background vocals, replacing the original, more complex backing with simple repetitions of the word "baby".<p>One of the most famous aspects of "Where Did Our Love Go" was its rhythm section, comprised primarily of footstomps. The sound effect was performed by an <!--del_lnk--> Italian-American teenager named Mike Valvano, who stomped down upon two wooden boards suspended by strings, to create the aural illusion of a group of foot-stompers. Handclaps were overdubbed for the 45 RPM single mix of the song.<p>Since the lead vocal was originally written to be sung by the Marvelettes' lead singer <!--del_lnk--> Gladys Horton, it was arranged in a register lower than the Supremes' lead singer <!--del_lnk--> Diana Ross' natural register. The resulting vocal track had a sensual appeal not present in Ross' earlier, more juvenile-sounding work, and she elatedly rushed to Motown chief <!--del_lnk--> Berry Gordy's office, and dragged him to the basement studio at <!--del_lnk--> Hitsville U.S.A. to hear it. Upon hearing the finished song, Gordy remarked that the song had potential, possibly enough to make it to the top ten.<p><a id="Release_and_reaction" name="Release_and_reaction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Release and reaction</span></h3>
<p>"Where Did Our Love Go" was released as a single on <!--del_lnk--> June 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1964, and entered the Hot 100 at number seventy-seven. Six weeks later, while the Supremes were on tour as part of <!--del_lnk--> Dick Clark's <i>Caravan of Stars</i>, the song made it to number one for two weeks. The girls began the tour at the bottom of the bill; by the conclusion of the tour, they were at the top.<p>The song became the focal point and title track of the group's second album, <i><!--del_lnk--> Where Did Our Love Go</i>, released later that year. A <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German language</a> version of the song was recorded by the Supremes for German-speaking markets overseas.<p><a id="Cover_versions" name="Cover_versions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cover versions</span></h3>
<p>Several significant covers of "Where Did Our Love Go" have been released over the years, including a <!--del_lnk--> 1971 version by <!--del_lnk--> Donnie Elbert. The <!--del_lnk--> J. Geils Band covered the song on their live 1976 album <!--del_lnk--> Blow Your Face Out, and also charted at #68 with it. <!--del_lnk--> Soft Cell combined their cover of "Where Did Our Love Go" with a cover of <!--del_lnk--> Gloria Jones' "<!--del_lnk--> Tainted Love". In 1998, The <!--del_lnk--> Spice Girls included "Where Did Our Love Go" in their 1998 <!--del_lnk--> Spiceworld Tour, where Baby Spice <!--del_lnk--> Emma Bunton performed a solo version of the song. <!--del_lnk--> 2000s pop group The <!--del_lnk--> Pussycat Dolls also recorded a joint cover of "Tainted Love/Where Did Our Love Go."<p><a id="Credits" name="Credits"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Credits</span></h2>
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<li>Lead vocals by <!--del_lnk--> Diana Ross<li>Background vocals by <!--del_lnk--> Florence Ballard and <!--del_lnk--> Mary Wilson<li>All instruments by the <!--del_lnk--> Funk Brothers<li>Footstomps by Mike Valvano</ul>
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<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b>"<!--del_lnk--> Everybody Loves Somebody" by <!--del_lnk--> Dean Martin</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Billboard Hot 100 <!--del_lnk--> number one single</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> August 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1964</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b>"<!--del_lnk--> The House of the Rising Sun" by <!--del_lnk--> The Animals</b></td>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Did_Our_Love_Go"</div>
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