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In [1900], Tesla was granted patents for a "system of transmitting electrical energy" and "an electrical transmitter." When [Guglielmo Marconi] made his [famous] [first-ever transatlantic radio transmission] in [1901], Tesla quipped that it was done with [17 Tesla patents], though there is [little] to support this claim. This was the [beginning] of [years] of [patent battles] over [radio] with Tesla's patents being upheld in [1903], followed by a [reverse decision] in favor of Marconi in [1904]. In [1943], a [Supreme Court] of the [United States] decision restored the [prior patents] of Tesla, [Oliver Lodge], and [John Stone]. The court declared that their decision had no [bearing] on Marconi's claim as the [first] to achieve [radio transmission], just that since Marconi's claim to [certain patents] were [questionable], he could not claim [infringement] on those same patents (there are claims the [high court] was trying to [nullify] a [World War I claim] against the [U.S. government] by the [Marconi Company] via simply restoring Tesla's [prior patent]). | In 1900, Tesla was granted patents for a "system of transmitting electrical energy" and "an electrical transmitter." When Guglielmo Marconi made his famous first-ever transatlantic radio transmission in 1901, Tesla quipped that it was done with 17 Tesla patents, though there is little to support this claim. This was the beginning of years of patent battles over radio with Tesla's patents being upheld in 1903, followed by a reverse decision in favor of Marconi in 1904. In 1943, a Supreme Court of the United States decision restored the prior patents of Tesla, Oliver Lodge, and John Stone. The court declared that their decision had no bearing on Marconi's claim as the first to achieve radio transmission, just that since Marconi's claim to certain patents were questionable, he could not claim infringement on those same patents (there are claims the high court was trying to nullify a World War I claim against the U.S. government by the Marconi Company via simply restoring Tesla's prior patent). |
The [Free Movement of Workers Regulation] articles 1 to 7 set out the main provisions on [equal treatment] of workers. First, articles 1 to 4 generally require that workers can [take up employment], [conclude contracts], and not suffer [discrimination] compared to [nationals] of the [member state]. In a famous case, the [Belgian Football Association] v [Bosman], a Belgian footballer named [Jean-Marc Bosman] claimed that he should be able to [transfer] from [R.F.C. de Liège] to [USL Dunkerque] when his contract finished, regardless of whether Dunkerque could afford to pay Liège the [habitual transfer fees]. The [Court of Justice] held "the transfer rules constituted an [obstacle to free movement]" and were unlawful unless they could be [justified in the public interest], but this was [unlikely]. In [Groener v Minister for Education] the [Court of Justice] accepted that a requirement to speak [Gaelic] to teach in a [Dublin design college] could be justified as part of the [public policy] of promoting the [Irish language], but only if the measure was not [disproportionate]. By contrast in [Angonese v Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA] a [bank] in [Bolzano, Italy] was not allowed to require [Mr Angonese] to have a [bilingual certificate] that could only be obtained in Bolzano. The [Court of Justice], giving "horizontal" direct effect to [TFEU article 45], reasoned that people from other countries would have little chance of acquiring the certificate, and because it was "impossible to submit proof of the required linguistic knowledge by any other means", the measure was [disproportionate]. Second, article 7(2) requires equal treatment in respect of [tax]. In [Finanzamt Köln Altstadt v Schumacker] the [Court of Justice] held that it contravened [TFEU art 45] to deny tax benefits (e.g. for [married couples], and [social insurance expense deductions]) to a man who worked in [Germany], but was resident in [Belgium] when other German residents got the benefits. By contrast in [Weigel v Finanzlandesdirektion für Vorarlberg] the [Court of Justice] rejected [Mr Weigel]'s claim that a [re-registration charge] upon bringing his car to [Austria] violated his right to [free movement]. Although the tax was "likely to have a negative bearing on the decision of migrant workers to exercise their right to freedom of movement", because the charge applied equally to Austrians, in absence of [EU legislation] on the matter it had to be regarded as [justified]. Third, people must receive equal treatment regarding "social advantages", although the [Court] has approved [residential qualifying periods]. In [Hendrix v Employee Insurance Institute] the [Court of Justice] held that a [Dutch national] was not entitled to continue receiving [incapacity benefits] when he moved to [Belgium], because the benefit was "closely linked to the [socio-economic situation]" of the [Netherlands]. Conversely, in [Geven v Land Nordrhein-Westfalen] the [Court of Justice] held that a [Dutch woman] living in the [Netherlands], but working between 3 and 14 hours a week in [Germany], did not have a right to receive [German child benefits], even though the wife of a man who worked full-time in Germany but was resident in Austria could. The general justifications for limiting free movement in [TFEU article 45(3)] are "[public policy], [public security] or [public health]", and there is also a general exception in [article 45(4)] for "[employment in the public service]". | The Free Movement of Workers Regulation articles 1 to 7 set out the main provisions on equal treatment of workers. First, articles 1 to 4 generally require that workers can take up employment, conclude contracts, and not suffer discrimination compared to nationals of the member state. In a famous case, the Belgian Football Association v Bosman, a Belgian footballer named Jean-Marc Bosman claimed that he should be able to transfer from R.F.C. de Liège to USL Dunkerque when his contract finished, regardless of whether Dunkerque could afford to pay Liège the habitual transfer fees. The Court of Justice held "the transfer rules constituted an obstacle to free movement" and were unlawful unless they could be justified in the public interest, but this was unlikely. In Groener v Minister for Education the Court of Justice accepted that a requirement to speak Gaelic to teach in a Dublin design college could be justified as part of the public policy of promoting the Irish language, but only if the measure was not disproportionate. By contrast in Angonese v Cassa di Risparmio di Bolzano SpA a bank in Bolzano, Italy, was not allowed to require Mr Angonese to have a bilingual certificate that could only be obtained in Bolzano. The Court of Justice, giving "horizontal" direct effect to TFEU article 45, reasoned that people from other countries would have little chance of acquiring the certificate, and because it was "impossible to submit proof of the required linguistic knowledge by any other means", the measure was disproportionate. Second, article 7(2) requires equal treatment in respect of tax. In Finanzamt Köln Altstadt v Schumacker the Court of Justice held that it contravened TFEU art 45 to deny tax benefits (e.g. for married couples, and social insurance expense deductions) to a man who worked in Germany, but was resident in Belgium when other German residents got the benefits. By contrast in Weigel v Finanzlandesdirektion für Vorarlberg the Court of Justice rejected Mr Weigel's claim that a re-registration charge upon bringing his car to Austria violated his right to free movement. Although the tax was "likely to have a negative bearing on the decision of migrant workers to exercise their right to freedom of movement", because the charge applied equally to Austrians, in absence of EU legislation on the matter it had to be regarded as justified. Third, people must receive equal treatment regarding "social advantages", although the Court has approved residential qualifying periods. In Hendrix v Employee Insurance Institute the Court of Justice held that a Dutch national was not entitled to continue receiving incapacity benefits when he moved to Belgium, because the benefit was "closely linked to the socio-economic situation" of the Netherlands. Conversely, in Geven v Land Nordrhein-Westfalen the Court of Justice held that a Dutch woman living in the Netherlands, but working between 3 and 14 hours a week in Germany, did not have a right to receive German child benefits, even though the wife of a man who worked full-time in Germany but was resident in Austria could. The general justifications for limiting free movement in TFEU article 45(3) are "public policy, public security or public health", and there is also a general exception in article 45(4) for "employment in the public service". |
[AUSTPAC], an Australian public X.25 network, operated by [Telstra]. Started by [Telecom Australia] in the early 1980s, [AUSTPAC] was Australia's first public packet-switched data network, supporting applications such as [on-line betting], [financial applications] — the [Australian Tax Office] made use of [AUSTPAC] — and [remote terminal access] to [academic institutions], who maintained their connections to [AUSTPAC] up until the [mid-late 1990s] in some cases. Access can be via a [dial-up terminal] to a [PAD], or, by linking a permanent X.25 node to the network. [citation needed] | AUSTPAC was an Australian public X.25 network operated by Telstra. Started by Telecom Australia in the early 1980s, AUSTPAC was Australia's first public packet-switched data network, supporting applications such as on-line betting, financial applications — the Australian Tax Office made use of AUSTPAC — and remote terminal access to academic institutions, who maintained their connections to AUSTPAC up until the mid-late 1990s in some cases. Access can be via a dial-up terminal to a PAD, or, by linking a permanent X.25 node to the network.citation needed |
[Civil disobedience] is usually defined as pertaining to a [citizen]'s relation to the [state] and its [laws], as distinguished from a [constitutional impasse] in which two [public agencies], especially two equally [sovereign branches of government], [conflict]. For instance, if the [head of government] of a [country] were to refuse to enforce a [decision] of that [country]'s [highest court], it would not be [civil disobedience], since the [head of government] would be acting in her or his capacity as [public official] rather than [private citizen]. | Civil disobedience is usually defined as pertaining to a citizen's relation to the state and its laws, as distinguished from a constitutional impasse in which two public agencies, especially two equally sovereign branches of government, conflict. For instance, if the head of government of a country were to refuse to enforce a decision of that country's highest court, it would not be civil disobedience, since the head of government would be acting in her or his capacity as public official rather than private citizen. |
In the mid-1960s, [corruption scandals] began to arise among many of the city's [officials], who were mainly elected through the [traditional old boy network]. After a [grand jury] was convened to [investigate], [11 officials] were indicted and more were [forced to resign]. [Jacksonville Consolidation], led by [J. J. Daniel] and [Claude Yates], began to win more [support] during this period, from both [inner city blacks], who wanted more [involvement in government], and [whites in the suburbs], who wanted more [services] and more [control] over the [central city]. In 1964 all [15] of [Duval County's public high schools] lost their [accreditation]. This added [momentum] to proposals for [government reform]. [Lower taxes], [increased economic development], [unification of the community], [better public spending] and [effective administration] by a more [central authority] were all cited as [reasons] for a new [consolidated government]. | In the mid-1960s, corruption scandals began to arise among many of the city's officials, who were mainly elected through the traditional old boy network. After a grand jury was convened to investigate, 11 officials were indicted and more were forced to resign. Jacksonville Consolidation, led by J. J. Daniel and Claude Yates, began to win more support during this period, from both inner city blacks, who wanted more involvement in government, and whites in the suburbs, who wanted more services and more control over the central city. In 1964 all 15 of Duval County's public high schools lost their accreditation. This added momentum to proposals for government reform. Lower taxes, increased economic development, unification of the community, better public spending and effective administration by a more central authority were all cited as reasons for a new consolidated government. |
Notable faculty in physics have included the speed of light calculator [A. A. Michelson], elementary charge calculator [Robert A. Millikan], discoverer of the [Compton Effect] [Arthur H. Compton], the creator of the first [nuclear reactor] [Enrico Fermi], "the father of the [hydrogen bomb]" [Edward Teller], "one of the most brilliant and productive experimental physicists of the twentieth century" [Luis Walter Alvarez], [Murray Gell-Mann] who introduced the [quark], second female [Nobel laureate] [Maria Goeppert-Mayer], the youngest American winner of the [Nobel Prize] [Tsung-Dao Lee], and [astrophysicist] [Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]. | Notable faculty in physics have included the speed of light calculator A. A. Michelson, elementary charge calculator Robert A. Millikan, discoverer of the Compton Effect Arthur H. Compton, the creator of the first nuclear reactor Enrico Fermi, "the father of the hydrogen bomb" Edward Teller, "one of the most brilliant and productive experimental physicists of the twentieth century" Luis Walter Alvarez, Murray Gell-Mann who introduced the quark, second female Nobel laureate Maria Goeppert-Mayer, the youngest American winner of the Nobel Prize Tsung-Dao Lee, and astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. |
The [FSO Car Factory] was established in [1951]. A [number of vehicles] have been [assembled] there over the [decades], including the [Warszawa], [Syrena], [Fiat 125p] (under [license] from Fiat, later [renamed] [FSO 125p] when the [license expired]) and the [Polonez]. The [last two models] [listed] were also [sent abroad] and [assembled] in a [number of other countries], including [Egypt] and [Colombia]. In [1995] the factory was [purchased] by the [South Korean car manufacturer] [Daewoo], which [assembled] the [Tico], [Espero], [Nubia], [Tacuma], [Leganza], [Lanos] and [Matiz] there for the [European market]. In [2005] the factory was [sold] to [AvtoZAZ], a [Ukrainian car manufacturer] which [assembled] there the [Chevrolet Aveo]. The [license] for the [production] of the [Aveo] [expired] in [February 2011] and has since [not been renewed]. [Currently] the [company] is [defunct]. | The FSO Car Factory was established in 1951. A number of vehicles have been assembled there over the decades, including the Warszawa, Syrena, Fiat 125p (under license from Fiat, later renamed FSO 125p when the license expired) and the Polonez. The last two models listed were also sent abroad and assembled in a number of other countries, including Egypt and Colombia. In 1995 the factory was purchased by the South Korean car manufacturer Daewoo, which assembled the Tico, Espero, Nubia, Tacuma, Leganza, Lanos and Matiz there for the European market. In 2005 the factory was sold to AvtoZAZ, a Ukrainian car manufacturer which assembled there the Chevrolet Aveo. The license for the production of the Aveo expired in February 2011 and has since not been renewed. Currently the company is defunct. |
None of the original treaties establishing the European Union mention [protection] for [fundamental rights]. It was not [envisaged] for European Union [measures], that is [legislative] and [administrative actions] by European Union [institutions], to be subject to [human rights]. At the time the only concern was that [member states] should be prevented from violating human rights, hence the establishment of the [European Convention on Human Rights] in 1950 and the establishment of the [European Court of Human Rights]. The [European Court of Justice] recognised fundamental rights as [general principle] of European Union law as the need to ensure that European Union measures are [compatible] with the human rights enshrined in member states' [constitution] became ever more [apparent]. In 1999 the European Council set up a [body] tasked with drafting a [European Charter of Human Rights], which could form the [constitutional basis] for the European Union and as such tailored specifically to apply to the European Union and its institutions. The [Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union] draws a [list] of fundamental rights from the [European Convention on Human Rights] and [Fundamental Freedoms], the [Declaration on Fundamental Rights] produced by the European Parliament in 1989 and European Union [Treaties]. | None of the original treaties establishing the European Union mention protection for fundamental rights. It was not envisaged for European Union measures, that is legislative and administrative actions by European Union institutions, to be subject to human rights. At the time the only concern was that member states should be prevented from violating human rights, hence the establishment of the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950 and the establishment of the European Court of Human Rights. The European Court of Justice recognised fundamental rights as general principle of European Union law as the need to ensure that European Union measures are compatible with the human rights enshrined in member states' constitution became ever more apparent. In 1999 the European Council set up a body tasked with drafting a European Charter of Human Rights, which could form the constitutional basis for the European Union and as such tailored specifically to apply to the European Union and its institutions. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union draws a list of fundamental rights from the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the Declaration on Fundamental Rights produced by the European Parliament in 1989 and European Union Treaties. |
Like many [other] [mainline Protestant denominations] in the [United States], the [United Methodist Church] has experienced [significant membership losses] in recent decades. At the time of its formation, the UMC had about [11 million members] in nearly [42,000 congregations]. In [1975], membership dropped below [10 million] for the [first time]. In [2005], there were about [8 million members] in over [34,000 congregations]. Membership is [concentrated] [primarily] in the [Midwest] and in the [South]. [Texas] has the [largest number] of members, with about [1 million]. The states with the [highest membership rates] are [Oklahoma], [Iowa], [Mississippi], [West Virginia], and [North Carolina]. | Like many other mainline Protestant denominations in the United States, the United Methodist Church has experienced significant membership losses in recent decades. At the time of its formation, the UMC had about 11 million members in nearly 42,000 congregations. In 1975, membership dropped below 10 million for the first time. In 2005, there were about 8 million members in over 34,000 congregations. Membership is concentrated primarily in the Midwest and in the South. Texas has the largest number of members, with about 1 million. The states with the highest membership rates are Oklahoma, Iowa, Mississippi, West Virginia, and North Carolina. |
Since its foundation, the Treaties sought to enable people to pursue their life goals in any country through free movement. Reflecting the economic nature of the project, the European Community originally focused upon free movement of workers: as a "factor of production". However, from the 1970s, this focus shifted towards developing a more "social" Europe. [Free movement] was increasingly based on "citizenship", so that people had rights to empower them to become economically and socially active, rather than economic activity being a precondition for rights. This means the basic "worker" rights in TFEU article 45 function as a specific expression of the general rights of citizens in TFEU articles 18 to 21. According to the Court of Justice, a "worker" is anybody who is economically active, which includes everyone in an employment relationship, "under the direction of another person" for "remuneration". A job, however, need not be paid in money for someone to be protected as a worker. For example, in Steymann v Staatssecretaris van Justitie, a German man claimed the right to residence in the Netherlands, while he volunteered plumbing and household duties in the Bhagwan community, which provided for everyone's material needs irrespective of their contributions. The Court of Justice held that Mr Steymann was entitled to stay, so long as there was at least an "indirect quid pro quo" for the work he did. Having "worker" status means protection against all forms of discrimination by governments, and employers, in access to employment, tax, and social security rights. By contrast a citizen, who is "any person having the nationality of a Member State" (TFEU article 20(1)), has rights to seek work, vote in local and European elections, but more restricted rights to claim social security. In practice, free movement has become politically contentious as nationalist political parties have manipulated fears about immigrants taking away people's jobs and benefits (paradoxically at the same time). Nevertheless, practically "all available research finds little impact" of "labour mobility on wages and employment of local workers". | Since its foundation, the Treaties sought to enable people to pursue their life goals in any country through free movement. Reflecting the economic nature of the project, the European Community originally focused upon free movement of workers: as a "factor of production". However, from the 1970s, this focus shifted towards developing a more "social" Europe. Free movement was increasingly based on "citizenship", so that people had rights to empower them to become economically and socially active, rather than economic activity being a precondition for rights. This means the basic "worker" rights in TFEU article 45 function as a specific expression of the general rights of citizens in TFEU articles 18 to 21. According to the Court of Justice, a "worker" is anybody who is economically active, which includes everyone in an employment relationship, "under the direction of another person" for "remuneration". A job, however, need not be paid in money for someone to be protected as a worker. For example, in Steymann v Staatssecretaris van Justitie, a German man claimed the right to residence in the Netherlands, while he volunteered plumbing and household duties in the Bhagwan community, which provided for everyone's material needs irrespective of their contributions. The Court of Justice held that Mr Steymann was entitled to stay, so long as there was at least an "indirect quid pro quo" for the work he did. Having "worker" status means protection against all forms of discrimination by governments, and employers, in access to employment, tax, and social security rights. By contrast a citizen, who is "any person having the nationality of a Member State" (TFEU article 20(1)), has rights to seek work, vote in local and European elections, but more restricted rights to claim social security. In practice, free movement has become politically contentious as nationalist political parties have manipulated fears about immigrants taking away people's jobs and benefits (paradoxically at the same time). Nevertheless, practically "all available research finds little impact" of "labour mobility on wages and employment of local workers". |
In [1891] Scottish chemist [James Dewar] was able to produce enough [liquid oxygen] to study. The first [commercially viable process] for producing [liquid oxygen] was independently developed in [1895] by [German engineer Carl von Linde] and [British engineer William Hampson]. Both men [lowered the temperature] of [air] until it [liquefied] and then [distilled] the component [gases] by [boiling] them off [one at a time] and [capturing] them. Later, in [1901], [oxyacetylene welding] was demonstrated for the [first time] by [burning] a mixture of [acetylene] and [compressed O2]. This [method of welding] and [cutting metal] later became [common]. | In 1891 Scottish chemist James Dewar was able to produce enough liquid oxygen to study. The first commercially viable process for producing liquid oxygen was independently developed in 1895 by German engineer Carl von Linde and British engineer William Hampson. Both men lowered the temperature of air until it liquefied and then distilled the component gases by boiling them off one at a time and capturing them. Later, in 1901, oxyacetylene welding was demonstrated for the first time by burning a mixture of acetylene and compressed O
2. This method of welding and cutting metal later became common. |
[Tesla] claimed to have developed his own [physical principle] regarding [matter] and [energy] that he started working on in [1892], and in [1937], at [age 81], claimed in a [letter] to have completed a "dynamic theory of gravity" that "would put an end to [idle speculations] and [false conceptions], as that of [curved space]." He stated that the theory was "worked out in [all details]" and that he hoped to soon give it to the [world]. [Further elucidation] of his theory was never found in his [writings].:309 | Tesla claimed to have developed his own physical principle regarding matter and energy that he started working on in 1892, and in 1937, at age 81, claimed in a letter to have completed a "dynamic theory of gravity" that "would put an end to idle speculations and false conceptions, as that of curved space." He stated that the theory was "worked out in all details" and that he hoped to soon give it to the world. Further elucidation of his theory was never found in his writings.:309 |
The flow of [cold], [gray] [mountain water] continues for some distance into the [lake]. The [cold water] flows near the [surface] and at first doesn't mix with the [warmer], [green waters] of [Upper Lake]. But then, at the so-called [Rheinbrech], the [Rhine water] [abruptly falls] into the [depths] because of the [greater density] of [cold water]. The flow [reappears] on the [surface] at the [northern] ([German]) [shore] of the [lake], off the [island] of [Lindau]. The water then follows the [northern shore] until [Hagnau am Bodensee]. A [small fraction] of the flow is [diverted] off the [island] of [Mainau] into [Lake Überlingen]. Most of the water flows via the [Constance hopper] into the [Rheinrinne] ("Rhine Gutter") and [Seerhein]. Depending on the [water level], this flow of the [Rhine water] is [clearly visible] along the [entire length] of the [lake]. | The flow of cold, gray mountain water continues for some distance into the lake. The cold water flows near the surface and at first doesn't mix with the warmer, green waters of Upper Lake. But then, at the so-called Rheinbrech, the Rhine water abruptly falls into the depths because of the greater density of cold water. The flow reappears on the surface at the northern (German) shore of the lake, off the island of Lindau. The water then follows the northern shore until Hagnau am Bodensee. A small fraction of the flow is diverted off the island of Mainau into Lake Überlingen. Most of the water flows via the Constance hopper into the Rheinrinne ("Rhine Gutter") and Seerhein. Depending on the water level, this flow of the Rhine water is clearly visible along the entire length of the lake. |
[Compact trucks] were introduced, such as the [Toyota Hilux] and the [Datsun Truck], followed by the [Mazda Truck] (sold as the [Ford Courier]), and the [Isuzu-built Chevrolet LUV]. [Mitsubishi] rebranded its [Forte] as the [Dodge D-50] a few years after the [oil crisis]. [Mazda], [Mitsubishi] and [Isuzu] had [joint partnerships] with [Ford], [Chrysler], and [GM], respectively. Later the [American makers] introduced their [domestic replacements] ([Ford Ranger], [Dodge Dakota] and the [Chevrolet S10/GMC S-15]), [ending] their [captive import policy]. | Compact trucks were introduced, such as the Toyota Hilux and the Datsun Truck, followed by the Mazda Truck (sold as the Ford Courier), and the Isuzu-built Chevrolet LUV. Mitsubishi rebranded its Forte as the Dodge D-50 a few years after the oil crisis. Mazda, Mitsubishi and Isuzu had joint partnerships with Ford, Chrysler, and GM, respectively. Later the American makers introduced their domestic replacements (Ford Ranger, Dodge Dakota and the Chevrolet S10/GMC S-15), ending their captive import policy. |
[TVOntario] picked up the show in 1976 beginning with [The Three Doctors] and aired each [series] (several years late) through to [series 24] in 1991. From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by [science-fiction writer Judith Merril] who would introduce the [episode] and then, after the [episode] concluded, try to place it in an [educational context] in keeping with TVO's status as an [educational channel]. Its airing of [The Talons of Weng-Chiang] was cancelled as a result of [accusations] that the [story] was [racist]; the [story] was later broadcast in the 1990s on [cable station YTV]. [CBC] began showing the [series] again in 2005. The [series] moved to the [Canadian cable channel Space] in 2009.[citation needed] | TVOntario picked up the show in 1976 beginning with The Three Doctors and aired each series (several years late) through to series 24 in 1991. From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by science-fiction writer Judith Merril who would introduce the episode and then, after the episode concluded, try to place it in an educational context in keeping with TVO's status as an educational channel. Its airing of The Talons of Weng-Chiang was cancelled as a result of accusations that the story was racist; the story was later broadcast in the 1990s on cable station YTV. CBC began showing the series again in 2005. The series moved to the Canadian cable channel Space in 2009.citation needed |
[Rugby] is also a growing [sport] in [southern California], particularly at the [high school level], with [increasing numbers] of [schools] adding rugby as an [official school sport]. | Rugby is also a growing sport in southern California, particularly at the high school level, with increasing numbers of schools adding rugby as an official school sport. |
After the [Greeks], little happened with the study of [prime numbers] until the [17th century]. In [1640] [Pierre de Fermat] stated (without [proof]) [Fermat's little theorem] (later proved by [Leibniz] and [Euler]). [Fermat] also conjectured that all [numbers] of the form [22n + 1] are prime (they are called [Fermat numbers]) and he verified this up to [n = 4] (or [216 + 1]). However, the very next [Fermat number] [232 + 1] is [composite] (one of its prime factors is [641]), as [Euler] discovered later, and in fact no further [Fermat numbers] are known to be prime. The [French monk] [Marin Mersenne] looked at [primes] of the form [2p − 1], with [p] a [prime]. They are called [Mersenne primes] in his honor. | After the Greeks, little happened with the study of prime numbers until the 17th century. In 1640 Pierre de Fermat stated (without proof) Fermat's little theorem (later proved by Leibniz and Euler). Fermat also conjectured that all numbers of the form 22n + 1 are prime (they are called Fermat numbers) and he verified this up to n = 4 (or 216 + 1). However, the very next Fermat number 232 + 1 is composite (one of its prime factors is 641), as Euler discovered later, and in fact no further Fermat numbers are known to be prime. The French monk Marin Mersenne looked at primes of the form 2p − 1, with p a prime. They are called Mersenne primes in his honor. |
The first historical reference to [Warsaw] dates back to the year [1313], at a time when [Kraków] served as the Polish capital city. Due to its [central location] between the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's] capitals of [Kraków] and [Vilnius], [Warsaw] became the capital of the [Commonwealth] and of the [Crown] of the [Kingdom of Poland] when [King Sigismund III Vasa] moved his court from [Kraków] to [Warsaw] in [1596]. After the [Third Partition of Poland] in [1795], [Warsaw] was incorporated into the [Kingdom of Prussia]. In [1806] during the [Napoleonic Wars], the city became the official capital of the [Grand Duchy of Warsaw], a puppet state of the [First French Empire] established by [Napoleon Bonaparte]. In accordance with the decisions of the [Congress of Vienna], the [Russian Empire] annexed [Warsaw] in [1815] and it became part of the ["Congress Kingdom"]. Only in [1918] did it regain independence from the foreign rule and emerge as a new capital of the independent [Republic of Poland]. The [German invasion] in [1939], the [massacre] of the [Jewish population] and [deportations] to [concentration camps] led to the [uprising] in the [Warsaw ghetto] in [1943] and to the major and devastating [Warsaw Uprising] between [August] and [October 1944]. [Warsaw] gained the title of the "Phoenix City" because it has survived many wars, conflicts and invasions throughout its long history. Most notably, the city required painstaking [rebuilding] after the [extensive damage] it suffered in [World War II], which destroyed [85%] of its buildings. On [9 November 1940], the city was awarded [Poland's highest military decoration] for heroism, the [Virtuti Militari], during the [Siege of Warsaw] ([1939]). | The first historical reference to Warsaw dates back to the year 1313, at a time when Kraków served as the Polish capital city. Due to its central location between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's capitals of Kraków and Vilnius, Warsaw became the capital of the Commonwealth and of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland when King Sigismund III Vasa moved his court from Kraków to Warsaw in 1596. After the Third Partition of Poland in 1795, Warsaw was incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars, the city became the official capital of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, a puppet state of the First French Empire established by Napoleon Bonaparte. In accordance with the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, the Russian Empire annexed Warsaw in 1815 and it became part of the "Congress Kingdom". Only in 1918 did it regain independence from the foreign rule and emerge as a new capital of the independent Republic of Poland. The German invasion in 1939, the massacre of the Jewish population and deportations to concentration camps led to the uprising in the Warsaw ghetto in 1943 and to the major and devastating Warsaw Uprising between August and October 1944. Warsaw gained the title of the "Phoenix City" because it has survived many wars, conflicts and invasions throughout its long history. Most notably, the city required painstaking rebuilding after the extensive damage it suffered in World War II, which destroyed 85% of its buildings. On 9 November 1940, the city was awarded Poland's highest military decoration for heroism, the Virtuti Militari, during the Siege of Warsaw (1939). |
At the time of the [Marburg Colloquy], [Suleiman the Magnificent] was besieging [Vienna] with a vast [Ottoman army]. [Luther] had argued against resisting the [Turks] in his 1518 [Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses], provoking accusations of [defeatism]. He saw the [Turks] as a [scourge] sent to punish [Christians] by [God], as agents of the [Biblical apocalypse] that would destroy the [antichrist], whom [Luther] believed to be the [papacy], and the [Roman Church]. He consistently rejected the idea of a [Holy War], "as though our people were an army of [Christians] against the [Turks], who were enemies of [Christ]. This is absolutely contrary to [Christ]'s doctrine and name". On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the [two kingdoms], [Luther] did support [non-religious war] against the [Turks]. In 1526, he argued in [Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace] that [national defence] is reason for a [just war]. By 1529, in [On War against the Turk], he was actively urging [Emperor Charles V] and the [German people] to fight a [secular war] against the [Turks]. He made clear, however, that the [spiritual war] against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through [prayer] and [repentance]. Around the time of the [Siege of Vienna], [Luther] wrote a [prayer] for [national deliverance] from the [Turks], asking [God] to "give to our [emperor] [perpetual victory] over our [enemies]". | At the time of the Marburg Colloquy, Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna with a vast Ottoman army. Luther had argued against resisting the Turks in his 1518 Explanation of the Ninety-five Theses, provoking accusations of defeatism. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent to punish Christians by God, as agents of the Biblical apocalypse that would destroy the antichrist, whom Luther believed to be the papacy, and the Roman Church. He consistently rejected the idea of a Holy War, "as though our people were an army of Christians against the Turks, who were enemies of Christ. This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name". On the other hand, in keeping with his doctrine of the two kingdoms, Luther did support non-religious war against the Turks. In 1526, he argued in Whether Soldiers can be in a State of Grace that national defence is reason for a just war. By 1529, in On War against the Turk, he was actively urging Emperor Charles V and the German people to fight a secular war against the Turks. He made clear, however, that the spiritual war against an alien faith was separate, to be waged through prayer and repentance. Around the time of the Siege of Vienna, Luther wrote a prayer for national deliverance from the Turks, asking God to "give to our emperor perpetual victory over our enemies". |
Throughout the Middle Ages, [Newcastle] was [England's northern fortress]. Incorporated first by [Henry II], the city had a [new charter] granted by [Elizabeth] in [1589]. A [25-foot (7.6 m) high stone wall] was built around the town in the [13th century], to [defend] it from [invaders] during the [Border war] against [Scotland]. The [Scots king William the Lion] was [imprisoned] in Newcastle in [1174], and [Edward I] brought the [Stone of Scone] and [William Wallace] south through the town. [Newcastle] was [successfully defended] against the [Scots] [three times] during the [14th century], and was [created] a [county corporate] with its own [sheriff] by [Henry IV] in [1400]. | Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was England's northern fortress. Incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589. A 25-foot (7.6 m) high stone wall was built around the town in the 13th century, to defend it from invaders during the Border war against Scotland. The Scots king William the Lion was imprisoned in Newcastle in 1174, and Edward I brought the Stone of Scone and William Wallace south through the town. Newcastle was successfully defended against the Scots three times during the 14th century, and was created a county corporate with its own sheriff by Henry IV in 1400. |
The [Rhine] is the [longest river] in [Germany]. It is here that the Rhine encounters some more of its [main tributaries], such as the [Neckar], the [Main] and, later, the [Moselle], which contributes an [average discharge] of more than [300 m3/s] ([11,000 cu ft/s]). [Northeastern France] drains to the Rhine via the Moselle; [smaller rivers] drain the [Vosges] and [Jura Mountains] uplands. Most of [Luxembourg] and a [very small part] of [Belgium] also drain to the Rhine via the Moselle. As it approaches the [Dutch border], the Rhine has an [annual mean discharge] of [2,290 m3/s] ([81,000 cu ft/s]) and an [average width] of [400 m] ([1,300 ft]). | The Rhine is the longest river in Germany. It is here that the Rhine encounters some more of its main tributaries, such as the Neckar, the Main and, later, the Moselle, which contributes an average discharge of more than 300 m3/s (11,000 cu ft/s). Northeastern France drains to the Rhine via the Moselle; smaller rivers drain the Vosges and Jura Mountains uplands. Most of Luxembourg and a very small part of Belgium also drain to the Rhine via the Moselle. As it approaches the Dutch border, the Rhine has an annual mean discharge of 2,290 m3/s (81,000 cu ft/s) and an average width of 400 m (1,300 ft). |
For the [2012–13 school year] [annual tuition] was [$38,000], with a [total cost] of [attendance] of [$57,000]. [Beginning 2007], [families] with [incomes] [below $60,000] pay [nothing] for their [children] to [attend], including [room] and [board]. [Families] with [incomes] [between $60,000] to [$80,000] pay [only] a [few thousand dollars] per [year], and [families] [earning between $120,000] and [$180,000] pay [no more than 10%] of their [annual incomes]. In [2009], [Harvard] offered [grants] totaling [$414 million] across all [eleven divisions]; [further explanation needed] [$340 million] came from [institutional funds], [$35 million] from [federal support], and [$39 million] from [other outside support]. [Grants] total [88%] of [Harvard's aid] for [undergraduate students], with [aid] also provided by [loans] ([8%]) and [work-study] ([4%]). | For the 2012–13 school year annual tuition was $38,000, with a total cost of attendance of $57,000. Beginning 2007, families with incomes below $60,000 pay nothing for their children to attend, including room and board. Families with incomes between $60,000 to $80,000 pay only a few thousand dollars per year, and families earning between $120,000 and $180,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual incomes. In 2009, Harvard offered grants totaling $414 million across all eleven divisions;further explanation needed $340 million came from institutional funds, $35 million from federal support, and $39 million from other outside support. Grants total 88% of Harvard's aid for undergraduate students, with aid also provided by loans (8%) and work-study (4%). |
The descendants of [Rollo]'s [Vikings] and their [Frankish wives] would replace the [Norse religion] and [Old Norse language] with [Catholicism] ([Christianity]) and the [Gallo-Romance language] of the local people, blending their [maternal Frankish heritage] with [Old Norse traditions] and [customs] to synthesize a unique "Norman" culture in the north of France. The [Norman language] was forged by the adoption of the [indigenous langue d'oïl branch] of [Romance] by a [Norse-speaking ruling class], and it developed into the [regional language] that survives today. | The descendants of Rollo's Vikings and their Frankish wives would replace the Norse religion and Old Norse language with Catholicism (Christianity) and the Gallo-Romance language of the local people, blending their maternal Frankish heritage with Old Norse traditions and customs to synthesize a unique "Norman" culture in the north of France. The Norman language was forged by the adoption of the indigenous langue d'oïl branch of Romance by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and it developed into the regional language that survives today. |
With the death of [Captain Francis Fowke], [Royal Engineers] the next architect to work at the museum was [Colonel (later Major General) Henry Young Darracott Scott], also of the [Royal Engineers]. He designed to the [north west] of the [garden] the [five-storey School for Naval Architects] (also known as the [science schools]), now the [Henry Cole Wing] in [1867–72]. [Scott's assistant J.W. Wild] designed the [impressive staircase] that [rises] the [full height] of the [building], made from [Cadeby stone] the [steps] are [7 feet (2.1 m)] in [length], the [balustrades] and [columns] are [Portland stone]. It is now used to jointly house the [prints] and [architectural drawings] of the [V&A] ([prints], [drawings], [paintings] and [photographs]) and [Royal Institute of British Architects] ([RIBA Drawings] and [Archives Collections]); and the [Sackler Centre] for [arts education], which [opened] in [2008]. | With the death of Captain Francis Fowke, Royal Engineers the next architect to work at the museum was Colonel (later Major General) Henry Young Darracott Scott, also of the Royal Engineers. He designed to the north west of the garden the five-storey School for Naval Architects (also known as the science schools), now the Henry Cole Wing in 1867–72. Scott's assistant J.W. Wild designed the impressive staircase that rises the full height of the building, made from Cadeby stone the steps are 7 feet (2.1 m) in length, the balustrades and columns are Portland stone. It is now used to jointly house the prints and architectural drawings of the V&A (prints, drawings, paintings and photographs) and Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA Drawings and Archives Collections); and the Sackler Centre for arts education, which opened in 2008. |
Using [boiling water] to produce [mechanical motion] goes back over [2000 years], but [early devices] were not [practical]. The [Spanish inventor] [Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont] obtained the first [patent] for a [steam engine] in [1606]. In [1698] [Thomas Savery] patented a [steam pump] that used [steam] in [direct contact] with the [water] being [pumped]. [Savery's steam pump] used [condensing steam] to create a [vacuum] and [draw water] into a [chamber], and then applied [pressurized steam] to further pump the [water]. [Thomas Newcomen]'s [atmospheric engine] was the first [commercial] true [steam engine] using a [piston], and was used in [1712] for [pumping] in a [mine]. | Using boiling water to produce mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years, but early devices were not practical. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for a steam engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped. Savery's steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomen's atmospheric engine was the first commercial true steam engine using a piston, and was used in 1712 for pumping in a mine. |
Both [innate] and [adaptive immunity] depend on the ability of the [immune system] to distinguish between [self] and [non-self molecules]. In [immunology], [self molecules] are those components of an [organism's body] that can be distinguished from [foreign substances] by the [immune system]. Conversely, [non-self molecules] are those recognized as [foreign molecules]. One class of [non-self molecules] are called [antigens] (short for [antibody generators]) and are defined as substances that [bind] to [specific immune receptors] and [elicit] an [immune response]. | Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self molecules. In immunology, self molecules are those components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (short for antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific immune receptors and elicit an immune response. |
At the same time the [Mongols] imported [Central Asian Muslims] to serve as [administrators] in [China], the [Mongols] also sent [Han Chinese] and [Khitans] from [China] to serve as administrators over the [Muslim population] in [Bukhara] in [Central Asia], using foreigners to [curtail] the power of the [local peoples] of both lands. [Han Chinese] were moved to [Central Asian areas] like [Besh Baliq], [Almaliq], and [Samarqand] by the [Mongols] where they worked as [artisans] and [farmers]. [Alans] were recruited into the [Mongol forces] with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, [Mongols], and [Chinese soldiers] stationed in the area of the former [Kingdom of Qocho] and in [Besh Balikh] the [Mongols] established a [Chinese military colony] led by [Chinese general] [Qi Kongzhi] ([Ch'i Kung-chih]). After the [Mongol conquest] of [Central Asia] by [Genghis Khan], foreigners were chosen as administrators and [co-management] with [Chinese] and [Qara-Khitays] ([Khitans]) of [gardens] and [fields] in [Samarqand] was put upon the [Muslims] as a [requirement] since [Muslims] were not allowed to manage without them. The [Mongol appointed Governor] of [Samarqand] was a [Qara-Khitay] ([Khitan]), held the title [Taishi], [familiar] with [Chinese culture] his name was [Ahai]. | At the same time the Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China, the Mongols also sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands. Han Chinese were moved to Central Asian areas like Besh Baliq, Almaliq, and Samarqand by the Mongols where they worked as artisans and farmers. Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" which was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers, Mongols, and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former Kingdom of Qocho and in Besh Balikh the Mongols established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi (Ch'i Kung-chih). After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia by Genghis Khan, foreigners were chosen as administrators and co-management with Chinese and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) of gardens and fields in Samarqand was put upon the Muslims as a requirement since Muslims were not allowed to manage without them. The Mongol appointed Governor of Samarqand was a Qara-Khitay (Khitan), held the title Taishi, familiar with Chinese culture his name was Ahai |
Newcastle has [three cathedrals], the [Anglican St. Nicholas], with its elegant [lantern tower] of [1474], the [Roman Catholic St. Mary's] designed by [Augustus Welby Pugin] and the [Coptic Cathedral] located in [Fenham]. All [three cathedrals] began their lives as [parish churches]. [St Mary's] became a cathedral in [1850] and [St Nicholas'] in [1882]. Another [prominent church] in the [city centre] is the [Church of St Thomas the Martyr] which is the only [parish church] in the [Church of England] without a [parish] and which is not a [peculiar]. | Newcastle has three cathedrals, the Anglican St. Nicholas, with its elegant lantern tower of 1474, the Roman Catholic St. Mary's designed by Augustus Welby Pugin and the Coptic Cathedral located in Fenham. All three cathedrals began their lives as parish churches. St Mary's became a cathedral in 1850 and St Nicholas' in 1882. Another prominent church in the city centre is the Church of St Thomas the Martyr which is the only parish church in the Church of England without a parish and which is not a peculiar. |
[Networks affiliates] approved a [two-year affiliate agreement] in [2002]. In [September], [Disney Chairman/CEO Michael Eisner] outlined a proposed [realignment] of the [ABC broadcast network] [day parts] with the [similar unit] in its [cable channels]: ABC [Saturday mornings] with [Disney Channels] ([Toon] & [Playhouse]), ABC [daytime] with [Soapnet] and ABC [prime time] with [ABC Family]. [2002] saw the [debut] of the network's [first hit reality series], [The Bachelor] (the [elimination-style dating show]'s [success] led to a [spinoff], [The Bachelorette], which [premiered] the [following year], as well as [two additional spinoffs] that later [debuted] in the [early 2010s]). | Networks affiliates approved a two-year affiliate agreement in 2002. In September, Disney Chairman/CEO Michael Eisner outlined a proposed realignment of the ABC broadcast network day parts with the similar unit in its cable channels: ABC Saturday mornings with Disney Channels (Toon & Playhouse), ABC daytime with Soapnet and ABC prime time with ABC Family. 2002 saw the debut of the network's first hit reality series, The Bachelor (the elimination-style dating show's success led to a spinoff, The Bachelorette, which premiered the following year, as well as two additional spinoffs that later debuted in the early 2010s). |
[Jacksonville] has suffered less damage from [hurricanes] than most other [east coast cities], although the [threat] does exist for a [direct hit] by a [major hurricane]. The city has only received [one direct hit] from a [hurricane] since [1871]; however, Jacksonville has experienced [hurricane] or [near-hurricane conditions] [more than a dozen times] due to [storms crossing] the [state] from the [Gulf of Mexico] to the [Atlantic Ocean], or [passing to the north or south] in the [Atlantic] and [brushing past] the [area]. The [strongest effect] on Jacksonville was from [Hurricane Dora] in [1964], the only recorded storm to hit the [First Coast] with [sustained hurricane-force winds]. The [eye] crossed [St. Augustine] with winds that had just [barely diminished] to [110 mph] ([180 km/h]), making it a [strong Category 2] on the [Saffir-Simpson Scale]. Jacksonville also suffered damage from [2008's Tropical Storm Fay] which [crisscrossed] the [state], bringing parts of Jacksonville under [darkness] for [four days]. Similarly, [four years prior] to this, Jacksonville was [inundated] by [Hurricane Frances] and [Hurricane Jeanne], which made [landfall] [south of the area]. These [tropical cyclones] were the [costliest indirect hits] to Jacksonville. [Hurricane Floyd] in [1999] caused damage mainly to [Jacksonville Beach]. During Floyd, the Jacksonville Beach [pier] was [severely damaged], and later [demolished]. The [rebuilt pier] was later [damaged] by [Fay], but not [destroyed]. [Tropical Storm Bonnie] would cause [minor damage] in [2004], [spawning] a [minor tornado] in the [process]. On [May 28, 2012], Jacksonville was hit by [Tropical Storm Beryl], [packing winds] up to [70 miles per hour] ([113 km/h]) which made [landfall] [near Jacksonville Beach]. | Jacksonville has suffered less damage from hurricanes than most other east coast cities, although the threat does exist for a direct hit by a major hurricane. The city has only received one direct hit from a hurricane since 1871; however, Jacksonville has experienced hurricane or near-hurricane conditions more than a dozen times due to storms crossing the state from the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean, or passing to the north or south in the Atlantic and brushing past the area. The strongest effect on Jacksonville was from Hurricane Dora in 1964, the only recorded storm to hit the First Coast with sustained hurricane-force winds. The eye crossed St. Augustine with winds that had just barely diminished to 110 mph (180 km/h), making it a strong Category 2 on the Saffir-Simpson Scale. Jacksonville also suffered damage from 2008's Tropical Storm Fay which crisscrossed the state, bringing parts of Jacksonville under darkness for four days. Similarly, four years prior to this, Jacksonville was inundated by Hurricane Frances and Hurricane Jeanne, which made landfall south of the area. These tropical cyclones were the costliest indirect hits to Jacksonville. Hurricane Floyd in 1999 caused damage mainly to Jacksonville Beach. During Floyd, the Jacksonville Beach pier was severely damaged, and later demolished. The rebuilt pier was later damaged by Fay, but not destroyed. Tropical Storm Bonnie would cause minor damage in 2004, spawning a minor tornado in the process. On May 28, 2012, Jacksonville was hit by Tropical Storm Beryl, packing winds up to 70 miles per hour (113 km/h) which made landfall near Jacksonville Beach. |
[One computer model] of [future climate change] caused by [greenhouse gas emissions] shows that the [Amazon rainforest] could become [unsustainable] under conditions of [severely reduced rainfall] and [increased temperatures], leading to an [almost complete loss] of [rainforest cover] in the [basin] by [2100]. However, [simulations] of [Amazon basin climate change] across [many different models] are not [consistent] in their estimation of any [rainfall response], ranging from [weak increases] to [strong decreases]. The [result] indicates that the [rainforest] could be [threatened] though the [21st century] by [climate change] in addition to [deforestation]. | One computer model of future climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions shows that the Amazon rainforest could become unsustainable under conditions of severely reduced rainfall and increased temperatures, leading to an almost complete loss of rainforest cover in the basin by 2100. However, simulations of Amazon basin climate change across many different models are not consistent in their estimation of any rainfall response, ranging from weak increases to strong decreases. The result indicates that the rainforest could be threatened though the 21st century by climate change in addition to deforestation. |
Although it is generally accepted that [EU law] has [primacy], not all EU laws give [citizens standing] to bring [claims]: that is, not all EU laws have ["direct effect"]. In [Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen] it was held that the provisions of the [Treaties] (and [EU Regulations]) are [directly effective], if they are (1) [clear] and [unambiguous] (2) [unconditional], and (3) did not require EU or national authorities to take [further action] to implement them. [Van Gend en Loos], a [postal company], claimed that what is now [TFEU article 30] prevented the [Dutch Customs Authorities] charging [tariffs], when it imported [urea-formaldehyde plastics] from [Germany] to [the Netherlands]. After a [Dutch court] made a [reference], the [Court of Justice] held that even though the [Treaties] did not ["expressly"] confer a right on [citizens or companies] to bring [claims], they could do so. [Historically], [international treaties] had only allowed [states] to have [legal claims] for their enforcement, but the [Court of Justice] proclaimed "the Community constitutes a new [legal order] of [international law]". Because [article 30] [clearly], [unconditionally] and [immediately] stated that no [quantitative restrictions] could be placed on [trade], without a good [justification], [Van Gend en Loos] could recover the [money] it paid for the [tariff]. [EU Regulations] are the same as [Treaty provisions] in this sense, because as [TFEU article 288] states, they are ‘directly [applicable] in all [Member States]’. Moreover, [member states] comes under a duty not to replicate [Regulations] in their own law, in order to prevent [confusion]. For instance, in [Commission v Italy] the [Court of Justice] held that [Italy] had breached a [duty] under the [Treaties], both by failing to operate a [scheme] to pay [farmers] a [premium] to [slaughter cows] (to reduce [dairy overproduction]), and by reproducing the rules in a [decree] with various [additions]. "Regulations," held the [Court of Justice], "come into force solely by virtue of their [publication]" and [implementation] could have the effect of "jeopardizing their [simultaneous] and [uniform application] in the whole of the [Union]." On the other hand, some [Regulations] may themselves ["expressly"] require [implementing measures], in which case those specific rules should be followed. | Although it is generally accepted that EU law has primacy, not all EU laws give citizens standing to bring claims: that is, not all EU laws have "direct effect". In Van Gend en Loos v Nederlandse Administratie der Belastingen it was held that the provisions of the Treaties (and EU Regulations) are directly effective, if they are (1) clear and unambiguous (2) unconditional, and (3) did not require EU or national authorities to take further action to implement them. Van Gend en Loos, a postal company, claimed that what is now TFEU article 30 prevented the Dutch Customs Authorities charging tariffs, when it imported urea-formaldehyde plastics from Germany to the Netherlands. After a Dutch court made a reference, the Court of Justice held that even though the Treaties did not "expressly" confer a right on citizens or companies to bring claims, they could do so. Historically, international treaties had only allowed states to have legal claims for their enforcement, but the Court of Justice proclaimed "the Community constitutes a new legal order of international law". Because article 30 clearly, unconditionally and immediately stated that no quantitative restrictions could be placed on trade, without a good justification, Van Gend en Loos could recover the money it paid for the tariff. EU Regulations are the same as Treaty provisions in this sense, because as TFEU article 288 states, they are ‘directly applicable in all Member States’. Moreover, member states comes under a duty not to replicate Regulations in their own law, in order to prevent confusion. For instance, in Commission v Italy the Court of Justice held that Italy had breached a duty under the Treaties, both by failing to operate a scheme to pay farmers a premium to slaughter cows (to reduce dairy overproduction), and by reproducing the rules in a decree with various additions. "Regulations," held the Court of Justice, "come into force solely by virtue of their publication" and implementation could have the effect of "jeopardizing their simultaneous and uniform application in the whole of the Union." On the other hand, some Regulations may themselves expressly require implementing measures, in which case those specific rules should be followed. |
By far [the most famous work] of [Norman art] is [the Bayeux Tapestry], which is not [a tapestry] but [a work of embroidery]. It was commissioned by [Odo], [the Bishop of Bayeux] and [first Earl of Kent], employing [natives] from [Kent] who were [learned] in [the Nordic traditions] imported in [the previous half century] by [the Danish Vikings]. | By far the most famous work of Norman art is the Bayeux Tapestry, which is not a tapestry but a work of embroidery. It was commissioned by Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux and first Earl of Kent, employing natives from Kent who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the Danish Vikings. |
[Consultant pharmacy practice] focuses more on [medication regimen review] (i.e. "cognitive services") than on [actual dispensing] of drugs. [Consultant pharmacists] most typically work in [nursing homes], but are increasingly branching into [other institutions] and [non-institutional settings]. Traditionally consultant pharmacists were usually [independent business owners], though in the [United States] many now work for [several large pharmacy management companies] (primarily [Omnicare], [Kindred Healthcare] and [PharMerica]). This trend may be gradually reversing as consultant pharmacists begin to work directly with [patients], primarily because many [elderly people] are now taking [numerous medications] but continue to live outside of [institutional settings]. Some [community pharmacies] employ consultant pharmacists and/or provide [consulting services]. | Consultant pharmacy practice focuses more on medication regimen review (i.e. "cognitive services") than on actual dispensing of drugs. Consultant pharmacists most typically work in nursing homes, but are increasingly branching into other institutions and non-institutional settings. Traditionally consultant pharmacists were usually independent business owners, though in the United States many now work for several large pharmacy management companies (primarily Omnicare, Kindred Healthcare and PharMerica). This trend may be gradually reversing as consultant pharmacists begin to work directly with patients, primarily because many elderly people are now taking numerous medications but continue to live outside of institutional settings. Some community pharmacies employ consultant pharmacists and/or provide consulting services. |
[Killer T cells] are a [sub-group] of [T cells] that [kill cells] that are [infected] with [viruses] (and [other pathogens]), or are [otherwise damaged] or [dysfunctional]. As with [B cells], [each type] of [T cell] [recognizes] a [different antigen]. [Killer T cells] are [activated] when their [T cell receptor] ([TCR]) [binds] to this [specific antigen] in a [complex] with the [MHC Class I receptor] of [another cell]. [Recognition] of this [MHC:antigen complex] is [aided] by a [co-receptor] on the [T cell], called [CD8]. The [T cell] then [travels throughout] the [body] in [search of cells] where the [MHC I receptors] bear this [antigen]. When an [activated T cell] contacts such cells, it [releases cytotoxins], such as [perforin], which form [pores] in the [target cell's plasma membrane], allowing [ions], [water] and [toxins] to enter. The [entry] of [another toxin] called [granulysin] (a [protease]) induces the [target cell] to undergo [apoptosis]. [T cell killing] of [host cells] is particularly important in [preventing] the [replication] of [viruses]. [T cell activation] is [tightly controlled] and [generally requires] a [very strong] [MHC/antigen activation signal], or [additional activation signals] provided by "helper" [T cells] (see below). | Killer T cells are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional. As with B cells, each type of T cell recognizes a different antigen. Killer T cells are activated when their T cell receptor (TCR) binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell. Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a co-receptor on the T cell, called CD8. The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen. When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases cytotoxins, such as perforin, which form pores in the target cell's plasma membrane, allowing ions, water and toxins to enter. The entry of another toxin called granulysin (a protease) induces the target cell to undergo apoptosis. T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses. T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T cells (see below). |
When suffering from [sleep deprivation], [active immunizations] may have a [diminished effect] and may result in [lower antibody production], and a [lower immune response], than would be noted in a [well-rested individual]. Additionally, [proteins] such as [NFIL3], which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both [T-cell differentiation] and our [circadian rhythms], can be affected through the [disturbance] of [natural light] and [dark cycles] through instances of [sleep deprivation], [shift work], etc. As a result, these [disruptions] can lead to an increase in [chronic conditions] such as [heart disease], [chronic pain], and [asthma]. | When suffering from sleep deprivation, active immunizations may have a diminished effect and may result in lower antibody production, and a lower immune response, than would be noted in a well-rested individual. Additionally, proteins such as NFIL3, which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both T-cell differentiation and our circadian rhythms, can be affected through the disturbance of natural light and dark cycles through instances of sleep deprivation, shift work, etc. As a result, these disruptions can lead to an increase in chronic conditions such as heart disease, chronic pain, and asthma. |
Luther's hymns [frequently] [evoked] [particular events] [in his life] and [the unfolding Reformation]. This behavior started [with] his [learning] [of] [the execution] [of] Johann Esch and Heinrich Voes, [the first individuals] [to be martyred] [by] [the Roman Catholic Church] [for] [Lutheran views], [prompting] Luther [to write] [the hymn] "Ein neues Lied wir heben an" ("A new song we raise"), [which is] [generally known] [in English] [by] [John C. Messenger's translation] [by] [the title] and [first line] "Flung to the Heedless Winds" and [sung] [to] [the tune] Ibstone [composed] [in] 1875 [by] [Maria C. Tiddeman]. | Luther's hymns were frequently evoked by particular events in his life and the unfolding Reformation. This behavior started with his learning of the execution of Johann Esch and Heinrich Voes, the first individuals to be martyred by the Roman Catholic Church for Lutheran views, prompting Luther to write the hymn "Ein neues Lied wir heben an" ("A new song we raise"), which is generally known in English by John C. Messenger's translation by the title and first line "Flung to the Heedless Winds" and sung to the tune Ibstone composed in 1875 by Maria C. Tiddeman. |
In addition to arguing that the [rat population] was [insufficient] to account for a [bubonic plague pandemic], [sceptics] of the [bubonic plague theory] point out that the [symptoms] of the [Black Death] are not [unique] (and arguably in some accounts may [differ] from [bubonic plague]); that [transference] via [fleas] in [goods] was [likely] to be of [marginal significance]; and that the [DNA results] may be [flawed] and might not have been [repeated elsewhere], despite [extensive samples] from [other mass graves]. [Other arguments] include the [lack] of [accounts] of the [death] of [rats] before [outbreaks] of [plague] between the [14th] and [17th centuries]; [temperatures] that are too [cold] in [northern Europe] for the [survival] of [fleas]; that, despite [primitive transport systems], the [spread] of the [Black Death] was much [faster] than that of [modern bubonic plague]; that [mortality rates] of the [Black Death] appear to be very [high]; that, while [modern bubonic plague] is largely [endemic] as a [rural disease], the [Black Death] indiscriminately struck [urban and rural areas]; and that the [pattern] of the [Black Death], with [major outbreaks] in the [same areas] separated by [5 to 15 years], differs from [modern bubonic plague]—which often becomes [endemic] for [decades] with [annual flare-ups]. | In addition to arguing that the rat population was insufficient to account for a bubonic plague pandemic, sceptics of the bubonic plague theory point out that the symptoms of the Black Death are not unique (and arguably in some accounts may differ from bubonic plague); that transference via fleas in goods was likely to be of marginal significance; and that the DNA results may be flawed and might not have been repeated elsewhere, despite extensive samples from other mass graves. Other arguments include the lack of accounts of the death of rats before outbreaks of plague between the 14th and 17th centuries; temperatures that are too cold in northern Europe for the survival of fleas; that, despite primitive transport systems, the spread of the Black Death was much faster than that of modern bubonic plague; that mortality rates of the Black Death appear to be very high; that, while modern bubonic plague is largely endemic as a rural disease, the Black Death indiscriminately struck urban and rural areas; and that the pattern of the Black Death, with major outbreaks in the same areas separated by 5 to 15 years, differs from modern bubonic plague—which often becomes endemic for decades with annual flare-ups. |
The [origin] of [electric] and [magnetic fields] would not be [fully explained] until [1864] when [James Clerk Maxwell] [unified] a number of [earlier theories] into a set of [20 scalar equations], which were later [reformulated] into [4 vector equations] by [Oliver Heaviside] and [Josiah Willard Gibbs]. These ["Maxwell Equations"] [fully described] the [sources] of the fields as being [stationary] and [moving charges], and the [interactions] of the fields themselves. This led [Maxwell] to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be ["self-generating"] through a [wave] that [traveled] at a [speed] that he [calculated] to be the [speed of light]. This [insight] united the [nascent fields] of [electromagnetic theory] with [optics] and led [directly] to a [complete description] of the [electromagnetic spectrum]. | The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell unified a number of earlier theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by Oliver Heaviside and Josiah Willard Gibbs. These "Maxwell Equations" fully described the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a wave that traveled at a speed that he calculated to be the speed of light. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum. |
Notable alumni in the field of [government] and [politics] include the founder of modern [community organizing] [Saul Alinsky], [Obama campaign advisor] and top political advisor to [President Bill Clinton] [David Axelrod], [Attorney General] and federal judge [Robert Bork], [Attorney General] [Ramsey Clark], [Prohibition agent] [Eliot Ness], [Supreme Court Justice] [John Paul Stevens], [Prime Minister of Canada] [William Lyon Mackenzie King], 11th [Prime Minister of Poland] [Marek Belka], [Governor of the Bank of Japan] [Masaaki Shirakawa], the first female [African-American Senator] [Carol Moseley Braun], [United States Senator] from [Vermont] and [2016 Democratic Presidential Candidate] [Bernie Sanders], and former [World Bank President] [Paul Wolfowitz]. | Notable alumni in the field of government and politics include the founder of modern community organizing Saul Alinsky, Obama campaign advisor and top political advisor to President Bill Clinton David Axelrod, Attorney General and federal judge Robert Bork, Attorney General Ramsey Clark, Prohibition agent Eliot Ness, Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens, Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King, 11th Prime Minister of Poland Marek Belka, Governor of the Bank of Japan Masaaki Shirakawa, the first female African-American Senator Carol Moseley Braun, United States Senator from Vermont and 2016 Democratic Presidential Candidate Bernie Sanders, and former World Bank President Paul Wolfowitz. |
In [1998], the [network] began using a [minimalist] [graphical identity], designed by [Pittard Sullivan], featuring a [small] [black-and-white] "[ABC Circle]" [logo] on a [yellow background] (promotions during this time also featured a [sequence] of [still photos] of the [stars] of its [programs] during the [timeslot card] as well as the [schedule sequence] that began each [night's prime time lineup]). A [new] [four-note] [theme tune] was introduced alongside the [package], based around the [network's "We Love TV" image campaign] introduced that year, creating an [audio signature] on par with the [NBC chimes], [CBS' various three-note soundmarks] (including the [current version used since 2000]) and the [Fox Fanfare]. The [four-note signature] has been [updated] with every [television season] thereafter (though [variants] of it used since the [1998–99 season] remain in use during the [production company vanity cards] shown following the [closing credits] of most [programs]). In the [fall of 2015], ABC is stopped with its [1998–2002 four-note jingles] for [promotions] and [production company vanity cards] following the [closing credits] of most of its [programs] over [seventeen years], now it have a [different] and [adventure-type music] (with the [drums] of the [network's four-note signature] in the ending). The [old four-note theme tune] is still used by [ABC on Demand] to the beginning of the [ABC show]. | In 1998, the network began using a minimalist graphical identity, designed by Pittard Sullivan, featuring a small black-and-white "ABC Circle" logo on a yellow background (promotions during this time also featured a sequence of still photos of the stars of its programs during the timeslot card as well as the schedule sequence that began each night's prime time lineup). A new four-note theme tune was introduced alongside the package, based around the network's "We Love TV" image campaign introduced that year, creating an audio signature on par with the NBC chimes, CBS' various three-note soundmarks (including the current version used since 2000) and the Fox Fanfare. The four-note signature has been updated with every television season thereafter (though variants of it used since the 1998–99 season remain in use during the production company vanity cards shown following the closing credits of most programs). In the fall of 2015, ABC is stopped with its 1998–2002 four-note jingles for promotions and production company vanity cards following the closing credits of most of its programs over seventeen years, now it have a different and adventure-type music (with the drums of the network's four-note signature in the ending). The old four-note theme tune is still used by ABC on Demand to the beginning of the ABC show. |
In the aftermath of generally poor [French results] in most theaters of the [Seven Years' War] in 1758, [France]'s new [foreign minister], the [duc de Choiseul], decided to focus on an [invasion of Britain], to draw [British resources] away from [North America] and the [European mainland]. The invasion failed both [militarily] and [politically], as [Pitt] again planned [significant campaigns] against [New France], and sent [funds] to Britain's [ally] on the mainland, [Prussia], and the [French Navy] failed in the 1759 [naval battles] at [Lagos] and [Quiberon Bay]. In one piece of [good fortune], some [French supply ships] managed to depart France, eluding the [British blockade] of the [French coast]. | In the aftermath of generally poor French results in most theaters of the Seven Years' War in 1758, France's new foreign minister, the duc de Choiseul, decided to focus on an invasion of Britain, to draw British resources away from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed both militarily and politically, as Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New France, and sent funds to Britain's ally on the mainland, Prussia, and the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships managed to depart France, eluding the British blockade of the French coast. |
In [1875], Tesla enrolled at [Austrian Polytechnic] in [Graz], [Austria], on a [Military Frontier scholarship]. During his [first year], Tesla never missed a [lecture], earned the [highest grades] possible, passed [nine exams], started a [Serbian culture club], and even received a [letter of commendation] from the [dean] of the [technical faculty] to his [father], which stated, "Your son is a [star of first rank]." Tesla claimed that he worked from [3 a.m.] to [11 p.m.], [no Sundays or holidays excepted]. He was "mortified when his [father] made light of those [hard won honors]." After his [father's death] in [1879], Tesla found a [package of letters] from his [professors] to his [father], warning that unless he were [removed from the school], Tesla would be [killed through overwork]. During his [second year], Tesla came into conflict with [Professor Poeschl] over the [Gramme dynamo], when Tesla suggested that [commutators] weren't necessary. At the end of his [second year], Tesla lost his [scholarship] and became [addicted to gambling]. During his [third year], Tesla gambled away his [allowance] and his [tuition money], later gambling back his [initial losses] and returning the [balance] to his [family]. Tesla said that he "conquered his [passion] then and there," but later he was known to play [billiards] in the [US]. When [exam time] came, Tesla was [unprepared] and asked for an [extension] to study, but was [denied]. He never [graduated] from the [university] and did not receive [grades] for the [last semester]. | In 1875, Tesla enrolled at Austrian Polytechnic in Graz, Austria, on a Military Frontier scholarship. During his first year, Tesla never missed a lecture, earned the highest grades possible, passed nine exams (nearly twice as many required), started a Serbian culture club, and even received a letter of commendation from the dean of the technical faculty to his father, which stated, "Your son is a star of first rank." Tesla claimed that he worked from 3 a.m. to 11 p.m., no Sundays or holidays excepted. He was "mortified when his father made light of those hard won honors." After his father's death in 1879, Tesla found a package of letters from his professors to his father, warning that unless he were removed from the school, Tesla would be killed through overwork. During his second year, Tesla came into conflict with Professor Poeschl over the Gramme dynamo, when Tesla suggested that commutators weren't necessary. At the end of his second year, Tesla lost his scholarship and became addicted to gambling. During his third year, Tesla gambled away his allowance and his tuition money, later gambling back his initial losses and returning the balance to his family. Tesla said that he "conquered his passion then and there," but later he was known to play billiards in the US. When exam time came, Tesla was unprepared and asked for an extension to study, but was denied. He never graduated from the university and did not receive grades for the last semester. |
In addition to [climate assessment reports], the [IPCC] is publishing [Special Reports] on specific topics. The [preparation] and [approval process] for all [IPCC Special Reports] follows the [same procedures] as for [IPCC Assessment Reports]. In the year [2011] two [IPCC Special Reports] were [finalized], the [Special Report] on [Renewable Energy Sources] and [Climate Change Mitigation] (SRREN) and the [Special Report] on [Managing Risks] of [Extreme Events] and [Disasters] to [Advance Climate Change Adaptation] (SREX). Both [Special Reports] were [requested] by [governments]. | In addition to climate assessment reports, the IPCC is publishing Special Reports on specific topics. The preparation and approval process for all IPCC Special Reports follows the same procedures as for IPCC Assessment Reports. In the year 2011 two IPCC Special Report were finalized, the Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN) and the Special Report on Managing Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation (SREX). Both Special Reports were requested by governments. |
The dialect of Newcastle is known as [Geordie], and contains a [large amount] of [vocabulary] and [distinctive word pronunciations] not used in [other parts] of the [United Kingdom]. The Geordie dialect has much of its origins in the [language spoken] by the [Anglo-Saxon populations] who [migrated] to and [conquered] much of [England] after the [end] of [Roman Imperial rule]. This [language] was the [forerunner] of [Modern English]; but while the [dialects] of [other English regions] have been [heavily altered] by the [influences] of [other foreign languages]—particularly [Latin] and [Norman French]—the Geordie dialect retains many [elements] of the [old language]. An example of this is the [pronunciation] of certain words: "dead", "cow", "house" and "strong" are pronounced "deed", "coo", "hoos" and "strang"—which is how they were [pronounced] in the [Anglo-Saxon language]. Other Geordie words with [Anglo-Saxon origins] include: "larn" (from the [Anglo-Saxon "laeran"], meaning "teach"), "burn" ("stream") and "gan" ("go"). | The dialect of Newcastle is known as Geordie, and contains a large amount of vocabulary and distinctive word pronunciations not used in other parts of the United Kingdom. The Geordie dialect has much of its origins in the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxon populations who migrated to and conquered much of England after the end of Roman Imperial rule. This language was the forerunner of Modern English; but while the dialects of other English regions have been heavily altered by the influences of other foreign languages—particularly Latin and Norman French—the Geordie dialect retains many elements of the old language. An example of this is the pronunciation of certain words: "dead", "cow", "house" and "strong" are pronounced "deed", "coo", "hoos" and "strang"—which is how they were pronounced in the Anglo-Saxon language. Other Geordie words with Anglo-Saxon origins include: "larn" (from the Anglo-Saxon "laeran", meaning "teach"), "burn" ("stream") and "gan" ("go"). |
A [problem] is regarded as [inherently difficult] if its solution requires [significant resources], whatever the [algorithm] used. The [theory] formalizes this [intuition], by introducing [mathematical models] of [computation] to study these [problems] and [quantifying] the [amount] of [resources] needed to solve them, such as [time] and [storage]. [Other complexity measures] are also used, such as the [amount] of [communication] (used in [communication complexity]), the [number] of [gates] in a [circuit] (used in [circuit complexity]) and the [number] of [processors] (used in [parallel computing]). One of the [roles] of [computational complexity theory] is to determine the [practical limits] on what [computers] can and cannot do. | A problem is regarded as inherently difficult if its solution requires significant resources, whatever the algorithm used. The theory formalizes this intuition, by introducing mathematical models of computation to study these problems and quantifying the amount of resources needed to solve them, such as time and storage. Other complexity measures are also used, such as the amount of communication (used in communication complexity), the number of gates in a circuit (used in circuit complexity) and the number of processors (used in parallel computing). One of the roles of computational complexity theory is to determine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot do. |
[Approximately] [one million] [Protestants] in [modern France] represent [some] [2%] of its [population]. [Most] are [concentrated] in [Alsace] in [northeast France] and the [Cévennes mountain region] in the [south], who still [regard] themselves as [Huguenots] [to this day].[citation needed] [A diaspora] of [French Australians] still [considers] itself [Huguenot], [even after centuries] of [exile]. [Long] [integrated] into [Australian society], it is [encouraged] by the [Huguenot Society of Australia] to [embrace] and [conserve] its [cultural heritage], [aided by] the [Society's genealogical research services]. | Approximately one million Protestants in modern France represent some 2% of its population. Most are concentrated in Alsace in northeast France and the Cévennes mountain region in the south, who still regard themselves as Huguenots to this day.citation needed A diaspora of French Australians still considers itself Huguenot, even after centuries of exile. Long integrated into Australian society, it is encouraged by the Huguenot Society of Australia to embrace and conserve its cultural heritage, aided by the Society's genealogical research services. |
[Highly concentrated sources] of [oxygen] promote [rapid combustion]. [Fire] and [explosion hazards] exist when [concentrated oxidants] and [fuels] are brought into [close proximity]; an [ignition event], such as [heat] or a [spark], is needed to trigger [combustion]. [Oxygen] is the [oxidant], not the [fuel], but nevertheless the [source] of [most] of the [chemical energy] released in [combustion]. [Combustion hazards] also apply to [compounds] of [oxygen] with a [high oxidative potential], such as [peroxides], [chlorates], [nitrates], [perchlorates], and [dichromates] because they can [donate oxygen] to a [fire]. | Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. Oxygen is the oxidant, not the fuel, but nevertheless the source of most of the chemical energy released in combustion. Combustion hazards also apply to compounds of oxygen with a high oxidative potential, such as peroxides, chlorates, nitrates, perchlorates, and dichromates because they can donate oxygen to a fire. |
[Ctenophores] used to be regarded as "dead ends" in [marine] [food chains] because it was thought their low ratio of [organic matter] to [salt] and [water] made them a [poor diet] for other [animals]. It is also often difficult to [identify] the remains of [ctenophores] in the [guts] of [possible predators], although the [combs] sometimes remain [intact] [long enough] to provide a [clue]. [Detailed investigation] of [chum salmon], [Oncorhynchus keta], showed that these [fish] [digest] ctenophores [20 times] as [fast] as an [equal weight] of [shrimps], and that [ctenophores] can provide a [good diet] if there are [enough] of them [around]. [Beroids] [prey] mainly on other [ctenophores]. Some [jellyfish] and [turtles] [eat] [large quantities] of [ctenophores], and [jellyfish] may [temporarily wipe out] [ctenophore populations]. Since [ctenophores] and [jellyfish] often have [large seasonal variations] in [population], most [fish] that [prey] on them are [generalists], and may have a [greater effect] on [populations] than the [specialist] jelly-eaters. This is [underlined] by an [observation] of [herbivorous fishes] [deliberately feeding] on [gelatinous zooplankton] during [blooms] in the [Red Sea]. The [larvae] of some [sea anemones] are [parasites] on [ctenophores], as are the [larvae] of some [flatworms] that [parasitize] [fish] when they reach [adulthood]. | Ctenophores used to be regarded as "dead ends" in marine food chains because it was thought their low ratio of organic matter to salt and water made them a poor diet for other animals. It is also often difficult to identify the remains of ctenophores in the guts of possible predators, although the combs sometimes remain intact long enough to provide a clue. Detailed investigation of chum salmon, Oncorhynchus keta, showed that these fish digest ctenophores 20 times as fast as an equal weight of shrimps, and that ctenophores can provide a good diet if there are enough of them around. Beroids prey mainly on other ctenophores. Some jellyfish and turtles eat large quantities of ctenophores, and jellyfish may temporarily wipe out ctenophore populations. Since ctenophores and jellyfish often have large seasonal variations in population, most fish that prey on them are generalists, and may have a greater effect on populations than the specialist jelly-eaters. This is underlined by an observation of herbivorous fishes deliberately feeding on gelatinous zooplankton during blooms in the Red Sea. The larvae of some sea anemones are parasites on ctenophores, as are the larvae of some flatworms that parasitize fish when they reach adulthood. |
The city is served by the [Tyne and Wear Metro], a system of [suburban] and [underground railways] covering much of [Tyne and Wear]. It was opened in five phases between [1980] and [1984], and was [Britain's first urban light rail transit system]; [two extensions] were opened in [1991] and [2002]. It was developed from a combination of [existing] and [newly built tracks] and [stations], with [deep-level tunnels] constructed through [Newcastle city centre]. A [bridge] was built across the [Tyne], between [Newcastle] and [Gateshead], and opened by [Queen Elizabeth II] in [1981]. The network is operated by [DB Regio] on behalf of [Nexus] and carries over [37 million passengers] a year, extending as far as [Newcastle Airport], [Tynemouth], [South Shields] and [South Hylton] in [Sunderland]. In [2004], the company [Marconi] designed and constructed the [mobile radio system] to the [underground Metro system]. The [Metro system] was the [first] in the [UK] to have [mobile phone antennae] installed in the [tunnels]. | The city is served by the Tyne and Wear Metro, a system of suburban and underground railways covering much of Tyne and Wear. It was opened in five phases between 1980 and 1984, and was Britain's first urban light rail transit system; two extensions were opened in 1991 and 2002. It was developed from a combination of existing and newly built tracks and stations, with deep-level tunnels constructed through Newcastle city centre. A bridge was built across the Tyne, between Newcastle and Gateshead, and opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1981. The network is operated by DB Regio on behalf of Nexus and carries over 37 million passengers a year, extending as far as Newcastle Airport, Tynemouth, South Shields and South Hylton in Sunderland. In 2004, the company Marconi designed and constructed the mobile radio system to the underground Metro system. The Metro system was the first in the UK to have mobile phone antennae installed in the tunnels. |
In [July 1973], as part of its [outreach programme] to [young people], the [V&A] became the [first museum] in [Britain] to present a [rock concert]. The [V&A] presented a [combined concert/lecture] by [British progressive folk-rock band Gryphon], who [explored] the [lineage] of [mediaeval music] and [instrumentation] and [related] how those contributed to [contemporary music] [500 years later]. This [innovative approach] to bringing [young people] to [museums] was a [hallmark] of the [directorship] of [Roy Strong] and was subsequently [emulated] by some other [British museums]. | In July 1973, as part of its outreach programme to young people, the V&A became the first museum in Britain to present a rock concert. The V&A presented a combined concert/lecture by British progressive folk-rock band Gryphon, who explored the lineage of mediaeval music and instrumentation and related how those contributed to contemporary music 500 years later. This innovative approach to bringing young people to museums was a hallmark of the directorship of Roy Strong and was subsequently emulated by some other British museums. |
Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with [Lord Loudoun], with [Major General James Abercrombie] as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much [campaign experience] as the trio of officers France sent to North America. [French regular army reinforcements] arrived in [New France] in May 1756, led by [Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm] and seconded by the [Chevalier de Lévis] and [Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque], all experienced veterans from the [War of the Austrian Succession]. During that time in [Europe], on May 18, 1756, [England] formally declared [war] on [France], which expanded the war into [Europe], which was later to be known as the [Seven Years' War]. | Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in command. Neither of these men had as much campaign experience as the trio of officers France sent to North America. French regular army reinforcements arrived in New France in May 1756, led by Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded by the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the War of the Austrian Succession. During that time in Europe, on May 18, 1756, England formally declared war on France, which expanded the war into Europe, which was later to be known as the Seven Years' War. |
Large-scale [regeneration] has replaced former [shipping premises] with [imposing] new [office developments]; an [innovative] [tilting bridge], the [Gateshead Millennium Bridge] was commissioned by [Gateshead Council] and has integrated the older [Newcastle Quayside] more closely with [major cultural developments] in [Gateshead], including the [BALTIC Centre for Contemporary Art], the [venue] for the [Turner Prize 2011] and the [Norman Foster-designed The Sage Gateshead music centre]. The [Newcastle] and [Gateshead Quaysides] are now a [thriving], [cosmopolitan area] with [bars], [restaurants] and [public spaces]. As a [tourist promotion], [Newcastle] and [Gateshead] have linked together under the [banner] "[NewcastleGateshead]", to spearhead the [regeneration] of the [North-East]. The [River Tyne] had the temporary [Bambuco Bridge] in [2008] for [ten days]; it was not made for [walking], [road] or [cycling], but was just a [sculpture]. | Large-scale regeneration has replaced former shipping premises with imposing new office developments; an innovative tilting bridge, the Gateshead Millennium Bridge was commissioned by Gateshead Council and has integrated the older Newcastle Quayside more closely with major cultural developments in Gateshead, including the BALTIC Centre for Contemporary Art, the venue for the Turner Prize 2011 and the Norman Foster-designed The Sage Gateshead music centre. The Newcastle and Gateshead Quaysides are now a thriving, cosmopolitan area with bars, restaurants and public spaces. As a tourist promotion, Newcastle and Gateshead have linked together under the banner "NewcastleGateshead", to spearhead the regeneration of the North-East. The River Tyne had the temporary Bambuco Bridge in 2008 for ten days; it was not made for walking, road or cycling, but was just a sculpture. |
However, his religious views remain uncertain due to other statements that he made. [For example], in his [article], "A Machine to End War", [published] in [1937], [Tesla] [stated]: | However, his religious views remain uncertain due to other statements that he made. For example, in his article, "A Machine to End War", published in 1937, Tesla stated: |
In this equation, a [dimensional constant] is used to describe the [relative strength] of gravity. This constant has come to be known as [Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant], though its value was [unknown] in Newton's [lifetime]. Not until [1798] was [Henry Cavendish] able to make the [first measurement] of using a [torsion balance]; this was widely reported in the [press] as a measurement of the [mass] of the [Earth] since knowing could allow one to solve for the [Earth's mass] given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all [celestial bodies] followed the same [laws of motion], his [law of gravity] had to be [universal]. [Succinctly stated], [Newton's Law of Gravitation] states that the [force] on a [spherical object] of mass due to the [gravitational pull] of mass is | In this equation, a dimensional constant is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has come to be known as Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant, though its value was unknown in Newton's lifetime. Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion balance; this was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing could allow one to solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all celestial bodies followed the same laws of motion, his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, Newton's Law of Gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass due to the gravitational pull of mass is |
[precise definition], [solve a problem], [given amount of time], [space], [computational model], [deterministic Turing machine], [time required], [deterministic Turing machine M], [input x], [total number of state transitions], [steps], [machine makes], [halts], [outputs], [answer], ["yes"], ["no"], [Turing machine M], [operate within time f(n)], [time required], [input of length n], [decision problem A], [solved in time f(n)], [Turing machine operating], [time f(n)], [solves the problem], [complexity theory], [interested], [classifying problems], [based on], [difficulty], [defines sets of problems], [based on], [criteria], [set of problems], [solvable within time f(n)], [deterministic Turing machine], [denoted by], [DTIME(f(n))] | For a precise definition of what it means to solve a problem using a given amount of time and space, a computational model such as the deterministic Turing machine is used. The time required by a deterministic Turing machine M on input x is the total number of state transitions, or steps, the machine makes before it halts and outputs the answer ("yes" or "no"). A Turing machine M is said to operate within time f(n), if the time required by M on each input of length n is at most f(n). A decision problem A can be solved in time f(n) if there exists a Turing machine operating in time f(n) that solves the problem. Since complexity theory is interested in classifying problems based on their difficulty, one defines sets of problems based on some criteria. For instance, the set of problems solvable within time f(n) on a deterministic Turing machine is then denoted by DTIME(f(n)). |
Today, [Warsaw] has some of the [best] [medical facilities] in [Poland] and [East-Central Europe]. The city is home to the [Children's Memorial Health Institute (CMHI)], the [highest-reference hospital] in [Poland], as well as an [active research and education center]. While the [Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology] it is one of the [largest] and [most modern] [oncological institutions] in [Europe]. The [clinical section] is located in a [10-floor building] with [700 beds], [10 operating theatres], an [intensive care unit], several [diagnostic departments] as well as an [outpatient clinic]. The [infrastructure] has developed a lot over the past years. | Today, Warsaw has some of the best medical facilities in Poland and East-Central Europe. The city is home to the Children's Memorial Health Institute (CMHI), the highest-reference hospital in all of Poland, as well as an active research and education center. While the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology it is one of the largest and most modern oncological institutions in Europe. The clinical section is located in a 10-floor building with 700 beds, 10 operating theatres, an intensive care unit, several diagnostic departments as well as an outpatient clinic. The infrastructure has developed a lot over the past years. |
For the first time, the [Super Bowl 50 Host Committee] and the [NFL] have openly sought [disabled veteran] and [lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender-owned businesses] in [Business Connect], the [Super Bowl program] that provides [local companies] with [contracting opportunities] in and around the [Super Bowl]. The [host committee] has already raised over $40 million through [sponsors] including [Apple], [Google], [Yahoo!], [Intel], [Gap], [Chevron], and [Dignity Health]. | For the first time, the Super Bowl 50 Host Committee and the NFL have openly sought disabled veteran and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender-owned businesses in Business Connect, the Super Bowl program that provides local companies with contracting opportunities in and around the Super Bowl. The host committee has already raised over $40 million through sponsors including Apple, Google, Yahoo!, Intel, Gap, Chevron, and Dignity Health. |
A large body of mathematical work would still be valid when calling [1] a [prime], but [Euclid]'s [fundamental theorem of arithmetic] (mentioned above) would not hold as stated. For example, the number [15] can be factored as [3] · [5] and [1] · [3] · [5]; if [1] were admitted as a prime, these two presentations would be considered different [factorizations] of [15] into [prime numbers], so the statement of that theorem would have to be modified. Similarly, the [sieve of Eratosthenes] would not work correctly if [1] were considered a [prime]: a modified version of the sieve that considers [1] as prime would eliminate all [multiples] of [1] (that is, all other numbers) and produce as output only the single number [1]. Furthermore, the [prime numbers] have several properties that the number [1] lacks, such as the relationship of the number to its corresponding value of [Euler's totient function] or the sum of [divisors] function. | A large body of mathematical work would still be valid when calling 1 a prime, but Euclid's fundamental theorem of arithmetic (mentioned above) would not hold as stated. For example, the number 15 can be factored as 3 · 5 and 1 · 3 · 5; if 1 were admitted as a prime, these two presentations would be considered different factorizations of 15 into prime numbers, so the statement of that theorem would have to be modified. Similarly, the sieve of Eratosthenes would not work correctly if 1 were considered a prime: a modified version of the sieve that considers 1 as prime would eliminate all multiples of 1 (that is, all other numbers) and produce as output only the single number 1. Furthermore, the prime numbers have several properties that the number 1 lacks, such as the relationship of the number to its corresponding value of Euler's totient function or the sum of divisors function. |
However, this [oft-quoted] saying of [Tetzel] was by no means [representative] of [contemporary] [Catholic teaching] on [indulgences], but rather a [reflection] of his [capacity] to [exaggerate]. Yet if [Tetzel] [overstated] the [matter] in regard to [indulgences] for the [dead], his [teaching] on [indulgences] for the [living] was in [line] with [Catholic dogma] of the [time]. | However, this oft-quoted saying of Tetzel was by no means representative of contemporary Catholic teaching on indulgences, but rather a reflection of his capacity to exaggerate. Yet if Tetzel overstated the matter in regard to indulgences for the dead, his teaching on indulgences for the living was in line with Catholic dogma of the time. |
The [four-year], [full-time undergraduate program] comprises a minority of [enrollments] at the [university] and emphasizes [instruction] with an "arts and sciences focus". Between [1978] and [2008], [entering students] were required to complete a [core curriculum] of [seven classes] outside of their [concentration]. Since [2008], [undergraduate students] have been required to complete courses in [eight General Education categories]: [Aesthetic and Interpretive Understanding], [Culture and Belief], [Empirical and Mathematical Reasoning], [Ethical Reasoning], [Science of Living Systems], [Science of the Physical Universe], [Societies of the World], and [United States in the World]. [Harvard] offers a [comprehensive doctoral graduate program] and there is a [high level] of [coexistence] between [graduate and undergraduate degrees]. The [Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching], [The New York Times], and some [students] have criticized [Harvard] for its [reliance] on [teaching fellows] for some aspects of [undergraduate education]; they consider this to [adversely affect] the [quality] of [education]. | The four-year, full-time undergraduate program comprises a minority of enrollments at the university and emphasizes instruction with an "arts and sciences focus". Between 1978 and 2008, entering students were required to complete a core curriculum of seven classes outside of their concentration. Since 2008, undergraduate students have been required to complete courses in eight General Education categories: Aesthetic and Interpretive Understanding, Culture and Belief, Empirical and Mathematical Reasoning, Ethical Reasoning, Science of Living Systems, Science of the Physical Universe, Societies of the World, and United States in the World. Harvard offers a comprehensive doctoral graduate program and there is a high level of coexistence between graduate and undergraduate degrees. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, The New York Times, and some students have criticized Harvard for its reliance on teaching fellows for some aspects of undergraduate education; they consider this to adversely affect the quality of education. |
In the final years of the apartheid era, parents at [white government schools] were given the option to convert to a "semi-private" form called [Model C], and many of these schools changed their [admissions policies] to accept children of [other races]. Following the transition to democracy, the [legal form] of "Model C" was abolished, however, the term continues to be used to describe [government schools] formerly reserved for [white children]. These schools tend to produce [better academic results] than [government schools] formerly reserved for [other race groups]. Former "Model C" schools are not [private schools], as they are [state-controlled]. All schools in [South Africa] (including both [independent schools] and [public schools]) have the right to set [compulsory school fees], and formerly model C schools tend to set [much higher school fees] than [other public schools]. | In the final years of the apartheid era, parents at white government schools were given the option to convert to a "semi-private" form called Model C, and many of these schools changed their admissions policies to accept children of other races. Following the transition to democracy, the legal form of "Model C" was abolished, however, the term continues to be used to describe government schools formerly reserved for white children.. These schools tend to produce better academic results than government schools formerly reserved for other race groups . Former "Model C" schools are not private schools, as they are state-controlled. All schools in South Africa (including both independent schools and public schools) have the right to set compulsory school fees, and formerly model C schools tend to set much higher school fees than other public schools. |
[Pushing against] an object on [a frictional surface] can result in a situation where [the object does not move] because [the applied force] is opposed by [static friction], generated between [the object] and [the table surface]. For [a situation with no movement], [the static friction force] exactly balances [the applied force] resulting in [no acceleration]. [The static friction] increases or decreases in response to [the applied force] up to [an upper limit] determined by [the characteristics] of [the contact] between [the surface] and [the object]. | Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object. |
[The time and space hierarchy theorems] form [the basis] for [most separation results] of [complexity classes]. [For instance], [the time hierarchy theorem] tells us that [P] is [strictly contained] in [EXPTIME], and [the space hierarchy theorem] tells us that [L] is [strictly contained] in [PSPACE]. | The time and space hierarchy theorems form the basis for most separation results of complexity classes. For instance, the time hierarchy theorem tells us that P is strictly contained in EXPTIME, and the space hierarchy theorem tells us that L is strictly contained in PSPACE. |
The [state] is most commonly divided and promoted by its [regional tourism groups] as consisting of [northern], [central], and [southern California regions]. The two [AAA Auto Clubs] of the state, the [California State Automobile Association] and the [Automobile Club of Southern California], choose to simplify matters by dividing the state along the lines where their [jurisdictions] for [membership] apply, as either [northern] or [southern California], in contrast to the [three-region] point of view. Another influence is the geographical phrase [South of the Tehachapis], which would split the [southern region] off at the crest of that [transverse range], but in that definition, the [desert portions] of [north Los Angeles County] and [eastern Kern] and [San Bernardino Counties] would be included in the [southern California region] due to their [remoteness] from the [central valley] and [interior desert landscape]. | The state is most commonly divided and promoted by its regional tourism groups as consisting of northern, central, and southern California regions. The two AAA Auto Clubs of the state, the California State Automobile Association and the Automobile Club of Southern California, choose to simplify matters by dividing the state along the lines where their jurisdictions for membership apply, as either northern or southern California, in contrast to the three-region point of view. Another influence is the geographical phrase South of the Tehachapis, which would split the southern region off at the crest of that transverse range, but in that definition, the desert portions of north Los Angeles County and eastern Kern and San Bernardino Counties would be included in the southern California region due to their remoteness from the central valley and interior desert landscape. |
The [Amazon rainforest] (Portuguese: [Floresta Amazônica] or [Amazônia]; Spanish: [Selva Amazónica], [Amazonía] or usually [Amazonia]; French: [Forêt amazonienne]; Dutch: [Amazoneregenwoud]), also known in English as [Amazonia] or the [Amazon Jungle], is a [moist broadleaf forest] that covers most of the [Amazon basin] of South America. This [basin] encompasses [7,000,000 square kilometres] ([2,700,000 sq mi]), of which [5,500,000 square kilometres] ([2,100,000 sq mi]) are covered by the [rainforest]. This [region] includes [territory] belonging to [nine nations]. The majority of the [forest] is contained within [Brazil], with [60%] of the [rainforest], followed by [Peru] with [13%], [Colombia] with [10%], and with [minor amounts] in [Venezuela], [Ecuador], [Bolivia], [Guyana], [Suriname] and [French Guiana]. [States] or [departments] in four nations contain "[Amazonas]" in their names. The [Amazon] represents over [half] of the planet's remaining [rainforests], and comprises the [largest] and most [biodiverse] [tract] of [tropical rainforest] in the world, with an estimated [390 billion] individual [trees] divided into [16,000 species]. | The Amazon rainforest (Portuguese: Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia; Spanish: Selva Amazónica, Amazonía or usually Amazonia; French: Forêt amazonienne; Dutch: Amazoneregenwoud), also known in English as Amazonia or the Amazon Jungle, is a moist broadleaf forest that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7,000,000 square kilometres (2,700,000 sq mi), of which 5,500,000 square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi) are covered by the rainforest. This region includes territory belonging to nine nations. The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. States or departments in four nations contain "Amazonas" in their names. The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests, and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world, with an estimated 390 billion individual trees divided into 16,000 species. |
Despite the disagreements on the [Eucharist], the [Marburg Colloquy] paved the way for the signing in [1530] of the [Augsburg Confession], and for the formation of the [Schmalkaldic League] the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as [John of Saxony], [Philip of Hesse], and [George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]. The [Swiss cities], however, did not sign these agreements. | Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in 1530 of the Augsburg Confession, and for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements. |
[Citizenship] of the [EU] has increasingly been seen as a "fundamental" [status] of [member state nationals] by the [Court of Justice], and has accordingly increased the number of [social services] that people can access wherever they move. The Court has required that [higher education], along with other forms of [vocational training], should be [more access], albeit with [qualifying periods]. In [Commission v Austria] the Court held that [Austria] was not entitled to restrict [places] in [Austrian universities] to [Austrian students] to avoid "structural, staffing and financial problems" if (mainly [German]) [foreign students] applied for places because there was [little evidence] of an [actual problem]. | Citizenship of the EU has increasingly been seen as a "fundamental" status of member state nationals by the Court of Justice, and has accordingly increased the number of social services that people can access wherever they move. The Court has required that higher education, along with other forms of vocational training, should be more access, albeit with qualifying periods. In Commission v Austria the Court held that Austria was not entitled to restrict places in Austrian universities to Austrian students to avoid "structural, staffing and financial problems" if (mainly German) foreign students applied for places because there was little evidence of an actual problem. |
The [earliest] [Doctor Who]-related [audio release] was a [21-minute] [narrated] [abridgement] of the [First Doctor] [television story] [The Chase] released in [1966]. [Ten years later], the [first original] [Doctor Who audio] was released on [LP record]; [Doctor Who and the Pescatons] featuring the [Fourth Doctor]. The [first commercially available audiobook] was an [abridged reading] of the [Fourth Doctor story] [State of Decay] in [1981]. In [1988], during a [hiatus] in the [television show], [Slipback], the [first radio drama], was [transmitted]. | The earliest Doctor Who-related audio release was a 21-minute narrated abridgement of the First Doctor television story The Chase released in 1966. Ten years later, the first original Doctor Who audio was released on LP record; Doctor Who and the Pescatons featuring the Fourth Doctor. The first commercially available audiobook was an abridged reading of the Fourth Doctor story State of Decay in 1981. In 1988, during a hiatus in the television show, Slipback, the first radio drama, was transmitted. |
[Downtown San Diego] is the [central business district] of [San Diego], though the [city] is filled with [business districts]. These include [Carmel Valley], [Del Mar Heights], [Mission Valley], [Rancho Bernardo], [Sorrento Mesa], and [University City]. Most of these districts are located in [Northern San Diego] and some within [North County] regions. | Downtown San Diego is the central business district of San Diego, though the city is filled with business districts. These include Carmel Valley, Del Mar Heights, Mission Valley, Rancho Bernardo, Sorrento Mesa, and University City. Most of these districts are located in Northern San Diego and some within North County regions. |
This [vibrant] and [culturally diverse] [area] of [retail businesses] and [residences] experienced a [renewal] after a [significant decline] in the [late 1960s] and [1970s].[citation needed] After [decades] of [neglect] and [suburban flight], the [neighborhood revival] followed the [re-opening] of the [Tower Theatre] in the [late 1970s], which at that time showed [second and third run movies], along with [classic films]. [Roger Rocka's Dinner Theater] & [Good Company Players] also opened [nearby] in [1978],[citation needed] at [Olive] and [Wishon Avenues]. [Fresno] [native] [Audra McDonald] performed in the [leading roles] of [Evita] and [The Wiz] at the [theater] while she was a [high school student]. [McDonald] subsequently became a [leading performer] on [Broadway] in [New York City] and a [Tony award winning actress]. Also in the [Tower District] is [Good Company Players' 2nd Space Theatre]. | This vibrant and culturally diverse area of retail businesses and residences experienced a renewal after a significant decline in the late 1960s and 1970s.citation needed After decades of neglect and suburban flight, the neighborhood revival followed the re-opening of the Tower Theatre in the late 1970s, which at that time showed second and third run movies, along with classic films. Roger Rocka's Dinner Theater & Good Company Players also opened nearby in 1978,citation needed at Olive and Wishon Avenues. Fresno native Audra McDonald performed in the leading roles of Evita and The Wiz at the theater while she was a high school student. McDonald subsequently became a leading performer on Broadway in New York City and a Tony award winning actress. Also in the Tower District is Good Company Players' 2nd Space Theatre. |
It is a common misconception to ascribe the [stiffness] and [rigidity] of [solid matter] to the [repulsion] of [like charges] under the influence of the [electromagnetic force]. However, these characteristics actually result from the [Pauli exclusion principle].[citation needed] Since [electrons] are [fermions], they cannot occupy the same [quantum mechanical state] as other electrons. When the [electrons] in a [material] are [densely packed] together, there are not enough [lower energy quantum mechanical states] for them all, so some of them must be in [higher energy states]. This means that it takes [energy] to pack them together. While this effect is manifested [macroscopically] as a [structural force], it is technically only the result of the existence of a [finite set] of [electron states]. | It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli exclusion principle.citation needed Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural force, it is technically only the result of the existence of a finite set of electron states. |
The [Social Chapter] is a [chapter] of the [1997 Treaty of Amsterdam] covering [social policy issues] in [European Union law]. The basis for the Social Chapter was developed in [1989] by the "social partners" representatives, namely [UNICE], the [employers' confederation], the [European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC)] and [CEEP], the [European Centre of Public Enterprises]. A [toned down version] was adopted as the [Social Charter] at the [1989 Strasbourg European Council]. The Social Charter declares [30 general principles], including on [fair remuneration of employment], [health and safety at work], [rights of disabled and elderly], [the rights of workers], on [vocational training] and [improvements of living conditions]. The Social Charter became the basis for [European Community legislation] on these issues in [40 pieces of legislation]. | The Social Chapter is a chapter of the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam covering social policy issues in European Union law. The basis for the Social Chapter was developed in 1989 by the "social partners" representatives, namely UNICE, the employers' confederation, the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) and CEEP, the European Centre of Public Enterprises. A toned down version was adopted as the Social Charter at the 1989 Strasbourg European Council. The Social Charter declares 30 general principles, including on fair remuneration of employment, health and safety at work, rights of disabled and elderly, the rights of workers, on vocational training and improvements of living conditions. The Social Charter became the basis for European Community legislation on these issues in 40 pieces of legislation. |
Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on [6 March 1522]. He wrote to the [Elector]: "During my absence, [Satan] has entered my [sheepfold], and committed [ravages] which I cannot repair by [writing], but only by my [personal presence] and [living word]." For [eight days] in [Lent], beginning on [Invocavit Sunday], [9 March], Luther preached [eight sermons], which became known as the "[Invocavit Sermons]". In these sermons, he hammered home the [primacy] of [core Christian values] such as [love], [patience], [charity], and [freedom], and reminded the citizens to trust [God's word] rather than [violence] to bring about [necessary change]. | Luther secretly returned to Wittenberg on 6 March 1522. He wrote to the Elector: "During my absence, Satan has entered my sheepfold, and committed ravages which I cannot repair by writing, but only by my personal presence and living word." For eight days in Lent, beginning on Invocavit Sunday, 9 March, Luther preached eight sermons, which became known as the "Invocavit Sermons". In these sermons, he hammered home the primacy of core Christian values such as love, patience, charity, and freedom, and reminded the citizens to trust God's word rather than violence to bring about necessary change. |
[Peyton Manning] became the first [quarterback] ever to lead two different teams to multiple [Super Bowls]. He is also the oldest quarterback ever to play in a Super Bowl at [age 39]. The past record was held by [John Elway], who led the [Broncos] to victory in Super Bowl XXXIII at [age 38] and is currently [Denver's Executive Vice President] of [Football Operations] and [General Manager]. | Peyton Manning became the first quarterback ever to lead two different teams to multiple Super Bowls. He is also the oldest quarterback ever to play in a Super Bowl at age 39. The past record was held by John Elway, who led the Broncos to victory in Super Bowl XXXIII at age 38 and is currently Denver's Executive Vice President of Football Operations and General Manager. |
The [physicians] of the [Yuan court] came from [diverse cultures]. [Healers] were divided into [non-Mongol physicians] called [otachi] and [traditional Mongol shamans]. The [Mongols] characterized [otachi doctors] by their use of [herbal remedies], which was distinguished from the [spiritual cures] of [Mongol shamanism]. [Physicians] received [official support] from the [Yuan government] and were given [special legal privileges]. [Kublai] created the [Imperial Academy of Medicine] to manage [medical treatises] and the [education] of [new doctors]. [Confucian scholars] were attracted to the [medical profession] because it ensured a [high income] and [medical ethics] were compatible with [Confucian virtues]. | The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from the Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues. |
[On] 7 January 1900, Tesla left [Colorado Springs].citation needed His [lab] was torn down in 1904, and its [contents] were sold two years later to satisfy a [debt]. | On 7 January 1900, Tesla left Colorado Springs.citation needed His lab was torn down in 1904, and its contents were sold two years later to satisfy a debt. |
[Southern California] includes the [heavily built-up urban area] stretching along the [Pacific coast] from [Ventura], through the [Greater Los Angeles Area] and the [Inland Empire], and down to [Greater San Diego]. Southern California's population encompasses [seven metropolitan areas], or [MSAs]: the [Los Angeles metropolitan area], consisting of [Los Angeles] and [Orange counties]; the [Inland Empire], consisting of [Riverside] and [San Bernardino counties]; the [San Diego metropolitan area]; the [Oxnard–Thousand Oaks–Ventura metropolitan area]; the [Santa Barbara metro area]; the [San Luis Obispo metropolitan area]; and the [El Centro area]. Out of these, [three] are [heavy populated areas]: the [Los Angeles area] with [over 12 million inhabitants], the [Riverside-San Bernardino area] with [over four million inhabitants], and the [San Diego area] with [over 3 million inhabitants]. For [CSA metropolitan purposes], the [five counties] of [Los Angeles], [Orange], [Riverside], [San Bernardino], and [Ventura] are all combined to make up the [Greater Los Angeles Area] with [over 17.5 million people]. With [over 22 million people], [southern California] contains [roughly 60 percent] of [California's population]. | Southern California includes the heavily built-up urban area stretching along the Pacific coast from Ventura, through the Greater Los Angeles Area and the Inland Empire, and down to Greater San Diego. Southern California's population encompasses seven metropolitan areas, or MSAs: the Los Angeles metropolitan area, consisting of Los Angeles and Orange counties; the Inland Empire, consisting of Riverside and San Bernardino counties; the San Diego metropolitan area; the Oxnard–Thousand Oaks–Ventura metropolitan area; the Santa Barbara metro area; the San Luis Obispo metropolitan area; and the El Centro area. Out of these, three are heavy populated areas: the Los Angeles area with over 12 million inhabitants, the Riverside-San Bernardino area with over four million inhabitants, and the San Diego area with over 3 million inhabitants. For CSA metropolitan purposes, the five counties of Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, and Ventura are all combined to make up the Greater Los Angeles Area with over 17.5 million people. With over 22 million people, southern California contains roughly 60 percent of California's population. |
Between the [1880s] and [World War II], [Downtown Fresno] [flourished], filled with [electric Street Cars], and contained some of the [San Joaquin Valley's] most [beautiful architectural buildings]. Among them, the [original Fresno County Courthouse] ([demolished]), the [Fresno Carnegie Public Library] ([demolished]), the [Fresno Water Tower], the [Bank of Italy Building], the [Pacific Southwest Building], the [San Joaquin Light & Power Building] (currently known as the [Grand 1401]), and the [Hughes Hotel] ([burned down]), to name a few. | Between the 1880s and World War II, Downtown Fresno flourished, filled with electric Street Cars, and contained some of the San Joaquin Valley's most beautiful architectural buildings. Among them, the original Fresno County Courthouse (demolished), the Fresno Carnegie Public Library (demolished), the Fresno Water Tower, the Bank of Italy Building, the Pacific Southwest Building, the San Joaquin Light & Power Building (currently known as the Grand 1401), and the Hughes Hotel (burned down), to name a few. |
[Bethencourt] took the [title] of [King] of the [Canary Islands], as [vassal] to [Henry III] of [Castile]. In [1418], [Jean]'s [nephew] [Maciot de Bethencourt] sold the [rights] to the [islands] to [Enrique Pérez de Guzmán], [2nd Count] de [Niebla]. | Bethencourt took the title of King of the Canary Islands, as vassal to Henry III of Castile. In 1418, Jean's nephew Maciot de Bethencourt sold the rights to the islands to Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count de Niebla. |
There are [13 natural reserves] in [Warsaw] – among others, [Bielany Forest], [Kabaty Woods], [Czerniaków Lake]. About [15 kilometres] ([9 miles]) from [Warsaw], the [Vistula river]'s environment changes [strikingly] and features a [perfectly preserved ecosystem], with a [habitat] of [animals] that includes the [otter], [beaver] and [hundreds] of [bird species]. There are also several [lakes] in [Warsaw] – mainly the [oxbow lakes], like [Czerniaków Lake], the [lakes] in the [Łazienki] or [Wilanów Parks], [Kamionek Lake]. There are [lot of small lakes] in the parks, but only a [few] are [permanent] – the [majority] are [emptied] before winter to [clean them] of [plants] and [sediments]. | There are 13 natural reserves in Warsaw – among others, Bielany Forest, Kabaty Woods, Czerniaków Lake. About 15 kilometres (9 miles) from Warsaw, the Vistula river's environment changes strikingly and features a perfectly preserved ecosystem, with a habitat of animals that includes the otter, beaver and hundreds of bird species. There are also several lakes in Warsaw – mainly the oxbow lakes, like Czerniaków Lake, the lakes in the Łazienki or Wilanów Parks, Kamionek Lake. There are lot of small lakes in the parks, but only a few are permanent – the majority are emptied before winter to clean them of plants and sediments. |
The [V&A] is in discussion with the [University of Dundee], [University of Abertay], [Dundee City Council] and the [Scottish Government] with a view to opening a new £43 million gallery in [Dundee] that would use the [V&A brand] although it would be funded through and operated independently. As of [2015], with costs estimated at £76 million, it is the most expensive gallery project ever undertaken in [Scotland]. The [V&A Dundee] will be on the [city's waterfront] and is intended to focus on [fashion], [architecture], [product design], [graphic arts] and [photography]. It is planned that it could open within [five years]. [Dundee City Council] is expected to pay a [major part] of the [running costs]. The [V&A] is not contributing financially, but will be providing [expertise], [loans] and [exhibitions]. | The V&A is in discussion with the University of Dundee, University of Abertay, Dundee City Council and the Scottish Government with a view to opening a new £43 million gallery in Dundee that would use the V&A brand although it would be funded through and operated independently. As of 2015, with costs estimated at £76 million, it is the most expensive gallery project ever undertaken in Scotland. The V&A Dundee will be on the city's waterfront and is intended to focus on fashion, architecture, product design, graphic arts and photography. It is planned that it could open within five years. Dundee City Council is expected to pay a major part of the running costs. The V&A is not contributing financially, but will be providing expertise, loans and exhibitions. |
The [image] of the [TARDIS] has become [firmly linked] to the [show] in the [public's consciousness]; [BBC] [scriptwriter] [Anthony Coburn], who lived in the [resort] of [Herne Bay], [Kent], was one of the people who [conceived] the [idea] of a [police box] as a [time machine]. In [1996], the [BBC] applied for a [trade mark] to use the [TARDIS]' [blue] [police box] [design] in [merchandising] associated with [Doctor Who]. In [1998], the [Metropolitan Police Authority] filed an [objection] to the [trade mark] [claim]; but in [2002], the [Patent Office] ruled in [favour] of the [BBC]. | The image of the TARDIS has become firmly linked to the show in the public's consciousness; BBC scriptwriter Anthony Coburn, who lived in the resort of Herne Bay, Kent, was one of the people who conceived the idea of a police box as a time machine. In 1996, the BBC applied for a trade mark to use the TARDIS' blue police box design in merchandising associated with Doctor Who. In 1998, the Metropolitan Police Authority filed an objection to the trade mark claim; but in 2002, the Patent Office ruled in favour of the BBC. |
[Ctenophores] may be [abundant] during the [summer months] in some [coastal locations], but in [other places] they are [uncommon] and [difficult to find]. In [bays] where they occur in [very high numbers], [predation] by ctenophores may control the [populations] of [small zooplanktonic organisms] such as [copepods], which might otherwise wipe out the [phytoplankton] (planktonic plants), which are a [vital part] of [marine food chains]. One ctenophore, [Mnemiopsis], has [accidentally] been [introduced] into the [Black Sea], where it is [blamed] for causing [fish stocks] to [collapse] by eating both [fish larvae] and [organisms] that would otherwise have [fed] the fish. The situation was [aggravated] by [other factors], such as [over-fishing] and [long-term environmental changes] that promoted the growth of the [Mnemiopsis population]. The [later accidental introduction] of [Beroe] helped to [mitigate] the problem, as Beroe [preys] on other ctenophores. | Ctenophores may be abundant during the summer months in some coastal locations, but in other places they are uncommon and difficult to find. In bays where they occur in very high numbers, predation by ctenophores may control the populations of small zooplanktonic organisms such as copepods, which might otherwise wipe out the phytoplankton (planktonic plants), which are a vital part of marine food chains. One ctenophore, Mnemiopsis, has accidentally been introduced into the Black Sea, where it is blamed for causing fish stocks to collapse by eating both fish larvae and organisms that would otherwise have fed the fish. The situation was aggravated by other factors, such as over-fishing and long-term environmental changes that promoted the growth of the Mnemiopsis population. The later accidental introduction of Beroe helped to mitigate the problem, as Beroe preys on other ctenophores. |
The [addition] of new [rock units], both [depositionally] and [intrusively], often occurs during [deformation]. [Faulting] and other [deformational processes] result in the creation of [topographic gradients], causing material on the rock unit that is [increasing in elevation] to be [eroded] by [hillslopes] and [channels]. These [sediments] are [deposited] on the rock unit that is [going down]. [Continual motion] along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of sediment, and continues to create [accommodation space] for the material to deposit. [Deformational events] are often also associated with [volcanism] and [igneous activity]. [Volcanic ashes] and [lavas] accumulate on the surface, and [igneous intrusions] enter from below. [Dikes], long, planar igneous intrusions, enter along cracks, and therefore often form in [large numbers] in areas that are being actively deformed. This can result in the emplacement of [dike swarms], such as those that are observable across the [Canadian shield], or [rings] of dikes around the [lava tube] of a volcano. | The addition of new rock units, both depositionally and intrusively, often occurs during deformation. Faulting and other deformational processes result in the creation of topographic gradients, causing material on the rock unit that is increasing in elevation to be eroded by hillslopes and channels. These sediments are deposited on the rock unit that is going down. Continual motion along the fault maintains the topographic gradient in spite of the movement of sediment, and continues to create accommodation space for the material to deposit. Deformational events are often also associated with volcanism and igneous activity. Volcanic ashes and lavas accumulate on the surface, and igneous intrusions enter from below. Dikes, long, planar igneous intrusions, enter along cracks, and therefore often form in large numbers in areas that are being actively deformed. This can result in the emplacement of dike swarms, such as those that are observable across the Canadian shield, or rings of dikes around the lava tube of a volcano. |
The area is also known for its [early twentieth century homes], many of which have been [restored] in recent decades. The area includes many [California Bungalow] and [American Craftsman] style homes, [Spanish Colonial Revival Style] architecture, [Mediterranean Revival Style] architecture, [Mission Revival Style] architecture, and many [Storybook houses] designed by [Fresno architects], [Hilliard], [Taylor] & [Wheeler]. The [residential architecture] of the [Tower District] contrasts with the [newer areas] of [tract homes] [urban sprawl] in [north] and [east areas] of [Fresno]. | The area is also known for its early twentieth century homes, many of which have been restored in recent decades. The area includes many California Bungalow and American Craftsman style homes, Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture, Mediterranean Revival Style architecture, Mission Revival Style architecture, and many Storybook houses designed by Fresno architects, Hilliard, Taylor & Wheeler. The residential architecture of the Tower District contrasts with the newer areas of tract homes urban sprawl in north and east areas of Fresno. |
Luther's [1538 hymnic version] of the [Lord's Prayer], "[Vater unser im Himmelreich]", corresponds [exactly] to Luther's [explanation] of the prayer in the [Small Catechism], with [one stanza] for each of the [seven prayer petitions], plus [opening] and [closing] stanzas. The hymn functioned both as a [liturgical setting] of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of [examining candidates] on specific catechism [questions]. The [extant manuscript] shows [multiple revisions], demonstrating Luther's [concern] to [clarify] and [strengthen] the text and to provide an [appropriately prayerful tune]. Other [16th-] and [20th-century versifications] of the Lord's Prayer have [adopted] Luther's tune, although modern texts are [considerably shorter]. | Luther's 1538 hymnic version of the Lord's Prayer, "Vater unser im Himmelreich", corresponds exactly to Luther's explanation of the prayer in the Small Catechism, with one stanza for each of the seven prayer petitions, plus opening and closing stanzas. The hymn functioned both as a liturgical setting of the Lord's Prayer and as a means of examining candidates on specific catechism questions. The extant manuscript shows multiple revisions, demonstrating Luther's concern to clarify and strengthen the text and to provide an appropriately prayerful tune. Other 16th- and 20th-century versifications of the Lord's Prayer have adopted Luther's tune, although modern texts are considerably shorter. |
[Euglenophytes] are a group of [common] [flagellated protists] that contain [chloroplasts] derived from a [green alga]. [Euglenophyte chloroplasts] have [three membranes]—it is thought that the [membrane] of the [primary endosymbiont] was lost, leaving the [cyanobacterial membranes], and the [secondary host's phagosomal membrane]. [Euglenophyte chloroplasts] have a [pyrenoid] and [thylakoids] [stacked] in [groups of three]. [Starch] is stored in the form of [paramylon], which is contained in [membrane-bound granules] in the [cytoplasm] of the [euglenophyte]. | Euglenophytes are a group of common flagellated protists that contain chloroplasts derived from a green alga. Euglenophyte chloroplasts have three membranes—it is thought that the membrane of the primary endosymbiont was lost, leaving the cyanobacterial membranes, and the secondary host's phagosomal membrane. Euglenophyte chloroplasts have a pyrenoid and thylakoids stacked in groups of three. Starch is stored in the form of paramylon, which is contained in membrane-bound granules in the cytoplasm of the euglenophyte. |
are prime. [Prime numbers] of this form are known as [factorial primes]. Other primes where either [p + 1] or [p − 1] is of a particular shape include the [Sophie Germain primes] (primes of the form [2p + 1] with [p prime]), [primorial primes], [Fermat primes] and [Mersenne primes], that is, [prime numbers] that are of the form [2p − 1], where [p] is an [arbitrary prime]. The [Lucas–Lehmer test] is particularly [fast] for numbers of this form. This is why the [largest known prime] has almost always been a [Mersenne prime] since the [dawn] of [electronic computers]. | are prime. Prime numbers of this form are known as factorial primes. Other primes where either p + 1 or p − 1 is of a particular shape include the Sophie Germain primes (primes of the form 2p + 1 with p prime), primorial primes, Fermat primes and Mersenne primes, that is, prime numbers that are of the form 2p − 1, where p is an arbitrary prime. The Lucas–Lehmer test is particularly fast for numbers of this form. This is why the largest known prime has almost always been a Mersenne prime since the dawn of electronic computers. |
Early in [1537], [Johannes Agricola] (1494–1566) – serving at the time as [pastor] in [Luther]'s [birthplace], [Eisleben] – preached a [sermon] in which he claimed that [God]'s [gospel], not God's [moral law] (the [Ten Commandments]), revealed God's [wrath] to [Christians]. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain [anonymous] [antinomian theses] circulating in [Wittenberg]. These theses asserted that the [law] is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to [city hall]. Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for [disputations] between 1538 and 1540. He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians, and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year. | Early in 1537, Johannes Agricola (1494–1566) – serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben – preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's moral law (the Ten Commandments), revealed God's wrath to Christians. Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall. Luther responded to these theses with six series of theses against Agricola and the antinomians, four of which became the basis for disputations between 1538 and 1540. He also responded to these assertions in other writings, such as his 1539 open letter to C. Güttel Against the Antinomians, and his book On the Councils and the Church from the same year. |
Virtually [all] [nuclear power plants] generate [electricity] by heating [water] to provide [steam] that drives a [turbine] connected to an [electrical generator]. [Nuclear-powered ships] and [submarines] either use a [steam turbine] directly for [main propulsion], with [generators] providing [auxiliary power], or else employ [turbo-electric transmission], where the [steam] drives a [turbo generator set] with propulsion provided by [electric motors]. A [limited number] of [steam turbine] [railroad locomotives] were manufactured. Some [non-condensing direct-drive locomotives] did meet with some [success] for [long haul freight operations] in [Sweden] and for [express passenger work] in [Britain], but were not repeated. [Elsewhere], notably in the [U.S.A.], [more advanced designs] with [electric transmission] were built [experimentally], but not reproduced. It was found that [steam turbines] were not [ideally suited] to the [railroad environment] and these [locomotives] failed to oust the [classic reciprocating steam unit] in the way that [modern diesel] and [electric traction] has done.[citation needed] | Virtually all nuclear power plants generate electricity by heating water to provide steam that drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator. Nuclear-powered ships and submarines either use a steam turbine directly for main propulsion, with generators providing auxiliary power, or else employ turbo-electric transmission, where the steam drives a turbo generator set with propulsion provided by electric motors. A limited number of steam turbine railroad locomotives were manufactured. Some non-condensing direct-drive locomotives did meet with some success for long haul freight operations in Sweden and for express passenger work in Britain, but were not repeated. Elsewhere, notably in the U.S.A., more advanced designs with electric transmission were built experimentally, but not reproduced. It was found that steam turbines were not ideally suited to the railroad environment and these locomotives failed to oust the classic reciprocating steam unit in the way that modern diesel and electric traction has done.citation needed |
Train operator [Virgin Trains East Coast] provides a [half-hourly frequency] of trains to [London King's Cross], with a [journey time] of about [three hours], these services call at [Durham], [Darlington], [York], [Doncaster], [Newark North Gate] and [Peterborough] and north to [Scotland] with all trains calling at [Edinburgh] and a small number of trains extended to [Glasgow], [Aberdeen] and [Inverness]. [CrossCountry trains] serve destinations in [Yorkshire], the [Midlands] and the [South West]. [First TransPennine Express] operates services to [Manchester] and [Liverpool]. [Northern Rail] provides [local] and [regional services]. | Train operator Virgin Trains East Coast provides a half-hourly frequency of trains to London King's Cross, with a journey time of about three hours, these services call at Durham, Darlington, York, Doncaster, Newark North Gate and Peterborough and north to Scotland with all trains calling at Edinburgh and a small number of trains extended to Glasgow, Aberdeen and Inverness. CrossCountry trains serve destinations in Yorkshire, the Midlands and the South West. First TransPennine Express operates services to Manchester and Liverpool. Northern Rail provides local and regional services. |
[Telenet] was the first [FCC-licensed] [public data network] in the [United States]. It was founded by former [ARPA IPTO director] [Larry Roberts] as a means of making [ARPANET technology] public. He had tried to interest [AT&T] in buying the technology, but the [monopoly]'s reaction was that this was [incompatible] with their [future]. [Bolt, Beranack and Newman (BBN)] provided the [financing]. It initially used [ARPANET technology] but changed the [host interface] to [X.25] and the [terminal interface] to [X.29]. [Telenet] designed these [protocols] and helped [standardize] them in the [CCITT]. [Telenet] was [incorporated] in [1973] and started [operations] in [1975]. It went [public] in [1979] and was then [sold] to [GTE]. | Telenet was the first FCC-licensed public data network in the United States. It was founded by former ARPA IPTO director Larry Roberts as a means of making ARPANET technology public. He had tried to interest AT&T in buying the technology, but the monopoly's reaction was that this was incompatible with their future. Bolt, Beranack and Newman (BBN) provided the financing. It initially used ARPANET technology but changed the host interface to X.25 and the terminal interface to X.29. Telenet designed these protocols and helped standardize them in the CCITT. Telenet was incorporated in 1973 and started operations in 1975. It went public in 1979 and was then sold to GTE. |
While [constitutional law] concerns the [European Union]'s [governance structure], [administrative law] binds [EU institutions] and [member states] to follow the law. Both member states and the [Commission] have a [general legal right] or "standing" ([locus standi]) to bring [claims] against EU institutions and other member states for [breach] of the [treaties]. From the EU's [foundation], the [Court of Justice] also held that the Treaties allowed [citizens] or [corporations] to bring claims against EU and member state institutions for [violation] of the [Treaties] and [Regulations], if they were properly [interpreted] as creating rights and obligations. However, under [Directives], citizens or corporations were said in 1986 to not be allowed to bring claims against other [non-state parties]. This meant [courts] of member states were not bound to apply an EU law where a national rule [conflicted], even though the member state government could be sued, if it would impose an obligation on another citizen or corporation. These rules on "direct effect" limit the extent to which member state courts are bound to administer EU law. All actions by EU institutions can be subject to [judicial review], and judged by standards of [proportionality], particularly where [general principles of law], or [fundamental rights] are engaged. The [remedy] for a [claimant] where there has been a breach of the law is often [monetary damages], but courts can also require specific performance or will grant an [injunction], in order to ensure the law is effective as possible. | While constitutional law concerns the European Union's governance structure, administrative law binds EU institutions and member states to follow the law. Both member states and the Commission have a general legal right or "standing" (locus standi) to bring claims against EU institutions and other member states for breach of the treaties. From the EU's foundation, the Court of Justice also held that the Treaties allowed citizens or corporations to bring claims against EU and member state institutions for violation of the Treaties and Regulations, if they were properly interpreted as creating rights and obligations. However, under Directives, citizens or corporations were said in 1986 to not be allowed to bring claims against other non-state parties. This meant courts of member states were not bound to apply an EU law where a national rule conflicted, even though the member state government could be sued, if it would impose an obligation on another citizen or corporation. These rules on "direct effect" limit the extent to which member state courts are bound to administer EU law. All actions by EU institutions can be subject to judicial review, and judged by standards of proportionality, particularly where general principles of law, or fundamental rights are engaged. The remedy for a claimant where there has been a breach of the law is often monetary damages, but courts can also require specific performance or will grant an injunction, in order to ensure the law is effective as possible. |
In [1542], [Luther] read a [Latin translation] of the [Qur'an]. He went on to produce several [critical pamphlets] on [Islam], which he called "[Mohammedanism]" or "the [Turk]". Though [Luther] saw the [Muslim faith] as a tool of the [devil], he was [indifferent] to its [practice]: "Let the [Turk] believe and live as he will, just as one lets the [papacy] and other [false Christians] live." He [opposed banning] the [publication] of the [Qur'an], wanting it [exposed] to [scrutiny]. | In 1542, Luther read a Latin translation of the Qur'an. He went on to produce several critical pamphlets on Islam, which he called "Mohammedanism" or "the Turk". Though Luther saw the Muslim faith as a tool of the devil, he was indifferent to its practice: "Let the Turk believe and live as he will, just as one lets the papacy and other false Christians live." He opposed banning the publication of the Qur'an, wanting it exposed to scrutiny. |
In [Europe] there are [old pharmacies] still operating in [Dubrovnik, Croatia], located inside the [Franciscan monastery], [opened] in [1317]; and in the [Town Hall Square] of [Tallinn, Estonia], [dating] from at least [1422]. The [oldest] is [claimed] to have been [set up] in [1221] in the [Church of Santa Maria Novella] in [Florence, Italy], which now houses a [perfume museum]. The [medieval Esteve Pharmacy], located in [Llívia], a [Catalan enclave] close to [Puigcerdà], also now a [museum], [dates back] to the [15th century], keeping [albarellos] from the [16th and 17th centuries], [old prescription books] and [antique drugs]. | In Europe there are old pharmacies still operating in Dubrovnik, Croatia, located inside the Franciscan monastery, opened in 1317; and in the Town Hall Square of Tallinn, Estonia, dating from at least 1422. The oldest is claimed to have been set up in 1221 in the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence, Italy, which now houses a perfume museum. The medieval Esteve Pharmacy, located in Llívia, a Catalan enclave close to Puigcerdà, also now a museum, dates back to the 15th century, keeping albarellos from the 16th and 17th centuries, old prescription books and antique drugs. |
Warsaw's [mixture] of [architectural styles] reflects the [turbulent history] of the [city] and [country]. During the [Second World War], Warsaw was [razed] to the ground by [bombing raids] and [planned destruction]. After [liberation], [rebuilding] began as in [other cities] of the [communist-ruled PRL]. [Most] of the [historical buildings] were [thoroughly reconstructed]. However, [some] of the [buildings] from the [19th century] that had been [preserved] in [reasonably reconstructible form] were nonetheless [eradicated] in the [1950s] and [1960s] (e.g. [Leopold Kronenberg Palace]). [Mass residential blocks] were [erected], with [basic design] [typical] of [Eastern bloc countries]. | Warsaw's mixture of architectural styles reflects the turbulent history of the city and country. During the Second World War, Warsaw was razed to the ground by bombing raids and planned destruction. After liberation, rebuilding began as in other cities of the communist-ruled PRL. Most of the historical buildings were thoroughly reconstructed. However, some of the buildings from the 19th century that had been preserved in reasonably reconstructible form were nonetheless eradicated in the 1950s and 1960s (e.g. Leopold Kronenberg Palace). Mass residential blocks were erected, with basic design typical of Eastern bloc countries. |
[Tesla] obtained around [300 patents] worldwide for his [inventions]. Some of Tesla's patents are [not accounted for], and various sources have [discovered] some that have [lain hidden] in [patent archives]. There are a [minimum] of [278 patents] issued to Tesla in [26 countries] that have been accounted for. Many of Tesla's patents were in the [United States], [Britain], and [Canada], but many other patents were [approved] in [countries] around the [globe].:62 Many [inventions] developed by Tesla were [not put into patent protection]. | Tesla obtained around 300 patents worldwide for his inventions. Some of Tesla's patents are not accounted for, and various sources have discovered some that have lain hidden in patent archives. There are a minimum of 278 patents issued to Tesla in 26 countries that have been accounted for. Many of Tesla's patents were in the United States, Britain, and Canada, but many other patents were approved in countries around the globe.:62 Many inventions developed by Tesla were not put into patent protection. |
The [first] [commercially successful] [true engine], [in that] [it could generate power] and [transmit it to a machine], was [the atmospheric engine], [invented] by [Thomas Newcomen] [around 1712]. [It] was [an improvement] over [Savery's steam pump], [using] [a piston] as [proposed] by [Papin]. [Newcomen's engine] was [relatively inefficient], and [in most cases] was used for [pumping water]. [It] worked by [creating] [a partial vacuum] by [condensing steam] [under] [a piston] [within] [a cylinder]. [It] was [employed] for [draining mine workings] [at depths] [hitherto impossible], and [also] for [providing] [a reusable water supply] for [driving waterwheels] [at factories] [sited away from] [a suitable "head"]. [Water] that had [passed over] [the wheel] was [pumped back up] into [a storage reservoir] [above] [the wheel]. | The first commercially successful true engine, in that it could generate power and transmit it to a machine, was the atmospheric engine, invented by Thomas Newcomen around 1712. It was an improvement over Savery's steam pump, using a piston as proposed by Papin. Newcomen's engine was relatively inefficient, and in most cases was used for pumping water. It worked by creating a partial vacuum by condensing steam under a piston within a cylinder. It was employed for draining mine workings at depths hitherto impossible, and also for providing a reusable water supply for driving waterwheels at factories sited away from a suitable "head". Water that had passed over the wheel was pumped back up into a storage reservoir above the wheel. |
The [smaller galleries] cover [Korea], the [Himalayan kingdoms] and [South East Asia]. [Korean] displays include [green-glazed ceramics], [silk embroideries] from [officials' robes] and [gleaming boxes] inlaid with [mother-of-pearl] made between [500 AD] and [2000]. [Himalayan] items include [important early Nepalese bronze sculptures], [repoussé work] and [embroidery]. [Tibetan art] from the [14th] to the [19th century] is represented by notable [14th- and 15th-century religious images] in [wood] and [bronze], [scroll paintings] and [ritual objects]. [Art] from [Thailand], [Burma], [Cambodia], [Indonesia] and [Sri Lanka] in [gold], [silver], [bronze], [stone], [terracotta] and [ivory] represents these rich and complex cultures, the displays span the [6th] to the [19th centuries]. [Refined Hindu and Buddhist sculptures] reflect the influence of [India]; items on show include [betel-nut cutters], [ivory combs] and [bronze palanquin hooks]. | The smaller galleries cover Korea, the Himalayan kingdoms and South East Asia. Korean displays include green-glazed ceramics, silk embroideries from officials' robes and gleaming boxes inlaid with mother-of-pearl made between 500 AD and 2000. Himalayan items include important early Nepalese bronze sculptures, repoussé work and embroidery. Tibetan art from the 14th to the 19th century is represented by notable 14th- and 15th-century religious images in wood and bronze, scroll paintings and ritual objects. Art from Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia and Sri Lanka in gold, silver, bronze, stone, terracotta and ivory represents these rich and complex cultures, the displays span the 6th to 19th centuries. Refined Hindu and Buddhist sculptures reflect the influence of India; items on show include betel-nut cutters, ivory combs and bronze palanquin hooks. |
Subsets and Splits