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Civilization

A civilization ( UK and US ) or civilisation ( British English variant ) is any complex society characterized by urban development , social stratification , symbolic communication forms ( typically , writing systems ) and a perceived separation from and domination over the natural environment by a cultural elite . Civilizations are intimately associated with and often further defined by other socio-politico-economic characteristics , including centralization , the domestication of both humans and other organisms , specialization of labour , culturally ingrained ideologies of progress and supremacism , monumental architecture , taxation , societal dependence upon farming and expansionism . Historically , a civilization was a so-called `` advanced '' culture in contrast to more supposedly primitive cultures . In this broad sense , a civilization contrasts with non-centralized tribal societies , including the cultures of nomadic pastoralists , egalitarian horticultural subsistence neolithic societies or hunter-gatherers . As an uncountable noun , civilization also refers to the process of a society developing into a centralized , urbanized , stratified structure . Civilizations are organized in densely populated settlements divided into hierarchical social classes with a ruling elite and subordinate urban and rural populations , which engage in intensive agriculture , mining , small-scale manufacture and trade . Civilization concentrates power , extending human control over the rest of nature , including over other human beings . The earliest emergence of civilizations is generally associated with the final stages of the Neolithic Revolution , culminating in the relatively rapid process of urban revolution and state formation , a political development associated with the appearance of a governing elite . The earlier neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle East ( for example at Göbekli Tepe , from about 9,130 BCE ) , and later in the Yangtze and Yellow River basins in China ( for example the Pengtoushan culture from 7,500 BCE ) , and later spread . Similar pre-civilized `` neolithic revolutions '' also began independently from 7,000 BCE in such places as northwestern South America ( the Norte Chico civilization ) and Mesoamerica . These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose independently . Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE , with civilizations developing from 6,500 years ago . This area has been identified as having `` inspired some of the most important developments in human history including the invention of the wheel , the development of cursive script , mathematics , astronomy and agriculture . '' The civilized urban revolution in turn was dependent upon the development of sedentarism , the domestication of grains and animals and development of lifestyles that facilitated economies of scale and accumulation of surplus production by certain social sectors . The transition from complex cultures to civilizations , while still disputed , seems to be associated with the development of state structures , in which power was further monopolized by an elite ruling class who practised human sacrifice . Towards the end of the Neolithic period , various elitist Chalcolithic civilizations began to rise in various `` cradles '' from around 3300 BCE . Chalcolithic civilizations , as defined above , also developed in Pre-Columbian Americas and , despite an early start in Egypt , Axum and Kush , much later in Iron Age sub-Saharan Africa . The Bronze Age collapse was followed by the Iron Age around 1200 BCE , during which a number of new civilizations emerged , culminating in a period from the 8th to the 3rd century BCE which German psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age , and which he claimed was a critical transitional phase leading to Classical civilization . A major technological and cultural transition to modernity began approximately 1500 CE in Western Europe , and from this beginning new approaches to science and law spread rapidly around the world , incorporating earlier cultures into the industrial and technological civilization of the present .

Climate_of_Minneapolis–Saint_Paul

The climate of Minneapolis -- Saint Paul is the long term weather trends and historical events of the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul metropolitan area in east central Minnesota . Minneapolis and St. Paul , together known as the Twin Cities , are the core of the 15th largest metropolitan area in the United States . With a population of 3.6 million people , the region contains approximately 60 % of the population of Minnesota . Due to its location in the northern and central portion of the U.S. , the Twin Cities has the coldest average temperature of any major metropolitan area in the nation . Winters can be cold , summer is warm to hot and frequently humid , snowfall is common in the winter and thunderstorms with heavy rainfall occur during the spring , summer and autumn . Though winter can be cold , the area receives more sunlight hours in mid-winter than many other warmer parts of the country , including all of the Great Lakes states , the Pacific Northwest , parts of the South , and almost all of the Northeast . Unless otherwise indicated , all normals data presented below are based on data at Minneapolis/St . Paul International Airport , the official Twin Cities climatology station , from the 1981 − 2010 normals period .

Climate_oscillation

A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .

Climate_of_Mars

The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .

Computer_simulation

Computer simulations reproduce the behavior of a system using a mathematical model . Computer simulations have become a useful tool for the mathematical modeling of many natural systems in physics ( computational physics ) , astrophysics , climatology , chemistry and biology , human systems in economics , psychology , social science , and engineering . Simulation of a system is represented as the running of the system 's model . It can be used to explore and gain new insights into new technology and to estimate the performance of systems too complex for analytical solutions . Computer simulations are computer programs that can be either small , running almost instantly on small devices , or large-scale programs that run for hours or days on network-based groups of computers . The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible ( or perhaps even imaginable ) using traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling . Over 10 years ago , a desert-battle simulation of one force invading another involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks , trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around Kuwait , using multiple supercomputers in the DoD High Performance Computer Modernization Program . Other examples include a 1-billion-atom model of material deformation ; a 2.64-million-atom model of the complex protein-producing organelle of all living organisms , the ribosome , in 2005 ; a complete simulation of the life cycle of Mycoplasma genitalium in 2012 ; and the Blue Brain project at EPFL ( Switzerland ) , begun in May 2005 to create the first computer simulation of the entire human brain , right down to the molecular level . Because of the computational cost of simulation , computer experiments are used to perform inference such as uncertainty quantification .

Climate_change_mitigation

Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .

Cladogenesis

Cladogenesis is an evolutionary splitting event where a parent species splits into two distinct species , forming a clade . This event usually occurs when a few organisms end up in new , often distant areas or when environmental changes cause several extinctions , opening up ecological niches for the survivors . The events that cause these species to originally separate from each other over distant areas may still allow both of the species to have equal chances of surviving , reproducing , and even evolving to better suit their environments while still being two distinct species . Cladogenesis is in contrast to anagenesis , in which an ancestral species gradually accumulates change , and eventually , when enough is accumulated , the species is sufficiently distinct and different enough from its original starting form that it can be labeled as a new form - a new species . Note that here the lineage in a phylogenetic tree does not split . To determine whether a speciation event is cladogenesis , researchers may use simulation , evidence from fossils , molecular evidence from the DNA of different living species , or modelling . It has however been questioned whether the distinction between cladogenesis and anagenesis is necessary at all in evolutionary theory .

Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union

The Soviet Union enforced the collectivization of its agricultural sector between 1928 and 1940 during the ascendancy of Joseph Stalin . It began during and was part of the first five-year plan . The policy aimed to consolidate individual landholdings and labour into collective farms : mainly kolkhozy and sovkhozy . The Soviet leadership confidently expected that the replacement of individual peasant farms by collective ones would immediately increase the food supply for the urban population , the supply of raw materials for processing industry , and agricultural exports . Planners regarded collectivization as the solution to the crisis of agricultural distribution ( mainly in grain deliveries ) that had developed from 1927 . This problem became more acute as the Soviet Union pressed ahead with its ambitious industrialization program . In the early 1930s over 91 % of agricultural land became `` collectivized '' as rural households entered collective farms with their land , livestock , and other assets . The sweeping collectivization often involved tremendous human and social costs .

Coal_gasification_commercialization

Coal gasification is a process whereby a hydrocarbon feedstock ( coal ) is converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure in the presence of steam . Rather than burning , most of the carbon-containing feedstock is broken apart by chemical reactions that produce `` syngas . '' Syngas is primarily hydrogen and carbon monoxide , but the exact composition can vary . In Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle ( IGCC ) systems , the syngas is cleaned and burned as fuel in a combustion turbine which then drives an electric generator . Exhaust heat from the combustion turbine is recovered and used to create steam for a steam turbine-generator . The use of these two types of turbines in combination is one reason why gasification-based power systems can achieve high power generation efficiencies . Currently , commercially available gasification-based systems can operate at around 40 % efficiencies . Syngas , however , emits more greenhouse gases than natural gas , and almost twice as much carbon as a coal plant . Coal gasification is also water-intensive . According to the Gasification and Syngas Technologies Council , a trade association , there are globally 272 operating gasification plants with 686 gasifiers and 74 plants with 238 gasifiers under construction . Most of them use coal as feedstock . As of 2017 large scale expansion of the coal gasification industry was occurring only in China where local governments and energy companies promote the industry for the sake of jobs and a market for coal . The central government is aware of the conflict with environmental goals . For the most part the plants are located in remote coal rich areas . In addition to producing a great deal of carbon dioxide the plants use a great deal of water in areas where water is scarce .

Climate_change

Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .

Climate_of_Brazil

The climate of Brazil varies considerably mostly from tropical north ( the equator traverses the mouth of the Amazon ) to temperate zones south of the Tropic of Capricorn ( 23 ° 26 ' S latitude ) . Temperatures below the equator are high , averaging above 25 ° C , but not reaching the summer extremes of up to 40 ° C in the temperate zones . There is little seasonal variation near the equator , although at times it can get cool enough to need to wear a jacket , especially in the rain . Average temperatures below the Tropic of Capricorn are mild , ranging from 13 ° C to 22 ° C. At the country 's other extreme , there are frosts south of the Tropic of Capricorn and during the winter ( June -- September ) , and in some years there are snowfalls on the high plateau and mountainous areas of some regions . Snow falls in the mountains of the states of Rio Grande do Sul , Santa Catarina , and Paraná and it is possible but very rare in the states of São Paulo , Rio de Janeiro , Minas Gerais , and Espírito Santo . The cities of Belo Horizonte and Brasília have moderate temperatures , usually between 15 and , because of their elevation of approximately 1000 m. Rio de Janeiro , Recife , and Salvador on the coast have warm climates , with average temperatures of each month ranging from 23 to , but enjoy constant trade winds . The cities of São Paulo , Curitiba , Florianópolis and Porto Alegre have a subtropical climate similar to that of southern United States , and temperatures can fall below freezing in winter . Precipitation levels vary widely . Most of Brazil has moderate rainfall of between 1000 and a year , with most of the rain falling in the summer ( between December and April ) south of the Equator . The Amazon region is notoriously humid , with rainfall generally more than 2000 mm per year and reaching as high as 3000 mm in parts of the western Amazon and near Belém . It is less widely known that , despite high annual precipitation , the Amazon rain forest has a three - to five-month dry season , the timing of which varies according to location north or south of the equator . High and relatively regular levels of precipitation in the Amazon contrast sharply with the dryness of the semiarid Northeast , where rainfall is highly erratic and there are severe droughts in cycles averaging seven years . The Northeast is the driest part of the country . The region also constitutes the hottest part of Brazil , where during the dry season between May and November , temperatures of more than 38 ° C have been recorded . However , the sertão , a region of semidesert vegetation used primarily for low-density ranching , turns green when there is rain . Most of the Center-West has 1500 to of rain per year , with a pronounced dry season in the middle of the year , while the South and most of the East is without a distinct dry season . Because the South Atlantic basin is generally not a favorable environment for their development , Brazil has only rarely experienced tropical cyclones . The country 's coastal population centers are therefore not as burdened with the need to prepare for cyclones , as are cities at similar latitudes in the United States and Asia .

Coal_forest

Coal forests were the vast swathes of wetlands that covered much of the Earth 's tropical land areas during the late Carboniferous ( Pennsylvanian ) and Permian times . As vegetable matter from these forests decayed , enormous deposits of peat accumulated , which later changed into coal . Much of the carbon in the peat deposits produced by coal forests came from photosynthetic splitting of existing carbon dioxide , which released the accompanying split-off oxygen into the atmosphere . This process may have greatly increased the oxygen level , possibly as high as about 35 % , making the air more easily breathable by animals with inefficient respiratory systems , as indicated by the size of Meganeura compared to modern dragonflies . Coal forests covered tropical Euramerica ( Europe , eastern North America , northwesternmost Africa ) and Cathaysia ( mainly China ) . Climate change devastated these tropical rainforests during the Carboniferous period . The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse was caused by a cooler drier climate that initially fragmented , then collapsed the rainforest ecosystem . During most of the rest of Carboniferous times , the coal forests were mainly restricted to refugia in North America ( such as the Appalachian and Illinois coal basins ) and central Europe . At the very end of the Carboniferous period , the coal forests underwent a resurgence , expanding mainly in eastern Asia , notably China ; they never recovered fully in Euramerica . The Chinese coal forests continued to flourish well into Permian times . This resurgence of the coal forests in very late Carboniferous times seems to have coincided with a lowering of global temperatures and a return of extensive polar ice in southern Gondwana , perhaps due to lessening of the greenhouse effect as the massive coal deposition process abstracted carbon dioxide from the atmosphere .

Connecticut

Connecticut ( -LSB- kəˈnɛtᵻkət -RSB- ) is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States . As of the 2010 Census , Connecticut features the highest per-capita income , Human Development Index ( 0.962 ) , and median household income in the United States . Connecticut is bordered by Rhode Island to the east , Massachusetts to the north , New York to the west , and Long Island Sound to the south . Its capital city is Hartford , and its most populous city is Bridgeport . Although Connecticut is technically part of New England , it is often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-state area . The state is named for the Connecticut River , a major U.S. river that approximately bisects the state . The word `` Connecticut '' is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for `` long tidal river '' . Connecticut is the third smallest state by area , the 29th most populous , and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States . It is known as the `` Constitution State '' , the `` Nutmeg State '' , the `` Provisions State '' , and the `` Land of Steady Habits '' . It was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States . Much of southern and western Connecticut ( along with the majority of the state 's population ) is part of the New York metropolitan area ; three of Connecticut 's eight counties are statistically included in the New York City combined statistical area , which is widely referred to as the Tri-State area . Connecticut 's center of population is in Cheshire , New Haven County , which is also located within the Tri-State area . Connecticut 's first European settlers were Dutch . They established a small , short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park and Connecticut rivers called Huys de Goede Hoop . Initially , half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland , which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers . The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England . Thomas Hooker led a band of followers overland from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and founded what became the Connecticut Colony ; other settlers from Massachusetts founded the Saybrook Colony and the New Haven Colony . The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders , considered the first constitutions in North America . In 1662 , the three colonies were merged under a royal charter , making Connecticut a crown colony . This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution . The Connecticut River , Thames River , and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong Maritime tradition which continues today . The state also has a long history of hosting the financial services industry , including insurance companies in Hartford and hedge funds in Fairfield County .

Coal_pollution_mitigation

Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .

Competitive_Tax_Plan

The Competitive Tax Plan is an approach to taxation , suggested in the United States , that would impose a 10 -- 15 % value added tax ( VAT ) and reduce personal and corporate income taxes . The plan was created by Michael J. Graetz , professor at Columbia law school , and a former Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Tax Policy . Graetz states that it would generate enough revenue so that families with $ 100,000 of annual income or less -- almost 90 % of all current filers -- would not have to pay income taxes or file tax returns . Graetz would provide a new payroll tax offset to replace the Earned Income Tax Credit and to protect low and moderate income workers from any tax increase under the new system . Under the initial proposal , households with an annual income of more than $ 100,000 would be taxed at a flat 25 % rate and the corporate income tax rate would be reduced to 25 % . Graetz argues that reducing the corporate tax rate `` would make the United States an extremely attractive nation for corporate investments for both U.S. citizens and foreign investors '' . According to an article in the November 19 , 2002 issue of The Wall Street Journal , the Competitive Tax Plan is already being given consideration by officials in the United States Treasury Department . In 2013 , Graetz presented an updated version of his plan for 2015 . In it , he proposed progressive income tax rates for single filers making over $ 50,000 and households making over $ 100,000 ( $ 75,000 for head of household ) and lowering the corporate income tax further , to 15 % . No formal bill for the Competitive Tax Plan itself is in Congress ; however Senator Ben Cardin 's Progressive Consumption Tax Act has many similar features .

Climate_of_Svalbard

The climate of Svalbard is principally a result of its latitude , which is between 74 ° and 81 ° north . Average July temperatures range from 3 and , and in January temperatures are normally between − 13 and . The North Atlantic Current moderates Svalbard 's temperatures , particularly during winter , giving it up to 20 C-change higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in continental Russia and Canada . This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year . The interior fjord areas and valleys , sheltered by the mountains , have less temperature differences than the coast , giving about 2 ° C lower summer temperatures and 3 ° C higher winter temperatures . On the south of Spitsbergen , the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west . During winter , the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 ° C , while only about 3 ° C in summer . Bear Island has average temperatures even higher than the rest of the archipelago . The archipelago is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild , wet sea air from the south , creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds , particularly in winter ; in January , a strong breeze is registered 17 % of the time at Isfjord Radio , but only 1 % of the time in July . In summer , particularly away from land , fog is common , with visibility under 1 km registered 20 % of the time in July and 1 % of the time in January , at Hopen and Bear Island . Precipitation is frequent , but falls in small quantities , typically less than 400 mm in Western Spitsbergen . More rain falls in the uninhabited east side , where there can be more than 1000 mm . The warmest temperature ever recorded was 21.3 C in July 1979 and the coldest was -46.3 C in March 1986 .

Climate_Change_Act_2008

The Climate Change Act 2008 ( c 27 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Act makes it the duty of the Secretary of State to ensure that the net UK carbon account for all six Kyoto greenhouse gases for the year 2050 is at least 80 % lower than the 1990 baseline , toward avoiding dangerous climate change . The Act aims to enable the United Kingdom to become a low-carbon economy and gives ministers powers to introduce the measures necessary to achieve a range of greenhouse gas reduction targets . An independent Committee on Climate Change has been created under the Act to provide advice to UK Government on these targets and related policies . In the act Secretary of State refers to the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change .

Coalbed_methane

Coalbed methane ( CBM or coal-bed methane ) , coalbed gas , coal seam gas ( CSG ) , or coal-mine methane ( CMM ) is a form of natural gas extracted from coal beds . In recent decades it has become an important source of energy in United States , Canada , Australia , and other countries . The term refers to methane adsorbed into the solid matrix of the coal . It is called ` sweet gas ' because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide . The presence of this gas is well known from its occurrence in underground coal mining , where it presents a serious safety risk . Coalbed methane is distinct from a typical sandstone or other conventional gas reservoir , as the methane is stored within the coal by a process called adsorption . The methane is in a near-liquid state , lining the inside of pores within the coal ( called the matrix ) . The open fractures in the coal ( called the cleats ) can also contain free gas or can be saturated with water . Unlike much natural gas from conventional reservoirs , coalbed methane contains very little heavier hydrocarbons such as propane or butane , and no natural-gas condensate . It often contains up to a few percent carbon dioxide .

Colorado_River

The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico ( the other being the Rio Grande ) . The 1450 mi river drains an expansive , arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states . Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S. , the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona -- Nevada border , where it turns south toward the international border . After entering Mexico , the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora . Known for its dramatic canyons , whitewater rapids , and eleven U.S. National Parks , the Colorado River system is a vital source of water for 40 million people in southwestern North America . The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams , reservoirs , and aqueducts , which in most years divert its entire flow for agricultural irrigation and domestic water supply . Its large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power , and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West . Intensive water consumption has dried up the lower 100 mi of the river , which has rarely reached the sea since the 1960s . Beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers , Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years . Between 2,000 and 1,000 years ago , the river and its tributaries fostered large agricultural civilizations -- some of the most sophisticated indigenous cultures in North America -- which eventually faded due to a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices . Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from other groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago . Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century , when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area , which later became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821 . Early contact between Europeans and Native Americans was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river . After most of the Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846 , the bulk of the river 's course was still the subject of myths and speculation . Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century -- one of which , led by John Wesley Powell , was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon . American explorers collected valuable information that was later used to develop the river for navigation and water supply . Large-scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid - to late-19th century , with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the river that linked to wagon roads to the interior . Lesser numbers settled in the upper basin , which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s . Large engineering works began around the start of the 20th century , with major guidelines established in a series of international and U.S. interstate treaties known as the `` Law of the River '' . The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of dams and aqueducts , although many state and local water agencies were also involved . Most of the major dams were built between 1910 and 1970 ; the system keystone , Hoover Dam , was completed in 1935 . The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world , with every drop of its water fully allocated . The environmental movement in the American Southwest has opposed the damming and diversion of the Colorado River system because of detrimental effects on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries . During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam , environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river , and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition . As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise , the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy .

Climate_sensitivity

Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .

Composite_Higgs_models

In particle physics , composite Higgs models ( CHM ) are speculative extensions of the Standard Model ( SM ) where the Higgs boson is a bound state of new strong interactions . These scenarios are the leading alternative to supersymmetric models for physics beyond the SM presently tested at the Large Hadron Collider ( LHC ) in Geneva . According to CHM the recently discovered Higgs boson is not an elementary particle ( or point-like ) but has finite size , typically around 10 − 18 meters . This dimension is related to the Fermi scale ( 100 GeV ) that determines the strength of the weak interactions such as in β-decay . Microscopically the composite Higgs will be made of smaller constituents in the same way as nuclei are made protons and neutrons . The main prediction of CHM are new particles with mass around TeV that are excitations of the composite Higgs . This is analogous to the resonances in nuclear physics . The new particles could be produced and detected in collider experiments if the energy of the collision exceeds their mass or could produce deviations from the SM predictions in low energy observables . Within the most compelling scenarios each Standard Model particle has a partner with equal quantum numbers but heavier mass . For example , the photon , W and Z bosons have heavy replicas with mass determined by the compositeness scale , expected around 1012 eV . CHM are motivated by the so-called naturalness or hierarchy problem of the SM , the difficulty to explain the different energy scales that appear in the fundamental interactions of particle physics . CHM can solve the naturalness problem because the Higgs boson is not an elementary particle so that a new energy scale exists that can be explained dynamically similarly to the mass of the proton . Naturalness requires that new particles exist with mass around TeV and these could be discovered at LHC or future experiments . As of 2015 , no direct or indirect signs that the Higgs or other SM particles are composite has been detected .

Coast

A coastline or a seashore is the area where land meets the sea or ocean , or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake . A precise line that can be called a coastline can not be determined due to the Coastline paradox . The term coastal zone is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs . Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region ; for example , New Zealand 's West Coast , or the East and West Coasts of the United States . Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland . A pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean , as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay . A shore , on the other hand , can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water , including oceans ( sea shore ) and lakes ( lake shore ) . Similarly , the somewhat related term '' -LSB- Stream bed/bank -RSB- '' refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river ( riverbank ) or to a body of water smaller than a lake . `` Bank '' is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond ; in other places this may be called a levee . While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term `` coast '' , the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction , with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons . According to the UN atlas , 44 % of people live within 150 km of the sea .

Climate_footprint

The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .

Climate_Central

Climate Central is a nonprofit news organization that analyzes and reports on climate science . Composed of scientists and science journalists , the organization conducts scientific research on climate change and energy issues , and produces multimedia content that is distributed via their website and media partners . Climate Central has been featured in many prominent U.S. news sources , including the New York Times , the Associated Press , Reuters , NBC Nightly News , CBS News , CNN , ABC News , Nightline , Time , National Public Radio , PBS , Scientific American , National Geographic , Science , and The Washington Post . Climate Central 's President and CEO is Paul Hanle . Former Weather Channel climate expert Heidi Cullen is the group 's Director of Communications and Chief Climatologist . The organization 's research team is directed by Richard Wiles , while the editorial team features veterans of CNN , Time magazine , The Weather Channel , Environment and Energy Daily , DISCOVER Magazine , MLB.com and Washingtonpost.com .

Climate_engineering

Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .

Climate_change_in_the_Arctic

The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .

Climate_of_Antarctica

The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .

Clean_Energy_Ministerial

The Clean Energy Ministerial ( CEM ) were global forums held to promote policies and to share best practices with the aim of accelerating a transition to clean energy . The forums have included partnerships and collaboration between the private sector , public sector . non-governmental organizations , and others . The forum typically incorporated two interrelated features : 1 ) an annual high-level policy dialogue with energy ministers and other top global stakeholders ; and 2 ) year-round policy-targeted technical initiatives and high-visibility campaigns . The CEM is currently the only regular meeting of energy ministers focused exclusively on clean energy . President Obama announced in a video message at the sixth Clean Energy Ministerial ( CEM6 ) in Mérida , Mexico that the United States would host the seventh Clean Energy Ministerial ( CEM7 ) in 2016 . At COP21 in Paris in December , U.S. Department of Energy Secretary Ernest Moniz and California Governor Edmund G. Brown Jr. announced CEM7 would be hosted in San Francisco , California . CEM7 is a high-level meeting of energy ministers coming together to discuss and implement actions of respective climate and clean energy goals put forward at COP21 . CEM7 includes a public-private action day with opportunities for governments , companies , and other key stakeholders to highlight ambitious clean energy efforts and announce new actions to help achieve national and global clean energy and climate goals . Through the CEM , 23 countries and the European Commission collaborate on efforts to improve energy efficiency , enhance clean energy supply , and expand clean energy access . Members of the CEM as of 2016 are Australia , Brazil , Canada , China , Denmark , European Commission , Finland , France , Germany , India , Indonesia , Italy , Japan , Korea , Mexico , Norway , Russia , Saudi Arabia , South Africa , Spain , Sweden , United Arab Emirates , United Kingdom , United States .

Conservative_Party_of_Canada

The Conservative Party of Canada ( Parti conservateur du Canada ) , colloquially known as the Tories , is a political party in Canada . It is positioned on the right of the Canadian political spectrum . The party 's leader from 2004 to 2015 was Stephen Harper , who served as Prime Minister from 2006 to 2015 . The Conservative Party is the successor to multiple right-wing parties which have existed in Canada for over a century . Until 1942 , one of the party 's predecessors was known as the Conservative Party of Canada , and participated in numerous governments . Before 1942 , the predecessors to the Conservatives had multiple names , but by 1942 , the main right-wing Canadian force became known as the Progressive Conservatives . In 1957 , John Diefenbaker became the first Prime Minister from the Progressive Conservative Party , and remained in office until 1963 . Another Progressive Conservative government was elected after the results of the 1979 federal election , with Joe Clark becoming Prime Minister . Clark served from 1979 to 1980 , when he was defeated by the Liberal Party after the 1980 federal election . In 1984 , the Progressive Conservatives won with Brian Mulroney becoming Prime Minister . Mulroney was Prime Minister from 1984 to 1993 , and his government was marked by free trade agreements and economic liberalization . The party suffered a near complete loss after the 1993 federal election , thanks to a splintering of the right-wing ; the Conservatives ' other predecessor , the Reform Party , led by Preston Manning placed in third , leaving the Progressive Conservatives in fifth . A similar result occurred in 1997 , and in 2000 , when the Reform Party became the Canadian Alliance . In 2003 , the Canadian Alliance and Progressive Conservatives merged , forming the Conservative Party of Canada . The unified Conservative Party generally favours lower taxes , small government , more decentralization of federal government powers to the provinces modeled after the Meech Lake Accord and a tougher stand on `` law and order '' issues . The party won two minority governments after the 2006 federal election , and a majority government in the 2011 federal election before being defeated in the 2015 federal election by a majority Liberal government . The party is currently led by Andrew Scheer , the winner of the leadership election , which took place on May 27 , 2017 .

Climate_change_feedback

Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''

Coal_gasification

Coal gasification is the process of producing syngas -- a mixture consisting primarily of carbon monoxide ( CO ) , hydrogen ( H2 ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and water vapor ( H2O ) -- from coal and water , air and/or oxygen . Historically , coal was gasified using early technology to produce coal gas ( also known as `` town gas '' ) , which is a combustible gas traditionally used for municipal lighting and heating before the advent of industrial-scale production of natural gas . In current practice , large-scale instances of coal gasification are primarily for electricity generation , such as in integrated gasification combined cycle power plants , for production of chemical feedstocks , or for production of synthetic natural gas . The hydrogen obtained from coal gasification can be used for various purposes such as making ammonia , powering a hydrogen economy , or upgrading fossil fuels . Alternatively , coal-derived syngas can be converted into transportation fuels such as gasoline and diesel through additional treatment via the Fischer-Tropsch process or into methanol which itself can be used as transportation fuel or fuel additive , or which can be converted into gasoline by the methanol to gasoline process . Methane from coal gasification can be converted into LNG for use as a fuel in the transport sector .

Computational_statistics

Computational statistics , or statistical computing , is the interface between statistics and computer science . It is the area of computational science ( or scientific computing ) specific to the mathematical science of statistics . This area is also developing rapidly , leading to calls that a broader concept of computing should be taught as part of general statistical education . The terms ` computational statistics ' and ` statistical computing ' are often used interchangeably , although Carlo Lauro ( a former president of the International Association for Statistical Computing ) proposed making a distinction , defining ` statistical computing ' as `` the application of computer science to statistics '' , and ` computational statistics ' as `` aiming at the design of algorithm for implementing statistical methods on computers , including the ones unthinkable before the computer age ( e.g. bootstrap , simulation ) , as well as to cope with analytically intractable problems '' -LSB- sic -RSB- . The term ` Computational statistics ' may also be used to refer to computationally intensive statistical methods including resampling methods , Markov chain Monte Carlo methods , local regression , kernel density estimation , artificial neural networks and generalized additive models .

Cold_War

The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc ( the Soviet Union and its satellite states ) and powers in the Western Bloc ( the United States , its NATO allies and others ) . Historians do not fully agree on the dates , but a common timeframe is the period between 1947 , the year the Truman Doctrine ( a U.S. foreign policy pledging to aid nations threatened by Soviet expansionism ) was announced , and 1991 , the year the Soviet Union collapsed . The term `` cold '' is used because there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides involved in the conflict , although there were major regional wars , known as proxy wars , supported by the two sides . The Cold War split the temporary wartime alliance against Nazi Germany , leaving the Soviet Union and the United States as two superpowers with profound economic and political differences . The USSR was a Marxist -- Leninist state led by its Communist Party of the Soviet Union , who in turn were led by a leader , with different titles over time , and a small committee called the Politburo . The Party controlled the press , the military , the economy and many organization . It also controlled the other states in the Eastern Bloc , and funded Communist parties around the world , sometimes in competition with Communist China , particularly following the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s . In opposition stood the West , staunchly democratic and capitalist with a free press and independent organizations . A small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement ; it sought good relations with both sides . The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat , but they were heavily armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war . Each side had a nuclear strategy that discouraged an attack by the other side , on the basis that such an attack would lead to the total destruction of the attacker : the doctrine of mutually assured destruction ( MAD ) . Aside from the development of the two sides ' nuclear arsenals , and their deployment of conventional military forces , the struggle for dominance was expressed via proxy wars around the globe , psychological warfare , massive propaganda campaigns and espionage , rivalry at sports events , and technological competitions such as the Space Race . The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945 . The USSR consolidated its control over the states of the Eastern Bloc , while the United States began a strategy of global containment to challenge Soviet power , extending military and financial aid to the countries of Western Europe ( for example , supporting the anti-communist side in the Greek Civil War ) and creating the NATO alliance . The Berlin Blockade ( 1948 -- 49 ) was the first major crisis of the Cold War . With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War ( 1950 -- 53 ) , the conflict expanded . The USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America , and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia . Meanwhile , the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets . The expansion and escalation sparked more crises , such as the Suez Crisis ( 1956 ) , the Berlin Crisis of 1961 , and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 . Following the Cuban Missile Crisis , a new phase began that saw the Sino-Soviet split complicate relations within the communist sphere , while US allies , particularly France , demonstrated greater independence of action . The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia , and the Vietnam War ( 1955 -- 75 ) ended with the defeat of the US-backed Republic of Vietnam , prompting further adjustments . By the 1970s , both sides had become interested in making accommodations in order to create a more stable and predictable international system , inaugurating a period of détente that saw Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and the US opening relations with the People 's Republic of China as a strategic counterweight to the Soviet Union . Détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet -- Afghan War in 1979 . The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension , with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 ( 1983 ) , and the `` Able Archer '' NATO military exercises ( 1983 ) . The United States increased diplomatic , military , and economic pressures on the Soviet Union , at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation . In the mid-1980s , the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the liberalizing reforms of perestroika ( `` reorganization '' , 1987 ) and glasnost ( `` openness '' , c. 1985 ) and ended Soviet involvement in Afghanistan . Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe , especially Poland . Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past . The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully ( with the exception of the Romanian Revolution ) overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central and Eastern Europe . The Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991 . This in turn led to the formal dissolution of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse of communist regimes in other countries such as Mongolia , Cambodia and South Yemen . The United States remained as the world 's only superpower . The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy . It is often referred to in popular culture , especially in media featuring themes of espionage ( e.g. the internationally successful James Bond movie franchise ) and the threat of nuclear warfare .

Climate_Finance

Climate finance refers to financing channeled by national , regional and international entities for climate change mitigation and adaptation projects and programs . They include climate specific support mechanisms and financial aid for mitigation and adaptation activities to spur and enable the transition towards low-carbon , climate-resilient growth and development through capacity building , R&D and economic development . The term has been used in a narrow sense to refer to transfers of public resources from developed to developing countries , in light of their UN Climate Convention obligations to provide `` new and additional financial resources , '' and in a wider sense to refer to all financial flows relating to climate change mitigation and adaptation . Finance is sourced from public , private and public-private sectors and can be channelled through various intermediaries , notably BFIs , MFIs , development cooperation agencies , the UNFCCC ( various funds including those managed by the Global Environment Facility ) , non-governmental organisations and the private sector . The financials flows can flow from developed to developing countries ( North-South ) , from developing to developing countries ( South-South ) , from developed to developed countries ( North-North ) and domestic climate finance flows in developed and developing countries . According to the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report 2011 , investments in renewable energy in 2010 reached a record of USD 211 billion ( not including large hydropower ) . These amounts far exceed existing dedicated resources and those proposed under the developed world at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) Cancún Agreements . The estimations for the needed financing for climate change vary according to the geographic , sectorial and activity coverage , timescale and phasing , target and the underlying assumptions . The 2010 the World Development Report preliminary estimates of financing needs for mitigation and adaptation activities in developing countries range from USD 140-175 billion per year for mitigation over the next 20 years with associated financing needs of USD 265-565 billion and USD30 -- 100 billion a year over the period 2010 - 2050 for adaptation . The International Energy Agency 's 2011 World Energy Outlook ( WEO ) estimates that in order to meet growing demand for energy through 2035 , USD 16.9 trillion in new investment for new power generation is projected , with renewable energy ( RE ) comprising 60 % of the total . The capital required to meet projected energy demand through 2030 amounts to $ 1.1 trillion per year on average , distributed ( almost evenly ) between the large emerging economies ( China , India , Brazil , etc. ) and including the remaining developing countries .

Coal_mine_bump

A coal mine bump ( a bump , a mine bump , or a mountain bump ) is a seismic jolt occurring within a mine , often due to the explosive collapse of a wall or one or more support pillars , sometimes called a rock burst . These pillars are left in place during room and pillar mining , where an original narrow passage is dug and then substantially widened as ore is removed , creating open rooms with support pillars left in place . As the coal is extracted , the pressure is redistributed onto the pillars and can increase to the extent that the pillar explodes like a hand grenade , shooting coal and rock at lethal speeds . In the eastern United States ' coalfields , bumps are more likely when the overburden is at least 500 feet ( 150 m ) ; where a strong , overlying stratum , such as sandstone , occurs near the coalbed ; and with a strong , inflexible floor . In the United States , the number of deaths from bumps had dropped off dramatically since the early 1990s , but fatalities are more common in the West where mines often run deeper . Bumps are three times more likely in room-and-pillar mines , and are even more common in mines that do retreat mining , in which the pillars are removed as the miners retreat towards the mine entrance with the intent of allowing an orderly collapse of the mine .

Climate_of_South_Africa

The climate of South Africa is determined by South Africa 's situation between 22 ° S and 35 ° S , in the Southern Hemisphere 's subtropical zone , and its location between two oceans , Atlantic and Indian . It has a wider variety of climates than most other countries in sub-Saharan Africa , and it has lower average temperatures than other countries within this range of latitude , like Australia , because much of the interior ( central plateau or Highveld , including Johannesburg ) of South Africa is at higher elevation . Winter temperatures may reach the freezing point at high altitude , but are at their most mild in coastal regions , particularly the Eastern Cape . Cold and warm coastal currents running north-west and north-east respectively account for the difference in climated between west and east coasts . The weather is also influenced by ENSO ( El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ) . South Africa experiences a high degree of sunshine with rainfall about half of the global average , increasing from west to east , and with semi-desert regions in the north-west . While the Western Cape has a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall , most of the country experiences summer rainfall .

Climate_of_Los_Angeles

The Los Angeles metropolitan area averages year-round mild-to-warm weather . The climate is classified as a Mediterranean climate , which is a type of dry subtropical climate , characterized by seasonal changes in rainfall -- with a dry summer and a winter rainy season -- but relatively modest transitions in temperature . Under the modified Köppen climate classification , the coast is classified as Csb and the inland areas as Csa . Some areas of the city may also be defined as a cold semi-arid climate due to the low annual rainfall in combination with high mean temperatures . The Los Angeles area contains many microclimates , which means that the daytime temperatures can vary as much as 36 ° F ( 19 ° C ) between inland areas such as the San Fernando Valley or San Gabriel Valley and the coastal Los Angeles Basin .

Cloud_feedback

Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .

Circle_of_latitude

A circle of latitude on the Earth is an abstract east -- west circle connecting all locations around the earth ( ignoring elevation ) at a given latitude . Circles of latitude are often called parallels because they are parallel to each other -- that is , any two circles are always the same distance apart . A location 's position along a circle of latitude is given by its longitude . Circles of latitude are unlike circles of longitude , which all are great circles with the centre of Earth in the middle , as the circles of latitude get smaller as the distance from the Equator increases . Their length can be calculated by a common sine or cosine function . The 60th circle of latitude is half as long as the equator ( disregarding Earth 's minor flattening by 0.3 % ) . A circle of latitude is perpendicular to all meridians . The latitude of the circle is approximately the angle between the equator and the circle , with the angle 's vertex at the Earth 's centre . The equator is at 0 ° , and the North and South poles are at 90 ° north and 90 ° south respectively . The Equator is the longest circle of latitude and is the only circle of latitude which also is a great circle . There are 89 integral ( whole degree ) circles of latitude between the equator and the Poles in each hemisphere , but these can be divided into more precise measurements of latitude , and are often represented as a decimal degree ( e.g. 34.637 ° N ) or with minutes and seconds ( e.g. 22 ° 14 ' 26 `` S ) . There is no limit to how precisely latitude can be measured , and so there are an infinite number of circles of latitude on Earth . On a map , the circles of latitude may or may not be parallel , and their spacing may vary , depending on which projection is used to map the surface of the Earth onto a plane . On an equirectangular projection , centered on the equator , the circles of latitude are horizontal , parallel , and equally spaced . On other cylindrical and pseudocylindrical projections , the circles of latitude are horizontal and parallel , but may be spaced unevenly to give the map useful characteristics . For instance , on a Mercator projection the circles of latitude are more widely spaced near the poles to preserve local scales and shapes , while on a Gall -- Peters projection the circles of latitude are spaced more closely near the poles so that comparisons of area will be accurate . On most non-cylindrical and non-pseudocylindrical projections , the circles of latitude are neither straight nor parallel . Arcs of circles of latitude are sometimes used as boundaries between countries or regions where distinctive natural borders are lacking ( such as in deserts ) , or when an artificial border is drawn as a `` line on a map '' , which was made in massive scale during the 1884 Berlin Conference , regarding huge parts of the African continent . North American nations and states have also mostly been created by straight lines , which are often parts of circles of latitudes . For instance , the northern border of Colorado is at 41 ° N while the southern border is at 37 ° N. Roughly half the length of border between the United States and Canada follows 49 ° N.

Climate_change_and_agriculture

-RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .

Climate_of_Africa

Due to Africa 's position across equatorial and subtropical latitudes in both the northern and southern hemisphere , several different climate types can be found on the continent of Africa . Africa mainly lies within the intertropical zone between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn . Only the northernmost and the southernmost fringes of the continent have a Mediterranean climate . Because of this geographical situation , Africa is a hot continent as the solar radiation intensity is always high . Thus , warm and hot climates prevails all over Africa but the northern part is the most marked part by aridity and high temperatures . The climate of Africa is a range of climates such as the equatorial climate , the tropical wet and dry climate , the tropical monsoon climate , the semi-desert climate ( semi-arid ) , the desert climate ( hyper-arid and arid ) , the subtropical highland climate etc. . Temperate climates remain rare through the continent except at very high elevations and along the fringes . In fact , the climate of Africa is more dependent to rainfall amount than to temperatures as they are consistently high . African deserts are the sunniest and the driest parts of the continent due to the prevailing presence of the subtropical ridge with subsiding , hot , dry air masses . Africa holds many heat-related records : the continent has the hottest extended region year-round , the areas with the hottest summer climate , the highest sunshine duration etc. .

Climate_of_the_Tampa_Bay_area

The Tampa Bay area has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa ) , with the southernmost parts of the region around Sarasota closely bordering a tropical savanna climate . It has warm and humid summers with frequent thunderstorms and drier winters , with freezing temperatures only occurring every 2 -- 3 years ( mostly in the northern inland parts of the region ) . The area experiences a significant summer wet season , as nearly two-thirds of the annual precipitation falls in the months of June through September . The area is listed by the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) as being in hardiness zone 10 , which is about the northern limit of where coconut palms and royal palms can be grown . Highs usually range between 65 and 95 ° F ( 18 and 35 ° C ) year round . Though known for hot summers , Tampa 's official high has never reached 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) -- the city 's all-time record temperature is 99 ° F ( 37 ° C ) . St. Petersburg 's all-time record high is exactly 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Pinellas County lies on a peninsula between Tampa Bay and the Gulf of Mexico , and much of the city of Tampa lies on a smaller peninsula jutting out into Tampa Bay . This proximity to large bodies of water both moderates temperatures and introduces large amounts of humidity into the atmosphere . In general , the local communities farthest from the coast have larger temperature ranges , both during a single day and throughout the seasons of the year .

Circular_reporting

In source criticism , circular reporting or false confirmation is a situation where a piece of information appears to come from multiple independent sources , but in fact is coming from only one source . In most cases , the problem happens mistakenly through sloppy intelligence gathering practices , but in a few cases , the situation was believed to have been intentionally caused by the original source . This problem occurs in variety of fields , including intelligence gathering , journalism , and scholarly research . It is of particular concern in military intelligence because the original source has a higher likelihood of wanting to pass on misinformation , and because the chain of reporting is more prone to being obscured . Wikipedia is sometimes criticized for being used as a source of circular reporting . Wikipedia advises all researchers and journalists to be wary of using Wikipedia as a direct source , and instead focus on verifiable information found in an article 's cited references .

Climate_of_the_Falkland_Islands

The climate of the Falkland Islands is cool and temperate , regulated by the large oceans which surround it . The Falkland Islands are located over 480 km from South America , to the north of the Antarctic convergence , where cooler waters from the south mix with warmer waters from the north . Winds mostly come from the west , creating a difference between the relative levels of precipitation between the eastern islands and the western islands . The total annual rainfall is only about 573.6 mm . Although snow falls , it does not settle due to the strength of the winds . The temperature of the islands fluctuates within a narrow band , not reaching higher than 24 C or lower than -5 C . There are long hours of daylight in the summer , although the actual number of hours of sunlight is limited by cloud cover .

Cold_wave

A cold wave ( known in some regions as a cold snap ) is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air . Specifically , as used by the U.S. National Weather Service , a cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture , industry , commerce , and social activities . The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the rate at which the temperature falls , and the minimum to which it falls . This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year . In the United States , a cold spell is defined as the national average high temperature dropping below 20 F.

Clear_Lake_(California)

Clear Lake is a natural freshwater lake located in Lake County in the U.S. state of California , north of Napa County and San Francisco . It is the largest natural freshwater lake wholly within the state , with 68 mi2 of surface area . Lakes have existed at the site for at least 2,500,000 years , possibly making it the oldest lake in North America . Known as the `` Bass Capital of the West , '' Clear Lake supports large populations of bass , crappie , bluegill , carp and catfish . Two-thirds of the fish caught in Clear Lake are largemouth bass , with a record of 17.52 pounds . Clear Lake was most recently ranked by Bassmaster Magazine in 2016 as the # 3 best bass lake in the United States and the # 1 best bass lake on the West Coast . However , locals strongly recommend against eating the fish from Clear Lake because of potentially toxic levels of mercury . In addition to fish , there is abundant wildlife within the Clear Lake basin . There are year-round populations of ducks , pelicans , grebes , blue herons , egrets , osprey , and bald eagles , and the basin supports sizable populations of deer , bear , mountain lion , raccoon and other animals . The expansive , warm water of Clear Lake makes it popular for watersports , such as swimming , water skiing , wakeboarding , sailing , boat races , and jet skiing .

Churnalism

Churnalism is a form of journalism in which press releases , stories provided by news agencies , and other forms of pre-packaged material , instead of reported news , are used to create articles in newspapers and other news media . Its purpose is to reduce cost by reducing original news-gathering and checking sources , to counter revenue lost with the rise of Internet news and decline in advertising ; there was a particularly steep fall from late 2015 . The term `` churnalism '' has been credited to BBC journalist Waseem Zakir , who coined the term in 2008 . Churnalism has increased to the point that many stories found in the press are not original . The decline of original journalism has been associated with a corresponding rise in public relations .

Circadian_rhythm

A circadian rhythm -LSB- sɜːˈkeɪdiən -RSB- is any biological process that displays an endogenous , entrainable oscillation of about 24 hours . These 24-hour rhythms are driven by a circadian clock , and they have been widely observed in plants , animals , fungi , and cyanobacteria . The term circadian comes from the Latin circa , meaning `` around '' ( or `` approximately '' ) , and diēm , meaning `` day '' . The formal study of biological temporal rhythms , such as daily , tidal , weekly , seasonal , and annual rhythms , is called chronobiology . Processes with 24-hour oscillations are more generally called diurnal rhythms ; strictly speaking , they should not be called circadian rhythms unless their endogenous nature is confirmed . Although circadian rhythms are endogenous ( `` built-in '' , self-sustained ) , they are adjusted ( entrained ) to the local environment by external cues called zeitgebers ( from German , `` time giver '' ) , which include light , temperature and redox cycles .

Climate_of_Dallas

The city of Dallas has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ) that is characteristic of the Southern Plains of the United States . Dallas experiences distinct four seasons . July and August are typically the hottest months , with an average low of 76.7 ° F and an average high of 96.0 ° F. January is typically the coldest month , with an average low of 37.3 ° F and an average high of 56.8 ° F. Located at the lower-end of the Tornado Alley , it is often prone to storms . A couple of times each year , warm and humid air from the south overrides cold , dry air , leading to freezing rain , which often causes major disruptions in the city if the roads and highways become slick . On the other hand , daytime highs above 65 ° F are not unusual during the winter season . Extremes in weather are more readily seen in Dallas and Texas as a whole than along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts , due to the state 's location in the interior of the United States . Spring and autumn bring pleasant weather to the area . Vibrant wildflowers ( such as the bluebonnet , Indian paintbrush and other flora ) bloom in spring and are planted around the highways throughout Texas . Springtime weather can be quite volatile , but temperatures themselves are mild . The weather in Dallas is also generally pleasant between late September and early December , and unlike springtime , major storms rarely form in the area . In the spring , cool fronts moving south from Canada collide with warm , humid air streaming in from the Gulf Coast . When these fronts meet over north central Texas , severe thunderstorms are generated with spectacular lightning shows , torrents of rain , hail , and occasionally , tornadoes . Over time , tornadoes have perhaps been the biggest natural threat to the city . Summers are hot , with temperatures approaching those of desert and semidesert locations of similar latitude . Heat waves can be severe . During the summer , the region receives warm and dry winds from the north and west . The U.S. Department of Agriculture places Dallas in Plant Hardiness Zone 8a . According to the American Lung Association , Dallas has the 12th highest ozone air pollution in the nation , ranking it behind Los Angeles and Houston . 30 % of the air pollution in Dallas , and the Metroplex in general , comes from the three cement plants in the town of Midlothian , as well concrete installations in neighboring Ellis County , but the foremost contributor to air pollution in Dallas is exhaust from automobiles . Due to the area 's spread-out nature and high amount of urban sprawl , automobiles are the only viable mode of transportation for many residents in the metropolitan area . The city 's all-time recorded high temperature is 113 ° F during the Heat Wave of 1980 , while the all-time recorded low is -8 ° F 1899 . The average daily low in Dallas is 57.1 ° F and the average daily high in Dallas is 76.7 ° F. Dallas receives approximately 37.1 in of equivalent rain per year .

Coal_hole

A coal hole is a hatch in the pavement ( sidewalk , in US usage ) above an underground coal bunker . They are sometimes found outside houses that existed during the period when coal was widely used for domestic heating from the early 19th century to the middle 20th century . In Britain they became largely obsolete within the major cities of the UK when the Clean Air Act forced a move towards oil and gas for home heating . The coal hole allowed the easy delivery of coal , generally in sacks and often from horse-drawn carts , to the house 's coal bunker . The location of the coal hole on the street minimised the distance the sacks needed to be carried and meant that dusty sacks and delivery men did not need to enter the house . The hatch is typically about 12 to 14 inches ( 30 to 35 cm ) in diameter and consists of a cast iron ring set into the pavement , with a circular cover , often made of cast iron alone but sometimes containing concrete or glass panes or small ventilation holes . There are three main reasons for the circular shape of the coal hole plate : a circular disc can not accidentally fall through its own hole ( unlike a square or rectangular one ) ; because of its weight , it is helpful that it can be rolled rather than lifted and carried ; and the absence of corners allows for a reduced risk of damage to it . Hatches have an internal latch that prevents the cover being lifted from the outside . On some streets there are a variety of types of cover reflecting the fact that the coal holes were installed at different times by different builders after the houses were built .

Community_Earth_System_Model

The Community Earth System Model ( CESM ) is a fully coupled numerical simulation of the Earth system consisting of atmospheric , ocean , ice , land surface , carbon cycle , and other components . CESM includes a climate model providing state-of-art simulations of the Earth 's past , present , and future . It is the successor of the Community Climate System Model ( CCSM ) , specifically version 4 ( CCSMv4 ) , which provided the initial atmospheric component for CESM . Strong ensemble forecasting capabilities , CESM-LE ( CESM-Large Scale ) , were developed at the onset to control for error and biases across different model runs ( realizations ) . Simulations from the Earth 's surface through the thermosphere are generated utilizing the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model ( WACCM ) . CESM1 was released in 2010 with primary development by the Climate and Global Dynamics Division ( CGD ) of the National Center for Atmospheric Research ( NCAR ) , and significant funding by the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) and the Department of Energy ( DoE ) .

Climate_change_adaptation

Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .

Combined_cycle

In electric power generation a combined cycle is an assembly of heat engines that work in tandem from the same source of heat , converting it into mechanical energy , which in turn usually drives electrical generators . The principle is that after completing its cycle ( in the first engine ) , the temperature of the working fluid engine is still high enough that a second subsequent heat engine may extract energy from the waste heat that the first engine produced . By combining these multiple streams of work upon a single mechanical shaft turning an electric generator , the overall net efficiency of the system may be increased by 50 -- 60 % . That is , from an overall efficiency of say 34 % ( in a single cycle ) to possibly an overall efficiency of 51 % ( in a mechanical combination of two cycles ) in net Carnot thermodynamic efficiency . This can be done because heat engines are only able to use a portion of the energy their fuel generates ( usually less than 50 % ) . In an ordinary ( non combined cycle ) heat engine the remaining heat ( e.g. , hot exhaust fumes ) from combustion is generally wasted . Combining two or more thermodynamic cycles results in improved overall efficiency , reducing fuel costs . In stationary power plants , a widely used combination is a gas turbine ( operating by the Brayton cycle ) burning natural gas or synthesis gas from coal , whose hot exhaust powers a steam power plant ( operating by the Rankine cycle ) . This is called a Combined Cycle Gas Turbine ( CCGT ) plant , and can achieve a best-of-class real ( HHV - see below ) thermal efficiency of around 54 % in base-load operation , in contrast to a single cycle steam power plant which is limited to efficiencies of around 35 -- 42 % . Many new gas power plants in North America and Europe are of the Combined Cycle Gas Turbine type . Such an arrangement is also used for marine propulsion , and is called a combined gas and steam ( COGAS ) plant . Multiple stage turbine or steam cycles are also common . Other historically successful combined cycles have used hot cycles with mercury vapor turbines , magnetohydrodynamic generators or molten carbonate fuel cells , with steam plants for the low temperature `` bottoming '' cycle . Bottoming cycles operating from a steam condenser 's heat exhaust are theoretically possible , but uneconomical because of the very large , expensive equipment needed to extract energy from the small temperature differences between condensing steam and outside air or water . However , it is common in cold climates ( such as Finland ) to drive community heating systems from a power plant 's condenser heat . Such cogeneration systems can yield theoretical efficiencies above 95 % . In automotive and aeronautical engines , turbines have been driven from the exhausts of Otto and Diesel cycles . These are called turbo-compound engines ( not to be confused with turbochargers ) .

Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System

Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .

Coal_mining

Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground . Coal is valued for its energy content , and , since the 1880s , has been widely used to generate electricity . Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production . In the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery ; a coal mine a pit ; the above-ground structures the pit head . In Australia , `` colliery '' generally refers to an underground coal mine . In the United States `` colliery '' has been used to describe a coal mine operation but nowadays the word is not commonly used . Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years , from the early days of men tunnelling , digging and manually extracting the coal on carts , to large open cut and long wall mines . Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines , trucks , conveyors , hydraulic jacks and shearers .

Cloud_formation_and_climate_change

Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .

Coal_gas

Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system . Town gas is a more general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers and municipalities . Coal gas contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen , carbon monoxide , methane and volatile hydrocarbons together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen . Prior to the development of natural gas supply and transmissionduring the 1940s and 1950s in the United States and during the late 1960s and 1970s in Great Britainvirtually all gas for fuel and lighting was manufactured from coal . Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems . Originally created as a by-product of the coking process , its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization . By-products from the production process included coal tars and ammonia , which were important chemical feedstock for the dye and chemical industry with a wide range of artificial dyes being made from coal gas and coal tar . Facilities where the gas was produced were often known as a manufactured gas plant ( MGP ) or a gasworks . The discovery of large reserves of natural gas in the North Sea off the Scottish coast during the early 1960s led to the expensive conversion or replacement of most of the UK 's gas cookers and gas heaters , except in Northern Ireland , from the late 1960s onwards . The production process is distinct , both physically and chemically , from that used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas , syngas , hygas , Dowson gas , and producer gas . These gases are made by partial combustion of a wide variety of feed stocks in some mixture of air , oxygen , or steam , to reduce the latter to hydrogen and carbon dioxide although some destructive distillation may also occur .

Climate_of_the_Arctic

The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .

Climate_change_in_Australia

Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .

Columbia_River

The Columbia River is the largest river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America . The river rises in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia , Canada . It flows northwest and then south into the US state of Washington , then turns west to form most of the border between Washington and the state of Oregon before emptying into the Pacific Ocean . The river is 1243 mi long , and its largest tributary is the Snake River . Its drainage basin is roughly the size of France and extends into seven US states and a Canadian province . By volume the fourth-largest river in the United States , the Columbia has the greatest flow of any North American river entering the Pacific . The Columbia and its tributaries have been central to the region 's culture and economy for thousands of years . They have been used for transportation since ancient times , linking the many cultural groups of the region . The river system hosts many species of anadromous fish , which migrate between freshwater habitats and the saline waters of the Pacific Ocean . These fish -- especially the salmon species -- provided the core subsistence for native peoples . In the late 18th century , a private American ship became the first non-indigenous vessel to enter the river ; it was followed by a British explorer , who navigated past the Oregon Coast Range into the Willamette Valley . In the following decades , fur trading companies used the Columbia as a key transportation route . Overland explorers entered the Willamette Valley through the scenic but treacherous Columbia River Gorge , and pioneers began to settle the valley in increasing numbers . Steamships along the river linked communities and facilitated trade ; the arrival of railroads in the late 19th century , many running along the river , supplemented these links . Since the late 19th century , public and private sectors have heavily developed the river . To aid ship and barge navigation , locks have been built along the lower Columbia and its tributaries , and dredging has opened , maintained , and enlarged shipping channels . Since the early 20th century , dams have been built across the river for power generation , navigation , irrigation , and flood control . The 14 hydroelectric dams on the Columbia 's main stem and many more on its tributaries produce more than 44 percent of total U.S. hydroelectric generation . Production of nuclear power has taken place at two sites along the river . Plutonium for nuclear weapons was produced for decades at the Hanford Site , which is now the most contaminated nuclear site in the US . These developments have greatly altered river environments in the watershed , mainly through industrial pollution and barriers to fish migration .

Climate_Research_(journal)

Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .

Climatic_Research_Unit_documents

Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''

Climate_of_the_Philippines

The Philippines has four types of climates : tropical rainforest , tropical savanna , tropical monsoon , and humid subtropical ( in higher-altitude areas ) characterized by relatively high temperature , oppressive humidity and plenty of rainfall . There are two seasons in the country , the wet season and the dry season , based upon the amount of rainfall . This is also dependent on location in the country as some areas experience rain all throughout the year ( see Climate types ) . Based on temperature , the warmest months of the year are March through October ; the winter monsoon brings cooler air from November to February . May is the warmest month , and January , the coolest . Weather in the Philippines is monitored and managed by Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) .

Climate_of_Tamil_Nadu

The Climate of Tamil Nadu , India is generally tropical and features fairly hot temperatures over the year except during the monsoon season .

Climatic_Research_Unit_email_controversy

The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .

Clean_technology

Clean technology refers to any process , product , or service that reduces negative environmental impacts through significant energy efficiency improvements , the sustainable use of resources , or environmental protection activities . Clean technology includes a broad range of technology related to recycling , renewable energy ( wind power , solar power , biomass , hydropower , biofuels , etc. ) , information technology , green transportation , electric motors , green chemistry , lighting , Greywater , and more . Environmental finance is a method by which new clean technology projects that have proven that they are `` additional '' or `` beyond business as usual '' can obtain financing through the generation of carbon credits . A project that is developed with concern for climate change mitigation ( such as a Kyoto Clean Development Mechanism project ) is also known as a carbon project . While there is no standard definition of `` clean technology , '' it has been described by Clean Edge , a clean technology research firm , as `` a diverse range of products , services , and processes that harness renewable materials and energy sources , dramatically reduce the use of natural resources , and cut or eliminate emissions and wastes . '' It notes that `` Clean technologies are competitive with , if not superior to , their conventional counterparts . Many also offer significant additional benefits , notably their ability to improve the lives of those in both developed and developing countries '' . Investments in clean technology have grown considerably since coming into the spotlight around 2000 . According to the United Nations Environment Program , wind , solar , and biofuel companies received a record $ 148 billion in new funding in 2007 as rising oil prices and climate change policies encouraged investment in renewable energy . $ 50 billion of that funding went to wind power . Overall , investment in clean-energy and energy-efficiency industries rose 60 percent from 2006 to 2007 . By 2018 it is forecast that the three main clean technology sectors , solar photovoltaics , wind power , and biofuels , will have revenues of $ 325.1 bn .

Climate_change_adaptation_in_Nepal

Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa

Clime

The climes ( singular clime ; also clima , plural climata , from Greek κλίμα klima , plural κλίματα klimata , meaning `` inclination '' or `` slope '' ) in classical Greco-Roman geography and astronomy were the divisions of the inhabited portion of the spherical Earth by geographic latitude . Starting with Aristotle ( Meteorology 2.5,362 a32 ) , the Earth was divided into five zones , assuming two frigid climes ( the arctic and antarctic ) around the poles , an uninhabitable torrid clime near the equator , and two temperate climes between the frigid and the torrid ones . Different lists of climata were in use in Hellenistic and Roman time . Claudius Ptolemy was the first ancient scientist known to have devised the so-called system of seven climes ( Almagest 2.12 ) which , due to his authority , became one of the canonical elements of late antique , medieval European and Arab geography . In Medieval Europe , the climes for 15 and 18 hours were used to calculate the changing length of daylight through the year . The modern concept of climate and the related term are derived from the historical concept of climata .

Colorado

Colorado ( -LSB- kɒləˈrædoʊ , _ - ˈrɑːdoʊ -RSB- ) is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains . Colorado is part of the Western United States , the Southwestern United States , and the Mountain States . Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States . The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1 , 2016 , an increase of 10.17 % since the 2010 United States Census . The state was named for the Colorado River , which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy ( -LSB- Wiktionary : colorado , colorado -RSB- ) silt the river carried from the mountains . The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28 , 1861 , and on August 1 , 1876 , U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed Proclamation 230 admitting Colorado to the Union as the 38th state . Colorado is nicknamed the `` Centennial State '' because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence . Colorado is bordered by Wyoming to the north , Nebraska to the northeast , Kansas to the east , Oklahoma to the southeast , New Mexico to the south , Utah to the west , and Arizona to the southwest at the Four Corners . Colorado is noted for its vivid landscape of mountains , forests , high plains , mesas , canyons , plateaus , rivers , and desert lands . Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado . Residents of the state are properly known as `` Coloradans '' , although the term `` Coloradoan '' has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins ' newspaper , the Coloradoan .

Confirmation_bias

Confirmation bias , also called confirmatory bias or myside bias , David Perkins , a geneticist , coined the term `` myside bias '' referring to a preference for `` my '' side of an issue . is the tendency to search for , interpret , favor , and recall information in a way that confirms one 's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses . It is a type of cognitive bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning . People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively , or when they interpret it in a biased way . The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs . People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position . Biased search , interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization ( when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence ) , belief perseverance ( when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false ) , the irrational primacy effect ( a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series ) and illusory correlation ( when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations ) . A series of experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs . Later work re-interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one-sided way , focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives . In certain situations , this tendency can bias people 's conclusions . Explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information . Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong , rather than investigating in a neutral , scientific way . Confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence . Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts.Tuchman ( 1984 ) described a form of confirmation bias at work in the process of justifying policies to which a government has committed itself : `` Once a policy has been adopted and implemented , all subsequent activity becomes an effort to justify it '' ( p. 245 ) . In the context of a discussion of the policy that drew the United States into war in Vietnam and kept the U.S. military engaged for 16 years despite countless evidences that it was a lost cause from the beginning , Tuchman argued : Wooden-headedness , the source of self-deception is a factor that plays a remarkably large role in government . It consists in assessing a situation in terms of preconceived fixed notions while ignoring or rejecting any contrary signs . It is acting according to wish while not allowing oneself to be deflected by the facts . It is epitomized in a historian 's statement about Philip II of Spain , the surpassing wooden head of all sovereigns : `` no experience of the failure of his policy could shake his belief in essential excellence . '' ( p. 7 ) Folly , she argued , is a form of self-deception characterized by `` insistence on a rooted notion regardless of contrary evidence '' ( p. 209 )

Climate_change_in_China

The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .

Climate_change_and_gender

Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .

Climate_change_in_Canada

In Canada mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is being addressed more seriously by the provinces than by the federal government . The 2015 election signals greater federal leadership as noted in Canada 's National Statement at COP21 , making climate change a top priority , and pledging actions based on the best scientific evidence and advice .

Coeur_d'Alene,_Idaho

Coeur d'Alene ( -LSB- kɔər_dəˈleɪn -RSB- ) is the largest city and county seat of Kootenai County , Idaho , United States . It is the principal city of the Coeur d'Alene Metropolitan Statistical Area . As of the 2010 census , the population of Coeur d'Alene was 44,137 . The city is a satellite city of Spokane , which is located about 30 mi to the west , in the state of Washington . The two cities are the key components of the Spokane-Coeur d'Alene Combined Statistical Area , of which Coeur d'Alene is the third largest city ( after Spokane and its largest suburb , Spokane Valley ) . Coeur d'Alene is the largest city in northern Idaho Panhandle . The city is situated on the north shore of Lake Coeur d'Alene , 25 mi in length . Locally , Coeur d'Alene is known as the `` Lake City , '' or simply called by its initials : `` CDA '' . The city of Coeur d'Alene has grown significantly in recent years , in part because of a substantial increase in tourism , encouraged by several resorts in the area . Broadcaster and media figure Barbara Walters called the city `` a little slice of Heaven '' and included it in her list of most fascinating places to visit . On November 28 , 2007 , Good Morning America broadcast the city 's Christmas lighting ceremony because its display is among the largest in the United States . The Coeur d'Alene Resort takes up a prominent portion of the city 's downtown . It is also near two major ski resorts : Silver Mountain Resort to the east in Kellogg , and Schweitzer Mountain Ski Resort to the north in Sandpoint . The city is named after the Coeur d'Alene People , a federally recognized tribe of Native Americans who lived along the rivers and lakes of the region , in a territory of 5,500 sqmi extending into Washington and Montana . They were first encountered by French fur traders in the late 18th and early 19th century , who referred to them as Cœur d'Alène , meaning `` heart of an awl , '' reflecting their experience of the tribal traders as tough businessmen , `` sharp-hearted '' or `` shrewd '' .

Climate_of_the_Nordic_countries

The climate of the Nordic countries is that of a region in Northern Europe that consists of Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway and Sweden and their associated territories , which include the Faroe Islands , Greenland and Åland . Stockholm , Sweden has on average the warmest summer of the Nordic countries , with an average maximum temperature of 23 ° C in July ; Copenhagen , Oslo and Helsinki have an average July maximum temperature of 22 ° C.

Cold-air_damming

Cold air damming , or CAD , is a meteorological phenomenon that involves a high-pressure system ( anticyclone ) accelerating equatorward east of a north-south oriented mountain range due to the formation of a barrier jet behind a cold front associated with the poleward portion of a split upper level trough . Initially , a high-pressure system moves poleward of a north-south mountain range . Once it sloshes over poleward and eastward of the range , the flow around the high banks up against the mountains , forming a barrier jet which funnels cool air down a stretch of land east of the mountains . The higher the mountain chain , the deeper the cold air mass becomes lodged to its east , and the greater impediment it is within the flow pattern and the more resistant it becomes to intrusions of milder air . As the equatorward portion of the system approaches the cold air wedge , persistent low cloudiness , such as stratus , and precipitation such as drizzle develop , which can linger for long periods of time ; as long as ten days . The precipitation itself can create or enhance a damming signature , if the poleward high is relatively weak . If such events accelerate through mountain passes , dangerously accelerated mountain-gap winds can result , such as the Tehuantepecer and Santa Ana winds . These events are seen commonly in the northern Hemisphere across central and eastern North America , south of the Alps in Italy , and near Taiwan and Korea in Asia . Events in the southern Hemisphere have been noted in South America east of the Andes .

Climate_of_Salt_Lake_City

The climate of Salt Lake City varies widely . Lying in the Salt Lake Valley , the city is surrounded by mountains and the Great Salt Lake . The city has four distinct seasons : a cold , snowy winter ; a hot , dry summer ; and two relatively wet transition periods . The climate of the Salt Lake City area is generally subhumid , not semi-arid as often claimed . Under the Köppen climate classification , Salt Lake City has a hot-summer humid continental climate ( Dfa ) , with relatively drier summers than the rest of the year . The Pacific Ocean is the primary influence on the weather , contributing storms from about October to May , with spring being the wettest season . Snow falls frequently during the winter , contributed largely by the lake-effect from the Great Salt Lake . The only source of precipitation in the summer is monsoon moisture moving north from the Gulf of California . Summers are hot , frequently reaching above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) , while winters are cold and snowy . However , winters are warmer than one would expect at this elevation and latitude , due to the Rocky Mountains to the east and north that usually block powerful polar highs from affecting the state during the winter . Temperatures rarely fall below 0 ° F ( -18 ° C ) , but frequently stay below freezing . Temperature inversions during winter can lead to thick overnight fog and daytime haze in the valley as cool air , moisture , and pollutants are trapped in the valley by surrounding mountains .

Condensation_cloud

A transient condensation cloud , also called Wilson cloud , is observable at large explosions in humid air . When a nuclear weapon or a large amount of a conventional explosive is detonated in sufficiently humid air , the `` negative phase '' of the shock wave causes a rarefaction ( reduction in density ) of the air surrounding the explosion , but not contained within it . This rarefaction results in a temporary cooling of that air , which causes a condensation of some of the water vapor contained in it . When the pressure and the temperature return to normal , the Wilson cloud dissipates . Since heat does not leave the affected air mass , this change of pressure is adiabatic , with an associated change of temperature . In humid air , the drop in temperature in the most rarefied portion of the shock wave can bring the air temperature below its dew point , at which moisture condenses to form a visible cloud of microscopic water droplets . Since the pressure effect of the wave is reduced by its expansion ( the same pressure effect is spread over a larger radius ) , the vapor effect also has a limited radius . Such vapor can also be seen in low pressure regions during high -- g subsonic maneuvers of aircraft in humid conditions . Scientists observing the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946 at Bikini Atoll named that transitory cloud a `` Wilson cloud '' because of its similarity to the appearance of the inside of a Wilson cloud chamber , an instrument they would have been familiar with . ( The cloud chamber effect is caused by a temporary reduction in pressure in a closed system and marks the tracks of electrically-charged sub-atomic particles . ) Analysts of later nuclear bomb tests used the more general term condensation cloud . The shape of the shock wave , influenced by different speed in different altitudes , and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds . During nuclear tests , condensation rings around or above the fireball are commonly observed . Rings around the fireball may become stable and form rings around the rising stem of the mushroom cloud . The lifetime of the Wilson cloud during nuclear air bursts can be shortened by the thermal radiation from the fireball , which heats the cloud above the dew point and evaporates the droplets . The same kind of condensation cloud is sometimes seen above the wings of aircraft in a moist atmosphere . The top of a wing has a reduction of air pressure as part of the process of generating lift . This reduction in air pressure causes a cooling , just as above , and the condensation of water vapor . Hence , the small , transient clouds that appear . The vapor cone of a transonic aircraft is another example of a condensation cloud .

Cliff

In geography and geology , a cliff is a vertical , or nearly vertical , rock exposure . Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by the processes of weathering and erosion . Cliffs are common on coasts , in mountainous areas , escarpments and along rivers . Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to weathering and erosion . Sedimentary rocks most likely to form cliffs include sandstone , limestone , chalk , and dolomite . Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs . An escarpment ( or scarp ) is a type of cliff , formed by the movement of a geologic fault or landslide , or by differential erosion of rock layers of differing hardness . Most cliffs have some form of scree slope at their base . In arid areas or under high cliffs , they are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock . In areas of higher moisture , a soil slope may obscure the talus . Many cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters . Sometimes a cliff peters out at the end of a ridge , with tea tables or other types of rock columns remaining . Coastal erosion may lead to the formation of sea cliffs along a receding coastline . The Ordnance Survey distinguishes between cliffs ( continuous line along the top edge with projections down the face ) and outcrops ( continuous lines along lower edge ) .

Climate_of_Hawaii

The American state of Hawaii , which covers the Hawai'ian Islands , is tropical but it experiences many different climates , depending on altitude and weather . The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 ( out of 5 in total ) climate groups on a surface as small as 4,028 sq miles according to the Köppen climate types : tropical , arid , temperate and polar . When counting also the Köppen sub-categories the island of Hawaii hosts 8 ( out of 13 in total ) climate zones . The islands receive most rainfall from the trade winds on their north and east flanks ( the windward side ) as a result of orographic precipitation . Coastal areas , in general , and especially the south and west side or leeward sides , tend to be drier . In general , the Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the summer months ( October to April ) . Drier conditions generally prevail from May to September , and while warmer temperatures increase the risk of tropical cyclones , Pacific hurricanes seldom impact Hawaii .

Climate_of_Italy

Italy has a variety of climate systems . The inland northern areas of Italy ( for example Turin , Milan , and Bologna ) have a relatively cool , mid-latitude version of the Humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfa ) , while the coastal areas of Liguria and the peninsula south of Florence generally fit the Mediterranean climate profile ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) . Between the north and south there can be a considerable difference in temperature , above all during the winter : in some winter days it can be -2 ° C and snowing in Milan , while it is 8 ° C in Rome and 20 ° C in Palermo . Temperature differences are less extreme in the summer . The east coast of the Italian peninsula is not as wet as the west coast , but is usually colder in the winter . The east coast north of Pescara is occasionally affected by the cold bora winds in winter and spring , but the wind is less strong here than around Trieste . During these frosty spells from E -- NE cities like Rimini , Ancona , Pescara and the entire eastern hillside of the Apennines can be affected by true `` blizzards '' . The town of Fabriano , located just around 300 m in elevation , can often see 0.5 - of fresh snow fall in 24 hours during these episodes . On the coast from Ravenna to Venice and Trieste , snow falls more rarely : during cold spells from the east , the cold can be harsh but with bright skies ; while during the snowfalls that affect Northern Italy , the Adriatic coast can see a milder Sirocco wind which makes snow turn to rain -- the mild effects of this wind often disappear just a few kilometres inside the plain , and sometimes the coast from Venice to Grado sees snow while it is raining in Trieste , the Po River mouths and Ravenna . Rarely , the city of Trieste may see snow blizzards with north-eastern winds ; in the colder winters , the Venice Lagoon may freeze , and in the coldest ones even enough to walk on the ice sheet . Summer is usually more stable , although the northern regions often have thunderstorms in the afternoon/night hours and some grey and rainy days . So , while south of Florence the summer is typically dry and sunny , in the north it tends to be more humid and cloudy . Spring and Autumn weather can be very changeable , with sunny and warm weeks ( sometimes with Summer-like temperatures ) suddenly broken off by cold spells or followed by rainy and cloudy weeks . In the north precipitation is more evenly distributed during the year , although the summer is usually slightly wetter . Between November and March the Po valley is often covered by fog , especially in the central zone ( Pavia , Piacenza , Cremona and Mantua ) , while the number of days with lows below 0 ° C is usually from 60 to 90 a year , with peaks of 100 -- 110 days in the mainly rural zones . Snow is quite common between early December and early March in cities like Turin , Milan and Bologna , but sometime it appears in late November or late March and even April . In the winter of 2005 -- 2006 , Milan received around 0.75 - or 75 - of fresh snow , Como around 1 m or 100 cm , Brescia 0.5 m or 50 cm , Trento 1.6 m or 160 cm , Vicenza around 0.45 m or 45 cm , Bologna around 0.3 m or 30 cm , and Piacenza around 0.8 m or 80 cm Summer temperatures are often similar north to south . July temperatures are 22 - north of river Po , like in Milan or Venice , and south of river Po can reach 24 - like in Bologna , with fewer thunderstorms ; on the coasts of Central and Southern Italy , and in the near plains , mean temperatures goes from 23 ° C to 27 ° C. Generally , the hottest month is August in the south and July in the north ; during these months the thermometer can reach 38 - in the south and 32 - in the north ; Sometimes the country can be split as during winter , with rain and 20 - during the day in the north , and 30 - in the south ; but , having a hot and dry summer does not mean that Southern Italy will not see rain from June to August . The coldest month is January : the Po valley 's mean temperature is between -1 - , Venice 2 - , Trieste 4 ° C , Florence 5 - , Rome 7 - , Naples , and Cagliari 12 ° C. Winter morning lows can occasionally reach -30 to in the Alps , -14 to in the Po valley , -7 ° C in Florence , -4 ° C in Rome , -2 ° C in Naples and 2 ° C in Palermo . In cities like Rome and Milan , strong heat islands can exist , so that inside the urban area , winters can be milder and summers more sultry . On some winter mornings it can be just -3 ° C in Milan 's Dome plaza while -8 to in the metropolitan outskirts , in Turin can be just -5 ° C in the city centre and -10 to in the metropolitan outskirts . Often , the largest snowfalls happen in February , sometime in January or March ; in the Alps , snow falls more in autumn and spring over 1500 m , because winter is usually marked by cold and dry periods ; while the Apennines see many more snow falls during winter , but they are warmer and less wet in the other seasons . Both the mountain chains can see up to 5 - or 500 - of snow in a year at 2000 m ; on the highest peaks of the Alps , snow may fall even during mid summer , and glaciers are present . The record low is -45 ° C in the Alps , and -29.0 ° C near sea level ( recorded on January 12 , 1985 at San Pietro Capofiume , hamlet of Molinella , in the Province of Bologna ) , while in the south cities like Catania , Foggia , Lecce or Alghero have experienced highs of 46 ° C in some hot summers .

Climate_of_Finland

The climate of Finland is influenced most by latitude . Because of Finland 's northern location , winter is the longest season . Only in the south coast and the southeast is summer as long as winter . On the average , winter lasts from early January to late February in the outermost islands in the archipelago and the warmest locations along southwestern coast , notably in Hanko and from early October to mid-May in the most elevated locations in northwestern Lapland and the lowest valleys in northeastern Lapland . This means that southern portions of the country are snow-covered about three to four months of the year and the northern , about seven months . The long winter causes about half of the annual 500 to of precipitation in the north to fall as snow . Precipitation in the south amounts to about 600 to annually . Like that of the north , it occurs all through the year , though not so much of it is snow . In Köppen climate classification Finland belongs to the Df group ( continental subarctic or boreal climates ) . The southern coast is Dfb ( humid continental mild summer , wet all year ) , and the rest of the country is Dfc ( subarctic with cool summer , wet all year ) . The Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Eurasian continent to the east interact to modify the climate of the country . The warm waters of the Gulf Stream and the North Atlantic Drift Current , play a big role in the climate of Norway , Sweden and Finland which continuously warm the region , if it were n't for these currents the winters in Scandinavia and Fennoscandia would be much colder . Westerly winds bring the warm air currents into the Baltic areas and to the country 's shores , moderating winter temperatures , specially in the south and southwest in cities like Helsinki and Turku where winter highs tend to be between 0 and but a cold snap like the one that occurred in mid-January 2016 can cause temperatures to plunge well below -20 C . These winds , because of clouds associated with weather systems accompanying the westerlies , also decrease the amount of sunshine received during the summer . By contrast , the continental high pressure system situated over the Eurasian continent counteracts the maritime influences , occasionally causing severe winters and high temperatures in the summer .

Cold_fusion

Cold fusion is a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at , or near , room temperature . This is compared with the `` hot '' fusion which takes place naturally within stars , under immense pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees , and distinguished from muon-catalyzed fusion . There is currently no accepted theoretical model that would allow cold fusion to occur . In 1989 Martin Fleischmann ( then one of the world 's leading electrochemists ) and Stanley Pons reported that their apparatus had produced anomalous heat ( `` excess heat '' ) of a magnitude they asserted would defy explanation except in terms of nuclear processes . They further reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction byproducts , including neutrons and tritium . The small tabletop experiment involved electrolysis of heavy water on the surface of a palladium ( Pd ) electrode . The reported results received wide media attention , and raised hopes of a cheap and abundant source of energy . Many scientists tried to replicate the experiment with the few details available . Hopes faded due to the large number of negative replications , the withdrawal of many reported positive replications , the discovery of flaws and sources of experimental error in the original experiment , and finally the discovery that Fleischmann and Pons had not actually detected nuclear reaction byproducts . By late 1989 , most scientists considered cold fusion claims dead , and cold fusion subsequently gained a reputation as pathological science . In 1989 the United States Department of Energy ( DOE ) concluded that the reported results of excess heat did not present convincing evidence of a useful source of energy and decided against allocating funding specifically for cold fusion . A second DOE review in 2004 , which looked at new research , reached similar conclusions and did not result in DOE funding of cold fusion . A small community of researchers continues to investigate cold fusion , now often preferring the designation low-energy nuclear reactions ( LENR ) or condensed matter nuclear science ( CMNS ) . Since cold fusion articles are rarely published in peer-reviewed mainstream scientific journals , they do not attract the level of scrutiny expected for mainstream scientific publications .

Clean_Energy_Regulator

The Clean Energy Regulator is an Australian independent statutory authority responsible for administering legislation that will reduce carbon emissions and increase the use of clean energy . The Clean Energy Regulator , based in Canberra , was established on 2 April 2012 as an independent statutory authority under the Clean Energy Regulator Act 2011 . The agency is part of the Environment and Energy portfolio . The Clean Energy Regulator tabled the 2015 Renewable Energy Target Administrative Report and Annual Statement on 3 May 2016 . The report covers the operations of the Renewable Energy ( Electricity ) Act 2000 for the 2015 calendar year and the Renewable Energy Target 2015 Annual statement and supporting information about progress towards meeting the revised 2020 Large-scale Renewable Energy Target .

Climate_prediction

Climate prediction is a subset of numerical weather prediction dealing with generalized forecasts beyond the usual short-range and medium-range forecast periods . It is part of the broader science of climatology . Among items that include the phrase `` climate prediction '' in their name include : Climate Prediction Center , an agency of the United States government Climateprediction.net , a collaborative climate ensemble

Circumpolar_distribution

A circumpolar distribution is any range of a taxon that occurs over a wide range of longitudes but only at high latitudes ; such a range therefore extends all the way around either the North Pole or the South Pole . Taxa that are also found in isolated high-mountain environments further from the poles are said to have arctic -- alpine distributions . Animals with circumpolar distributions include the reindeer , polar bear , Arctic fox , snowy owl , snow bunting , king eider , brent goose and long-tailed skua in the north , and the Weddell seal and Adélie penguin in the south . Plants with northern circumpolar distributions include Eutrema edwardsii ( syn . Draba laevigata ) , Saxifraga oppositifolia , Persicaria vivipara and Honckenya peploides .

Clathrate_gun_hypothesis

The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .

Climate_gap

The climate gap refers to a body of data indicating disparities in how climate change impacts various racial , ethnic and socioeconomic groups in the United States . The data show that low socioeconomic status groups and racial and ethnic minorities will experience more negative health and economic impacts from the results of climate change than other populations in the United States . This term , climate gap , was first used in the May 2009 report , `` The Climate Gap : Inequalities in How Climate Change Hurts Americans & How to Close the Gap '' , as well as in a concurrent paper published in the journal , Environmental Justice , by Seth B. Shonkoff , Rachel Morello-Frosch and colleagues entitled , `` Minding the Climate Gap : Implications of Environmental Health Inequities for Mitigation Policies in California '' .

Climate_Audit

Climate Audit is a blog which was founded on 31 January 2005 by Steve Mcintyre . The New York Times has called it `` a popular skeptics ' blog '' .

Climate:_Long_range_Investigation,_Mapping,_and_Prediction

Climate : Long range Investigation , Mapping , and Prediction , known as CLIMAP , was a major research project of the 1970s and 80s to produce a map of climate conditions during the Last Glacial Maximum . The project was funded by the National Science Foundation as part of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration ( 1970s ) and is based in large part of the collection and analysis of a very large number of sediment cores to create a snapshot of conditions across the oceans . The CLIMAP project also resulted in maps of vegetative zones across the continents and the estimated extent of glaciation at the time . Most CLIMAP results aim to describe the Earth as it was 18 thousand years ago , but there was also an analysis to look at conditions during the previous interglacial -- 120 thousand years ago ( CLIMAP 1981 ) . CLIMAP has been a cornerstone of paleoclimate research and remains the most used sea surface temperature reconstruction of the global ocean during the last glacial maximum ( Yin and Battisti 2001 ) , but it has also been persistently controversial . CLIMAP resulted in estimates of global cooling of only 3.0 ± 0.6 ° C relative to the modern day ( Hoffert and Covey 1992 ) . The climate change during an ice age that occurs far from the continental ice sheets themselves is believed to be primarily controlled by changes in greenhouse gases , hence the conditions during the last glacial maximum provide a natural experiment for measuring the impact of changes in greenhouse gases on climate . The cited estimates of 3.0 ° C implies a climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide changes at the low end of the range proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . However , CLIMAP also suggested that some of the tropics and in particular much of the Pacific Ocean were warmer than they are today . To date , no climate model has been able to reproduce the proposed warming in the Pacific ( Yin and Battisti 2001 ) , with most preferring a several degree cooling . Also , it appears that climate models which are forced to match the CLIMAP sea surface measurements are too warm to match estimates for changes at continental locations ( Pinot et al. 1999 ) . This suggests that either climate model design is missing some important unknown factor , or CLIMAP systematically overestimated the temperatures in the tropical oceans during the last glacial , though there is at present no consistent explanation for why or how this should have happened . Unfortunately cost and difficulty of collecting sediment cores from the open Pacific has limited the availability of samples that might help to confirm or disprove these observations . If the Pacific reconstruction is assumed to be in error , it would result in a larger climate sensitivity to changes in greenhouse gases .

Collapse_of_the_World_Trade_Center

The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center collapsed on September 11 , 2001 , as a result of being struck by two jet airliners hijacked by 10 terrorists affiliated with al-Qaeda , during the September 11 attacks . Two of the four hijacked airliners crashed into the Twin Towers , one into the North Tower ( 1 World Trade Center ) and the other into the South Tower ( 2 World Trade Center ) . The collapse of the Twin Towers destroyed the rest of the complex , and debris from the collapsing towers severely damaged or destroyed more than a dozen other adjacent and nearby structures . The South Tower collapsed at 9:59 am , less than an hour after being hit by the second hijacked airliner , and at 10:28 am the North Tower collapsed . Later that day , 7 World Trade Center collapsed at 5:21 pm from fires that had started when the North Tower collapsed . As a result of the attacks to the towers , a total of 2,763 people died . Of the people who died in the towers , 2,192 were civilians , 343 were firefighters , and 71 law enforcement officers . Aboard the two airplanes , 147 civilians and 10 hijackers also died . Immediately following the attacks , a building performance study ( BPS ) team of engineering specialists was formed by the Structural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers ( SEI/ASCE ) and Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) . The BPS team issued its report in May 2002 , finding that the aircraft impacts caused `` extensive structural damage , including localized collapse '' and that the resulting fires `` further weakened the steel-framed structures , eventually leading to total collapse '' . They also presented recommendations for more detailed engineering studies of the disaster . The BPS team investigation was later followed by a more detailed investigation conducted by the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) , which also consulted outside engineering entities . This investigation was completed in September 2005 . The NIST investigators did not find anything substandard in the design of the WTC towers , noting that the severity of the attacks and the magnitude of the destruction was beyond anything experienced in U.S. cities in the past . They also emphasized the role of the fires and found that sagging floors pulled inward on the perimeter columns : `` This led to the inward bowing of the perimeter columns and failure of the south face of WTC 1 and the east face of WTC 2 , initiating the collapse of each of the towers . '' The cleanup of the site involved round-the-clock operations , many contractors and subcontractors , and cost hundreds of millions of dollars . The demolition of the surrounding damaged buildings continued even as new construction proceeded on the World Trade Center 's replacement , One World Trade Center , which was structurally completed on May 10 , 2013 , when the final component of the spire was installed atop the skyscraper . , One World Trade Center , 4 World Trade Center and 7 World Trade Center have been replaced .

Climate_ensemble

A climate ensemble involves slightly different models of the climate system . There are at least four different types , to be described below . For the equivalent in numerical weather prediction , see ensemble forecasting .

Cleaner_production

Cleaner production is a preventive , company-specific environmental protection initiative . It is intended to minimize waste and emissions and maximize product output . By analysing the flow of materials and energy in a company , one tries to identify options to minimize waste and emissions out of industrial processes through source reduction strategies . Improvements of organisation and technology help to reduce or suggest better choices in use of materials and energy , and to avoid waste , waste water generation , and gaseous emissions , and also waste heat and noise . The concept was developed during the preparation of the Rio Summit as a programme of UNEP ( United Nations Environmental Programme ) and UNIDO ( United Nations Industrial Development Organization ) under the leadership of Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel , the former Assistant Executive Director of UNEP . The programme was meant to reduce the environmental impact of industry . It built on ideas used by 3M in its 3P programme ( pollution prevention pays ) . It has found more international support than all other comparable programmes . The programme idea was described '' ... to assist developing nations in leapfrogging from pollution to less pollution , using available technologies '' . Starting from the simple idea to produce with less waste Cleaner Production was developed into a concept to increase the resource efficiency of production in general . UNIDO has been operating National Cleaner Production Centers and Programmes ( NCPCs/NCPPs ) with centres in Latin America , Africa , Asia and Europe . In the US , the term pollution prevention is more commonly used for cleaner production . Examples for cleaner production options are : Documentation of consumption ( as a basic analysis of material and energy flows , e. g. with a Sankey diagram ) Use of indicators and controlling ( to identify losses from poor planning , poor education and training , mistakes ) Substitution of raw materials and auxiliary materials ( especially renewable materials and energy ) Increase of useful life of auxiliary materials and process liquids ( by avoiding drag in , drag out , contamination ) Improved control and automatisation Reuse of waste ( internal or external ) New , low waste processes and technologies One of the first European initiatives in cleaner production was started in Austria in 1992 by the BMVIT ( Bundesministerium für Verkehr , Innovation und Technologie ) . This resulted in two initiatives : `` Prepare '' and EcoProfit . The `` PIUS '' initiative was founded in Germany in 1999 . Since 1994 , the United Nations Industrial Development Organization operates the National Cleaner Production Centre Programme with centres in Central America , South America , Africa , Asia , and Europe .

Clean_Development_Mechanism

The Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) is one of the Flexible Mechanisms defined in the Kyoto Protocol ( IPCC , 2007 ) that provides for emissions reduction projects which generate Certified Emission Reduction units ( CERs ) which may be traded in emissions trading schemes . The CDM , defined in Article 12 of the Protocol , was intended to meet two objectives : ( 1 ) to assist parties not included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is to prevent dangerous climate change ; and ( 2 ) to assist parties included in Annex I in achieving compliance with their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments ( greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emission caps ) . `` Annex I '' parties are the countries listed in Annex I of the treaty , the industrialized countries . Non-Annex I parties are developing countries . The CDM addresses the second objective by allowing the Annex I countries to meet part of their emission reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol by buying Certified Emission Reduction units from CDM emission reduction projects in developing countries ( Carbon Trust , 2009 , p. 14 ) . Both the projects and the issue of CERs units are subject to approval to ensure that these emission reductions are real and `` additional . '' The CDM is supervised by the CDM Executive Board ( CDM EB ) under the guidance of the Conference of the Parties ( COP/MOP ) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The CDM allows industrialized countries to buy CERs and to invest in emission reductions where it is cheapest globally ( Grubb , 2003 , p. 159 ) . Between 2001 , which was the first year CDM projects could be registered and 7 September 2012 , the CDM issued 1 billion Certified Emission Reduction units . As of 1 June 2013 , 57 % of all CERs had been issued for projects based on destroying either HFC-23 ( 38 % ) or N2O ( 19 % ) . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) was included in the CDM carbon offsetting scheme in December 2011 . However , a number of weaknesses of the CDM have been identified ( World Bank , 2010 , p. 265-267 ) . Several of these issues were addressed by the new Program of Activities ( PoA ) , which moves to approving ` bundles ' of projects instead of accrediting each project individually . In 2012 , the report Climate Change , Carbon Markets and the CDM : A Call to Action said governments urgently needed to address the future of the CDM . It suggested the CDM was in danger of collapse because of the low price of carbon and the failure of governments to guarantee its existence into the future . Writing on the website of the Climate & Development Knowledge Network , Yolanda Kakabadse , a member of the investigating panel for the report and founder of Fundación Futuro Latinamericano , said a strong CDM is needed to support the political consensus essential for future climate progress . `` Therefore we must do everything in our hands to keep it working , '' she said .

Climate_Data_Records

A Climate Data Record ( CDR ) is a specific definition of a climate data series , developed by the Committee on Climate Data Records from NOAA Operational Satellites of the National Research Council at the request of NOAA in the context of satellite records . It is defined as `` a time series of measurements of sufficient length , consistency , and continuity to determine climate variability and change . '' . Such measurements provide an objective basis for the understanding and prediction of climate and its variability , such as global warming .

Climate_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)

The climate of Georgia is typical of a humid subtropical climate with most of the state having mild winters and hot summers . The Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of Georgia and the hill country in the north impact the state 's climate . Also , the Chattahoochee River divides Georgia into separate climatic regions with the mountain region to the northwest being colder than the rest of the state , the average temperatures for that region in January and July being 39 F and 78 F respectively . Winter in Georgia is characterized by mild temperatures and little snowfall around the state , with colder , snowier , and icier weather more likely across northern and central Georgia . Summer daytime temperatures in Georgia often exceed 90 ° F . The state experiences widespread precipitation . Tornadoes and tropical cyclones are common .

Climate_of_the_United_States

The climate of the United States varies due to differences in latitude , and a range of geographic features , including mountains and deserts . West of the 100th meridian , much of the US is semi-arid to desert in the far southwestern US , and Mediterranean along the California coast . East of the 100th meridian , the climate is humid continental in the northern areas east through New England , to humid subtropical in the Gulf and South Atlantic regions . Southern Florida is tropical , as is Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands . Higher-elevation areas of the Rocky Mountains , the Wasatch , Sierra Nevada , and Cascade Range are alpine . The West Coast areas in coastal Oregon and Washington are oceanic climate . The state of Alaska , on the northwestern corner of the North American continent , is largely subarctic climate , but with a subpolar oceanic climate in the southeast ( Alaska Panhandle ) , southwestern peninsula and Aleutian Islands . The primary drivers of weather in the contiguous United States are the seasonal change in the solar angle , the migration north/south of the subtropical highs , and the seasonal change in the position of the polar jet stream . In the Northern Hemisphere summer the Subtropical high pressure systems move northward and closer to the United States mainland . In the Atlantic Ocean , the `` Bermuda High '' creates a south-southwest flow of warm , humid air over the eastern , southern and central United States - resulting in warm to hot temperatures , high humidity and occasional thunderstorm activity . In the Pacific Ocean high pressure builds toward the California coast resulting in a northwesterly airflow creating the typical sunny , dry , and stable weather conditions along the West Coast . In the Northern Hemisphere winter , the subtropical highs retreat southward . The polar jet stream ( and associated conflict zone between cold , dry air masses from Canada and warm , moist air masses from the Gulf of Mexico ) drops further southward into the United States - bringing more precipitation and periods of disturbed weather , as well as colder or mild air masses . Areas in the southern US ( Florida , the Gulf Coast , the Desert Southwest , and southern California ) however , often have more stable weather , as the polar jet stream 's impact does not usually reach that far south . Weather systems , be they high-pressure systems ( anticyclones ) , low-pressure systems ( cyclones ) or fronts ( boundaries between air masses of differing temperature , humidity and most commonly , both ) are faster-moving and more intense in the winter/colder months than in the summer/warmer months , when the belt of lows and storms generally move into southern Canada . The Gulf of Alaska is the origination area of many storms that enter the United States . Such `` North Pacific lows '' enter the US through the Pacific Northwest , then move eastward across the northern Rocky Mountains , northern Great Plains , upper Midwest , Great Lakes and New England states . Across the central states from late fall to spring , `` Panhandle hook '' storms move from the central Rockies into the Oklahoma/Texas panhandle areas , then northeast toward the Great Lakes . They generate unusually large temperature contrasts , and often bring heavy Gulf moisture northward , resulting sometimes in cold conditions and possibly-heavy snow or ice north and west of the storm track , and warm conditions , heavy rains and potentially-severe thunderstorms south and east of the storm track - often simultaneously . Across the northern states in winter usually from Montana eastward , `` Alberta clipper '' storms track east and bring light to moderate snowfalls from the Great Lakes to New England , and often , windy and severe Arctic outbreaks behind them . When winter-season Canadian cold air masses drop unusually far southward , `` Gulf lows '' can develop in or near the Gulf of Mexico , then track eastward or northeastward across the Southern states , or nearby Gulf or South Atlantic waters . They often bring rain , but on rare occasions can bring ice to areas of the interior southern states . In the cold season ( generally November to March ) , most precipitation occurs in conjunction with organized low-pressure systems and associated fronts . In the summer , storms are much more localized , with short-duration thunderstorms common in many areas east of the 100th meridian . In the warm season , storm systems affecting a large area are less frequent , and weather conditions are more solar -LCB- sun -RCB- controlled , with the greatest chance for thunderstorm and severe weather activity during peak heating hours , mostly between 3 PM and 9 PM local time . From May to August especially , often-overnight mesoscale-convective-system ( MCS ) thunderstorm complexes , usually associated with frontal activity , can deliver significant to flooding rainfall amounts from the Dakotas/Nebraska eastward across Iowa/Minnesota to the Great Lakes states . From late summer into fall ( mostly August to October ) , tropical cyclones sometimes approach or cross the Gulf and Atlantic states , bringing high winds , heavy rainfall , and storm surges ( often topped with battering waves ) to coastal areas .

Clean_coal_technology

Clean coal technology is a collection of technologies being developed to attempt to mitigate the environmental impact of coal energy generation and to mitigate climate change . When coal is used as a fuel source , the gaseous emissions generated by the thermal decomposition of the coal include sulphur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , mercury , and other chemical byproducts that vary depending on the type of the coal being used . These emissions have been established to have a negative impact on the environment and human health , contributing to acid rain , lung cancer and cardiovascular disease . As a result , clean coal technologies are being developed to remove or reduce pollutant emissions to the atmosphere . Some of the techniques that would be used to accomplish this include chemically washing minerals and impurities from the coal , gasification ( see also IGCC ) , improved technology for treating flue gases to remove pollutants to increasingly stringent levels and at higher efficiency , carbon capture and storage technologies to capture the carbon dioxide from the flue gas and dewatering lower rank coals ( brown coals ) to improve the calorific value , and thus the efficiency of the conversion into electricity . Clean coal technology usually addresses atmospheric problems resulting from burning coal . Historically , the primary focus was on SO2 and NOx , the most important gases in causation of acid rain , and particulates which cause visible air pollution and deleterious effects on human health . Concerns exist regarding the economic viability of these technologies and the timeframe of delivery , potentially high hidden economic costs in terms of social and environmental damage , and the costs and viability of disposing of removed carbon and other toxic matter .

Climate_Change_Science_Program

The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .

Coal_by_country

This article includes lists representing proven reserves and production of coal by country . All data is taken from British Petroleum . The reserve list specifies different types of coal and includes countries with at least 0.1 % share of estimated world coal reserves . The production list includes countries with coal production close to or larger than 1 million tonnes . By IEA the top 10 coal producers in 2011 were ( Mt ) : China 3,576 ( 46 % ) , United States 1,004 ( 13 % ) , India 586 ( 8 % ) , Australia 414 ( 5 % ) , Indonesia 376 ( 5 % ) , Russia 334 ( 4 % ) , South Africa 253 ( 3 % ) , Germany 189 ( 2 % ) , Poland 139 ( 2 % ) and Kazakhstan 117 ( 2 % ) . In 2011 total coal production was 7,783 Mt. Top coal producers in 2012 were ( Mt ) : China 3,549 , United States 935 , India 595 , Indonesia 443 , Australia 421 , Russia 354 , South Africa 259 , Germany 197 , Poland 144 and Kazakhstan 126 . In 2012 total coal production was 7,832 Mt. World coal production increased from year 2011 to 2012 . Top coal producers in 2015 were ( Mt ) : China 3,650 , United States 916 , India 668 , Australia 491 , Indonesia 471 , Russia 334 , South Africa 253 , Germany 187 , Poland 137 and Kazakhstan 115 . In 2015 total coal production was 7,925 Mt.