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Calendar_era | A calendar era is the year numbering system used by a calendar . For example , the Gregorian calendar numbers its years in the Western Christian era ( the Coptic Orthodox and Ethiopian Orthodox churches have their own Christian eras ) . The instant , date , or year from which time is marked is called the epoch of the era . There are many different calendar eras such as Saka Era . In antiquity , regnal years were counted from the accession of a monarch . This makes the Chronology of the ancient Near East very difficult to reconstruct , based on disparate and scattered king lists , such as the Sumerian King List and the Babylonian Canon of Kings . In East Asia , reckoning by era names chosen by ruling monarchs ceased in the 20th century except for Japan , where they are still used . |
Business_routes_of_Interstate_80 | Business routes of Interstate 80 exist in four states ; California , Nevada , Utah , and Wyoming . |
Carbon_credit | A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism . |
Carbon_emission_trading | Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them . |
Carboniferous | The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that spans 60 million years from the end of the Devonian Period million years ago ( Mya ) , to the beginning of the Permian Period , Mya . The name Carboniferous means `` coal-bearing '' and derives from the Latin words carbo #Latin ( `` coal '' ) and fero #Latin ( `` I bear , I carry '' ) , and was coined by geologists William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822 . Based on a study of the British rock succession , it was the first of the modern ` system ' names to be employed , and reflects the fact that many coal beds were formed globally during that time . The Carboniferous is often treated in North America as two geological periods , the earlier Mississippian and the later Pennsylvanian . Terrestrial life was well established by the Carboniferous period . Amphibians were the dominant land vertebrates , of which one branch would eventually evolve into amniotes , the first solely terrestrial vertebrates . Arthropods were also very common , and many ( such as Meganeura ) were much larger than those of today . Vast swaths of forest covered the land , which would eventually be laid down and become the coal beds characteristic of the Carboniferous stratigraphy evident today . The atmospheric content of oxygen also reached their highest levels in geological history during the period , 35 % compared with 21 % today , allowing terrestrial invertebrates to evolve to great size . A major marine and terrestrial extinction event , the Carboniferous rainforest collapse , occurred in the middle of the period , caused by climate change . The later half of the period experienced glaciations , low sea level , and mountain building as the continents collided to form Pangaea . |
Carbon_tax | A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation . |
Calendar_date | A calendar date is a reference to a particular day represented within a calendar system . The calendar date allows the specific day to be identified . The number of days between two dates may be calculated . For example , `` 24 '' is ten days after `` 14 '' in the Gregorian calendar . The date of a particular event depends on the observed time zone . For example , the air attack on Pearl Harbor that began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian time on December 7 , 1941 , took place at 3:18 a.m. December 8 in Japan ( Japan Standard Time ) . A particular day may be represented by a different date in another calendar as in the Gregorian calendar and the Julian calendar , which have been used simultaneously in different places . In most calendar systems , the date consists of three parts : the day of month , month , and the year . There may also be additional parts , such as the day of week . Years are usually counted from a particular starting point , usually called the epoch , with era referring to the particular period of time ( Note the different use of the terms in geology ) . The most widely used epoch is a conventional birthdate of Jesus ( which was established by Dionysius Exiguus in the sixth century ) . A date without the year part may also be referred to as a date or calendar date ( such as '' '' rather than '' '' ) . As such , it defines the day of an annual event , such as a birthday or Christmas on 24/25 December . Many computer systems internally store points in time in Unix time format or some other system time format . The date ( Unix ) command -- internally using the C date and time functions -- can be used to convert that internal representation of a point in time to most of the date representations shown here . The current date In Backward is . If this is not the Backward current date , then to update it . |
Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere | Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification . |
Carbon-neutral_fuel | Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts . |
California_Senate_Bill_32 | The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 . |
Carbon-to-nitrogen_ratio | A carbon-to-nitrogen ratio ( C/N ratio or C : N ratio ) is a ratio of the mass of carbon to the mass of nitrogen in a substance . It can , amongst other things , be used in analysing sediments and compost . A useful application for C/N ratios is as a proxy for paleoclimate research , having different uses whether the sediment cores are terrestrial-based or marine-based . Carbon-to-nitrogen ratios are an indicator for nitrogen limitation of plants and other organisms and can identify whether molecules found in the sediment under study come from land-based or algal plants . Further , they can distinguish between different land-based plants , depending on the type of photosynthesis they undergo . Therefore , the C/N ratio serves as a tool for understanding the sources of sedimentary organic matter , which can lead to information about the ecology , climate , and ocean circulation at different times in Earth 's history . C/N ratios in the range 4-10 :1 are usually from marine sources , whereas higher ratios are likely to come from a terrestrial source . Vascular plants from terrestrial sources tend to have C/N ratios greater than 20 . The lack of cellulose , which has a chemical formula of ( C6H10O5 ) n , and greater amount of proteins in algae versus vascular plants causes this significant difference in the C/N ratio . When composting , microbial activity utilizes a C/N ratio of 30-35 :1 and a higher ratio will result in slower composting rates . However , this assumes that carbon is completely consumed , which is often not the case . Thus , for practical agricultural purposes , a compost should have an initial C/N ratio of 20-30 :1 . Example of devices that can be used to measure this ratio are the CHN analyzer and the continuous-flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer ( CF-IRMS ) . However , for more practical applications , desired C/N ratios can be achieved by blending common used substrates of known C/N content , which are readily available and easy to use . |
Carbonate_platform | A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief , and is composed of autochthonous calcareous deposits ( Wilson , 1975 ) . Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms ( usually microbes ) which induce carbonate precipitation through their metabolism . Therefore , carbonate platforms can not grow up everywhere : they are not present in places where limiting factors to the life of reef-building organisms exist . Such limiting factors are , among others : light , water temperature , transparency and pH-Value . For example , carbonate sedimentation along the Atlantic South American coasts takes place everywhere but at the mouth of the Amazon River , because of the intense turbidity of the water there ( Carannante et al. , 1988 ) . Spectacular examples of present-day carbonate platforms are the Bahama Banks under which the platform is roughly 8 km thick , the Yucatan Peninsula which is up to 2 km thick , the Florida platform , the platform on which the Great Barrier Reef is growing , and the Maldive atolls . All these carbonate platforms and their associated reefs are confined to tropical latitudes . Today 's reefs are built mainly by scleractinian corals , but in the distant past other organisms , like archaeocyatha ( during the Cambrian ) or extinct cnidaria ( tabulata and rugosa ) were important reef builders . |
Cape_(geography) | In geography , a cape is a headland or a promontory of large size extending into a body of water , usually the sea . A cape usually represents a marked change in trend of the coastline . Their proximity to the coastline makes them prone to natural forms of erosion , mainly tidal actions . This results in capes having a relatively short geologic lifespan . Capes can be formed by glaciers , volcanoes , and changes in sea level . Erosion plays a large role in each of these methods of formation . |
California_Proposition_19_(2010) | California Proposition 19 ( also known as the Regulate , Control & Tax Cannabis Act ) was a ballot initiative on the November 2 , 2010 statewide ballot . It was defeated , with 53.5 % of California voters voting `` No '' and 46.5 % voting `` Yes . '' If passed , it would have legalized various marijuana-related activities , allowed local governments to regulate these activities , permitted local governments to impose and collect marijuana-related fees and taxes , and authorized various criminal and civil penalties . In March 2010 , it qualified to be on the November statewide ballot . The proposition required a simple majority in order to pass , and would have taken effect the day after the election . Yes on 19 was the official advocacy group for the initiative and California Public Safety Institute : No On Proposition 19 was the official opposition group . A similar initiative , `` The Tax , Regulate , and Control Cannabis Act of 2010 '' ( California Cannabis Initiative , CCI ) was filed first and received by the Attorney Generals Office July 15 , 2010 assigned 09-0022 that would have legalized cannabis for adults 21 and older and included provisions to decriminalize industrial hemp , retroactive expunging of criminal records and release of non violent cannabis prisoners . A highly successful grassroots petition drive ( CCI ) was subsequently overwhelmed by the Taxcannabis2010 groups big budget and paid signature gatherers . Here is the LAO Summary of the Initiative that was defeated by the special interests that ultimately succeeded to put their version on the ballot as `` Prop 19 '' with a subtly different Title : The Regulate , Control & Tax Cannabis Act . Many of the same group of special interests are supporting the 2016 Adult Use of Marijuana Act ( AUMA ) . Supporters of Proposition 19 argued that it would help with California 's budget shortfall , would cut off a source of funding to violent drug cartels , and would redirect law enforcement resources to more dangerous crimes , while opponents claimed that it contains gaps and flaws that may have serious unintended consequences on public safety , workplaces , and federal funding . However , even if the proposition had passed , the sale of cannabis would have remained illegal under federal law via the Controlled Substances Act . Proposition 19 was followed up by the Adult Use of Marijuana Act in 2016 . |
Carbon_dioxide_reforming | Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst . |
Cape_Palos | Cape Palos ( Cabo de Palos ) is a cape in the Spanish municipality of Cartagena , in the region of Murcia . It is part of a small range of volcanic mounts that form a small peninsula . The Mediterranean islands of Grosa and the group known as the Hormigas Islands are part of this range , as well as the islands in the Mar Menor ( `` Little Sea '' ) . The name `` Palos '' is derived from the Latin word palus , meaning lagoon , a reference to the Mar Menor . According to Pliny the Elder and Rufus Festus Avienus , there was once a temple dedicated to Baal Hammon on the promontory of the cape , which later became associated with the cult of Saturn . During the reign of Philip II of Spain , a watchtower was built on the promontory as a defense measure against the Barbary Pirates . A battle off the cape took place on June 19 , 1815 between US naval forces and the Barbary Pirates . During the Spanish Civil War , the Battle of Cape Palos took place near the cape in 1938 . Its lighthouse began operating on January 31 , 1865 . The cape is part of a marine reserve , the Reserva Marina de Cabo de Palos e Islas Hormigas . |
California_Air_Resources_Board | The California Air Resources Board , also known as CARB or ARB , is the `` clean air agency '' in the government of California . Established in 1967 when then-governor Ronald Reagan signed the Mulford-Carrell Act , combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board , CARB is a department within the cabinet-level California Environmental Protection Agency . The stated goals of CARB include attaining and maintaining healthy air quality ; protecting the public from exposure to toxic air contaminants ; and providing innovative approaches for complying with air pollution rules and regulations . CARB has also been instrumental in driving innovation throughout the global automotive industry through programs such as its ZEV mandate . One of CARB 's responsibilities is to define vehicle emissions standards . California is the only state permitted to issue emissions standards under the federal Clean Air Act , subject to a waiver from the United States Environmental Protection Agency . Other states may choose to follow CARB or federal standards but may not set their own . |
Canadian_Arctic_tundra | The Canadian Arctic tundra is a biogeographic designation for Northern Canada 's terrain generally lying north of the tree line or boreal forest , that corresponds with the Scandinavian Alpine tundra to the east and the Siberian Arctic tundra to the west inside the circumpolar tundra belt of the Northern hemisphere . Canada 's northern territories encompass a total area of 2600000 km2 , 26 % of the country 's landmass that includes the Arctic coastal tundra , the Arctic Lowlands and the Innuitian Region in the High Arctic . Tundra terrain accounts for approximately 1420000 km2 in Yukon , the Northwest Territories , in Nunavut , north-eastern Manitoba , northern Ontario , northern Quebec , northern Labrador and the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago , of which Baffin Island with 507451 km2 is the largest . Canada 's tundra is characterized by extreme climatic conditions with year-round frozen grounds , long and cold winters , a very short growing season and low precipitation rates . Northern Canada is the traditional home of indigenous Inuit peoples , who for most of their settlement history occupied the coastal areas of Nunavut , northern Quebec , Labrador and the Northwest Territories . Population numbers remain very moderate for the entire region and as of 2006 around 50 % of the inhabitants are of indigenous descent . Changing climate , recorded and documented over several decades has already caused noticeable regional environmental instability and threatened or endangered a number of species . |
Cannibalism_(zoology) | In zoology , cannibalism is the act of one individual of a species consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food . To consume the same species or show cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded for more than 1,500 species . It does not , as once believed , occur only as a result of extreme food shortages or artificial conditions , but commonly occurs under natural conditions in a variety of species . Cannibalism seems to be especially prevalent in aquatic communities , in which up to approximately 90 % of the organisms engage in cannibalism at some point of the life cycle . Cannibalism is also not restricted to carnivorous species , but is commonly found in herbivores and detritivores . |
Carbon_black | Carbon black ( subtypes are acetylene black , channel black , furnace black , lamp black and thermal black ) is a material produced by the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as FCC tar , coal tar , ethylene cracking tar , and a small amount from vegetable oil . Carbon black is a form of paracrystalline carbon that has a high surface-area-to-volume ratio , albeit lower than that of activated carbon . It is dissimilar to soot in its much higher surface-area-to-volume ratio and significantly lower ( negligible and non-bioavailable ) PAH ( polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ) content . However , carbon black is widely used as a model compound for diesel soot for diesel oxidation experiments . Carbon black is mainly used as a reinforcing filler in tires and other rubber products . In plastics , paints , and inks carbon black is used as a color pigment . The current International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) evaluation is that , `` Carbon black is possibly carcinogenic to humans ( Group 2B ) '' . Short-term exposure to high concentrations of carbon black dust may produce discomfort to the upper respiratory tract , through mechanical irritation . |
Carbon_Shredders | `` Carbon Shredder '' refers to any group or individual who collectively tracks and reduces their Carbon footprint through reduction of energy use . The un-trademarked term began with a group of activists who created a website and online tool to allow any group or individual to measure , reduce and track their personal Carbon footprint . This original group was brought together by Gregor Barnum from Seventh Generation Inc. , Jasna Brown from Green Mountain Coffee Roasters and Bob Ferris from Yestermorrow Design/Build School with the intent of launching a national effort to reduce carbon dioxide emissions . The `` Mad River Valley '' Carbon Shredders gained some notoriety in local and national media after they successfully petitioned several local towns to approve resolutions , referred to as the `` Carbon Shredders 10 by 10 initiative , '' to reduce residential emissions by 10 % over 2008 levels by 2010 . An expanding list of `` carbon shredder groups '' involving thousands of individuals and groups is now spreading across the United States via the internet . This is to many people a movement about environmentalism and re-localization . Yet for many others , being a carbon shredder is simply a new twist on old-fashioned thriftiness applied to energy costs . Carbon shredding is similar to the `` low carbon diet '' concept pioneered by author David Gershon , which walks people through a `` recipe '' for reducing emissions , combined with web 2.0 online group-collaboration concepts . |
California_Endangered_Species_Act | In 1970 California became one of the first states to implement an act that conserves and protects endangered species and their environments . The California Endangered Species Act ( CESA ) declares that , `` all native species of fishes , amphibians , reptiles , birds , mammals , invertebrates , and plants , and their habitats , threatened with extinction and those experiencing a significant decline which , if not halted , would lead to a threatened or endangered designation , will be protected or preserved . '' In California The Department of Fish and Wildlife oversees CESA and makes sure that citizens are following laws/regulations that are in place . They also have a huge impact on what species are added to CESA as they survey species populations in the wild . The Department of Fish and Wildlife issue citation to violators , fines of up to $ 50,000 and/or one year imprisonment for crimes involving endangered species and fines of up to 25,000 and/or six months imprisonment for crimes involving threatened species . |
Carl_Sagan | Carl Edward Sagan ( -LSB- ˈseɪɡən -RSB- November 9 , 1934 -- December 20 , 1996 ) was an American astronomer , cosmologist , astrophysicist , astrobiologist , author , science popularizer , and science communicator in astronomy and other natural sciences . He is best known for his work as a science popularizer and communicator . His best known scientific contribution is research on extraterrestrial life , including experimental demonstration of the production of amino acids from basic chemicals by radiation . Sagan assembled the first physical messages sent into space : the Pioneer plaque and the Voyager Golden Record , universal messages that could potentially be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find them . Sagan argued the now accepted hypothesis that the high surface temperatures of Venus can be attributed to and calculated using the greenhouse effect . Sagan published more than 600 scientific papers and articles and was author , co-author or editor of more than 20 books . He wrote many popular science books , such as The Dragons of Eden , Broca 's Brain and Pale Blue Dot , and narrated and co-wrote the award-winning 1980 television series Cosmos : A Personal Voyage . The most widely watched series in the history of American public television , Cosmos has been seen by at least 500 million people across 60 different countries . The book Cosmos was published to accompany the series . He also wrote the science fiction novel Contact , the basis for a 1997 film of the same name . His papers , containing 595,000 items , are archived at The Library of Congress . Sagan advocated scientific skeptical inquiry and the scientific method , pioneered exobiology and promoted the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence ( SETI ) . He spent most of his career as a professor of astronomy at Cornell University , where he directed the Laboratory for Planetary Studies . Sagan and his works received numerous awards and honors , including the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal , the National Academy of Sciences Public Welfare Medal , the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction for his book The Dragons of Eden , and , regarding Cosmos : A Personal Voyage , two Emmy Awards , the Peabody Award and the Hugo Award . He married three times and had five children . After suffering from myelodysplasia , Sagan died of pneumonia at the age of 62 , on December 20 , 1996 . |
Carbon_accounting | Carbon accounting refers generally to processes undertaken to `` measure '' amounts of carbon dioxide equivalents emitted by an entity . It is used inter alia by nation states , corporations , individuals -- to create the carbon credit commodity traded on carbon markets ( or to establish the demand for carbon credits ) . Correspondingly , examples for products based upon forms of carbon accounting can be found in national inventories , corporate environmental reports or carbon footprint calculators . Likening sustainability measurement , as an instance of ecological modernisation discourses and policy , carbon accounting is hoped to provide a factual ground for carbon-related decision-making . However , social scientific studies of accounting challenge this hope , pointing to the socially constructed character of carbon conversion factors or of the accountants ' work practice which can not implement abstract accounting schemes into reality . While natural sciences claim to know and measure carbon , for organisations it is usually easier to employ forms of carbon accounting to represent carbon . The trustworthiness of accounts of carbon emissions can easily be contested . Thus , how well carbon accounting represents carbon is difficult to exactly know . Science and Technology Studies scholar Donna Haraway 's pluralised concept of knowledge , i.e. knowledges , can well be used to understand better the status of knowledge produced by carbon accounting : carbon accounting produced a version of understanding of carbon emissions . Other carbon accountants would produce other results . |
Business_sector | In economics , the business sector or corporate sector is `` the part of the economy made up by companies '' . It is a subset of the domestic economy , excluding the economic activities of general government , of private households , and of non-profit organizations serving individuals . An alternative analysis of economies , the three-sector theory , subdivides them into : the primary sector ( raw materials ) the secondary sector ( manufacturing ) the tertiary sector ( sales and services ) In the United States the business sector accounted for about 78 percent of the value of gross domestic product ( GDP ) . |
Capacity_factor | The net capacity factor is the unitless ratio of an actual electrical energy output over a given period of time to the maximum possible electrical energy output over the same amount of time . The capacity factor is defined for any electricity producing installation , i.e. a fuel consuming power plant or one using renewable energy , such as wind or the sun . The average capacity factor can also be defined for any class of such installations , and can be used to compare different types of electricity production . The maximum possible energy output of a given installation assumes its continuous operation at full nameplate capacity over the relevant period of time . The actual energy output over the same period of time and with it the capacity factor varies greatly depending on a range of factors . The capacity factor can never exceed the availability factor , or the fraction of downtime during the period . Downtime can be due to , for example , reliability issues and maintenance , both scheduled and unscheduled . Other factors include the design of the installation , its location , the type of electricity production and with it either the fuel being used or , for renewable energy , the local weather conditions . Additionally , the capacity factor can be subject to regulatory constraints and market forces , potentially affecting both its fuel purchase and its electricity sale . The capacity factor is often computed over a timescale of a year , averaging out most temporal fluctuations . However , the capacity factor can be also computed on a monthly basis to gain insight into seasonal fluctuations . Alternatively , it be computed over the lifetime of the power source , both while operational and after decommissioning . |
Canadian_Association_of_Petroleum_Producers | The Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers ( CAPP ) , with its head office in Calgary , Alberta , is an influential lobby group that represents the upstream Canadian oil and natural gas industry . CAPP 's members produce `` 90 % of Canada 's natural gas and crude oil '' and `` are an important part of a national industry with revenues of about $ 100 billion-a-year ( CAPP 2011 ) . '' |
CLIMAT | CLIMAT is a code for reporting monthly climatological data assembled at land-based meteorological surface observation sites to data centres . CLIMAT-coded messages contain information on several meteorological variables that are important to monitor characteristics , changes , and variability of climate . Usually these messages are sent and exchanged via the Global Telecommunication System ( GTS ) of the World Meteorological Organisation ( WMO ) . Modifications of the CLIMAT code are the CLIMAT SHIP and CLIMAT TEMP / CLIMAT TEMP SHIP codes which serve to report monthly climatological data assembled at ocean-based meteorological surface observation sites and at land - / ocean-based meteorological upper-air observation sites , respectively . The monthly values included usually are obtained by averaging observational values of one or several daily observations over the respective month . |
California_Gold_Rush | The California Gold Rush ( 1848 -- 1855 ) began on January 24 , 1848 , when gold was found by James W. Marshall at Sutter 's Mill in Coloma , California . The news of gold brought some 300,000 people to California from the rest of the United States and abroad . The sudden influx of immigration and gold into the money supply reinvigorated the American economy , and California became one of the few American states to go directly to statehood , in the Compromise of 1850 . The Gold Rush initiated the California Genocide , with 100,000 Native Californians dying between 1848 and 1868 . By the time it ended , California had gone from a thinly populated ex-Mexican territory to the home state of the first nominee for the Republican Party . The effects of the Gold Rush were substantial . Whole indigenous societies were attacked and pushed off their lands by the gold-seekers , called `` forty-niners '' ( referring to 1849 ) . The first to hear confirmed information of the gold rush were the people in Oregon , the Sandwich Islands ( Hawaii ) , and Latin America , and they were the first to start flocking to the state in late 1848 . Of the 300,000 people who came to America during the Gold Rush , approximately half arrived by sea and half came overland on the California Trail and the Gila River trail ; forty-niners often faced substantial hardships on the trip . While most of the newly arrived were Americans , the Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands from Latin America , Europe , Australia , and China . Agriculture and ranching expanded throughout the state to meet the needs of the settlers . San Francisco grew from a small settlement of about 200 residents in 1846 to a boomtown of about 36,000 by 1852 . Roads , churches , schools and other towns were built throughout California . In 1849 a state constitution was written . The new constitution was adopted by referendum vote , and the future state 's interim first governor and legislature were chosen . In September , 1850 , California became a state . At the beginning of the Gold Rush , there was no law regarding property rights in the goldfields and a system of `` staking claims '' was developed . Prospectors retrieved the gold from streams and riverbeds using simple techniques , such as panning . Although the mining caused environmental harm , more sophisticated methods of gold recovery were developed and later adopted around the world . New methods of transportation developed as steamships came into regular service . By 1869 railroads were built across the country from California to the eastern United States . At its peak , technological advances reached a point where significant financing was required , increasing the proportion of gold companies to individual miners . Gold worth tens of billions of today 's dollars was recovered , which led to great wealth for a few . However , many returned home with little more than they had started with . |
Call_signs_in_the_United_States | Call signs in the United States are three to seven characters in length , including suffixes for certain types of service , but the minimum length for new stations is four characters , and seven-character call signs result only from rare combinations of suffixes . All broadcast call signs in the United States begin with either `` K '' or `` W '' , with `` K '' usually west of the Mississippi River and `` W '' usually east of it ( except in Louisiana and Minnesota , which do not strictly follow the dividing line between the two groups ) . Initial letters `` AA '' through `` AL '' , as well as `` N '' , are internationally allocated to the United States but are not used for broadcast stations . Each station with a traditional full-power license , whether AM , FM , television , or private shortwave , has a call sign of three or four letters , plus an optional suffix of either '' - FM '' or '' - TV '' . A broadcast translator or other low-power station has either four letters with a mandatory two-letter suffix indicating its type , or a five - or six-character call sign consisting of `` K '' or `` W '' , followed by two to three digits indicating its frequency , followed by two letters issued sequentially . |
Carbon | Carbon ( from carbo `` coal '' ) is a chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6 . It is nonmetallic and tetravalent -- making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds . Three isotopes occur naturally , C and C being stable , while C is a radioactive isotope , decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years . Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity . Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth 's crust , and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen , helium , and oxygen . Carbon 's abundance , its unique diversity of organic compounds , and its unusual ability to form polymers at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth enables this element to serve as a common element of all known life . It is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass ( about 18.5 % ) after oxygen . The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways , termed allotropes of carbon . The best known are graphite , diamond , and amorphous carbon . The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form . For example , graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb '' γράφειν '' which means `` to write '' ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known . Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity . Under normal conditions , diamond , carbon nanotubes , and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions , with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form . They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen . The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4 , while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes . The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones , dolomites and carbon dioxide , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal , peat , oil , and methane clathrates . Carbon forms a vast number of compounds , more than any other element , with almost ten million compounds described to date , and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions . For this reason , carbon has often been referred to as the `` king of the elements '' . |
California_Connected | California Connected was a television newsmagazine that broadcast stories about the state of California to `` increase civic engagement . '' The show was created by Marley Klaus and aired on twelve PBS member stations throughout California . In 2006 , former NBC producer Bret Marcus took over as executive producer . The program was cancelled in 2007 due to a lack of funding . The program debuted in 2002 with host David Brancaccio ; he anchored the show from the Los Angeles studios of then-PBS station KCET . Lisa McRee replaced Brancaccio in 2004 . Rather than anchor from a television studio , McRee hosted the show from a different Californian location each week . A total of 154 episodes were taped . `` California Connected '' won more than 65 regional and national awards and , in 2007 , the program won its first Alfred I. duPont-Columbia University Award for Excellence in Broadcast Journalism for a story titled , War Stories From Ward 7-D . California Connected was co-produced by the following four PBS stations : KCET in Los Angeles , KQED in San Francisco , KVIE in Sacramento , and KPBS in San Diego . The theme music was written by Christopher Cross and Stephen Bray . Major funding came from : The James Irvine Foundation , The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation , The California Endowment , and the Annenberg Foundation . California Connected will continue to provide access to its website , audio files , videos , blog , and RSS feed . |
Campaign_against_Climate_Change | The Campaign against Climate Change ( variously abbreviated to CCC or CaCC ) is a UK-based pressure group that aims to raise public awareness of anthropogenic climate change through mobilizing mass demonstrations . Founded in 2001 in response to President Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol , the organization saw a steady increase in attendance on marches before a sudden take-off in interest between October - December 2005 . An estimated 10,000 people attended a rally in London on December 3 , 2005 . The following year on November 4 , 2006 the Campaign organized a march from the US Embassy to the iCount event in Trafalgar Square . At least 25,000 people gathered in Trafalgar Square that day making it easily the biggest demonstration on climate change in the UK to date , until The Wave march in December 2009 . The December 3rd , 2005 protests were not confined to the UK , but formed part of the first Global Day of Action on Climate Change , in which CCC played a key role in co-ordinating . The demonstrations , in more than 30 countries around the world , were timed to coincide with the crucial Montreal Climate talks in Canada , at which preliminary agreements were made for a post-Kyoto treaty to take effect after 2012 . Outside Montreal itself , a crowd of between 25,000 - 40,000 gathered in a protest organized by the American-based Climate Crisis Coalition . The December 2006 protests again had an international flavour , with the London , UK protest attracting 10,000 participants . The Campaign against Climate Change has a network of local groups around the UK , which are currently in the process of being extended . On February 9 , 2008 the Campaign against Climate Change hosted a Trade Union conference on climate change . Over 300 delegates attended and heard speakers , including several Trade Union general secretaries or their deputies , from most of the major British unions . This conference was followed by two more Trade Union events in 2009 and 2010 . The campaign has also produced a report to a number of British Trade Union 's on `` One Million Climate Jobs '' . Arguing that direct government funding must be used to create jobs that can reduce Carbon emissions . CCC is an example of a growing number of climate-related environmental pressure groups that have developed during the last decade , including organizations like Rising Tide , Climaction and the coalition group Stop Climate Chaos , of which the Campaign against Climate Change is a member . CCC was heavily involved in the campaign against the closure of the Vestas Wind Turbine plant on the Isle of Wight and the occupation of the factory by the workers . The CCC was part of the mobilisations for the demonstrations that marked the United Nations talks on Climate Change in Copenhagen , in December 2009 . |
Carbon_dioxide | Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid . |
Centre_for_the_Study_of_Existential_Risk | The Centre for the Study of Existential Risk ( CSER ) is a research centre at the University of Cambridge , intended to study possible extinction-level threats posed by present or future technology . The co-founders of the centre are Huw Price ( a philosophy professor at Cambridge ) , Martin Rees ( a cosmologist , astrophysicist , and former President of the Royal Society ) and Jaan Tallinn ( a computer programmer and co-founder of Skype ) . CSER 's advisors include philosopher Peter Singer , computer scientist Stuart J. Russell , statistician David Spiegelhalter , and cosmologists Stephen Hawking and Max Tegmark . Their `` goal is to steer a small fraction of Cambridge 's great intellectual resources , and of the reputation built on its past and present scientific pre-eminence , to the task of ensuring that our own species has a long-term future . '' |
Central_Valley_Project | The Central Valley Project ( CVP ) is a federal water management project in the U.S. state of California under the supervision of the United States Bureau of Reclamation . It was devised in 1933 in order to provide irrigation and municipal water to much of California 's Central Valley -- by regulating and storing water in reservoirs in the water-rich northern half of the state , and transporting it to the water-poor San Joaquin Valley and its surroundings by means of a series of canals , aqueducts and pump plants , some shared with the California State Water Project ( SWP ) . Many CVP water users are represented by the Central Valley Project Water Association . In addition to water storage and regulation , the system has a hydroelectric capacity of over 2,000 megawatts , provides recreation , and provides flood control with its twenty dams and reservoirs . It has allowed major cities to grow along Valley rivers which previously would flood each spring , and transformed the semi-arid desert environment of the San Joaquin Valley into productive farmland . Freshwater stored in Sacramento River reservoirs and released downriver during dry periods prevents salt water from intruding into the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta during high tide . There are eight divisions of the project and ten corresponding units , many of which operate in conjunction , while others are independent of the rest of the network . California agriculture and related industries now directly account for 7 % of the gross state product for which the CVP supplied water for about half . Despite the benefits of the Project , many CVP operations have resulted in disastrous environmental and historical consequences . The salmon population in four major California rivers have declined as a result , and many natural river environments , such as riparian zones , meanders and sandbars no longer exist . Many archaeological and historic sites , as well as Native American tribal lands , now lie submerged under reservoirs for the CVP , which has received heavy criticism for promoting high-water-demand irrigated industrial farming that in turn has polluted rivers and groundwater . USBR has also been known to stretch the boundaries of many state and federal regulations in its operations of the CVP . The Central Valley Project Improvement Act , passed in 1992 , intends to alleviate some of the problems associated with the CVP with programs like the Refuge Water Supply Program . In recent years , a combination of drought and regulatory decisions passed based on the Endangered Species Act of 1973 have forced Reclamation to turn off much of the water for the west side of the San Joaquin Valley in order to protect the fragile ecosystem in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and keep alive the dwindling fish populations of Central Valley rivers . |
Cerro_Prieto | Cerro Prieto ( Wee Ñaay , `` Black Hill '' ) is a volcano located approximately 29 km ( 18 mi ) SSE of Mexicali in the Mexican state of Baja California . The volcano lies astride a spreading center associated with the East Pacific Rise . This spreading center is also responsible for a large geothermal field which has been harnessed to generate electric power by the Cerro Prieto Geothermal Power Station . The Cerro Prieto spreading center intersects the southern end of the Imperial Fault and the northern end of the Cerro Prieto Fault . Both of these are transform faults in the northern leg of the East Pacific Rise system that runs the length of the Gulf of California and is steadily rifting the Baja California Peninsula away from the mainland of Mexico . |
Chemical_element | A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei ( i.e. the same atomic number , or Z ) . There are 118 elements that have been identified , of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements . There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes , which decay over time into other elements . Iron is the most abundant element ( by mass ) making up Earth , while oxygen is the most common element in the Earth 's crust . Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe . However astronomical observations suggest that ordinary observable matter makes up only about 15 % of the matter in the universe : the remainder is dark matter ; the composition of this is unknown , but it is not composed of chemical elements . The two lightest elements , hydrogen and helium , were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe . The next three elements ( lithium , beryllium and boron ) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation , and are thus rarer than those that follow . Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis . The high abundance of oxygen , silicon , and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars . Elements with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae , which , when they explode , blast these elements as supernova remnants far into space , where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed . The term `` element '' is used for atoms with a given number of protons ( regardless of whether or not they are ionized or chemically bonded , e.g. hydrogen in water ) as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element ( e.g. hydrogen gas ) . For the second meaning , the terms `` elementary substance '' and `` simple substance '' have been suggested , but they have not gained much acceptance in English chemical literature , whereas in some other languages their equivalent is widely used ( e.g. French corps simple , Russian простое вещество ) . A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure ; they are called allotropes of the element . When different elements are chemically combined , with the atoms held together by chemical bonds , they form chemical compounds . Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals . Among the more common of such native elements are copper , silver , gold , carbon ( as coal , graphite , or diamonds ) , and sulfur . All but a few of the most inert elements , such as noble gases and noble metals , are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form , as chemical compounds . While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms , most of these occur as mixtures . For example , atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen , oxygen , and argon , and native solid elements occur in alloys , such as that of iron and nickel . The history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon , sulfur , copper and gold . Later civilizations extracted elemental copper , tin , lead and iron from their ores by smelting , using charcoal . Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more ; almost all of the naturally occurring elements were known by 1900 . The properties of the chemical elements are summarized in the periodic table , which organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ( `` periods '' ) in which the columns ( `` groups '' ) share recurring ( `` periodic '' ) physical and chemical properties . Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives , all of the elements are available industrially , most of them in low degrees of impurities . |
Catastrophism | Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden , short-lived , violent events , possibly worldwide in scope . This was in contrast to uniformitarianism ( sometimes described as gradualism ) , in which slow incremental changes , such as erosion , created all the Earth 's geological features . Uniformitarianism held that the present is the key to the past , and that all things continued as they were from the indefinite past . Since the early disputes , a more inclusive and integrated view of geologic events has developed , in which the scientific consensus accepts that there were some catastrophic events in the geologic past , but these were explicable as extreme examples of natural processes which can occur . Catastrophism held that geological epochs had ended with violent and sudden natural catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid formation of major mountain chains . Plants and animals living in the parts of the world where such events occurred were killed off , being replaced abruptly by the new forms whose fossils defined the geological strata . Some catastrophists attempted to relate at least one such change to the Biblical account of Noah 's flood . The concept was first popularised by the early 19th-century French scientist Georges Cuvier , who proposed that new life forms had moved in from other areas after local floods , and avoided religious or metaphysical speculation in his scientific writings . |
Chemical_process | In a scientific sense , a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds . Such a chemical process can occur by itself or be caused by an outside force , and involves a chemical reaction of some sort . In an `` engineering '' sense , a chemical process is a method intended to be used in manufacturing or on an industrial scale ( see Industrial process ) to change the composition of chemical ( s ) or material ( s ) , usually using technology similar or related to that used in chemical plants or the chemical industry . Neither of these definitions is exact in the sense that one can always tell definitively what is a chemical process and what is not ; they are practical definitions . There is also significant overlap in these two definition variations . Because of the inexactness of the definition , chemists and other scientists use the term `` chemical process '' only in a general sense or in the engineering sense . However , in the `` process ( engineering ) '' sense , the term `` chemical process '' is used extensively . The rest of the article will cover the engineering type of chemical process . Although this type of chemical process may sometimes involve only one step , often multiple steps , referred to as unit operations , are involved . In a plant , each of the unit operations commonly occur in individual vessels or sections of the plant called units . Often , one or more chemical reactions are involved , but other ways of changing chemical ( or material ) composition may be used , such as mixing or separation processes . The process steps may be sequential in time or sequential in space along a stream of flowing or moving material ; see Chemical plant . For a given amount of a feed ( input ) material or product ( output ) material , an expected amount of material can be determined at key steps in the process from empirical data and material balance calculations . These amounts can be scaled up or down to suit the desired capacity or operation of a particular chemical plant built for such a process . More than one chemical plant may use the same chemical process , each plant perhaps at differently scaled capacities . Chemical processes like distillation and crystallization go back to alchemy in Alexandria , Egypt . Such chemical processes can be illustrated generally as block flow diagrams or in more detail as process flow diagrams . Block flow diagrams show the units as blocks and the streams flowing between them as connecting lines with arrowheads to show direction of flow . In addition to chemical plants for producing chemicals , chemical processes with similar technology and equipment are also used in oil refining and other refineries , natural gas processing , polymer and pharmaceutical manufacturing , food processing , and water and wastewater treatment . |
Chimney | A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler , stove , furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere . Chimneys are typically vertical , or as near as possible to vertical , to ensure that the gases flow smoothly , drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack , or chimney effect . The space inside a chimney is called a flue . Chimneys may be found in buildings , steam locomotives and ships . In the United States , the term smokestack ( colloquially , stack ) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys , and the term funnel can also be used . The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via stack effect . Additionally , the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings . In the case of chemically aggressive output , a sufficiently tall chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they reach ground level . The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits . |
Central_California | Central California is a subregion of Northern California , generally thought of as the middle third of the state , north of Southern California . It includes the northern portion of the San Joaquin Valley ( which itself is the southern portion of the Central Valley , beginning at the Sacramento -- San Joaquin River Delta ) , the Central Coast , the central hills of the California Coast Ranges , and the foothills and mountain areas of the central Sierra Nevada . Central California is considered to be west of the crest of the Sierra Nevada . ( East of the Sierras is Eastern California . ) The largest cities ( over 50,000 population ) in the region are Fresno , Modesto , Salinas , Visalia , Clovis , Merced , Turlock , Madera , Tulare , Porterville , and Hanford . |
Charleston,_West_Virginia | Charleston is the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of West Virginia . It is located at the confluence of the Elk and Kanawha Rivers in Kanawha County . As of the 2013 Census Estimate , it had a population of 50,821 , while its metropolitan area had 224,743 . It is a center of government , commerce , and industry . Early industries important to Charleston included salt and the first natural gas well . Later , coal became central to economic prosperity in the city and the surrounding area . Today , trade , utilities , government , medicine , and education play central roles in the city 's economy . The first permanent settlement , Ft. Lee , was built in 1788 . In 1791 , Daniel Boone was a member of the Kanawha County Assembly . Charleston is the home of the West Virginia Power ( formerly the Charleston Alley Cats and the Charleston Wheelers ) minor league baseball team , the West Virginia Wild minor league basketball team , and the annual 15 mi Charleston Distance Run . Yeager Airport and the University of Charleston are also located in the city . West Virginia University and the WVU Institute of Technology ( West Virginia Tech ) , Marshall University , and West Virginia State University also have higher education campuses in the area . Charleston is also home to McLaughlin Air National Guard Base of the West Virginia Air National Guard . The city also contains public parks , such as Cato Park and Coonskin Park , and the Kanawha State Forest , a large public state park that sustains a pool , camping sites , several biking/walking trails , horseback riding , picnic areas , as well as several shelters provided for recreational use . |
Chemical_substance | A chemical substance is a form of matter that has constant chemical composition and characteristic properties . It can not be separated into components by physical separation methods , i.e. , without breaking chemical bonds . Chemical substances can be chemical elements , chemical compounds , ions or alloys . Chemical substances are often called ` pure ' to set them apart from mixtures . A common example of a chemical substance is pure water ; it has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it is isolated from a river or made in a laboratory . Other chemical substances commonly encountered in pure form are diamond ( carbon ) , gold , table salt ( sodium chloride ) and refined sugar ( sucrose ) . However , in practice , no substance is entirely pure , and chemical purity is specified according to the intended use of the chemical . Chemical substances exist as solids , liquids , gases , or plasma , and may change between these phases of matter with changes in temperature or pressure . Chemical substances may be combined or converted to others by means of chemical reactions . Forms of energy , such as light and heat , are not matter , and are thus not `` substances '' in this regard . |
Cartesian_doubt | Cartesian doubt is a form of methodological skepticism or scepticism associated with the writings and methodology of René Descartes ( 1596-1650 ) . Cartesian doubt is also known as Cartesian skepticism , methodic doubt , methodological skepticism , Universal Doubt , or hyperbolic doubt . Cartesian doubt is a systematic process of being skeptical about ( or doubting ) the truth of one 's beliefs , which has become a characteristic method in philosophy . This method of doubt was largely popularized in Western philosophy by René Descartes , who sought to doubt the truth of all his beliefs in order to determine which beliefs he could be certain were true . Methodological skepticism is distinguished from philosophical skepticism in that methodological skepticism is an approach that subjects all knowledge claims to scrutiny with the goal of sorting out true from false claims , whereas philosophical skepticism is an approach that questions the possibility of certain knowledge . |
Chile | Chile , is a South American country occupying a long , narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west . It borders Peru to the north , Bolivia to the northeast , Argentina to the east , and the Drake Passage in the far south . Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández , Salas y Gómez , Desventuradas , and Easter Island in Oceania . Chile also claims about 1250000 km2 of Antarctica , although all claims are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty . The arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth , principally copper . The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources , and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions . Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands , and features a string of volcanoes and lakes . The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords , inlets , canals , twisting peninsulas , and islands . Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the mid-16th century , replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile , but failing to conquer the independent Mapuche who inhabited south-central Chile . After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818 , Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic . In the 19th century , Chile saw significant economic and territorial growth , ending Mapuche resistance in the 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific ( 1879 -- 83 ) after defeating Peru and Bolivia . In the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil . This development culminated with the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende 's democratically elected left-wing government and instituted a 16-year-long right-wing military dictatorship that left more than 3,000 people dead or missing . The regime , headed by Augusto Pinochet , ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a center-left coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010 . Chile is today one of South America 's most stable and prosperous nations . It leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development , competitiveness , income per capita , globalization , state of peace , economic freedom , and low perception of corruption . It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state , and democratic development . Chile is a founding member of the United Nations , the Union of South American Nations ( UNASUR ) and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States ( CELAC ) . |
Chicago_Loop | The Loop is the central business district of Chicago , Illinois . It is one of the city 's 77 designated community areas . The Loop is home to Chicago 's commercial core , City Hall , and the seat of Cook County . In the late nineteenth century , cable car turnarounds and prominent elevated railway encircled the area , giving the Loop its name . The community area is bounded on the north by Lake Street on the west by Wells Street on the east by Wabash Street , and on the south by Van Buren Street . The Loop got its name by the loop of the elevated CTA El tracks that create a loop this area . although the commercial core has expanded into adjacent community areas . As a business center , some of the corporations the Loop hosts include the Chicago Mercantile Exchange ( CME ) , the world 's largest options and futures contracts open interest exchange ; the headquarters of United Continental Holdings , one of the world 's largest airlines ; AON ; Blue Cross Blue Shield ; Hyatt Hotels Corporation ; BorgWarner , and other major corporations . The Loop is home to 500 acre Grant Park ; State Street , which hosts a historic shopping district ; the Art Institute of Chicago ; several theaters ; and numerous subway and elevated rapid transit stations . Other institutions in the Loop include the Willis Tower , once the tallest building in the world , the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , the Lyric Opera of Chicago , the Goodman Theatre , the Joffrey Ballet , the central public Harold Washington Library , and the Chicago Cultural Center . In what is now the Loop , on the south bank of the Chicago River , near today 's Michigan Avenue Bridge , the US Army erected Fort Dearborn in 1803 . It was the first settlement in the area sponsored by the United States . In 1908 , Chicago addresses were made uniform by naming the intersection of State Street and Madison Street in the Loop as the division point for designating addresses , North , South , East or West on the Chicago street grid . |
Chemical_cycling | Chemical cycling describes systems of repeated circulation of chemicals between other compounds , states and materials , and back to their original state , that occurs in space , and on many objects in space including the Earth . Active chemical cycling is known to occur in stars , many planets and natural satellites . Chemical cycling plays a large role in sustaining planetary atmospheres , liquids and biological processes and can greatly influence weather and climate . Some chemical cycles release renewable energy , others may give rise to complex chemical reactions , organic compounds and prebiotic chemistry . On terrestrial bodies such as the Earth , chemical cycles involving the lithosphere are known as geochemical cycles . Ongoing geochemical cycles are one of the main attributes of geologically active worlds . A chemical cycle involving a biosphere is known as a biogeochemical cycle . |
Chicago_Bears | The Chicago Bears are a professional American football team based in Chicago , Illinois . The Bears compete in the National Football League ( NFL ) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference ( NFC ) North division . The Bears have won nine NFL Championships , including one Super Bowl , and hold the NFL record for the most enshrinees in the Pro Football Hall of Fame and the most retired jersey numbers . The Bears have also recorded more victories than any other NFL franchise . The franchise was founded in Decatur , Illinois , in 1919 , and moved to Chicago in 1921 . It is one of only two remaining franchises from the NFL 's founding in 1920 , along with the Arizona Cardinals , which was originally also in Chicago . The team played home games at Wrigley Field on Chicago 's North Side through the 1970 season ; they now play at Soldier Field on the Near South Side , next to Lake Michigan . The Bears have a long-standing rivalry with the Green Bay Packers . The team headquarters , Halas Hall , is in the Chicago suburb of Lake Forest , Illinois . The Bears practice at adjoining facilities there during the season . Since 2002 , the Bears have held their annual training camp , from late July to mid-August , at Ward Field on the campus of Olivet Nazarene University in Bourbonnais , Illinois . |
Chaos_cloud | The chaos cloud is a hoax that originated in a Weekly World News article in September 2005 . It was published online at Yahoo! Entertainment News . According to the article , the chaos cloud is a massive object in outer space that `` dissolves everything in its path , including comets , asteroids , planets and entire stars '' , and is due to reach Earth in 2014 . The hoax article generated a large amount of discussion online , as people attempted to discern whether or not it was genuine . Articles on the subject appeared at a diverse range of sites , such as Bad Astronomy , Whirlpool , Free Republic and Overclockers Australia . It has been debunked on Snopes and other urban legends sites . |
Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States | Members of the Catholic Church have been active in the elections of the United States since the mid 19th century . Indeed , the Irish came to dominate the Democratic Party in many cities . The U.S. has never had religious parties ( unlike much of the world ) . There has never been an American Catholic religious party , either local , state or national . In 1776 Catholics comprised less than 1 % of the population of the new nation , but their presence grew rapidly after 1840 with immigration from Germany , Ireland , and later from Italy , Poland and elsewhere in Catholic Europe from 1840 to 1914 , and also from Latin America in the 20th and 21st centuries . Catholics now comprise 25 % to 27 % of the national vote , with over 68 million members today . 85 % of today 's Catholics report their faith to be `` somewhat '' to `` very important '' to them . From the mid-19th century down to 1964 Catholics were solidly Democratic , sometimes at the 80 % -90 % level . From the 1930s to the 1950s Catholics formed a core part of the New Deal Coalition , with overlapping memberships in the Church , labor unions , big city machines , and the working class , all of which promoted liberal policy positions in domestic affairs and anti-communism during the Cold War . Since the election of a Catholic President in 1960 , Catholics have split about 50-50 between the two major parties in national elections . With the decline of unions and big city machines , and with upward mobility into the middle classes , Catholics have drifted away from liberalism and toward conservatism on economic issues ( such as taxes ) . Since the end of the Cold War , their strong anti-Communism has faded in importance . On social issues the Catholic Church takes strong positions against abortion and same-sex marriage and has formed coalitions with Protestant evangelicals . In 2015 Pope Francis declared that man-made climate change is caused by burning fossil fuels . The Pope stated the warming of the planet is rooted in a throwaway culture and the developed world 's indifference to the destruction of the planet as it pursues short-term economic gains . However , the Pope 's statements on climate change were generally met with indifference among Catholics while Catholic commentaries ranged from praise to dismissal , with some stating that it was not binding or magisterial due to its scientific nature . The Pope 's statements on these issues were most prominently laid out in encyclical Laudato si ' . The publication by Pope Francis had put pressure on Catholics seeking the Republican Party nomination for president of the United States in 2016 , including Jeb Bush , Marco Rubio , and Rick Santorum , who `` have questioned or denied the established science of human-caused climate change , and have harshly criticized policies designed to tax or regulate the burning of fossil fuels . '' Religious tensions were major issues in the presidential elections of 1928 when the Democrats nominated Al Smith , a Catholic who was defeated , and in 1960 when the Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy , a Catholic who was elected . For the next three elections , a Catholic would be nominated for the vice presidency by one of the two major parties ( Bill Miller in 1964 , Ed Muskie in 1968 , Tom Eagleton and then Sarge Shriver in 1972 ) , but the ticket would lose . Geraldine Ferraro would continue the tradition in 1984 , until it was broken in 2008 . A Catholic , John Kerry , lost the 2004 election to incumbent George W. Bush , a Methodist , who may have won the Catholic vote . 2012 was the first election where both major party vice presidential candidates were Catholic , Joe Biden and Paul Ryan . Currently there are 25 Catholics in the United States Senate , 16 Democrats , 9 Republicans , and 134 ( out of 435 ) Catholics in the United States House of Representatives , including the current House Speaker Paul Ryan . In 2008 , Joe Biden became the first Catholic to be elected Vice President of the United States . |
Ceres_(dwarf_planet) | Ceres ( -LSB- ˈsɪəriːz -RSB- minor-planet designation : 1 Ceres ) is the largest object in the asteroid belt that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Its diameter is approximately 945 km , making it the largest of the minor planets within the orbit of Neptune . The 33rd-largest known body in the Solar System , it is the only dwarf planet within the orbit of Neptune.Due to its eccentric orbit , the dwarf planet Pluto was also within the orbit of Neptune from 1979 to 1999 , and will be again from approximately 2227 to 2247 . Composed of rock and ice , Ceres is estimated to compose approximately one third of the mass of the entire asteroid belt . Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt known to be rounded by its own gravity ( though detailed analysis was required to exclude 4 Vesta ) . From Earth , the apparent magnitude of Ceres ranges from 6.7 to 9.3 , and hence even at its brightest it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye except under extremely dark skies . Ceres was the first asteroid to be discovered ( by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo on 1 January 1801 ) . It was originally considered a planet , but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850s after many other objects in similar orbits were discovered . Ceres appears to be differentiated into a rocky core and an icy mantle , and may have a remnant internal ocean of liquid water under the layer of ice . The surface is probably a mixture of water ice and various hydrated minerals such as carbonates and clay . In January 2014 , emissions of water vapor were detected from several regions of Ceres . This was unexpected because large bodies in the asteroid belt typically do not emit vapor , a hallmark of comets . The robotic NASA spacecraft Dawn entered orbit around Ceres on 6 March 2015 . Pictures with a resolution previously unattained were taken during imaging sessions starting in January 2015 as Dawn approached Ceres , showing a cratered surface . Two distinct bright spots ( or high-albedo features ) inside a crater ( different from the bright spots observed in earlier Hubble images ) were seen in a 19 February 2015 image , leading to speculation about a possible cryovolcanic origin or outgassing . On 3 March 2015 , a NASA spokesperson said the spots are consistent with highly reflective materials containing ice or salts , but that cryovolcanism is unlikely . However , on 2 September 2016 , NASA scientists released a paper in Science that claimed that a massive ice volcano called Ahuna Mons is the strongest evidence yet for the existence of these mysterious ice volcanoes . On 11 May 2015 , NASA released a higher-resolution image showing that , instead of one or two spots , there are actually several . On 9 December 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia-rich clays . In June 2016 , near-infrared spectra of these bright areas were found to be consistent with a large amount of sodium carbonate , implying that recent geologic activity was probably involved in the creation of the bright spots . In October 2015 , NASA released a true color portrait of Ceres made by Dawn . In February 2017 , organics were reported to have been detected on Ceres in Ernutet crater ( see image ) . |
Centauro_event | A Centauro event is a kind of anomalous event observed in cosmic-ray detectors since 1972 . They are so named because their shape resembles that of a centaur : i.e. , highly asymmetric . If some versions of string theory are correct , then high-energy cosmic rays could create black holes when they collide with molecules in the Earth 's atmosphere . These black holes would be tiny , with a mass of around 10 micrograms . They would also be unstable enough to explode in a burst of particles within around 10 − 27 seconds . Theodore Tomaras , a physicist at the University of Crete in Heraklion , Greece , and his Russian collaborators hypothesize that these miniature black holes could explain certain anomalous observations made by cosmic-ray detectors in the Bolivian Andes and on a mountain in Tajikistan . In 1972 , the Andean detector registered a cascade that was strangely rich in charged , quark-based particles ; far more particles were detected in the bottom portion of the detector than in the top portion . In years since , the detectors in Bolivia and Tajikistan have detected more than 40 Centauro events . Various explanations have been suggested . One possible explanation might be if the strong force between particles behaves unusually when they have extremely high energies . Exploding black holes are also a possibility . The team calculated what signal a detector would register if a cosmic ray creates a miniature black hole that explodes nearby . The researchers ' prediction is consistent with the observed Centauro events . The Tomaras team hopes that computer simulations of mini-black holes exploding , and further observations , will solve the puzzle . Solution to the Centauro puzzle In 2003 an international team of researches from Russia and Japan found out that the mysterious observation from mountain-top cosmic ray experiments can be explained with conventional physics . The new analysis of Centauro I reveals that there is a difference in the arrival angle between the upper block and lower block events , so the two are not products of the same interaction . That leaves only the lower chamber data connected to the Centauro I event . In other words , the man-horse analogy becomes redundant . There is only an obvious `` tail '' , and no `` head '' . The original detector setup had gaps between neighboring blocks in the upper chamber . Linear dimensions of gaps were comparable to the geometrical size of the event . The signal observed in the lower detector was similar to an ordinary interaction occurred at low altitude above the chamber , thus providing a natural solution : passing of a cascade of particles through a gap between the upper blocks . In 2005 it was shown that `` other Centauro events '' can be explained by peculiarities of the Chacaltaya detector . So-called `` exotic signal '' observed so far in cosmic ray experiments using a traditional X-ray emulsion chamber detector can be consistently explained within the framework of standard physics . The authors of the new analysis firmly believe that the behavior of Nature is more complex than people imagined . Nevertheless , in present case , mundane explanation without any exotic guesswork provides an answer . |
Challenger_Deep | The Challenger Deep is the deepest known point in the Earth 's seabed hydrosphere , with a depth of 10898 to by direct measurement from submersibles , and slightly more by sonar bathymetry . It is in the Pacific Ocean , at the southern end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group . The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench , which itself is an unusually deep feature in the ocean floor . Its bottom is about 7 mi long and 1 mi wide , with gently sloping sides . The closest land to the Challenger Deep is Fais Island ( one of the outer islands of Yap ) , 287 km southwest , and Guam , 304 km to the northeast . It is located in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia , 1.6 km from its border with ocean territory associated with Guam . The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger , whose expedition of 1872 -- 1876 made the first recordings of its depth . According to the August 2011 version of the GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names , the location and depth of the Challenger Deep are and 10920 m ± 10 m. June 2009 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Simrad EM120 ( sonar multibeam bathymetry system for 300 -- 11,000 m deep water mapping ) aboard the RV Kilo Moana indicated a depth of 10971 m . The sonar system uses phase and amplitude bottom detection , with a precision of 0.2 % to 0.5 % of water depth ; this is an error of about 22 to at this depth . Further soundings made by the US Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping in October 2010 are in agreement with this figure , preliminarily placing the deepest part of the Challenger Deep at 10994 m , with an estimated vertical uncertainty of ± 40 m . A 2014 study concludes that with the best of 2010 multibeam echosounder technologies a depth uncertainty of ± 25 m ( 95 % confidence level ) on 9 degrees of freedom and a positional uncertainty of ± 20 to ( 2drms ) remain and the location of the deepest depth recorded in the 2010 mapping is 10984 m at . Only four descents have ever been achieved . The first descent by any vehicle was by the manned bathyscaphe Trieste in 1960 . This was followed by the unmanned ROVs Kaikō in 1995 and Nereus in 2009 . In March 2012 a manned solo descent was made by the deep-submergence vehicle Deepsea Challenger . These expeditions measured very similar depths of 10898 to . |
Causality | Causality ( also referred to as causation , or cause and effect ) is the agency or efficacy that connects one process ( the cause ) with another process or state ( the effect ) , where the first is understood to be partly responsible for the second , and the second is dependent on the first . In general , a process has many causes , which are said to be causal factors for it , and all lie in its past . An effect can in turn be a cause of many other effects . Although retrocausality is sometimes referred to in thought experiments and hypothetical analyses , causality is generally accepted to be temporally bound so that causes always precede their dependent effects ( although in some contexts such as economics they may coincide in time ; see Instrumental variable for how this is dealt with econometrically ) . Causality is an abstraction that indicates how the world progresses , so basic a concept that it is more apt as an explanation of other concepts of progression than as something to be explained by others more basic . The concept is like those of agency and efficacy . For this reason , a leap of intuition may be needed to grasp it . Accordingly , causality is built into the conceptual structure of ordinary language . In Aristotelian philosophy , the word 'cause ' is also used to mean ` explanation ' or ` answer to a why question ' , including Aristotle 's material , formal , efficient , and final `` causes '' ; then the `` cause '' is the explanans for the explanandum . In this case , failure to recognize that different kinds of `` cause '' are being considered can lead to futile debate . Of Aristotle 's four explanatory modes , the one nearest to the concerns of the present article is the `` efficient '' one . The topic remains a staple in contemporary philosophy . While studying of meaning of causality semantics traditionally appeal to the chicken or the egg causality dilemma , i.e. `` which came first , the chicken or the egg ? '' . Then it allocates its constituent elements : a cause , an effect and link itself , that joins both of them . |
Charlemagne | Charlemagne ( -LSB- ˈʃɑːrlᵻmeɪn -RSB- ) or Charles the Great ( 2 April 742/747/74828 January 814 ) , numbered Charles I , was the King of the Franks from 768 , King of the Lombards from 774 and Emperor of the Romans from 800 . He united much of Europe during the early Middle Ages . He was the first recognised emperor in western Europe since the fall of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier . The expanded Frankish state that Charlemagne founded was called the Carolingian Empire . Charlemagne was the oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon . He became king in 768 following his father 's death , initially as co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman 's sudden death in 771 in unexplained circumstances left Charlemagne as the undisputed ruler of the Frankish Kingdom . He continued his father 's policy towards the papacy and became its protector , removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy and leading an incursion into Muslim Spain . He campaigned against the Saxons to his east , Christianising them upon penalty of death and leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden . Charlemagne reached the height of his power in 800 when he was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day at Old St. Peter 's Basilica . Charlemagne has been called the `` Father of Europe '' ( Pater Europae ) , as he united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire . His rule spurred the Carolingian Renaissance , a period of energetic cultural and intellectual activity within the Western Church . All Holy Roman Emperors considered their kingdoms to be descendants of Charlemagne 's empire , up to the last Emperor Francis II and the French and German monarchies . However , the Eastern Orthodox Church views Charlemagne more controversially , labelling as heterodox his support of the filioque and recognition by the Bishop of Rome as legitimate Roman Emperor , rather than recognising Irene of Athens of the Eastern Roman Empire . These and other machinations led to the eventual split of Rome and Constantinople in the Great Schism of 1054 . Charlemagne died in 814 , having ruled as emperor for thirteen years . He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in what is today Germany . He married at least four times and had three legitimate sons , but only his son Louis the Pious survived to succeed him . |
Carrying_capacity | The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely , given the food , habitat , water , and other necessities available in the environment . In population biology , carrying capacity is defined as the environment 's maximal load , which is different from the concept of population equilibrium . Its effect on population dynamics may be approximated in a logistic model , although this simplification ignores the possibility of overshoot which real systems may exhibit . Carrying capacity was originally used to determine the number of animals that could graze on a segment of land without destroying it . Later , the idea was expanded to more complex populations , like humans . For the human population , more complex variables such as sanitation and medical care are sometimes considered as part of the necessary establishment . As population density increases , birth rate often decreases and death rate typically increases . The difference between the birth rate and the death rate is the `` natural increase '' . The carrying capacity could support a positive natural increase or could require a negative natural increase . Thus , the carrying capacity is the number of individuals an environment can support without significant negative impacts to the given organism and its environment . Below carrying capacity , populations typically increase , while above , they typically decrease . A factor that keeps population size at equilibrium is known as a regulating factor . Population size decreases above carrying capacity due to a range of factors depending on the species concerned , but can include insufficient space , food supply , or sunlight . The carrying capacity of an environment may vary for different species and may change over time due to a variety of factors including : food availability , water supply , environmental conditions and living space . The origins of the term `` carrying capacity '' are uncertain , with researchers variously stating that it was used `` in the context of international shipping '' or that it was first used during 19th-century laboratory experiments with micro-organisms . A recent review finds the first use of the term in an 1845 report by the US Secretary of State to the US Senate . |
Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory | The chemtrail conspiracy theory is the incorrect claim that long-lasting trails , so-called `` chemtrails '' , are left in the sky by high-flying aircraft and that they consist of chemical or biological agents deliberately sprayed for sinister purposes undisclosed to the general public . Believers in the theory argue that normal contrails dissipate relatively quickly and that contrails that do not dissipate must contain additional substances . These arguments have been dismissed by the scientific community : such trails are normal water-based contrails ( condensation trails ) that are routinely left by high-flying aircraft under certain atmospheric conditions . Although proponents have attempted to prove that the claimed chemical spraying does take place , their analyses have been flawed or based on misconceptions . Because of the persistence of the conspiracy theory and questions about government involvement , scientists and government agencies around the world have repeatedly explained that supposed chemtrails are in fact normal contrails . The term chemtrail is a portmanteau of the words chemical and trail , as contrail is of condensation and trail . Believers in the conspiracy theory speculate that the purpose of the claimed chemical release may be solar radiation management , psychological manipulation , human population control , weather modification , or biological or chemical warfare and that the trails are causing respiratory illnesses and other health problems . |
Chemocline | A chemocline is a cline caused by a strong , vertical chemistry gradient within a body of water . A chemocline is analogous to a thermocline , the border at which warmer and cooler waters meet in an ocean , sea , lake , or other body of water . ( In some cases , the thermocline and chemocline coincide . ) Chemoclines most commonly occur where local conditions favor the formations of anoxic bottom water -- deep water deficient in oxygen , where only anaerobic forms of life can exist . The Black Sea is the classic example of such a body , though similar bodies of water ( classified as meromictic lakes ) exist across the globe . Aerobic life is restricted to the region above the chemocline , anaerobic below . Photosynthetic forms of anaerobic bacteria , like green phototrophic and purple sulfur bacteria , cluster at the chemocline , taking advantage of both the sunlight from above and the hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) produced by the anaerobic bacteria below . In any body of water in which oxygen-rich surface waters are well-mixed ( holomictic ) , no chemocline will exist . To cite the most obvious example , the Earth 's global ocean has no chemocline . |
Chicory | Common chicory , Cichorium intybus , is a somewhat woody , perennial herbaceous plant of the dandelion family Asteraceae , usually with bright blue flowers , rarely white or pink . Many varieties are cultivated for salad leaves , chicons ( blanched buds ) , or roots ( var . sativum ) , which are baked , ground , and used as a coffee substitute and additive . It is also grown as a forage crop for livestock . It lives as a wild plant on roadsides in its native Europe , and is now common in North America , China , and Australia , where it has become widely naturalized . `` Chicory '' is also the common name in the United States for curly endive ( Cichorium endivia ) ; these two closely related species are often confused . |
Central_Coast_(California) | The Central Coast is an area of California , United States , roughly spanning the coastal region between Point Mugu and Monterey Bay . It lies northwest of Los Angeles County and south of San Francisco and San Mateo counties . Six counties make up the Central Coast : from south-to north , Ventura , Santa Barbara , San Luis Obispo , Monterey , San Benito , and Santa Cruz . The Central Coast is the location of the Central Coast American Viticultural Area . |
Cenozoic | The Cenozoic Era ( -LSB- pronˌsiːnəˈzoʊɪk , _ ˌsɛ - -RSB- also Cænozoic , Caenozoic or Cainozoic -LSB- pronˌkaɪnəˈzoʊɪk , _ ˌkeɪ - -RSB- meaning `` new life '' , from Greek καινός kainós `` new '' , and ζωή zōḗ `` life '' ) is the current and most recent of the three Phanerozoic geological eras , following the Mesozoic Era and covering the period from 66 million years ago to the present day . The Cenozoic is also known as the Age of Mammals , because of the large mammals that dominated , such as Entelodont , Paraceratherium and Basilosaurus . The extinction of many large diapsid groups such as non-avian dinosaurs , Plesiosauria and Pterosauria allowed the mammals and birds to greatly diversify and become the world 's predominant fauna . Early in the Cenozoic , following the K-Pg event , the planet was dominated by relatively small fauna , including small mammals , birds , reptiles , and amphibians . From a geological perspective , it did not take long for mammals and birds to greatly diversify in the absence of the dinosaurs that had dominated during the Mesozoic . Some flightless birds grew larger than humans . These species are sometimes referred to as `` terror birds , '' and were formidable predators . Mammals came to occupy almost every available niche ( both marine and terrestrial ) , and some also grew very large , attaining sizes not seen in most of today 's terrestrial mammals . The Earth 's climate had begun a drying and cooling trend , culminating in the glaciations of the Pleistocene Epoch , and partially offset by the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum . The continents also began looking roughly familiar at this time and moved into their current positions . |
Cenomanian | The Cenomanian is , in the ICS ' geological timescale the oldest or earliest age of the Late Cretaceous epoch or the lowest stage of the Upper Cretaceous series . An age is a unit of geochronology : it is a unit of time ; the stage is a unit in the stratigraphic column deposited during the corresponding age . Both age and stage bear the same name . As a unit of geologic time measure , the Cenomanian age spans the time between 100.5 ± 0.9 Ma and 93.9 ± 0.8 Ma ( million years ago ) . In the geologic timescale it is preceded by the Albian and is followed by the Turonian . The Cenomanian is coeval with the Woodbinian of the regional timescale of the Gulf of Mexico and the early part of the Eaglefordian of the regional timescale of the US East Coast . At the end of the Cenomanian an anoxic event took place , called the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event or the `` Bonarelli Event '' , that is associated with a minor extinction event for marine species . |
Chemical_energy | In chemistry , chemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction to transform other chemical substances . Examples include batteries , food , gasoline , and more . Breaking or making of chemical bonds involves energy , which may be either absorbed or evolved from a chemical system . Energy that can be released ( or absorbed ) because of a reaction between a set of chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants , if the initial and final temperatures are the same . This change in energy can be estimated from the bond energies of the various chemical bonds in the reactants and products . It can also be calculated from , the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules , and the internal energy of formation of the product molecules . The internal energy change of a chemical process is equal to the heat exchanged if it is measured under conditions of constant volume and equal initial and final temperature , as in a closed container such as a bomb calorimeter . However , under conditions of constant pressure , as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere , the measured heat change is not always equal to the internal energy change , because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy . ( The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change ; in this case the enthalpy of reaction , if initial and final temperatures are equal ) . Another useful term is the heat of combustion , which is the energy mostly of the weak double bonds of molecular oxygen released due to a combustion reaction and often applied in the study of fuels . Food is similar to hydrocarbon and carbohydrate fuels , and when it is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water , the energy released is analogous to the heat of combustion ( though not assessed in the same way as a hydrocarbon fuel -- see food energy ) . Chemical potential energy is a form of potential energy related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules . This arrangement may be the result of chemical bonds within a molecule or otherwise . Chemical energy of a chemical substance can be transformed to other forms of energy by a chemical reaction . As an example , when a fuel is burned the chemical energy of molecular oxygen is converted to heat , and the same is the case with digestion of food metabolized in a biological organism . Green plants transform solar energy to chemical energy ( mostly of oxygen ) through the process known as photosynthesis , and electrical energy can be converted to chemical energy and vice versa through electrochemical reactions . The similar term chemical potential is used to indicate the potential of a substance to undergo a change of configuration , be it in the form of a chemical reaction , spatial transport , particle exchange with a reservoir , etc. . It is not a form of potential energy itself , but is more closely related to free energy . The confusion in terminology arises from the fact that in other areas of physics not dominated by entropy , all potential energy is available to do useful work and drives the system to spontaneously undergo changes of configuration , and thus there is no distinction between `` free '' and `` non-free '' potential energy ( hence the one word `` potential '' ) . However , in systems of large entropy such as chemical systems , the total amount of energy present ( and conserved by the first law of thermodynamics ) of which this Chemical Potential Energy is a part , is separated from the amount of that energy -- Thermodynamic Free Energy ( which Chemical potential is derived from ) -- which ( appears to ) drive the system forward spontaneously as its entropy increases ( in accordance with the second law ) . |
Celsius | Celsius , also known as centigrade , is a metric scale and unit of measurement for temperature . As an SI derived unit , it is used by most countries in the world . It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius ( 1701 -- 1744 ) , who developed a similar temperature scale . The degree Celsius ( ° C ) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval , a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty . Before being renamed to honour Anders Celsius in 1948 , the unit was called centigrade , from the Latin centum , which means 100 , and gradus , which means steps . The current scale is based on 0 ° for the freezing point of water and 100 ° for the boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure following a change introduced by Jean-Pierre Christin to reverse the Celsius thermometer scale ( from water boiling at 0 degrees and ice melting at 100 degrees ) . This scale is widely taught in schools today . By international agreement the unit `` degree Celsius '' and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures : absolute zero , and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water ( VSMOW ) , a specially purified water . This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale , which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero , the lowest temperature possible , is defined as being precisely 0 K and − 273.15 ° C . The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as exactly 273.16 K at 611.657 Pa pressure . Thus , the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin are exactly the same and the difference between the two scales ' null points is precisely 273.15 degrees ( and ) . |
Chios | Chios ( -LSB- ˈkaɪ.ɒs -RSB- Χίος , alternative transliterations Khíos and Híos ) is the fifth largest of the Greek islands , situated in the Aegean Sea , 7 km off the Anatolian coast . The island is separated from Turkey by the Çeşme Strait . Chios is notable for its exports of mastic gum and its nickname is the Mastic Island . Tourist attractions include its medieval villages and the 11th-century monastery of Nea Moni , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Administratively , the island forms a separate municipality within the Chios regional unit , which is part of the North Aegean region . The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Chios town . Locals refer to Chios town as `` Chora '' ( '' Χώρα '' literally means land or country , but usually refers to the capital or a settlement at the highest point of a Greek island ) . |
Chain_of_Lakes_(Minneapolis) | The Chain of Lakes is a district in Minneapolis , Minnesota , United States . It is one of seven districts that make up the Grand Rounds Scenic Byway , a greenspace circling through the city . The Chain of Lakes was formed as a series of parks in the early twentieth century , when the young city purchased all of the land surrounding the lakes from which Minneapolis takes its name and nickname ( the `` City of Lakes '' ) . The phrase dates back to the nineteenth century , when an article referred to `` the chain of lakes which , ` like a necklace of diamond in settings of emerald , ' enriches Minneapolis . '' The Chain of Lakes district consists of Lake Harriet , Lyndale Park , Lyndale Farmstead , Lake Calhoun , Lake of the Isles , Cedar Lake and Brownie Lake . |
Chilean_Antarctic_Territory | The Chilean Antarctic Territory or Chilean Antarctica ( Spanish : Territorio Chileno Antártico , Antártica Chilena ) is the territory in Antarctica claimed by Chile . The Chilean Antarctic Territory ranges from 53 ° W to 90 ° W and from the South Pole to 60 ° S , partially overlapping the Argentine and British Antarctic claims . It is administered by the Cabo de Hornos municipality in the South American mainland . The territory claimed by Chile covers the South Shetland Islands , Antarctic Peninsula , called `` O'Higgins Land '' ( `` Tierra de O'Higgins '' in Spanish ) in Chile , and adjacent islands , the Alexander Island , Charcot Island , and part of the Ellsworth Land , among others . It has an area of 1,250,257.6 km ² . Its boundaries are defined by Decree 1747 , issued on November 6 , 1940 , and published on June 21 , 1955 , the Ministry of Foreign Affairs established : Within Chilean territorial organization Antártica is the name of the commune that administers the territory . The commune of Antártica is managed by the municipality of Cabo de Hornos with seat in Puerto Williams and belongs to Antártica Chilena Province , which is part of Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena Region . The commune of Antártica was created on July 11 , 1961 , and was dependent on the Magallanes Province until 1975 , when the Antártica Chilena Province was created , making it dependent administratively on Puerto Williams , the province capital . Chilean territorial claims on Antarctica are mainly based on historical , legal and geographical considerations . The exercise of Chilean sovereignty over the Chilean Antarctic Territory is put into effect in all aspects that are not limited by the signing of the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 . This treaty established that Antarctic activities are to be devoted exclusively to peaceful purposes of the signatories and acceding countries , thereby freezing territorial disputes and preventing the construction of new claims or the expansion of existing ones . The Chilean Antarctic Territory corresponds geographically to areas UTC-4 , UTC-5 and UTC-6 but it uses the Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica Time zone , summer time all the year ( UTC-3 ) . Chile currently has 11 active Antarctic bases : 4 permanent and 7 seasonal . |
Cash_crop | A cash crop is an agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a profit . It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm . The term is used to differentiate marketed crops from subsistence crops , which are those fed to the producer 's own livestock or grown as food for the producer 's family . In earlier times cash crops were usually only a small ( but vital ) part of a farm 's total yield , while today , especially in developed countries , almost all crops are mainly grown for revenue . In the least developed countries , cash crops are usually crops which attract demand in more developed nations , and hence have some export value . Prices for major cash crops are set in commodity markets with global scope , with some local variation ( termed as `` basis '' ) based on freight costs and local supply and demand balance . A consequence of this is that a nation , region , or individual producer relying on such a crop may suffer low prices should a bumper crop elsewhere lead to excess supply on the global markets . This system has been criticized by traditional farmers . Coffee is an example of a product that has been susceptible to significant commodity futures price variations . __ TOC __ |
Cellulose | Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β ( 1 → 4 ) linked D-glucose units . Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants , many forms of algae and the oomycetes . Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms . Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on Earth . The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90 % , that of wood is 40 -- 50 % and that of dried hemp is approximately 57 % . Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper . Smaller quantities are converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon . Conversion of cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under investigation as an alternative fuel source . Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton . Some animals , particularly ruminants and termites , can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts , such as Trichonympha . In human nutrition , cellulose acts as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces and is often referred to as `` dietary fiber '' . |
China_National_Coal_Group | China National Coal Group Co. , Ltd. known as China Coal Group is a Chinese coal mining conglomerate that was supervised by the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission ( SASAC ) of the State Council . It was the second largest state-owned coal mining enterprise in the mainland China , and the third largest in the world , just after Shenhua Group in 2008 , according to a website quoting Xinhua News Agency . It is engaged in coal production and sales , coal chemicals , coal mining equipment manufacturing , coal mine design and related engineering services . In 2009 the corporation was re-incorporated as a limited company . The group also acquired Shanxi Huayu Energy in the same year . China United Coalbed Methane , a joint venture of China Coal Group and PetroChina , became a wholly owned subsidiary of China Coal Group also in 2009 . At the same time PetroChina acquired some assets from China United Coalbed Methane . China Coal Group later sold China United Coalbed Methane to China National Offshore Oil Corporation in tranches from 2010 to 2014 . China Coal Group 's subsidiary , China Coal Energy , is listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange since 2006 and the Shanghai Stock Exchange since 2008 . China Coal Group retained the stake in `` China Coal Heilongjiang Coal Chemical Engineering Group '' ( Heilongjiang Coal Chemical Group , ) and an equity investment in Taiyuan Coal Gasification Group ( , 47.67 % ) , as they still provide coal gas to the citizen on non-for-profit basis . China Coal Group later acquired 3.9 % stake of Taiyuan Coal Gasification Group from fellow central government owned China Cinda Asset Management , but in 2013 transferred 16.18 % stake to SASAC of Shanxi Province without compensation . As at 31 December 2015 , China Coal Group owned Taiyuan Coal Gasification Group 35.39 % stake as the second largest shareholder . In 2014 , China Coal Group promised to inject `` Heilongjiang Coal Chemical Group '' and `` Shanxi Huayu Energy '' to the listed company in order to avoid competition . However , as at 2016 they were remained in the unlisted portion of the group , but the promise would remain valid until 2021 . Nevertheless Heilongjiang Coal Chemical Company , another company , was already under China Coal Energy . In 2016 Shanxi Huayu Energy delayed a week to pay off principal and interest in full for a bond . |
Chart | A chart , also called a graph , is a graphical representation of data , in which `` the data is represented by symbols , such as bars in a bar chart , lines in a line chart , or slices in a pie chart '' . A chart can represent tabular numeric data , functions or some kinds of qualitative structure and provides different info . The term `` chart '' as a graphical representation of data has multiple meanings : A data chart is a type of diagram or graph , that organizes and represents a set of numerical or qualitative data . Maps that are adorned with extra information ( map surround ) for a specific purpose are often known as charts , such as a nautical chart or aeronautical chart , typically spread over several map sheets . Other domain specific constructs are sometimes called charts , such as the chord chart in music notation or a record chart for album popularity . Charts are often used to ease understanding of large quantities of data and the relationships between parts of the data . Charts can usually be read more quickly than the raw data . They are used in a wide variety of fields , and can be created by hand ( often on graph paper ) or by computer using a charting application . Certain types of charts are more useful for presenting a given data set than others . For example , data that presents percentages in different groups ( such as `` satisfied , not satisfied , unsure '' ) are often displayed in a pie chart , but may be more easily understood when presented in a horizontal bar chart . On the other hand , data that represents numbers that change over a period of time ( such as `` annual revenue from 1990 to 2000 '' ) might be best shown as a line chart . |
Celebes_Sea | The Celebes Sea ( Laut Sulawesi , Dagat Selebes ) of the western Pacific Ocean is bordered on the north by the Sulu Archipelago and Sulu Sea and Mindanao Island of the Philippines , on the east by the Sangihe Islands chain , on the south by Sulawesi 's Minahassa Peninsula , and on the west by Kalimantan in Indonesia . It extends 420 miles ( 675 km ) north-south by 520 mi east-west and has a total surface area of 110,000 sqmi , to a maximum depth of 20300 ft. The sea opens southwest through the Makassar Strait into the Java Sea . The Celebes Sea is a piece of an ancient ocean basin that formed 42 million years ago in a locale removed from any landmass . By 20 million years ago , earth crust movement had moved the basin close enough to the Indonesian and Philippine volcanoes to receive emitted debris . By 10 million years ago the Celebes Sea was inundated with continental debris , including coal , which was shed from a growing young mountain on Borneo and the basin had docked against Eurasia . The border between the Celebes and the Sulu Sea is at the Sibutu-Basilan Ridge . Strong ocean currents , deep sea trenches and seamounts , combined with active volcanic islands , result in complex oceanographic features . |
Chemical_oceanography | Chemical oceanography is the study of ocean chemistry : the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth 's oceans . The ocean is unique in that it contains - in greater or lesser quantities - nearly every element in the periodic table . Much of chemical oceanography describes the cycling of these elements both within the ocean and with the other spheres of the Earth system ( see biogeochemical cycle ) . These cycles are usually characterised as quantitative fluxes between constituent reservoirs defined within the ocean system and as residence times within the ocean . Of particular global and climatic significance are the cycles of the biologically active elements such as carbon , nitrogen , and phosphorus as well as those of some important trace elements such as iron . Another important area of study in chemical oceanography is the behaviour of isotopes ( see isotope geochemistry ) and how they can be used as tracers of past and present oceanographic and climatic processes . For example , the incidence of 18O ( the heavy isotope of oxygen ) can be used as an indicator of polar ice sheet extent , and boron isotopes are key indicators of the pH and CO2 content of oceans in the geologic past . |
Chlorofluorocarbon | A chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC ) is an organic compound that contains only carbon , chlorine , and fluorine , produced as volatile derivative of methane , ethane , and propane . They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon . The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane ( R-12 or Freon-12 ) . Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants , propellants ( in aerosol applications ) , and solvents . Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere , the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol , and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) ( e.g. , R-410A ) and R-134a . |
Cascade_effect_(ecology) | An ecological cascade effect is a series of secondary extinctions that is triggered by the primary extinction of a key species in an ecosystem . Secondary extinctions are likely to occur when the threatened species are : dependent on a few specific food sources , mutualistic ( dependent on the key species in some way ) , or forced to coexist with an invasive species that is introduced to the ecosystem . Species introductions to a foreign ecosystem can often devastate entire communities , and even entire ecosystems . These exotic species monopolize the ecosystem 's resources , and since they have no natural predators to decrease their growth , they are able to increase indefinitely . Olsen et al. showed that exotic species have caused lake and estuary ecosystems to go through cascade effects due to loss of algae , crayfish , mollusks , fish , amphibians , and birds . However , the principal cause of cascade effects is the loss of top predators as the key species . As a result of this loss , a dramatic increase ( ecological release ) of prey species occurs . The prey is then able to overexploit its own food resources , until the population numbers decrease in abundance , which can lead to extinction . When the prey 's food resources disappear , they starve and may go extinct as well . If the prey species is herbivorous , then their initial release and exploitation of the plants may result in a loss of plant biodiversity in the area . If other organisms in the ecosystem also depend upon these plants as food resources , then these species may go extinct as well . An example of the cascade effect caused by the loss of a top predator is apparent in tropical forests . When hunters cause local extinctions of top predators , the predators ' prey 's population numbers increase , causing an overexploitation of a food resource and a cascade effect of species loss . Recent studies have been performed on approaches to mitigate extinction cascades in food-web networks . |
Ceiling_fan | A ceiling fan is a mechanical fan , usually electrically powered , suspended from the ceiling of a room , that uses hub-mounted rotating paddles to circulation air . Most ceiling fans rotate much more slowly than most electric desk fans . They cool people effectively by introducing slow movement into the otherwise still , hot air of a room . Fans never actually cool air , unlike air-conditioning equipment , but use significantly less power ( cooling air is thermodynamically expensive ) . Conversely , a ceiling fan can also be used to reduce the stratification of warm air in a room by forcing it down to affect both occupants ' sensations and thermostat readings , thereby improving climate control energy efficiency . |
Census_in_Canada | A national census in Canada is conducted every five years by Statistics Canada . The census provides demographic and statistical data that is used to plan public services including health care , education , and transportation , determine federal transfer payments , and determine the number of Members of Parliament for each province and territory . At a sub-national level , two provinces ( Alberta and Saskatchewan ) and two territories ( Nunavut and Yukon ) have legislation that allows local governments to conduct their own municipal censuses . In an article in the New York Times in August 2015 , journalist Stephen Marche argued that by ending the mandatory long-form census in 2011 , the federal government `` stripped Canada of its capacity to gather information about itself '' in the `` age of information . '' Nearly 500 organizations in Canada , including the Canadian Medical Association , the Canadian Chamber of Commerce and the Canadian Catholic Council of Bishops , protested the decision to replace the long form Census in 2011 with a shorter version . On November 5 , 2015 , during the first Liberal caucus meeting since forming a majority government , the party announced that it would reinstate the mandatory long-form census , starting in 2016 . |
Chain_of_Lakes_(Winter_Haven) | The Chain of Lakes are a famous series of lakes in Central Florida . There are two chains of lakes , the northern chain and the southern chain . The northern chain extends across three cities ; Winter Haven , Lake Alfred , and Lake Hamilton . It has ten lakes , connected by a series of canals . The ten lakes on the northern chain are : Lake Haines , Lake Rochelle , Lake Echo , Lake Conine , Lake Fannie , Lake Smart , Lake Henry , Lake Hamilton , Middle Lake Hamilton , and Little Lake Hamilton . The southern chain is located almost entirely within the city of Winter Haven . It has 16 , sometimes 18 , lakes connected by a series of canals . The principal 16 lakes on the southern chain are : Lake Howard , Lake Cannon , Lake Shipp , Lake Jessie , Lake Hartridge , Lake Lulu , Lake Roy , Lake Eloise , Little Lake Eloise , Lake Winterset , Little Lake Winterset , Lake May , Lake Mirror , Lake Idylwild , Spring Lake and Lake Summit . When water levels are high , Lake Blue and Lake Marianna also connect to the southern chain . |
Central_America | Central America ( América Central or Centroamérica ) is the southernmost , isthmian portion of the North American continent , which connects with South America on the southeast . Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north , Colombia to the southeast , the Caribbean Sea to the east , and the Pacific Ocean to the west . Central America consists of seven countries : Belize , Costa Rica , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Nicaragua , and Panama . The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 ( 2009 estimate ) and 42,688,190 ( 2012 estimate ) . Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot , which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama . Due to the presence of several active geologic faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc , there is a great deal of seismic activity in the region . Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently ; these natural disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives and much property . In the Pre-Columbian era , Central America was inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west and the Isthmo-Colombian peoples to the south and east . Soon after Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas , the Spanish began to colonize the Americas . From 1609 until 1821 , most of the territory within Central America -- except for the lands that would become Belize and Panama -- was governed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain from Mexico City as the Captaincy General of Guatemala . After New Spain achieved independence from Spain in 1821 , some of its provinces were annexed to the First Mexican Empire , but soon seceded from Mexico to form the Federal Republic of Central America , which lasted from 1823 to 1838 . The seven states finally became independent autonomous states : beginning with Nicaragua , Honduras , Costa Rica , and Guatemala ( 1838 ) ; followed by El Salvador ( 1841 ) ; then Panama ( 1903 ) ; and finally Belize ( 1981 ) . |
Cass_Lake_(Minnesota) | Cass Lake is a glacially-formed lake in north central Minnesota in the United States . It is approximately 10 mi long and 7 mi wide , located in Cass and Beltrami counties , within the Chippewa National Forest and the Leech Lake Indian Reservation , adjacent to its namesake city of Cass Lake . In the Ojibwe language , it is called Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag ( where there are many red cedar ) , and was known to early explorers and traders in French as Lac du Cedre Rouge , and English as Red Cedar Lake . It is the 11th largest lake in Minnesota , and the 8th largest lake lying entirely within the borders of the state . The lake contains five islands , including Star Island , Cedar Island , the two Potato Islands , and a small unnamed island . The Mississippi River flows through the lake from west to east . A second major stream , the Turtle River , enters the lake from the north . The lake has a large littoral area , particularly around Cedar Island . Star Island is notable in that it contains the 199 acre-sized Lake Windigo , thus forming `` a lake within an island within a lake '' . . In July 1820 , an expedition led by General Lewis Cass visited the lake . They were prevented from traveling further upstream by low water , and so designated the lake as the headwaters of the Mississippi because below this point , the river is navigable throughout the ice-free season . In June 1832 , Henry Schoolcraft , who had been a member of the 1820 expedition , designated the source of the river as being further upstream at Lake Itasca , the source of the perennial stream . Subsequent to the Cass Expedition of 1820 , the lake was renamed Cass Lake in order to distinguish it from Red Cedar Lake ( known today as Cedar Lake ) in Aitkin County . The lake is popular destination for recreational fishing , boating , and swimming . The lake is known for its walleye , northern pike , muskellunge , and yellow perch fisheries . Tullibee are important forage fish . There are numerous campgrounds and resorts located on its shores . The southern and eastern shores of the lake , as well as all the islands , are protected within the Ten Section Area of the Chippewa National Forest . Norway Beach recreation area is located at the southeast corner of the lake , and contains Norway Beach Lodge , a notable example of Civilian Conservation Corps-built Finnish-style log architecture . The city of Cass Lake sits near the southwestern side of the lake . Formerly , the lake played an important role in the lumber industry . Log booms were towed across the lake by steamboat from surrounding lakes and streams to either be sawed into lumber at local mills , or transported elsewhere by railroad . Historically , Cass Lake was considered to be much larger . Pike Bay is a 4760 acre lake lying to the south of Cass Lake ; the two lakes are connected by a narrow 0.5 mi long channel . Formerly , the two lakes were connected by a 0.6 mi wide shallow narrows . Beginning in 1898 , construction of a railroad , and later highway and pipeline , across the narrows led to decreased currents through and increased sedimentation in the narrows . The two bodies of water are now generally considered separate lakes , although Pike Bay retains its old name . The lake level is maintained and stabilized by Knutson Dam , built in 1924 to replace earlier brush and log dams built by lumber companies . Knutson Dam is one of the few dams managed by the U.S. Forest Service . On the small isthmus between Cass Lake and neighboring Buck Lake lies Camp Chippewa , a boys camp founded in 1935 . Another camp , UniStar , lies on a portion of Star Island . |
Climate_of_Minnesota | Minnesota has a continental climate , with hot summers and cold winters . Minnesota 's location in the Upper Midwest allows it to experience some of the widest variety of weather in the United States , with each of the four seasons having its own distinct characteristics . The areas near Lake Superior in the Minnesota Arrowhead region experience weather unique from the rest of the state . The moderating effect of Lake Superior keeps the surrounding area relatively cooler in the summer and relatively warmer in the winter , giving that region a smaller yearly temperature range . On the Köppen climate classification , much of the southern third of Minnesota -- roughly from the Twin Cities region southward -- falls in the hot summer humid continental climate zone ( Dfa ) , and the northern two-thirds of Minnesota falls in the warm summer great continental climate zone ( Dfb ) . Winter in Minnesota is characterized by cold ( below freezing ) temperatures . Snow is the main form of winter precipitation , but freezing rain , sleet , and occasionally rain are all possible during the winter months . Common storm systems include Alberta clippers or Panhandle hooks ; some of which develop into blizzards . Annual snowfall extremes have ranged from over 170 in in the rugged Superior Highlands of the North Shore to as little as 10 in in southern Minnesota . Temperatures as low as -60 ° F have occurred during Minnesota winters . Spring is a time of major transition in Minnesota . Snowstorms are common early in the spring , but by late-spring as temperatures begin to moderate the state can experience tornado outbreaks , a risk which diminishes but does not cease through the summer and into the autumn . In summer , heat and humidity predominate in the south , while warm and less humid conditions are generally present in the north . These humid conditions initiate thunderstorm activity 30 -- 40 days per year . Summer high temperatures in Minnesota average in the mid-80s F ( 30 ° C ) in the south to the upper-70s F ( 25 ° C ) in the north , with temperatures as hot as 114 ° F possible . The growing season in Minnesota varies from 90 days per year in the Iron Range to 160 days in southeast Minnesota . Tornadoes are possible in Minnesota from March through November , but the peak tornado month is June , followed by July , May , and August . The state averages 27 tornadoes per year . Minnesota is the driest state in the Midwest . Average annual precipitation across the state ranges from around 35 in in the southeast to 20 in in the northwest . Autumn weather in Minnesota is largely the reverse of spring weather . The jet stream -- which tends to weaken in summer -- begins to re-strengthen , leading to a quicker changing of weather patterns and an increased variability of temperatures . By late October and November these storm systems become strong enough to form major winter storms . Autumn and spring are the windiest times of the year in Minnesota . |
Climate_change_policy_of_the_United_States | Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions . |
Climate_justice | Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues . |
Congestion_pricing | Congestion pricing or congestion charges is a system of surcharging users of public goods that are subject to congestion through excess demand such as higher peak charges for use of bus services , electricity , metros , railways , telephones , and road pricing to reduce traffic congestion ; airlines and shipping companies may be charged higher fees for slots at airports and through canals at busy times . This pricing strategy regulates demand , making it possible to manage congestion without increasing supply . Market economics theory , which encompasses the congestion pricing concept , postulates that users will be forced to pay for the negative externalities they create , making them conscious of the costs they impose upon each other when consuming during the peak demand , and more aware of their impact on the environment . The application on urban roads is currently limited to a few cities , including London , Stockholm , Singapore , Milan , and Gothenburg , as well as a few smaller towns , such as Durham , England ; Znojmo , Czech Republic ; Riga ( the scheme ended in 2008 ) , Latvia ; and Valletta , Malta . Four general types of systems are in use ; a cordon area around a city center , with charges for passing the cordon line ; area wide congestion pricing , which charges for being inside an area ; a city center toll ring , with toll collection surrounding the city ; and corridor or single facility congestion pricing , where access to a lane or a facility is priced . Implementation of congestion pricing has reduced congestion in urban areas , but has also sparked criticism and public discontent . Critics maintain that congestion pricing is not equitable , places an economic burden on neighboring communities , has a negative effect on retail businesses and on economic activity in general , and represents another tax levy . A survey of economic literature on the subject , however , finds that most economists agree that some form of road pricing to reduce congestion is economically viable , although there is disagreement on what form road pricing should take . Economists disagree over how to set tolls , how to cover common costs , what to do with any excess revenues , whether and how `` losers '' from tolling previously free roads should be compensated , and whether to privatize highways . Also , concerns regarding fossil fuel supply and urban transport high emissions of greenhouse gases in the context of climate change have renewed interest in congestion pricing , as it is considered one of the demand-side mechanisms that may reduce oil consumption . |
Climate_Change_Denial:_Heads_in_the_Sand | Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non-fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge . The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology . The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed . For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of `` deniers '' and `` denialists '' as cruel and forms of character assassination . |
Coal_oil | Coal oil is a shale oil obtained from the destructive distillation of cannel coal , mineral wax , or bituminous shale , once used widely for illumination . Chemically similar to the more refined , petroleum-derived kerosene , it consists mainly of several hydrocarbons of the alkane series , with 10 to 16 carbon atoms in each molecule and a higher boiling point ( 175 -- 325 ° C ) than gasoline or the petroleum ethers and lower than the oils . The term was in use by the late 18th century , for oil produced as a byproduct of the production of coal gas and coal tar . In the early 19th century it was discovered that coal oil distilled from cannel coal could be used in lamps as an illuminant , although the early coal oil burned with a smokey flame , so that it was used only for outdoor lamps ; cleaner-burning whale oil was used in indoor lamps . Coal oil that burned cleanly enough to compete with whale oil as an indoor illuminant was first produced in 1850 by James Young on the Union Canal in Scotland , who patented the process . Production thrived in Scotland , creating much wealth for Young . In the United States , coal oil was widely manufactured in the 1850s under the trade name Kerosene , manufactured by a process invented by Canadian geologist Abraham Gesner . Young triumphed in his patent lawsuit against the Gesner process in the United States in 1860 . But by that time , US coal oil distillers were switching over to refining cheaper petroleum , after the discovery of abundant petroleum in western Pennsylvania in 1859 , and oil from coal operations ceased in the US . Because kerosene was first derived from cannel coal , classified as terrestrial type of oil shale , it continued to be popularly referred to as `` coal oil '' even after production shifted to petroleum as a feedstock . Technically , refined hydrocarbons of the alkane series with 10 to 16 carbon atoms are the same thing whether taken from coal or petroleum . |
Climate_of_Ecuador | The climate of Ecuador varies by region , due to differences in elevation and , to a degree , in proximity to the equator . The coastal lowlands in the western part of Ecuador are typically warm with temperatures in the region of 25 ° C. Coastal areas are affected by ocean currents and between January and April are hot and rainy . The weather in Quito is consistent with that of a subtropical highland climate . The city has barely any cool air since it is close to the equator . The average temperature during the day is 66 F , which generally falls to an average of 50 F at night . The average temperature annually is 64 F . There are only really two obvious seasons in the city : dry and wet . The dry season ( summer ) runs from June to September and the wet season ( winter ) is from October to May . As most of Ecuador is in the southern hemisphere , June to September is considered to be winter , and winter is generally the dry season in warm climates . Spring , summer , and fall are generally the `` wet seasons '' while winter is the dry ( with the exception of the first month of fall being dry ) . |
Climate_change_denial | Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies . |
Climatic_Research_Unit | The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models . |
Climate_fiction | Climate fiction , or climate change fiction , popularly abbreviated as cli-fi ( modelled after the assonance of `` sci-fi '' ) is literature that deals with climate change and global warming . Not necessarily speculative in nature , works of cli-fi may take place in the world as we know it or in the near future . University courses on literature and environmental issues may include climate change fiction in their syllabi . This body of literature has been discussed by a variety of publications , including The New York Times , The Guardian , and Dissent magazine , among other international media outlets . |
Complexity | Complexity describes the behaviour of a system or model whose components interact in multiple ways and follow local rules , meaning there is no reasonable higher instruction to define the various possible interactions . The stem of the word complexity i.e. Complex is composed of the Latin words com ( meaning : `` together '' ) and plex ( meaning : woven ) . This is best contrasted with Complicated where plic ( meaning : folded ) refers to many layers . A complex system is thereby characterised by its inter-dependencies , where as a complicated system is characterised by its layers . Complexity is generally used to characterize something with many parts where those parts interact with each other in multiple ways , culminating in a higher order of emergence greater than the sum of its parts . Just like there is no absolute definition of `` intelligence '' , there is no absolute definition of `` complexity '' ; the only consensus among researchers is that there is no agreement about the specific definition of complexity . However , a characterization of what is complex is possible . The study of these complex linkages at various scales is the main goal of complex systems theory . In science , there are a number of approaches to characterizing complexity ; this article reflects many of these . Neil Johnson states that `` even among scientists , there is no unique definition of complexity -- and the scientific notion has traditionally been conveyed using particular examples ... '' Ultimately he adopts the definition of ` complexity science ' as `` the study of the phenomena which emerge from a collection of interacting objects . '' |
Cloud | In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size . |
Chronospecies | A chronospecies is a group of one or more species derived from a sequential development pattern which involves continual and uniform changes from an extinct ancestral form on an evolutionary scale . This sequence of alterations eventually produces a population which is physically , morphologically , and/or genetically distinct from the original ancestors . Throughout this change , there is only one species in the lineage at any point in time , as opposed to cases where divergent evolution produces contemporary species with a common ancestor . The related term paleospecies ( or palaeospecies ) indicates an extinct species only identified with fossil material . This identification relies on distinct similarities between the earlier fossil specimens and some proposed descendant , although the exact relationship to the later species is not always defined . In particular , the range of variation within all the early fossil specimens does not exceed the observed range which exists in the later species . A paleosubspecies ( or palaeosubspecies ) identifies an extinct subspecies which evolved into the currently existing form . This connection with relatively recent variations , usually from the Late Pleistocene , often relies on the additional information available in subfossil material . Most of the current species have changed in size adapting to the climatic changes during the last ice age ( see Bergmann 's Rule ) . The further identification of fossil specimens as part of a `` chronospecies '' relies on additional similarities which more strongly indicate a specific relationship with a known species . For example , relatively recent specimens -- hundreds of thousands to a few million years old -- with consistent variations ( e.g. always smaller but with the same proportions ) as a living species might represent the final step in a chronospecies . This possible identification of the immediate ancestor of the living taxon may also rely on stratigraphic information to establish the age of the specimens . The concept of chronospecies is related to the phyletic gradualism model of evolution , and also relies on an extensive fossil record , since morphological changes accumulate over time and two very different organisms could be connected by a series of intermediaries . |
Climate_of_the_United_Kingdom | The United Kingdom straddles the higher mid-latitudes between 49 ° and 61 ° N . It is on the western seaboard of Afro-Eurasia , the world 's largest land mass . These conditions allow convergence between moist maritime air and dry continental air . In this area , the large temperature variation creates atmospheric instability , and this is a major factor that influences the often unsettled weather the country experiences : where many types of weather can be experienced in a single day . In general the climate of the UK is cool and often cloudy , and hot temperatures are infrequent . The climate in the United Kingdom is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system , a classification it shares with most of north-west Europe . Regional climates are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude . Northern Ireland , Wales and western parts of England and Scotland , being closest to the Atlantic Ocean , are generally the mildest , wettest and windiest regions of the UK , and temperature ranges here are seldom extreme . Eastern areas are drier , cooler , less windy and also experience the greatest daily and seasonal temperature variations . Northern areas are generally cooler , wetter and have slightly larger temperature ranges than southern areas . Though the UK is mostly under the influence of the maritime tropical air mass from the south-west , different regions are more susceptible than others when different air masses affect the country : Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland are the most exposed to the maritime polar air mass which brings cool moist air ; the east of Scotland and north-east England are more exposed to the continental polar air mass which brings cold dry air ; the south and south-east of England are more exposed to the continental tropical air mass which brings warm dry air ( and consequently most of the time the warmest summer temperatures ) ; and Wales and south-west England are the most exposed to the maritime tropical air mass which brings warm moist air . If the air masses are strong enough in their respective areas during the summer , there can sometimes be a large difference in temperature between the far north of Scotland ( including the Islands ) and south-east of England -- often a difference of 10 -- 15 ° C ( 18-27 ° F ) but sometimes of as much as 20 ° C ( 36 ° F ) or more . In the height of summer the Northern Isles could have temperatures around 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) and areas around London could reach 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . |
Chukchi_Sea | Chukchi Sea ( -LSB- Чуко́тское мо́ре , r = Chukotskoye more , p = tɕʊˈkotskəjə ˈmorʲɪ -RSB- ) is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean . It is bounded on the west by the Long Strait , off Wrangel Island , and in the east by Point Barrow , Alaska , beyond which lies the Beaufort Sea . The Bering Strait forms its southernmost limit and connects it to the Bering Sea and the Pacific Ocean . The principal port on the Chukchi Sea is Uelen in Russia . The International Date Line crosses the Chukchi Sea from northwest to southeast . It is displaced eastwards to avoid Wrangel Island as well as the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug on the Russian mainland . |
Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios | Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes . |
Climate_of_Oregon | Oregon 's climate is generally mild . West of the Cascade Mountains , winters are chilly with frequent rain , while light snowfall occurs a few days a year ; temperatures can get very cold , but only occasionally , as the result of Arctic cold waves . The high desert region of the state is much drier , with less rain , more snow , colder winters , and hotter summers . An oceanic climate ( also called `` marine west coast climate '' ) predominates in Western Oregon , and a much drier semi-arid climate prevails east of the Cascade Range in Eastern Oregon . Major factors determining Oregon 's climate include the large semi-permanent high pressure and low pressure systems of the north Pacific Ocean , the continental air masses of North America , and the Cascade mountains . Oregon 's population centers , which lie mostly in the western part of the state , are generally moist and mild , while the lightly populated high deserts of Central and Eastern Oregon are much drier . |
Cognitive_bias | A cognitive bias refers to the systematic pattern of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment , whereby inferences about other people and situations may be drawn in an illogical fashion . Individuals create their own `` subjective social reality '' from their perception of the input . An individual 's construction of social reality , not the objective input , may dictate their behaviour in the social world . Thus , cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion , inaccurate judgment , illogical interpretation , or what is broadly called irrationality . Some cognitive biases are presumably adaptive . Cognitive biases may lead to more effective actions in a given context . Furthermore , cognitive biases enable faster decisions when timeliness is more valuable than accuracy , as illustrated in heuristics . Other cognitive biases are a `` by-product '' of human processing limitations , resulting from a lack of appropriate mental mechanisms ( bounded rationality ) , or simply from a limited capacity for information processing . A continually evolving list of cognitive biases has been identified over the last six decades of research on human judgment and decision-making in cognitive science , social psychology , and behavioral economics . Kahneman and Tversky ( 1996 ) argue that cognitive biases have efficient practical implications for areas including clinical judgment , entrepreneurship , finance , and management . |
Cleveland | Cleveland ( -LSB- ˈkliːvlənd -RSB- ) is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County , the state 's second most populous county . The city proper has a population of 388,072 , making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States , and the second-largest city in Ohio after Columbus . Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States , with 2,055,612 people in 2016 . The city anchors the Cleveland -- Akron -- Canton Combined Statistical Area , which had a population of 3,515,646 in 2010 and ranks 15th in the United States . The city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie , approximately 60 mi west of the Pennsylvania border . It was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River , and became a manufacturing center owing to its location on the lake shore , as well as being connected to numerous canals and railroad lines . Cleveland 's economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing , financial services , healthcare , and biomedical . Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . Residents of Cleveland are called `` Clevelanders '' . Cleveland has many nicknames , the oldest of which in contemporary use being `` The Forest City '' . |