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metaeval

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metaeval 4

[ "undermines its claim that people no longer believe there are political solutions to important problems by suggesting that people are dissatisfied with politicians", "presumes, without providing justification, that there is no cause of decreasing voter turnout other than the belief that few important problems can be solved by government action", "presumes, without providing justification, that there are no political solutions to the most important problems", "infers that important problems can be seriously addressed if people's attitudes do change from the premise that these problems cannot be addressed if people's attitudes do not change" ]

[ "treats a lack of evidence against Bill as if it exonerated Bill", "fails to establish the true identity of the burglar", "treats evidence that is irrelevant to the burglar's identity as if it were relevant", "merely attacks the character of Bill's accusers" ]

[ "The commission's report will not be effective if some of the commission members already had opinions about the nation's disaster preparedness even before the commission was formed.", "Commission members who have expressed their opinions about disaster preparedness in the news media have also emphasized their commitment to producing an effective report.", "The commission will be able to speak with a uniform voice only if individual members' opinions about disaster preparedness are not made public before the report is completed.", "News organizations should not provide a platform for members of the commission to express their opinions about disaster preparedness if doing so will undermine the effectiveness of the commission's report." ]

[ "A species possesses a trait whose effects are all neutral for the survival of that species.", "A species possesses a trait that reduces the species' survival potential.", "All the effects of some genetic mutations contribute substantially to the survival of a species.", "A genetic mutation whose effects are all neutral to a species is favored in natural selection." ]

[ "It offers two alternatives that do not exhaust the possibilities available and then treats those alternatives as the only possible ones.", "It applies a double standard whereby one group of people is judged wrong and another group judged right for engaging in similar behavior.", "It offers, in place of support for its conclusion, a mere restatement of that conclusion.", "It uses emotionally charged terms to characterize unfairly the position it attempts to refute." ]

[ "treating something that is probable as though it were inevitable", "generalizing about all actions of a certain kind on the basis of a description of one such action", "treating several pieces of irrelevant evidence as though they provide support for the conclusion", "providing information that allows application of a general rule to a specific case" ]

[ "The 200, 000 people treated in 2006 for secondhand smoking-related diseases were each insured by one of the major healthcare insurance companies.", "Treating people for secondhand smoking-related diseases is not more costly than treating diseases caused by smoking.", "People most commonly are exposed to secondhand smoke at bars and restaurants.", "New smokers are more likely to expose others to secondhand smoke." ]

[ "The first introduces a consideration supporting a policy that the argument seeks to evaluate; the second provides evidence for concluding that the policy should be abandoned.", "The first describes a practice that the argument seeks to justify; the second states a judgment that is used in support of a justification for that practice.", "The first introduces a practice that the argument seeks to evaluate; the second provides grounds for holding that the practice cannot achieve its objective.", "The first introduces a policy that the argument seeks to evaluate; the second provides grounds for holding that the policy is not needed." ]

[ "The age of the limestone itself can be determined from samples that contain no vegetable-based paint.", "The proportion of carbon to other elements in limestone is the same in all samples of limestone.", "Prehistoric artists did not use anything other than vegetable matter to make their paints.", "Laboratory procedures exist that can remove all the limestone from a sample of prehistoric paint on limestone." ]

[ "drug-resistant bacteria flourish in the absence of competition from a wide variety of other bacteria", "most bacteria that are resistant to penicillin are not resistant to ampicillin and other modern antibiotics", "a shortage of penicillin would drive up its price and profit margin", "treatment of diseases with the powerful new antibiotics is much more expensive than treatment with the older ones" ]

[ "nations often experience short-term crises that require that resources be diverted to purposes other than the maintenance and improvement of infrastructure", "a rise in a nation's standard of living need not be the result of major investments in its infrastructure", "many nations are unable to make the needed investments in infrastructure", "the rise in a nation's standard of living that is prompted by investment in its infrastructure may take a long time to occur" ]

[ "If the discoveries of a resident physician are not patented by that hospital, then they will be patented by the physician instead.", "Hospitals are the only institutions that have an obligation to serve as a source of medical advancement.", "Most breakthroughs by resident physicians would be profitable if patented.", "Hospitals that have a motive to suppress information concerning research breakthroughs by their resident physicians will occasionally act on that motive." ]

[ "good foreign policy decisions often lead to improved methods of gathering information", "the central reason for failure in foreign policy decision making is the absence of critical information", "intuitive judgment can produce good decisions based on past experience, even when there are important gaps in current information", "those leaders whose foreign policy decisions have been highly ranked have also been found to have good intuitive judgment" ]

[ "fails to consider the possibility that sexually explicit movies increase the prevalence of antisocial behavior", "attempts to undermine the legislators' credibility instead of addressing their argument", "generalizes from a sample that is unlikely to be representative of public sentiment", "bases its conclusion on subjective judgments rather than on an objective criterion of moral offensiveness" ]

[ "The weapons tests had kept wildlife poachers out of the testing range.", "Because of unexploded bombs, the land within the testing range was still somewhat dangerous after the range closed down.", "The weapons tests were most harmful to the camels in years when food was scarce.", "The camels had to overcome two different outbreaks of disease during the time the testing range was in operation." ]

[ "Extremism is even more dangerous than terrorism.", "The United States should invade the Middle East.", "If the United States becomes aware of an imminent threat to her security, the country should respond militarily.", "The United States should spread democracy in the Middle East." ]

[ "Some fossil hunters in Mernia are not commercial fossil hunters, but rather are amateurs who keep the fossils that they find.", "Commercial fossil hunters in Mernia currently sell some of the fossils they find to universities and museums.", "Many universities in Mernia do not engage in fossil research.", "Most fossils are found by commercial fossil hunters, and they would give up looking for fossils if they were no longer allowed to sell to individual collectors." ]

[ "Wally's Plants is probably not a large, well-run nursery if it sells its raspberry plants primarily to commercial raspberry growers.", "If Wally's Plants is a large nursery, then the raspberry plants that Johnson received in the shipment were probably not entirely as they were guaranteed to be.", "If Johnson is a commercial raspberry grower and Wally's Plants is not a large nursery, then the shipment of raspberry plants that Johnson received was probably guaranteed to be disease-free.", "If Johnson is not a commercial raspberry grower, then Wally's Plants is probably not a large nursery." ]

[ "Most Germans own very few cars in the course of their lives.", "The demand for old cars in former West Germany is greater than the demand for new cars in former East Germany.", "Most former West Germans purchase new cars once they sell their used cars.", "In most European countries, the sale of a used car is subject to less tax than is the sale of a new car." ]

[ "He argues against a point that is not one that Marianna was making.", "He contradicts Marianna's conclusion without giving any evidence for his point of view.", "He directs his criticism against the person making the argument rather than directing it against the argument itself.", "He contradicts himself." ]

[ "draws a weaker conclusion than is warranted by the strength of its premises", "draws a conclusion about all cases of a certain kind on the basis of evidence that justifies such a conclusion only about some cases of that kind", "presumes, without providing justification, that what is true of a whole must also be true of each of its constituent parts", "fails to consider the possibility that some students in certain majors may be required to take a philosophy course" ]

[ "Sometimes a painting so closely resembles others of its era that no expert is able to confidently decide who painted it.", "The carving style of the picture frame is not typical of any specific region of Europe.", "Drechen is unlikely to have ever visited the home region of Birelle in France.", "The frame was made from wood local to the region where the picture was painted." ]

[ "No individual would fraudulently profit by setting a fire in the church building.", "The insurance company typically pays claims for similar situations in other non-residential structures, such as office buildings and restaurants.", "There was no one in the building at the time the fire swept through the structure.", "The fire was not deliberately started by someone who then left the building before the fire grew." ]

[ "Whenever most practitioners of a given discipline approach a particular problem in the same way, that uniformity is good evidence that all similar problems should also be approached in that way.", "Whenever psychologists agree that a single psychology is inadequate for two distinct age groups, they should be prepared to show that there are greater differences between the two age groups than there are between individuals in the same age group.", "Whenever two groups of people are so related to each other that any member of the second group must previously have been a member of the first, people in the first group should not be regarded simply as deviant members of the second group.", "Whenever a society's economic life is so organized that two distinct times of life are treated as being fundamentally different from one another, each time of life can be understood only in terms of its own distinct psychology." ]

[ "Khmer uses a basic word corresponding to English \"blue\"for most leaves, but uses its basic word corresponding to English \"green\" for unripe bananas", "Speakers of English are able to distinguish between lighter and darker shades of the color they call \"blue, \"for which Russian has two different basic words.", "The word \"orange\"in English has the same origin as the equivalent word in Spanish.", "Almost every language distinguishes red from the other colors" ]

[ "A few opera ticket purchasers go to the opera for the sake of going to the opera, not to see specific operatic productions.", "The reduction of opera production budgets would not reduce the desire of large corporate sponsors to support operas.", "Large corporate sponsors will stop supporting opera productions if they are denied control over which operas will be produced.", "Without the support of large corporate sponsors, opera companies could not afford to produce any but the most famous of operas." ]

[ "It is reasonable for people to distrust a government that has too much power.", "Even though it may be technologically feasible, no government will be able to operate an economy without the use of paper money.", "New technology may soon make it possible for an economy to operate without paper money.", "A society would never willingly accept a system in which, in lieu of paper money, the government keeps track of every transaction electronically." ]

[ "the only way to get oxygen into the bloodstream so that it can be absorbed by the muscles is through the lungs", "frequent physical exercise increases the body's ability to take in and use oxygen", "lack of oxygen is not the only factor limiting human physical performance", "the water lost in exercising can be replaced with ordinary tap water" ]

[ "Most people who suffer from nightmares experience them in the last hour of sleep before waking.", "Worry about satisfying the need for sufficient sleep can make it more difficult to sleep.", "The first two hours of sleep do the most to alleviate fatigue.", "The shorter one's sleep time, the easier it is to awaken from sleeping." ]

[ "artists who are trying to manipulate people's emotions to control them are not likely to admit it", "those with the power to censor music would not censor other forms of expression", "there are other, more convincing arguments for allowing the censorship of music", "what musicians intend their music to do and what it actually does are different" ]

[ "In reporting scientific developments, it is better to fail to reach a wide audience than to be inaccurate.", "In reporting scientific developments, it is better to reach a wide audience than to be accurate.", "Science publications should balance the use of metaphors with more rigorous writing.", "Even the most rigorous explanations of some scientific concepts must still contain metaphors." ]

[ "Many of the bird species that disappeared from Tiliga did not disappear from other, similar, uninhabited islands until much later.", "Bones from bird species known to have been eaten by the islanders were found in the underlying 150 centimeters of soil.", "The bird species known to have been eaten by the islanders had few natural predators on Tiliga.", "The arrival of a species of microbe, carried by some birds but deadly to many others, immediately preceded the first human immigration to Tiliga." ]

[ "relying on a position of power to silence the opposing viewpoint with a threat", "questioning the motives of the student representative rather than offering reasons for the conclusion defended", "misdescribing the student representative's position, thereby making it easier to challenge", "invoking a fallacious distinction between speech and other sorts of behavior" ]

[ "Many nonfunctioning appliances that are currently discarded could be repaired at relatively little expense.", "The fee provides manufacturers with no incentive to produce appliances that are more durable.", "Increasing the cost of disposing of an appliance properly increases the incentive to dispose of it improperly.", "For people who have bought new appliances recently, the salvage fee would not need to be paid for a number of years." ]

[ "attempts to influence behavior solely by repeating simplistic slogans", "does not leave it up to the individual to decide how to act on information", "does not offer information in all its complexity", "is very successful in influencing people's behavior" ]

[ "Ground-based radar photography cannot take photographs of objects much beyond 2. 2 million miles from Earth.", "The photograph of Gaspra was not taken using ground-based radar.", "Toutatis, unlike Gaspra, has only recently been discovered.", "Toutatis is more likely to collide with the Earth than Gaspra is." ]

[ "The production and transportation of petroleum occasions serious environmental pollution, but the energy that runs paper mills now comes from burning waste wood rather than petroleum.", "The use of energy for chain saws that cut down trees and for trucks that haul logs is part of the environmental cost of manufacturing paper.", "Foam cups are somewhat more acceptable to consumers than paper cups because of their better insulating qualities.", "Acre for acre, tree farms for the production of wood for paper have fewer beneficial effects on the environment than do natural forests that remain uncut." ]

[ "the press's right to publish always outweighs the individual's right not to be libeled", "one's having a right to do something entails one's having an obligation to do it", "the press can publish nonlibelous stories about private individuals without prying into their personal lives", "if one has an obligation to do something then one has a right to do it" ]

[ "supplies a premise to X's argument that was not explicitly stated", "disagrees with X about the weight to be given to animal suffering as opposed to human suffering", "presents a logical consequence of the premises of X's argument", "contradicts a premise on which X's argument relies" ]

[ "The total life cycle of a product is what matters in assessing its environmental impact.", "Baumgartner uses inaccurate data in his comparison of the environmental hazards of gasoline-powered and electric cars.", "The production of gasoline-powered cars creates more environmental hazards than does that of electric cars.", "Baumgartner makes a deceptive comparison between the environmental hazards of gasoline-powered and electric cars." ]

[ "Last year there were more cookbooks sold that were not intended for beginners than in any previous year.", "Sales of cookbooks intended for beginners were lower last year than in previous years.", "Problem-Free Cooking sold more copies last year than did any cookbook written for professional cooks.", "The best-selling cookbook last year was a cookbook that was intended for beginners." ]

[ "There is a belt of comets beyond the orbit of Pluto with powerful gravitational pull.", "The force the Sun exerts on Uranus is weaker than the force it exerts on the inner planets.", "Neither Neptune nor Pluto is as massive as Uranus.", "Pluto was not discovered until 1930." ]

[ "There were verifiable cases of radiation sickness in the year before the plant was cited by the safety commission.", "The number of sieverts the plant releases has not increased since the last governmental inspection.", "Photos can establish with the same reliability what a government safety commission can.", "The media will publish all of the photos it deems incriminating." ]

[ "The labor union contract for road crews employed by both municipal agencies and private contractors stipulates that employees can work only eight hours a day, five days a week, before being paid overtime.", "Many road-crew workers for private contractors have previously worked for municipal road crews, and vice versa.", "Municipal agencies must conduct a lengthy bidding process to procure supplies after repaving work is ordered and before they can actually start work, whereas private contractors can obtain supplies readily as needed.", "Road repaving work can only be done in the summer months of June, July, and August." ]

[ "The ancient Greeks sometimes attempted to predict the outcome of future events by watching the flight patterns of birds. Since the events themselves often matched the predictions, the birds were probably responding to some factor that also influenced the events.", "The thirty healthiest people in a long-term medical study turned out to be the same thirty whose regular diets included the most vegetables. Since specific substances in vegetables are known to help the body fight disease, vegetables should be part of everyone's diet.", "Martha, Sidney, and Hilary are the city's three most powerful politicians, and all three graduated from Ridgeview High School. Although Ridgeview never had a reputation for excellence, it must have been a good school to have produced three such successful graduates.", "Acme's most productive managers are consistently those who occupy the corner offices, which have more windows than other offices at Acme. Since people are more alert when they are exposed to abundant natural light, the greater productivity of these managers is probably at least in part a result of their working in the corner offices." ]

[ "Scientists often cite their colleagues' work when they think it is unfairly neglected by the scientific establishment.", "In general scientific research is not referred to in journals until the research is completed.", "Research that is initially criticized in scientific journals sometimes turns out to be groundbreaking work.", "Scientists are sometimes hostile to interim assessments of ongoing research, since such assessments might threaten continuity of funding." ]

[ "All parents who are good listeners are good parents.", "Some parents who are good listeners are self-centered.", "Some parents who are good listeners are not good parents.", "Most parents who are good listeners are generous." ]

[ "the number of days with heavy rainfall was lower in 1990 than in 1910", "the average amount of rainfall per month was lower in 1990 than in 1910", "the number of days with some rainfall, but no more than two inches, was the same in 1990 as in 1910", "the total number of inches of rain that fell on days with moderate rainfall in 1990 was more than twice what it had been in 1910" ]

[ "People who practice hatha yoga for 75 minutes once a week are not damaging themselves physically.", "Most smokers are able to practice hatha yoga more than once a week.", "The individual counseling received by the smokers in the clinical trial who practiced hatha yoga did not help them quit smoking.", "Traditional self-help groups are powerful tools for helping people quit smoking." ]

[ "takes for granted that the trade deficit will increase in size if no action is taken to reduce it", "merely appeals to the authority of the committee without evaluating any reasons for the proposed regulations", "concludes that every regulation in a set will have the same effects as a set of regulations as a whole", "fails to consider the possibility that one effect of a regulation will be offset by other effects" ]

[ "The amount of time drivers spend entering a parking space is not noticeably affected by whether other drivers are waiting for them to do so, nor by whether those other drivers are honking impatiently.", "Parking spaces in shopping mall parking lots are unrepresentative of parking spaces in general with respect to the likelihood that other cars will be waiting to enter them.", "Almost any driver leaving a parking space will feel angry at another driver who honks impatiently, and this anger will influence the amount of time spent leaving the space.", "The more pressure most drivers feel because others are waiting for them to perform maneuvers with their cars, the less quickly they are able to perform them." ]

[ "The classroom should not be a place where anyone has fun.", "Television programs reinforce some of the values of the school environment.", "Only experiences that closely resemble what takes place in the school environment can be educational.", "The potential of television as a powerful learning tool has not yet been realized." ]

[ "It supports the claim that an acceptable way of building a more successful team is not readily attainable.", "It argues for an alternative solution to the problem of focusing the team's budget on talented, yet unskilled, rookies.", "It presents another consideration for why the coaching staff should not expend large amounts of time and energy on rookie athletes.", "It presents an objection to the claim that short contract periods limit a team's ability to plan for long-term team restructuring." ]

[ "Coffee roasted in a machine equipped with an afterburner has its flavor subtly altered.", "Until setting on the new air quality regulations, the board had debated whether to require afterburners for machines roasting more than 5 pounds of coffee at a time.", "The firm has reason to fear that negative publicity regarding the complaints could result in lost sales.", "The cost to the firm of an afterburner is less than the cost of replacing its roaster with a smaller one." ]

[ "People who eat a lot of honey tend to consume very little sugar from other sources.", "Refined sugars have been linked to more health problems than have unrefined sugars.", "Honey contains bacteria that inhibit the growth of the bacteria that cause tooth decay.", "Many people who consume a lot of honey consume much of it dissolved in drinks." ]

[ "It fails to address adequately the possibility that any of several retirement plans would be good enough for, and offer a financially secure future to, Economic Merit Prize winners.", "It presumes, without providing justification, that each of the Economic Merit Prize winners has retirement plan needs that are identical to the advertisement's intended audience's retirement plan needs.", "It takes for granted that some winners of the Economic Merit Prize have deliberately selected the Acme retirement plan, rather than having had it chosen for them by their employers.", "It appeals to the fact that supposed experts have endorsed the argument's main conclusion, rather than appealing to direct evidence for that conclusion." ]

[ "any uniform controls that are adopted are likely to be implemented without delay", "all of any given pollutant that is to be controlled actually reaches the North Sea at present", "any substance to be made subject to controls can actually cause environmental damage", "the countries favoring uniform controls are those generating the largest quantities of effluents" ]

[ "The incidence of food-borne illnesses, which can be effectively controlled by frequent hand washing, was markedly lower than usual during the six-month period.", "Independently of the public health campaign, the news media spread the message that one's risk of contracting influenza can be lessened by frequent hand washing.", "During the six-month period, the incidence of the common cold, which has many of the same symptoms as influenza, was about the same as usual.", "There were fewer large public gatherings than usual during the six-month period." ]

[ "using an attack on the character of the writer of the book as evidence that this person is not competent on matters of scientific substance", "presenting as facts several assertions about the book under review that are based only on strong conviction and would be impossible for others to verify", "taking it for granted that an archaeologist is unlikely to report findings that are contrary to the interests of those funding the investigation", "failing to distinguish between the criteria of being true and of being sufficiently interesting to merit attention" ]

[ "Mark and Jane use similar techniques to argue for different conclusions.", "Mark's argument and Jane's argument are based on conflicting suppositions.", "Mark's argument shows how a weakness in Jane's argument can be overcome", "Mark's argument has a premise in common with Jane's argument." ]

[ "An electrical substation fails when the current it handles rises above its maximum capacity.", "Ten years from now, the average household will own a greater number of electronic devices than does the average household today.", "A modernized electric substation would be able to handle at least three times the amount of current as does a current substation.", "Many electrical substations in operation today are old, and have several aged components that could break down, leading to power failures, even if current levels don't increase substantially." ]

[ "Home gardeners can provide information on plant flourishing not available from weather stations.", "Weather patterns have changed in the past 60 years.", "Weather conditions are the most important factor in determining where plants will grow.", "Some of the weather stations currently in use are more than 60 years old." ]

[ "the error associated with this strategy, unlike the error associated with the rejected alternative, is likely to go unnoticed", "this strategy has all of the advantages of the rejected alternative, but fewer of its disadvantages", "experience has proven this strategy to be superior, even though the reasons for this superiority elude analysis", "this strategy lacks a counterproductive feature of the rejected alternative" ]

[ "It distinguishes between what has been established as a certainty and what has been established as a possibility.", "It identifies a general principle that the historian's reasoning violates.", "It establishes explicit criteria that must be used in evaluating indirect evidence.", "It implies an analogy between the present and the past." ]

[ "contend that Sarah's recommendation has an important negative consequence", "maintain that Sarah overlooks important lessons from past policies", "allude to a factor that supposedly strengthens the case for Sarah's recommendation", "point out that Sarah used a crucial term in two distinct senses" ]

[ "Less fossil fuel was used to manufacture the machinery employed in the new technologies than was originally used to manufacture the machinery employed in the older technologies.", "Some of the industries that have switched at least partly to the new technologies still use primarily technologies that are powered by fossil fuels.", "The amount of fossil fuel used to generate the electricity needed to power the new technologies is less than the amount that would have been used to power the older technologies.", "Many of the industries that have switched at least partly to the new technologies have increased their output." ]

[ "No sculptures that have not survived depicted Shinto gods wearing Buddhist vestments.", "Shintoism did not originate as a sect of Buddhism.", "Most sculptures contemporaneous with the sculptures mentioned were intended to have religious significance.", "The depiction of Shinto gods wearing Buddhist vestments was not intended to represent the triumph of Shintoism over Buddhism." ]

[ "Generalizing from past experiences requires clear memories of most if not all the details of those experiences.", "Recalling every detail of all past experiences would be incompatible with any ability to generalize from those experiences.", "Animals can often react more appropriately than they otherwise would to situations they encounter if they draw on generalizations from past experiences of similar situations.", "At least some animals perfectly recall every detail of at least some past experiences." ]

[ "Few botanists deny that a recently discovered fern is the same species represented in ancient fossils. The botanists who first discovered this specimen deny that it is the same species as the ancient one, but they have spent little time studying the specimen. Ttherefore, the specimen is likely to be the same species represented in the ancient fossils.", "No literary historian still believes the claim that a single author wrote every word of this collection of works. Evidence on which that claim is based can be shown to be false by manuscript dating techniques, but these dating results have not been cited before. Ttherefore, it is quite likely that a single author did write every word of this collection of works.", "Bicycle engineers no longer believe that aluminum is as good a frame material as titanium. An engineer at Ace Bicycles has argued that aluminum is not as good as titanium because it breaks under pressure. But he is confused about the kind of pressure exerted on bicycles. Ttherefore, the claim that aluminum is as good a frame material as titanium makes more sense than bicycle engineers believe.", "Experts agree that red wines from France's Bordeaux region are the best in the world, and five are on this year's list of the world's top ten red wines. However, the best currently available Bordeaux wines are more than one year old, whereas other countries' best are not. Ttherefore, it is false that Bordeaux red wines are the best in the world this year." ]

[ "confusing a marginal journalistic practice with the primary work done by journalists", "ignoring the possibility that the teacher regards as a prerequisite for the publication of an unattributed statement that the statement have actually been made", "judging the merits of the teacher's position solely by the most extreme case to which the position applies", "confusing the characteristics of reported statements with the characteristics of the situations in which the statements were made" ]

[ "The sentencing of most repeat offenders would be unaffected by the proposed rule if it became law.", "People who have never been convicted of minor violations are unlikely to become career criminals.", "Many first-time offenders are convicted of serious crimes as well as minor violations.", "Most people who have committed serious crimes are not convicted of anything other than minor violations." ]

[ "The priorities of local police departments, under whose jurisdiction most computer crime falls, are weighted toward visible street crime that communities perceive as threatening.", "Computer criminals have rarely been sentenced to serve time in prison, because prisons are overcrowded with violent criminals and drug offenders.", "The preparation of computer-fraud cases takes much more time than is required for average fraud cases, and the productivity of prosecutors is evaluated by the number of good cases made.", "The many police officers who are untrained in computers often inadvertently destroy the physical evidence of computer crime." ]

[ "Many adolescents who engage in violent behavior had already displayed such behavior before they were exposed violence in movies.", "The movies that have been shown to have the most influence on young people's behavior are those that are promoted to young audiences.", "The people who make the most profits in the movie and television industry are those who can successfully promote their work to both young and old audiences.", "The most violent characters depicted in movies and on television programs are adult characters which are portrayed by adult actors." ]

[ "The journalists at a news conference should not ask a politician potentially embarrassing questions about a controversial policy issue.", "The moderator of a panel discussion of a divisive moral issue should not allow participants to engage in name-calling.", "Neighbors should not be gruff or unfriendly to one another when they meet on the street.", "When prosecutors elicit testimony from a cooperative witness they should do so without intensive questioning." ]

[ "All dogs, whether purebred or nonpurebred, are subject to the same common nongenetically determined diseases.", "A dog that does not have genetically determined abnormalities may nevertheless have offspring with such abnormalities.", "The purchase price of nonpurebred dogs tends to be lower than the purchase price of purebred dogs.", "Most genetically determined abnormalities in dogs do not seriously affect a dog's general well-being." ]

[ "Because food additives are not considered drugs, they have not had to meet the safety standards the government applies to drugs. But food additives can be as dangerous as drugs. Ttherefore, food additives should also be subject to safety regulations as stringent as those covering drugs.", "Because some countries regulate gun sales more strictly than do other countries, some people can readily purchase a gun, whereas others cannot. Ttherefore, all countries should cooperate in developing a uniform international policy regarding gun sales.", "Because it is a democratic principle that laws should have the consent of those affected by them, liquor laws should be formulated not by politicians but by club and restaurant owners, since such laws directly affect the profitability of their businesses.", "Because many rural areas have few restrictions on development, housing estates in such areas have been built where no adequate supply of safe drinking water could be ensured. Thus, rural areas should adopt building codes more like those large cities have." ]

[ "The profits that a company makes in a given year are, in part, returned to the owners of the company.", "Managers who routinely donate a certain percentage of corporate profits to charity do so with the owners' tacit consent.", "Any charity that accepts corporate donations needs to be able to account for how that money is spent.", "Company managers often donate part of their own income to charities or other philanthropic organizations." ]

[ "The Aquipos toucan is also able to use its beak to break bark, thereby accessing insects that dwell in the trunk.", "Many insects crawl on the bark of the tree and a toucan can sometimes become satiated without having to access insects living beneath the bark.", "The tree holes in which the Aquipos toucan is able to access insects have a characteristic shape that differs only very slightly from tree to tree.", "Not all trees in the Aquipos toucan's environment house sufficient quantities of insects to satisfy the caloric needs of the toucan." ]

[ "In the fourth century B. C. , the Greeks and the Mesopotamians traded with each other.", "The Mesopotamian cities of the fourth century B. C. did not have monetary systems.", "The development of monetary systems has historically led to the development of marketplaces.", "In the fourth century B. C. , Greek cities were the only population centers with monetary systems." ]

[ "claiming that the prestige of a profession provides ample grounds for dismissing criticisms of that profession", "answering an exaggerated charge by undermining the personal authority of those who made that charge", "concluding that a practice is right on the grounds that it is necessary", "offering as an adequate defense of a practice an observation that discredits only one of several possible alternatives to that practice" ]

[ "The researchers also examined the movements of at least some speakers of languages other than English and Aymara discussing the past and the future.", "At least some Aymara speakers sway forward when discussing the past and backward when discussing the future.", "Most people mentally visualize time as running either forward or backward.", "How people move when discussing the future correlates to some extent with how they mentally visualize time." ]

[ "It does not identify those opposed to development of the megatelescope.", "It launches a personal attack on opponents of the megatelescope by accusing them of having a dangerous point of view.", "It does not distinguish between the economic and the intellectual senses of \"benefit. \"", "It does not show that the proposed megatelescope research is worthy of comparison with that of eminent scientists in its potential for applications." ]

[ "Savings from utilizing the chemicals captured by the pollution control equipment will remain far below the cost of maintaining the equipment.", "The need to comply with the new regulations will stimulate the development within Risemia of new pollution control equipment for which a strong worldwide demand is likely to emerge.", "The stockholders of most of Risemia's manufacturing corporations exert substantial pressure on the corporations to comply with environmental laws.", "The proposed regulations include a schedule of fines for noncompliance that escalate steeply in cases of repeated noncompliance." ]

[ "Reading difficult material sometimes leaves one confused as to the meaning of certain words.", "Adults who habitually read difficult material tend not to learn many new words from doing so.", "Experts disagree on the estimates of how many words children typically learn from age six to age thirteen.", "Children from age six to age thirteen spend vastly much more time reading than they spend directly studying new vocabulary." ]

[ "Never ask a question that is likely to generate a large variety of responses that are difficult to group into a manageable number of categories.", "It is best to ask questions that a respondent can answer without fear of having gotten the answer wrong.", "Never ask all respondents a question that respondents cannot answer without giving up their anonymity.", "Never ask all respondents a question if it cannot reasonably be answered by respondents who make a particular response to another question in the same survey." ]

[ "The eggs of different bird species vary widely in their ratio of volume to weight.", "The smaller and lighter the average adult members of a bird species are, the larger and heavier the eggs of that species are.", "The ratio of egg weight of a species to body weight of an adult member of that species is smaller for larger birds than for smaller ones.", "The size of birds' eggs varies greatly from species to species but has little effect on the volume and weight of the adult bird." ]

[ "A recent sharp decrease in unemployment has led to increased popular support for the government.", "The state-controlled media have ceased any mention of the demonstrations, leaving many citizens outside the capital with no way of knowing that demonstrations continue.", "There have not recently been any antigovernment demonstrations in cities other than the capital.", "No foreign governments have expressed any support for the opposition's demands." ]

[ "Professor Burns's claim about the implications of the recent observations is incorrect.", "The poor conditions present during recent observations render them worthless.", "The recent observations, even if they had been made under good conditions, would not have been enough to suggest that the earlier ones are incorrect.", "Contrary to Professor Burns's view, the recent observations confirm the earlier ones." ]

[ "Soccer players suffer more leg injuries, on average, than any other athletes at this university. Linda Wilson has suffered more leg injuries than any other soccer player at this university. Thus, Linda Wilson is the athlete at this university who has suffered the most leg injuries.", "The Olson Motor Company manufactures the three best-selling automobile models in the country. The Decade is the Olson Motor Company's best-selling model. Thus, the Decade is the best-selling model in the country.", "Falling Fast is the film that is currently earning the most at the box office in the country. The most successful film in the country is typically the one that is showing in the most theaters. So Falling Fast is probably the film that is currently showing in the most theaters.", "In this city the highest-paid police officer earns more than the highest-paid firefighter, and the lowest-paid police officer earns more than the lowest-paid firefighter. So in this city police officers earn more, on average, than firefighters do." ]

[ "dependency on computers will increase with the increase of knowledge", "computers will make more information available to ordinary people", "computers will increase the need for ordinary people seeking knowledge to turn to experts", "synthesizing knowledge and explaining it to ordinary people can be accomplished only by computer experts" ]

[ "takes for granted that there are only two possible alternatives, either below or above 250 megahertz", "fails to provide a definition of the technical term \"fractal\"", "contradicts itself by denying in its conclusion the claim of scientific authorities that it relies on in its premises", "interprets an assertion that certain conditions are necessary as asserting that those conditions are sufficient" ]

[ "It is misleading to present the opinions of people with no special expertise on a subject as though they were experts.", "It is misleading to present the opinions of a few people as evidence of what the majority thinks unless the opinions they express are widely held.", "It is misleading to present the opinions of a potentially nonrepresentative sample of people as if they represent public opinion.", "It is misleading to present the opinions of people on only one side of an issue when the population is likely to be evenly divided on that issue." ]

[ "A phaseout of use of antibiotics for hogs in one country reduced usage by over 50 percent over five years.", "If Smee stops buying pork raised with antibiotics, the firm's costs will probably increase.", "Other major pork marketers will probably stop buying pork raised on feed containing growth-promoting antibiotics if Smee no longer buys such pork.", "The decline in hog growth due to discontinuation of antibiotics can be offset by improved hygiene." ]

[ "North Americans with high-fat, low-calorie diets generally have a shorter life expectancy than North Americans with low-fat, low-calorie diets.", "Not all scientific results that have important implications for human health are based on studies of laboratory animals.", "North Americans, on average, consume a higher number of calories than the optimal number of calories for a human diet.", "Some North Americans who follow reduced- calorie diets are long-lived." ]

[ "By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that it is better to buy frozen vegetables than fresh vegetables, since fresh vegetables are more expensive than frozen vegetables and spoil more quickly.", "By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that a person who rides a bicycle causes more pollution per mile traveled than one who rides a public bus, since bicycling is a private means of transportation and private means of transportation tend to generate more pollution per mile traveled than do public means.", "By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that the best way to lose weight is to increase one's consumption of artificially sweetened foods, since artificially sweetened foods have fewer calories than foods sweetened with sugar, and excessive calorie intake contributes to weight gain.", "By that line of reasoning, we could conclude that more people must be shopping at health food stores than ever before, since people tend to choose healthful food over unhealthful food as long as the healthful food tastes at least as good, and healthful food today is better tasting than ever." ]

[ "presumes, without providing justification, that allowing the police to arrest an innocent person assists rather than obstructs justice", "takes for granted that there is no moral obligation to obey the law", "takes for granted that the parents mentioned in the example are not mistaken about their child's innocence", "fails to consider the possibility that other moral principles would be widely recognized as overriding any obligation to protect a family member from harm" ]

[ "The total number of homes in Florida is three times greater than the total number in Texas.", "Homes in Florida tend to be less expensive than those in Texas.", "The cost of constructing new homes in Texas is higher than in Florida.", "Mortgages are easier to obtain for homes in Florida than for homes in Texas." ]

[ "Large bits of cosmic rock periodically enter Earth's atmosphere, raising large amounts of dust from Earth's surface.", "Earth's average temperature drops slightly shortly after volcanic eruptions spew large amounts of dust into Earth's atmosphere.", "Earth did not pass through clouds of cosmic dust earlier than 800, 000 years ago.", "Two large asteroids collided 800, 000 years ago, producing a tremendous amount of dense cosmic dust that continues to orbit the Sun." ]

[ "The issue of whether or not to patent computer programs presents the patent system with problems that have never before arisen.", "Computer programs should be developed not only by large corporations but by small-time inventors as well.", "Large corporations should not hold patents for implementations of methodologies.", "Implementing a methodology always requires less creative effort than does true invention." ]

[ "A laundry detergent does not get clothes really clean in a washer unless it dissolves readily in it.", "A washing machine gets clothes really clean only with a laundry detergent specially formulated for that machine.", "A laundry detergent formulated especially for front-loading washers dissolves more readily in them than it does in top-loading washers.", "Washers that use more water get clothes cleaner than those that use less." ]