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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beatles for Sale</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Music.Musical_Recordings_and_compositions.htm">Musical Recordings and compositions</a></h3>
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<td colspan="3" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;"><i><b>Beatles for Sale</b></i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Beatles for Sale cover" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beatlesforsale.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="background: lightsteelblue; text-align: center;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Studio album by <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a></b></td>
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<tr>
<td><b>Released</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> December 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1964</td>
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<td><b>Recorded</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Abbey Road <!--del_lnk--> August 10 - <!--del_lnk--> August 14, <!--del_lnk--> September 29 - <!--del_lnk--> October 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1964</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Genre</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Rock and roll</td>
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<tr>
<td><b>Length</b></td>
<td colspan="2">33:26</td>
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<td style="padding-right: 1em;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Label</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Parlophone<br /><small>PMC 1240 (mono)<br /> PCS 3062 (stereo)<br /> CDP 7 46438 2</small></td>
</tr>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Producer(s)</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> George Martin</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: lightsteelblue;">Professional reviews</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> All Music Guide <a class="image" href="../../images/169/16964.png.htm" title="5/5 stars"><img alt="5/5 stars" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:5_stars.svg" src="../../images/169/16964.png" width="55" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> link<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Q magazine</i> <a class="image" href="../../images/169/16965.png.htm" title="4/5 stars"><img alt="4/5 stars" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:4_stars.svg" src="../../images/169/16965.png" width="55" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> link</ul>
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<th colspan="3" style="background: lightsteelblue;"><a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a> chronology</th>
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<tr style="text-align: center; font-size: 0.8em;">
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top"><i><!--del_lnk--> A Hard Day's Night</i><br /> (1964)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="middle"><i><b>Beatles for Sale</b></i><br /> (1964)</td>
<td style="width: 33%;" valign="top"><i><!--del_lnk--> Help!</i><br /> (1965) <p>
<br />
</td>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16966.jpg.htm" title="Beatles for sale by The Beatles (side 1) - Parlophone yellow and black label. This is an original pressing as the "Kansas City" track listing was not yet corrected."><img alt="Beatles for sale by The Beatles (side 1) - Parlophone yellow and black label. This is an original pressing as the "Kansas City" track listing was not yet corrected." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beatles_for_sale_side1.JPG" src="../../images/169/16966.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16966.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Beatles for sale</i> by The Beatles (side 1) - Parlophone yellow and black label. This is an original pressing as the "Kansas City" track listing was not yet corrected.</div>
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<p><i><b>Beatles for Sale</b></i> was <a href="../../wp/t/The_Beatles.htm" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a>' fourth album, released in late 1964 and produced by <!--del_lnk--> George Martin for <!--del_lnk--> Parlophone. The album marked a minor turning point in the evolution of Lennon and McCartney as lyricists, Lennon particularly now showing interest in composing songs of a more autobiographical nature. "I'm a Loser" shows Lennon for the first time seemingly coming under the influence of <a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a>, according to leading Beatles archivist <!--del_lnk--> Mark Lewisohn (see <i>Complete Beatles Chronicle, p.168</i>), having met him for the first time in New York while on tour on August 28th, 1964 (see <i>Paul McCartney - Many Years From Now</i> by Barry Miles).<p>
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</script><a id="Album_information" name="Album_information"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Album information</span></h2>
<p>The album is considered by some to be the weakest in the group's history, because of the "war weariness" (<!--del_lnk--> Lewisohn) the band was suffering from due to the now constant slog of touring and recording. Others note that the album, with its ironic title, and downbeat lyrics and cover photo, seems intended as a direct challenge to fans who wanted The Beatles to continue writing upbeat, happy songs. Only two months and eight days separates the last session for <!--del_lnk--> A Hard Day's Night (Tuesday 2nd June) and the first for <i>Beatles For Sale</i>. Prior to the new recording sessions, the band toured Australia and New Zealand (after a two-show night in Hong Kong), played concerts in the Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden and made several TV, radio and live concert appearances in the UK. It was "inevitable that the constant grind of touring, writing, promoting, and recording would grate on The Beatles," (All Music Guide) leading to the inclusion of several <!--del_lnk--> cover versions after the all-original <i>A Hard Day's Night</i>. And yet, during these sessions, they were still capable of recording the single "<!--del_lnk--> I Feel Fine" and its B-side, "<!--del_lnk--> She's a Woman," both songs of considerable quality and interest. The former contains the first known controlled use of feedback in the pop music idiom (Lewisohn), and illustrates, according to McCartney biographer Barry Miles, their "conscious awareness of the Surrealist tradition that they incorporated found objects into their work." The sound was found completely accidentally by Lennon, according to McCartney in <i><!--del_lnk--> Many Years From Now</i>. McDonald refers to "She's a Woman" as "in every respect revolutionary," which illustrates, in the midst of recording the second and last studio album of an exhausting 1964, they could still push the parameters of pop music outwards.<p><i>Beatles for Sale</i> and its modified counterpart in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Beatles '65</i>, each reached number one on the charts in their respective countries, with the former taking over from <i>A Hard Day's Night</i> in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Almost 23 years after its original release, the album charted in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> for a fortnight in 1987. Even though this album was recorded on four-track tape, the CD version is available only in mono.<p><a id="Writing_and_recording" name="Writing_and_recording"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Writing and recording</span></h2>
<p>When <i>Beatles for Sale</i> was being recorded, <!--del_lnk--> Beatlemania was just past its peak; in early 1964, the Beatles had made waves with their television appearances in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, sparking unprecedented demand for their records. <i>Beatles for Sale</i> was the Beatles' fourth album in 21 months; recording for the album began on <!--del_lnk--> August 11, just two months after the release of <i>A Hard Day's Night</i>, following on the heels of several tours. Much of the production on the album was done on "off days" from performances in the UK, and most of the songwriting was done in the studio itself. Most of the album's recording sessions were completed in a three-week period beginning on <!--del_lnk--> September 29. Beatles producer George Martin recalled: "They were rather war-weary during <i>Beatles For Sale</i>. One must remember that they'd been battered like mad throughout '64, and much of '63. Success is a wonderful thing, but it is very, very tiring."<p>Even the prolific <!--del_lnk--> John Lennon/<a href="../../wp/p/Paul_McCartney.htm" title="Paul McCartney">Paul McCartney</a> songwriting team could not keep up with the demand for their songs, and with a targeted deadline of Christmas to meet, the band resorted to recording several cover versions for the album. This had been their mode of operation for their first albums but had been abandoned for the all-original <i>A Hard Day's Night</i>. The album included six covers, the same number as their first two albums. Paul McCartney recalled: "Recording <i>Beatles For Sale</i> didn't take long. Basically it was our stage show, with some new songs." Indeed, three of the cover tunes were recorded in a total of five takes in one session on <!--del_lnk--> October 18.<p><i>Beatles for Sale</i> featured eight original Lennon and McCartney works. At this stage in their collaboration, Lennon and McCartney's songwriting was highly collaborative; even where songs had a primary author the other would often contribute key parts, as with "No Reply" where McCartney provided a middle-eight for what was otherwise almost entirely a Lennon song.<p>In 1994, McCartney described the songwriting process he and Lennon went through: "We would normally be rung a couple of weeks before the recording session and they'd say, 'We're recording in a month's time and you've got a week off before the recordings to write some stuff.' . . . So I'd go out to John's every day for the week, and the rest of the time was just time off. We always wrote a song a day, whatever happened we always wrote a song a day... Mostly it was me getting out of <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, to John's rather nice, comfortable <!--del_lnk--> Weybridge house near the <!--del_lnk--> golf course... So John and I would sit down, and by then it might be one or two o'clock, and by four or five o'clock we'd be done."<p>The recording of <i>Beatles for Sale</i> took place at <!--del_lnk--> Abbey Road Studios in London. The Beatles had to share the studio with classical musicians, as McCartney would relate in 1988: "These days you go to a recording studio and you tend to see other groups, other musicians . . . you'd see classical sessions going on in 'number one.' We were always asked to turn down because a classical piano was being recorded in 'number one' and they could hear us." George Harrison recalled that the band was becoming more sophisticated about recording techniques: "Our records were progressing. We'd started out like anyone spending their first time in a studio — nervous and naive and looking for success. By this time we'd had loads of hits and were becoming more relaxed with ourselves, and more comfortable in the studio (. . . ) We were beginning to do a little overdubbing, too, probably to a <!--del_lnk--> four-track."<p>Recording was completed on <!--del_lnk--> October 18. The band participated in several mixing and editing sessions before completing the project on <!--del_lnk--> November 4; the album was rushed into production and released exactly a month later. It was their fourth in 21 months. Beatles manager <!--del_lnk--> Neil Aspinall later reflected: "No band today would come off a long US tour at the end of September, go into the studio and start a new album, still writing songs, and then go on a UK tour, finish the album in five weeks, still touring, and have the album out in time for Christmas. But that's what the Beatles did at the end of 1964. A lot of it was down to naivety, thinking that this was the way things were done. If the record company needs another album, you go and make one."<p><a id="Original_songs" name="Original_songs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Original songs</span></h2>
<p>The opening three tracks, "No Reply", "I'm A Loser" and "Baby's In Black", are sometimes referred to as the "Lennon Trilogy", as Lennon was the chief writer of all three tracks. Unusual for pop music, each one has a sad or resentful emotion attached to it. This opening sequence set the sombre overall mood of the album, revisited in another Lennon tune, "I Don't Want to Spoil the Party", which, "consistent in tone with 'No Reply,' 'I'm a Loser,' and 'Baby's in Black,'" according to <!--del_lnk--> All Music Guide (AMG), "finds the singer showing up at a party only to find that the girl he expected to find isn't there".<p>According to Lennon in 1972, The Beatles' music publisher <!--del_lnk--> Dick James was quite pleased with "No Reply": "I remember Dick James coming up to me after we did this one and saying, 'You're getting better now — that was a complete story.' Apparently, before that, he thought my songs wandered off." Reviewer David Rowley found its lyrics to "read like a picture story from a girl's comic," and to depict the picture "of walking down a street and seeing a girl silhouetted in a window, not answering the telephone."<p>AMG singled "I'm A Loser" out as "one of the very first Beatles compositions with lyrics addressing more serious points than young love." Rowley found it to be an "obvious copy of [Bob] <a href="../../wp/b/Bob_Dylan.htm" title="Bob Dylan">Dylan</a>," and to "openly subvert the simple true love themes of their earlier work".<p>Although "Baby's In Black", which AMG described as "a love lament for a grieving girl that was perhaps more morose than any previous Beatles song," was mostly Lennon's work, it was written in the same room with McCartney, who contributed a harmony to it. Rowley considered the track to veer "between the banal and the sublime," and thought the lyrics to be "world-weary, sardonic and in places deliberately awful."<p>McCartney considered the <i>Beatles for Sale</i> sessions to be the beginning of a more mature phase for the band: "We got more and more free to get into ourselves. Our student selves rather than 'we must please the girls and make money', which is all that 'From Me to You', 'Thank You Girl', 'PS I Love You' is about. 'Baby's in Black' we did because we liked waltz-time (. . . ) And I think also John and I wanted to do something bluesy, a bit darker, more grown-up, rather than just straight pop."<p>The dark theme of the album was balanced by McCartney's "Every Little Thing", "a celebration of what a wonderful girl the guy has," according to AMG, that appeared later in the album and had been written as an attempt for a single, according to McCartney: "'Every Little Thing', like most of the stuff I did, was my attempt at the next single... but it became an album filler rather than the great almighty single. It didn't have quite what was required." (The song later resurfaced in highly embellished form, on the 1969 debut album of the British progressive rock band <!--del_lnk--> Yes (album)).<p>"Eight Days A Week" is noteworthy as one of the first examples of the in-studio experimentation that the band would use extensively in the future; in two recording sessions totaling nearly seven hours on <!--del_lnk--> October 6 and devoted exclusively to this song, Lennon and McCartney tried one technique after another before settling on the eventual arrangement. Each of the first six takes of the song featured a strikingly different approach to the beginning and ending sections of the song; the eventual chiming guitar-based introduction to the song would be recorded in a different session and edited in later. The final version of the song incorporated another Beatle first and pop music rarity in that the song begins with a fade-in as a counterpoint to pop songs which end in a fade-out. AMG dismissed it as a "standard celebratory love song," and Rowley found it to lack "both conviction and the trademark upbeat mood of early Beatles singles."<p>Other McCartney songs on the album included the rocker "What You're Doing" that implored the singer's girl to "stop your lying". Although "Eight Days A Week" and "What You're Doing" are well-regarded by many fans, they were regarded negatively by their creators; McCartney dismissed "What You're Doing" as "[A] bit of filler... Maybe it's a better recording than it is a song...", while Lennon referred to "Eight Days A Week" in a 1980 interview with <i><!--del_lnk--> Playboy</i> magazine as "lousy". In 1972, Lennon revealed that "Eight Days A Week" had been made with the goal of being the theme song for the <i><!--del_lnk--> Help!</i> movie: "I think we wrote this when we were trying to write the title song for 'Help!' because there was at one time the thought of calling the film, 'Eight Arms To Hold You'."<p>"I'll Follow the Sun", which Rowley thought to have a "lovely melody" that made "it a minor classic," was a reworking of an old song; it had originally been written when McCartney was a youth, as he related in 1988: "I wrote that in my front parlour in Forthlin Road. I was about 16... We had this hard <a href="../../wp/r/Rhythm_and_blues.htm" title="R&B">R&B</a> image in <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, so I think songs like 'I'll Follow The Sun', ballads like that, got pushed back to later." AMG argued that although the song was "sometimes described as a ballad because of its light and mild nature, it's actually taken at a pretty brisk tempo."<p>By prior agreement, all songs written by either McCartney or Lennon were credited to "<!--del_lnk--> Lennon/McCartney".<p><a id="Cover_versions" name="Cover_versions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cover versions</span></h2>
<p>The remainder of the album consisted of cover versions, several of which had been staples of the Beatles' live shows years earlier, especially in <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and at <!--del_lnk--> The Cavern in <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. The band, which in the previous year had grown weary of performing for screaming audiences, followed the, at that time, standard industry practice of including covers in order to maintain an expected level of productivity which many later artists would consider excessive. Q found the album title to hold a "hint of cynicism" in depicting The Beatles as a "product" to be sold. Nevertheless, AMG said, "the weariness of Beatles for Sale comes as something of a shock."<p>However, even in a somewhat weakened state the Beatles created an album some critics such as AMG found to be a stepping stone "from <!--del_lnk--> Merseybeat to the sophisticated pop/rock they developed in mid-career". Some of the cover versions on the album included <!--del_lnk--> Chuck Berry's "<!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Music", <!--del_lnk--> Buddy Holly's "Words of Love", and two <!--del_lnk--> Carl Perkins tunes: "Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby", sung by <!--del_lnk--> George Harrison, and "Honey Don't", sung by <!--del_lnk--> Ringo Starr. Starr recalled: "We all knew 'Honey Don't'; it was one of those songs that every band in Liverpool played (. . .) that's why we did it on <i>Beatles for Sale</i>. It was comfortable. And I was finally getting one track on a record: my little featured spot." Rowley found "Honey Don't" to have "lost the raunch" of the original, and considered "Words of Love" to be "a touch too reverential and polite."<p>Many critics panned the cover version of "Mr Moonlight", and AMG went as far to call it Lennon's "beloved obscurity" that wound up as "arguably the worst thing the group ever recorded." '<!--del_lnk--> Q magazine <i>agreed, calling "Mr Moonlight" "appalling". Rowley was more restrained, referring to it as "hardly outstanding".</i><p>The recording of the medley of "Kansas City" and "Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey" was memorable for McCartney, who in 1984 stated that it required "a great deal of nerve to just jump up and scream like an idiot". His efforts were egged on by Lennon, who "would go, 'Come on! You can sing it better than that, man! Come on, come on! Really throw it!'" The song was inspired by <!--del_lnk--> Little Richard who combined "Kansas City" with his own composition "Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey", but Rowley found the lead vocals "strained" and considered it McCartney's "weakest Little Richard cover version". The original LP sleeve listed the song as "Kansas City" (<!--del_lnk--> Leiber & Stoller). After the attorneys for Venice Music did their job, the record label was corrected to read "Medley: (a) Kansas City (Leiber/Stoller) (P)1964 Macmelodies Ltd./KPM. (b) Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey (Penniman) Venice Mus. Ltd. (P)1964".<p><a id="The_release" name="The_release"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The release</span></h2>
<p><i>Beatles for Sale</i> was released in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> on <!--del_lnk--> December 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1964. On <!--del_lnk--> December 12, it began a 46-week-long run in the charts, and a week later knocked <i>A Hard Day's Night</i> off the top of the charts. After seven weeks, the album's time at the top seemed over, but <i>Beatles for Sale</i> made a comeback on <!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1965, by dethroning <a href="../../wp/t/The_Rolling_Stones.htm" title="The Rolling Stones">the Rolling Stones</a> and returning to the top spot for a week. The album's run in the charts was not complete either; on <!--del_lnk--> March 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1987, almost 23 years after its original release, <i>Beatles for Sale</i> reentered the charts briefly for a period of two weeks.<p><a id="The_album_design" name="The_album_design"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The album design</span></h3>
<p>The downbeat mood of the songs on <i>Beatles for Sale</i> was also reflected in the album cover, showing the unsmiling, weary-looking Beatles in an <a href="../../wp/a/Autumn.htm" title="Autumn">autumn</a> scene photographed at <a href="../../wp/h/Hyde_Park%252C_London.htm" title="Hyde Park, London">Hyde Park</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>. Paul McCartney recalled: "The album cover was rather nice: <!--del_lnk--> Robert Freeman's photos. It was easy. We did a session lasting a couple of hours and had some reasonable pictures to use (. . .) The photographer would always be able to say to us, 'Just show up,' because we all wore the same kind of gear all the time. Black stuff; white shirts and big black scarves." The inner sleeve showed the Beatles standing in front of a montage of photos, which some have assumed was the source of inspiration for the cover of <i><a href="../../wp/s/Sgt._Pepper%2527s_Lonely_Hearts_Club_Band.htm" title="Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band">Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band</a></i> though there is no evidence for this.<p>The sleeve notes featured an observation by <!--del_lnk--> Derek Taylor on what the album would mean to people of the future:<dl>
<dd>There's priceless history between these covers. When, in a generation or so, a <!--del_lnk--> radioactive, <!--del_lnk--> cigar-smoking child, picnicking on <!--del_lnk--> Saturn, asks you what the Beatle affair was all about, don't try to explain all about the long hair and the screams! Just play them a few tracks from this album and he'll probably understand. The kids of AD2000 will draw from the music much the same sense of well being and warmth as we do today.</dl>
<p><a id="American_release" name="American_release"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">American release</span></h3>
<p>The concurrent Beatles release in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Beatles '65</i>, included eight songs from <i>Beatles for Sale</i>, omitting the tracks "Kansas City/Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey", "Eight Days A Week"(a #1 hit single in the U.S.), "What You're Doing", "Words Of Love", "Every Little Thing", and "I Don't Want To Spoil The Party" (flipside to Eight Days A Week, it reached #35 in the U.S.and it would hit #1 on the U.S. Country chart for <!--del_lnk--> Rosanne Cash when she remade it in 1989). In turn, it added the track "I'll Be Back" from the British release of <i><!--del_lnk--> A Hard Day's Night</i>, and the single "I Feel Fine" / "She's A Woman". The six tracks that were omitted were finally released in America on <i><!--del_lnk--> Beatles VI</i> in 1965. <i>Beatles '65</i> was released eleven days after <i>Beatles for Sale</i> (and just ten days before the <!--del_lnk--> Christmas holiday) and became the fastest-selling album of the year in the United States, shifting a million records in its first week alone.<p><a id="Personnel" name="Personnel"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Personnel</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>George Harrison - <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> drums, <!--del_lnk--> vocals<li>John Lennon - guitar, vocals<li>Paul McCartney - <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a>, <!--del_lnk--> bass guitar, <!--del_lnk--> Hammond organ, vocals<li>Ringo Starr - drums, <!--del_lnk--> tambourine, vocals, <!--del_lnk--> timpani<li>George Martin - piano, production, photography<li>Robert Freeman - photography<li>Derek Taylor - liner notes</ul>
<p><a id="Track_listing" name="Track_listing"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Track listing</span></h2>
<p><a id="Side_one" name="Side_one"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Side one</span></h3>
<p>All Songs credited by <!--del_lnk--> John Lennon and <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_McCartney.htm" title="Paul McCartney">Paul McCartney</a> unless noted otherwise<ol>
<li>"<!--del_lnk--> No Reply"<li>"<!--del_lnk--> I'm a Loser" <!--del_lnk--> SAMPLE (92k)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Baby's in Black"<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Music" (<!--del_lnk--> Chuck Berry)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> I'll Follow the Sun" <!--del_lnk--> SAMPLE (100k)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Mr. Moonlight" (<!--del_lnk--> Roy Lee Johnson)<li>Medley: <ul>
<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Kansas City" (<!--del_lnk--> Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey" (<!--del_lnk--> Richard Penniman)</ul>
</ol>
<p><a id="Side_two" name="Side_two"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Side two</span></h3>
<ol>
<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Eight Days a Week" <!--del_lnk--> SAMPLE (100k)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Words of Love" (<!--del_lnk--> Buddy Holly)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Honey Don't" (<!--del_lnk--> Carl Perkins)<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Every Little Thing"<li>"<!--del_lnk--> I Don't Want to Spoil the Party"<li>"<!--del_lnk--> What You're Doing"<li>"<!--del_lnk--> Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby" (<!--del_lnk--> Carl Perkins)</ol>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatles_for_Sale"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beaver</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Beavers</b><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: Late <a href="../../wp/m/Miocene.htm" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> - Recent</small></center>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9978.jpg.htm" title="American Beaver"><img alt="American Beaver" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beaver.jpg" src="../../images/13/1343.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> American Beaver</small></div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rodentia<br />
</td>
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Castoridae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Castor</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758</small></td>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Species</center>
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> C. canadensis</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> C. fibre</i></td>
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<p><b>Beavers</b> are semi-aquatic <!--del_lnk--> rodents native to <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. They are the only living members of the <!--del_lnk--> family <!--del_lnk--> Castoridae, which contains a single <!--del_lnk--> genus, <i><b>Castor</b></i>. <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">Genetic</a> <!--del_lnk--> research has shown the European and North American beaver populations to be distinct <!--del_lnk--> species and that <!--del_lnk--> hybridization is unlikely.<p>
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</script><a id="General" name="General"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">General</span></h2>
<p>Beavers are best known for their natural trait of building <a href="../../wp/d/Dam.htm" title="Dam">dams</a> in <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">rivers</a> and <!--del_lnk--> streams, and building their homes (aka <!--del_lnk--> lodges) in the eventual artificial <a href="../../wp/p/Pond.htm" title="Pond">pond</a>. They are the second-largest rodent in the world (after the <!--del_lnk--> capybara).<p>Beavers continue to grow throughout life. Adult <!--del_lnk--> specimens weighing over 25 <!--del_lnk--> kg (55 lb) are not uncommon. Females are as large as or larger than males of the same age, which is uncommon among <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a>.<p><a id="Species" name="Species"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Species</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1344.jpg.htm" title="A beaver skull"><img alt="A beaver skull" height="117" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Biberschaedel-drawing.jpg" src="../../images/13/1344.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1344.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A beaver <!--del_lnk--> skull</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> European Beaver (<i>Castor fibre</i>) was hunted almost to <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinction</a> in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, both for fur and for <i><!--del_lnk--> castoreum</i>, a secretion of its scent gland believed to have medicinal properties. However, the beaver is now being re-introduced throughout Europe. Several thousand live on the <!--del_lnk--> Elbe, the <!--del_lnk--> Rhone and in parts of <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia. In northeast <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> there is a thriving community of <i>Castor fibre</i>. They have been <!--del_lnk--> reintroduced in <!--del_lnk--> Bavaria and <!--del_lnk--> The Netherlands and are tending to spread to new locations. The beaver finally became extinct in <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> sixteenth century: <!--del_lnk--> Giraldus Cambrensis reported in <!--del_lnk--> 1188 (<i>Itinerarium</i> ii.iii) that it was to be found only in the <!--del_lnk--> Teifi in <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> and in one river in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, though his observations are clearly <!--del_lnk--> first hand.<p>In October <!--del_lnk--> 2005, six European beavers were re-introduced to Britain in Lower Mill Estate in <!--del_lnk--> Gloucestershire, and there are plans for re-introductions in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>.<p>The extinct North American <!--del_lnk--> Giant beaver (<i>Castoroides ohioensis</i>) was one of largest rodents that ever <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolved</a>. It disappeared, with other large mammals in the <!--del_lnk--> Holocene extinction event, which began about 13,000 years ago.<p><a id="Habitat" name="Habitat"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Habitat</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1345.jpg.htm" title="Canoeists try unsuccesfully to run a beaver dam in Algonquin Park. The dam is about about 1m high."><img alt="Canoeists try unsuccesfully to run a beaver dam in Algonquin Park. The dam is about about 1m high." height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:117-1715_IMG.JPG" src="../../images/13/1345.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1345.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Canoeists try unsuccesfully to run a beaver dam in <!--del_lnk--> Algonquin Park. The dam is about about 1m high.</div>
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<p>The habitat of the beaver is the <!--del_lnk--> riparian zone inclusive of stream bed. The habit of the beaver for hundreds of thousands of years in the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Hemisphere has been to keep these watery systems healthy and in good repair, although to a human observer, seeing all of the downed trees, it might sometimes seem that the critters are doing just the opposite. Beaver work as a <!--del_lnk--> keystone species in an <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem by creating <!--del_lnk--> wetlands that are utilized by many other species. The ability of beavers to radically alter landscape is amazing. Next to humans, no other extant animal does more to shape its landscape. Introduced to an area without its natural predators, as in <!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego, beavers have flooded thousands of acres of land and are considered an unstoppable plague. One notable difference in Tierra del Fuego from most of North America is that the trees found in Tierra del Fuego do not <!--del_lnk--> coppice as do the Willows, Poplars, Aspens etc of North America. Thus the "damage" by the beavers seems more severe. <a id="Dams" name="Dams"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dams</span></h3>
<p>The dams are created both as a protection against predators, e.g., coyotes, wolves and bears, and to provide easy access to food during winter. It is both the sound of water in motion and the current that stimulates the beavers to build. If, for example, a pipe is placed under the dam to drain it the beavers may stuff it with a tree trunk unless the pipe inlet is protected with a large cage-like filter. They may repair any damage to the dam and build it higher as long as the sound continues. However, in times of high water, they often allow spillways in the dam to flow freely. Beavers have even attempted to build dams in response to recordings of water flowing even in the absence of water.<p>Destroying a beaver dam without removing the beavers takes a lot of effort, especially if the dam is downstream of an active lodge. Beavers can rebuild such primary dams overnight, but may not defend secondary dams as vigorously.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1346.jpg.htm" title="Trees, up to 250 mm (10 in) in diameter, felled by beavers in one night."><img alt="Trees, up to 250 mm (10 in) in diameter, felled by beavers in one night." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beaver_signs.JPG" src="../../images/13/1346.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1346.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Trees, up to 250 mm (10 in) in diameter, felled by beavers in one night.</div>
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<p>Recent studies involving beaver habitual activities have indicated that beavers may respond to an array of stimuli, not just the sound of running water. In two experiments Wilson (1971) and Richard (1967, 1980) demonstrate that although beavers will pile material close to a loudspeaker emitting sounds of water running, they only do so after a considerable period of time. Additionally the beavers, when faced with a pipe allowing water to pass through their dam, eventually stopped the flow of water by plugging the pipe with mud and sticks. The beavers were observed to do this even when the pipe extended several meters upstream and near the bottom of the stream and thus produced no sound of running water.<p>Beaver dams can be disruptive; the flooding can cause extensive property damage, and when the flooding occurs next to a railroad roadbed, it can cause derailments by washing-out under the tracks, or when a beaver dam bursts and the resulting flash flood overwhelms a culvert. This disruption is not limited to human geography; beavers can destroy nesting habitat for endangered species, and often destroy mature trees for which they have no use.<p>Yet dam building activity restores wetlands, the land's most beneficial ecosystem. Such wetland benefits include flood control downstream, biodiversity (by providing habitat for many rare as well as common species), and water cleansing, both by the breakdown of toxins such as pesticides and the retention of silt by beaver dams. The latter also reduces erosion as well as decreasing turbidity that is the limiting factor for aquatic life. While beavers can create damage, part of the problem is one of perception and time scale. The damage beavers do such as the undermining of a roadway or the drowning of some trees is very visible very shortly after the beavers activity in an area starts. The benefits, mentioned below, are long term and not easily seen except by someone who is monitoring a catchment and realizes what huge positive effects beavers cause.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1347.jpg.htm" title="Beaver lodge, approx. 20 foot diameter. Ontario, Canada"><img alt="Beaver lodge, approx. 20 foot diameter. Ontario, Canada" height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beaverlodge.JPG" src="../../images/13/1347.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1347.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beaver lodge, approx. 20 foot diameter. <!--del_lnk--> Ontario, Canada</div>
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<p>The beaver's effects on the environment go beyond what you would expect of a rotund, buck toothed rodent. The first part of his influence is felt when his dam creates a pond.<p><b>Flood control</b><p>A beaver dam has a certain amount of free board so when heavy rains occur, the dam fills up and gradually releases the extra stored water. Often this is all that is necessary to reduce the height of the flood wave moving down the river and will reduce or eliminate damage to human structures. But flood control is achieved in other ways as well. The surface of a stream intersects the surrounding water table. By raising the level of a stream in a certain area, the gradient of the surface of the water table is reduced and water by the beaver dam flows more slowly into the stream. This effect not only helps to reduce flood waves but also increases the water flow when there is no rain. The other way beaver dams smooth out water flow is by increasing the wetted area of the stream. This allow more water to seep into the underlying ground where its flow is slowed down. This water eventually finds its way back to the stream. Rivers with beaver dams in their head waters have lower high water and higher low water.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1348.jpg.htm" title="Drained Beaver Dam. Allegheny State Park"><img alt="Drained Beaver Dam. Allegheny State Park" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Broken_Beaver_Dam.jpg" src="../../images/13/1348.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1348.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Drained Beaver Dam. <!--del_lnk--> Allegheny State Park</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Beaver Control<p><b>Wetland creation</b><p>If a beaver pond becomes too shallow due to the settling out of sediment or if the tree supply runs out in an area, the beavers will abandon the site. Eventually the dam, without the beaver to maintain it, will be breached and the water will drain out. The rich thick layer of silt, branches, dead leaves etc. behind the old dam is the ideal habitat for wetland species. Many of them will have been on the fringes of the pond. <!--del_lnk--> Wetlands have significant environmental benefits.<p><b>The grazing meadow (vega)</b><p>As the wetland fills and dries out, pasture species colonize it and it becomes a meadow suitable for grazing. In an area with nothing but forest down to the stream edge, this provides a valuable niche for many animals which otherwise would be excluded.<p><b>The riverine forest</b><p>And finally the meadow will be colonized by riverine trees, typically aspens, willows and such species which are favoured by the beaver. At this point the beavers are likely to recolonize the area and the cycle starts over again.<p><b>Bottom land</b><p>As can be seen by the above, each time this process repeats itself, another layer of rich organic soil is added to the bottom of the valley. The valley slowly fills up and the flat area at the bottom gets wider and wider. Research is sparse on this topic, but it seems likely that much of the fabled bottom land in North America was created, or at least added to, by the efforts of the generations of beavers which lived there.<p><b>Nutrient removal</b><p>The removal of nutrients from the stream flow by beaver ponds is an interesting and very valuable process. Farming along the banks of rivers often increases the loads of phosphates, nitrates and other nutrients and these cause problems downstream when this water is extracted for drinking. Besides silt, the beaver dam collects twigs and branches from the beavers activity and leaves, notably in the fall. The main component of this material is <!--del_lnk--> cellulose, a <!--del_lnk--> polymer of <!--del_lnk--> β-glucose <!--del_lnk--> monomers (This creates a more crystalline structure than is found in <!--del_lnk--> starch, which is composed of <!--del_lnk--> α-glucose monomers. Cellulose is a type of <!--del_lnk--> polysaccharide.). Many bacteria produce cellulase which can split off the <!--del_lnk--> glucose and use it for energy. Just as algae get their energy from sunlight, these bacteria get their energy from cellulose and they form the base of a very similar food chain. However a source of energy is not enough for growth. These bacteria are hungry for every molecule of nitrogen and phosporous they can grab. In this way, these, and other nutrients are fixed into the beaver pond and the surrounding ecology and removed from the stream. The capture of these nutrients helps to explain the great richness of the resulting bottom land.<p><b>Pesticide and herbicide removal</b><p>Agriculture also introduces herbicides and pesticides into our streams. Bacteria are an extremely variable lot and some of these <!--del_lnk--> toxicants are metabolized and decomposed by the bacteria in the cellulose rich bottom of a beaver dam.<p><b>Denitrification</b><p>Some scientist believe that the nitrate cascade, the production of far more fixed nitrogen than the natural cycles can turn back into nitrogen gas, may be as much of a problem to our ecology as carbon dioxide production. It is likely, but not proven, that beaver dams along a stream may contribute to denitrification. In sewage plants, denitrification is achieved by passing the water through successive aerobic and anaerobic stages. Under a beaver dam, as the water seeps down into the soil, the oxygen is used up by the fauna in the rich organic layer. At some point all the oxygen is used up and the soil becomes anaerobic. This water eventually finds its way into the stream and into another beaver dam. This aerobic, anaerobic cycle continues all the way down the stream.<p>Beavers have been known to build very large dams, the largest known was discovered near Three Forks, Montana and was 2,140 feet long, 14 feet high, and 23 feet thick at the base. When objectionable beaver flooding occurs, modern water level control devices can be installed for a cost-effective and environmentally sound solution. Unwanted damage to trees can be prevented by wrapping chicken wire or sheet metal around the base of trees.<p><a id="Lodges" name="Lodges"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lodges</span></h3>
<p>The ponds created by well-maintained dams help isolate the beavers' home, their <i>lodge</i>, which is also created from severed branches and mud. The lodge has underwater entrances to make entry nearly impossible for any other animal (however, <!--del_lnk--> muskrats have been seen living inside beaver lodges with the beavers who made it). A very small amount of the lodge is actually used as a living area. Contrary to popular belief, beavers actually dig out their den with an underwater entrance after they finish building the dam and lodge structure. There are typically two dens within the lodge, one for drying off after exiting the water, and another, drier one where the family actually lives.<p><a id="Danger_signal" name="Danger_signal"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Danger signal</span></h2>
<p>When startled or frightened, a swimming beaver will rapidly dive while forcefully slapping the water with its broad tail. This creates a loud 'slap', audible over large distances above and below water. This noise serves as a warning to other beavers in the area. Once a beaver has made this danger signal, all nearby beavers will dive and may not reemerge for some time.<p><a id="Fur_trade" name="Fur_trade"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fur trade</span></h2>
<p>Beaver pelts were used for <!--del_lnk--> barter by <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans in the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a> to gain <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> goods. They were then shipped back to <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> where they were made into clothing items. Widespread hunting and trapping of beavers led to their endangerment. Eventually, the <!--del_lnk--> fur trade fell apart due to declining demand in Europe and the takeover of trapping grounds to support the growing agriculture sector. A small resurgence in beaver trapping has occurred in some areas where there is an over-population of beaver; trapping is only done when the fur is of value, and normally the remainder of the animal is also utilized as animal feed.<p><a id="In_culture" name="In_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In culture</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1349.jpg.htm" title="A North American Beaver at the Toronto Zoo"><img alt="A North American Beaver at the Toronto Zoo" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TZ_Beaver.jpg" src="../../images/13/1349.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1349.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A North American Beaver at the <!--del_lnk--> Toronto Zoo</div>
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<p>Popular western culture typically depicts the animal positively, as a good-natured and industrious character.<ul>
<li>Mr. and Mrs. Beaver who are important heroic characters in the classic <!--del_lnk--> fantasy novel, <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Lion%252C_the_Witch_and_the_Wardrobe.htm" title="The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe">The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe</a></i>.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The beaver's habits, habitat and conservation status (as of 1908) are recurring themes in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Tent Dwellers</i>, by <!--del_lnk--> Albert Bigelow Paine. <!--del_lnk--> Lillian Hoban's <i>Charlie the Tramp</i> is a children's book about a young beaver and his family.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> North American Beaver (<i>C. canadensis</i>) is the <!--del_lnk--> national animal of <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>; it is depicted on the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian five-cent piece and was on the first Canadian <a href="../../wp/p/Postage_stamp.htm" title="Postage stamp">postage stamp</a>, the Three-Penny Beaver. As a <!--del_lnk--> national symbol, the animal is a favourite choice for depicting Canadians as furry characters and was chosen to be the <!--del_lnk--> mascot of <!--del_lnk--> 1976 Summer Olympics held in <a href="../../wp/m/Montreal.htm" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> with the name "Amik" ("beaver" in <!--del_lnk--> Algonquin). It is also the symbol of many units and organizations within the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Forces, such as on the cap badges of the <!--del_lnk--> Royal 22e Régiment and the <!--del_lnk--> Canadian Military Engineers. However, beavers are considered a <!--del_lnk--> pest by some people.</ul>
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<li>There is typically a Beaver Patrol in the <!--del_lnk--> Boy Scouts of America's <!--del_lnk--> Wood Badge adult-leadership training program.</ul>
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<li><a href="../../wp/o/Oregon.htm" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> is known as the "The Beaver State." The beaver is the state animal and its likeness appears on the state flag. It is the <!--del_lnk--> state mammal of <!--del_lnk--> New York (after the historical emblem of <!--del_lnk--> New Netherland).</ul>
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<li>Due to its engineering capabilities, the beaver serves as the mascot of the <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Institute of Technology, <!--del_lnk--> California Institute of Technology, <!--del_lnk--> Oregon State University and the <!--del_lnk--> University of Toronto. It is also an emblem for <!--del_lnk--> London School of Economics and the name of its student newspaper, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Beaver.</i></ul>
<ul>
<li>In the 17th century, based on a question raised by the <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of <!--del_lnk--> Quebec, the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> ruled that the beaver was a <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>. The legal basis for the decision probably rests with the <i><!--del_lnk--> Summa Theologica</i> of <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Aquinas.htm" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, which bases animal classification as much on habit as anatomy. Therefore, the general prohibition on the consumption of <a href="../../wp/m/Meat.htm" title="Meat">meat</a> on Fridays during <!--del_lnk--> Lent did not apply to beaver meat. </ul>
<ul>
<li>In the <!--del_lnk--> Cheese Shop sketch of <i><!--del_lnk--> Monty Python's Flying Circus,</i> a famished customer asks the proprietor of a cheese shop for any one of dozens of different kinds of cheese, including the nonexistent <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuelan</a> Beaver Cheese. Venezuela has no indigenous beavers.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nickelodeon aired <i><!--del_lnk--> The Angry Beavers</i>, a popular children's television show.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bell Canada features two beavers called Frank and Gordon in television ads.</ul>
<ul>
<li>The Norwegian municipality of <!--del_lnk--> Åmli has a beaver in its coat-of-arms.</ul>
<p><a name="1911_encyclopedia_text"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">1911 encyclopedia text</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1350.jpg.htm" title="Beaver tracks in snow, in Ontario. Hind paws approx 20cm long."><img alt="Beaver tracks in snow, in Ontario. Hind paws approx 20cm long." height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beavertracks.JPG" src="../../images/13/1350.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1350.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beaver tracks in snow, in <!--del_lnk--> Ontario. Hind paws approx 20cm long.</div>
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<p><i>The following text is taken from the <!--del_lnk--> 1911 Encyclopedia Brittannica.</i><p><b>Beaver</b>, the largest European aquatic representative of the mammalian order RODENTIA, easily recognized by its large trowel-like, scaly tail, which is expanded in the horizontal direction.<p>The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf. Sanskrit <i>babhru's,</i> brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. <i>fibre,</i> Ger. <i>Biber,</i> Swed. <i>bäver,</i> Russ. <i>bobr';</i> the root <i>bhru</i> has given "brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish."<p>The true beaver (<i>Castor fibre</i>) is a native of Europe and northern Asia, but it is represented in North America by a closely-allied species (<i>C. canadensis</i>), chiefly distinguished by the form of the nasal bones of the skull.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1351.jpg.htm" title="Yellowstone National Park."><img alt="Yellowstone National Park." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beaver_dam_in_Yellowstone.jpg" src="../../images/13/1351.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1351.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/y/Yellowstone_National_Park.htm" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>.</div>
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<p>Beavers are nearly allied to the <!--del_lnk--> squirrels (Sciuridae), agreeing in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the Sciuridae the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habits are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or Castoridae these bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is depressed, expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1352.jpg.htm" title="Tierra del Fuego."><img alt="Tierra del Fuego." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beaver_dam_in_Tierra_del_Fuego.jpg" src="../../images/13/1352.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1352.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Tierra del Fuego.</div>
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<p>Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. They have poor eyesight, but a keen sense of hearing, smell, and touch.<p>In length beavers--European and American--measure about 2 ft. exclusive of the tail, which is about 10 inches long. They are covered with a fur to which they owe their chief commercial value; this consists of two kinds of hair--the one close-set, silky and of a greyish colour, the other much coarser and longer, and of a reddish brown.<p>Beavers are essentially aquatic in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver has not only been exterminated there, but likewise in most of the countries of the continent, although a few remain on the <!--del_lnk--> Elbe, the <!--del_lnk--> Rhone and in parts of Scandinavia. The American species is also greatly diminished in numbers from incessant pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur.<p>Beavers are sociable animals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water of sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and boughs of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the neighbourhood they make their "lodges," which are roomy chambers, with the entrance beneath the water. The mud is plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, as often supposed, by the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder.<p>They are mainly nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of water plants.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1353.jpg.htm" title="Fossil Butte National Monument."><img alt="Fossil Butte National Monument." height="193" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beaver_dam_in_Fossil_Butte_NM-750px.JPG" src="../../images/13/1353.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1353.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Fossil Butte National Monument.</div>
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<p>The dam differs in shape according to the nature of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it is almost straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, with its convexity towards the stream. The materials made use of are <!--del_lnk--> driftwood, <!--del_lnk--> green willows, <!--del_lnk--> birch and poplars; also mud and stones intermixed in such a manner as contributes to the strength of the dam; but there is no particular method observed, except that the work is carried on with a regular sweep, and that all the parts are made of equal strength.<p>"In places," writes Hearne, "which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as the willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches."<p>Their houses are formed of the same materials as the dams, with little order or regularity of structure, and seldom contain more than four old, and six or eight young beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of the larger houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts of the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for the apartments have usually no communication with each other except by water.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1354.jpg.htm" title="Lassen Volcanic National Park."><img alt="Lassen Volcanic National Park." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BeaverDam_8409.jpg" src="../../images/13/1354.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1354.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Lassen Volcanic National Park.</div>
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<p>The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone, so that neither <!--del_lnk--> wolves nor <a href="../../wp/w/Wolverine.htm" title="Wolverine">wolverines</a> can disturb their repose.<p>The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily (<i><!--del_lnk--> Nuphar luteum</i>), which bears a resemblance to a <!--del_lnk--> cabbage-stalk, and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also gnaw the bark of <!--del_lnk--> birch, <!--del_lnk--> poplar and <!--del_lnk--> willow trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries, is consumed.<p>When the ice breaks up in spring they always leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before the fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, and lay in their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair the houses till the frost sets in, and never finish the outer coating till the cold becomes severe. When they erect a new habitation they fell the wood early in summer, but seldom begin building till towards the end of August.<p>Castoreum is a substance contained in two pear-shaped pouches situated near the organs of reproduction, of a bitter taste and slightly foetid odour, at one time largely employed as a medicine, but now used only in <!--del_lnk--> perfumery.<p>Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the <!--del_lnk--> Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant extinct beaver, <i>Trogontherium cuvieri</i>, representing a genus by itself.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver"</div>
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| ['Miocene', 'Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'North America', 'Europe', 'Genetics', 'Dam', 'River', 'Pond', 'Mammal', 'Extinction', 'Europe', 'Poland', 'Great Britain', 'Wales', 'Scotland', 'Scotland', 'Wales', 'Evolution', '17th century', 'Europe', 'Great Britain', 'France', 'The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe', 'Canada', 'Postage stamp', 'Montreal', 'Oregon', 'Roman Catholic Church', 'Fish', 'Thomas Aquinas', 'Meat', 'Venezuela', 'Yellowstone National Park', 'Wolverine'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bedbug</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bedbugs</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1355.jpg.htm" title="Cimex lectularius"><img alt="Cimex lectularius" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cimex_lectularius.jpg" src="../../images/13/1355.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><i>Cimex lectularius</i></small></div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insecta</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hemiptera<br />
</td>
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<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Heteroptera<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><b>Cimicidae</b><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Kirkaldy, 1909</small></td>
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<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Genera & <!--del_lnk--> Species</center>
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<p><b>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex</i></b><ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex lectularius</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex hemipterus</i> (<i>C. rotundatus</i>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex pilosellus</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex pipistrella</i></ul>
<p><b>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Leptocimex</i></b><ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Leptocimex boueti</i></ul>
<p><b>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Haematosiphon</i></b><ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Haematosiphon inodora</i></ul>
<p><b>Genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Oeciacus</i></b><ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Oeciacus hirudinis</i><li><i><!--del_lnk--> Oeciacus vicarius</i></ul>
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<p><b>Bedbugs</b> (or <b>bed bugs</b>) are small <!--del_lnk--> nocturnal <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a> of the family <b>Cimicidae</b> that live by <!--del_lnk--> hematophagy, feeding on the <!--del_lnk--> blood of <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a> and other <!--del_lnk--> warm-blooded <!--del_lnk--> hosts.<p>
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</script><a id="Biology" name="Biology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biology</span></h2>
<p><a id="Genera_and_species" name="Genera_and_species"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Genera and species</span></h3>
<p>The <b>common bedbug</b> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex lectularius</i>) is the best adapted to human environments. It is found in <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a> climates throughout the world and has been known since ancient times.<p>Other species include <i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex hemipterus</i>, found in <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropical regions</a> (including Florida), which also infests <a href="../../wp/p/Poultry.htm" title="Poultry">poultry</a> and <!--del_lnk--> bats, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Leptocimex boueti</i>, found in the tropics of <!--del_lnk--> West Africa and <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>, which infests bats and humans. <i><!--del_lnk--> Cimex pilosellus</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> C. pipistrella</i> primarily infest <a href="../../wp/b/Bat.htm" title="Bat">bats</a>, while <i><!--del_lnk--> Haematosiphon inodora</i>, a species of <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, primarily infests poultry.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Oeciacus</i>, while not strictly a bedbug, is a closely related genus primarily affecting <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a>.<p><a id="Physical_characteristics" name="Physical_characteristics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Physical characteristics</span></h3>
<p>Adult bedbugs are reddish brown, flattened, oval, and wingless, with microscopic hairs that give them a banded appearance. A common misconception is that they are not visible to the naked eye, but adults grow to 4 to 5 mm (one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch) in length and do not move quickly enough to escape the notice of an attentive observer. Newly hatched <!--del_lnk--> nymphs are translucent and lighter in colour and continue to become browner and <!--del_lnk--> molt as they reach <!--del_lnk--> maturity. When it comes to size, they are often compared to lentils or appleseeds.<p>A recent paper by Professor <!--del_lnk--> Brian J. Ford and Dr Debbie Stokes gives views of a bed bug <!--del_lnk--> under various microscopes.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1356.jpg.htm" title="Bedbug 4 mm length 2.5 mm width (Shown in a film roll plastic container. On the right you can see the sloughed off skin, which this bedbug just recently wore while a nymph)"><img alt="Bedbug 4 mm length 2.5 mm width (Shown in a film roll plastic container. On the right you can see the sloughed off skin, which this bedbug just recently wore while a nymph)" height="162" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bedbug1.JPG" src="../../images/13/1356.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1356.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bedbug 4 mm length 2.5 mm width (Shown in a film roll plastic container. On the right you can see the sloughed off skin, which this bedbug just recently wore while a nymph)</div>
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<p><a id="Feeding_habits" name="Feeding_habits"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Feeding habits</span></h3>
<p>Bedbugs are generally active only at night, with a peak attack period about an hour before dawn, though given the opportunity, they may attempt to feed at other times of day. Attracted by warmth and the presence of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, the bug pierces the skin of its host with two hollow tubes. With one tube it injects its saliva, which contains <!--del_lnk--> anticoagulants and <!--del_lnk--> anesthetics, while with the other it withdraws the <!--del_lnk--> blood of its host. After feeding for about five minutes, the bug returns to its hiding place. The bites cannot usually be felt until some minutes or hours later, as a dermatological reaction to the injected agents. Although bedbugs can live for up to 18 months without feeding, they typically seek blood every five to ten days.<p>Bedbugs are often erroneously associated with filth. They are attracted by exhaled carbon dioxide, not by dirt, and they feed on blood, not waste. In short, the cleanliness of their environments has no effect on bedbugs. Their numbers may be reduced temporarily by vacuuming, but will recover and require vacuuming again.<p><a id="Health_effects_on_humans" name="Health_effects_on_humans"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Health effects on humans</span></h3>
<p>While bedbugs have been known to harbour pathogens in their bodies, including <!--del_lnk--> plague and <!--del_lnk--> hepatitis B, they have not been linked to the transmission of any <!--del_lnk--> disease and are not regarded as a medical threat. Some individuals, however, can get skin infections and scars from scratching bites. While bedbugs are not regarded as a vector of transmissible diseases, they may be a significant source of stress, alarm and/or distress. With some individuals, it may precipitate mild to moderate cases of <!--del_lnk--> delusional parasitosis.<p><a id="Reproductive_habits" name="Reproductive_habits"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reproductive habits</span></h3>
<p>Female bedbugs can lay up to five eggs in a day and 500 during a lifetime. The eggs are visible to the naked eye measuring 1 mm in length (approx. 2 grains of salt) and are a milky-white tone in colour. The eggs hatch in one to two weeks. The hatchlings begin feeding immediately. They pass through five molting stages before they reach maturity. They must feed once during each of these stages. At room temperature, it takes about 5 weeks for a bed bug to pass from hatching, through the stages, to maturity. They become reproductively active only at maturity.<p>All bedbugs mate via a process termed "<!--del_lnk--> traumatic insemination". Instead of inserting their genitalia into the female's reproductive tract as is typical in copulation, males instead pierce females with hypodermic genitalia and ejaculate into the body cavity. This form of mating is thought to have evolved as a way for males to overcome female mating resistance. Traumatic insemination imposes a cost on females in terms of physical damage and increased risk of infection. To reduce these costs females have evolved internal and external "paragenital" structures collectively known as the “spermalege”. Within the True Bugs (Heteroptera) traumatic insemination occurs in the Prostemmatinae (Nabidae) and the Cimicoidea (Anthocoridae, Plokiophilidae, Lyctocoridae, Polyctenidae and Cimicidae), and has recently been discovered in the plant bug genus <i>Coridromius</i> (Miridae).<p>Remarkably, in the genus Afrocimex both males and females possess functional external paragenitalia, and males have been found with copulatory scars and the ejaculate of other males in their haemolymph. There is a widespread misbelief that males inseminated by other males will in turn pass the sperm of both themselves and their assailants onto females with whom they mate. While it is true that males are known to mate with and inject sperm into other males, there is however no evidence to suggest that this sperm ever fertilizes females inseminated by the victims of such acts.<p><a id="Infestations" name="Infestations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infestations</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Method_of_initial_infestation" name="Method_of_initial_infestation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Method of initial infestation</span></h3>
<p>There are several means by which dwellings can become infested with bedbugs. People can often acquire bedbugs at hotels, motels, and bed-and-breakfasts, thanks to increased domestic and international tourism, and bring them back to their homes in their luggage. They also can pick them up by inadvertently bringing infested furniture or used clothing to their household. If someone is in a place that is severely infested, bedbugs may actually crawl onto and be carried by people's clothing, although this is atypical behaviour — except in the case of severe infestations, bedbugs are not usually carried from place to place by people on clothing they are currently wearing. Finally, bedbugs may travel between units in multi-unit dwellings (such as condominiums and apartment buildings), after being originally brought into the building by one of the above routes. This spread between units is dependent in part on the degree of infestation, on the material used to partition units (concrete is a more effective barrier to the spread of the infestation), and whether or not infested items are dragged through common areas while being disposed of, resulting in the shedding of bedbugs and bedbug eggs while being dragged.<p><a id="Common_location_of_infestations" name="Common_location_of_infestations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Common location of infestations</span></h3>
<p>Bedbugs are very flat, allowing them to hide in tiny crevices. A crack wide enough to fit the edge of a credit card can harbour bedbugs [even in the ceiling]. In the daytime, they tend to stay out of the light, hidden in such places as mattress seams, mattress interiors, bed frames, nearby furniture, carpeting, baseboards, or bedroom clutter. Bedbugs can settle in the open weave of linen; this will often appear as a gray spindle a centimeter long and a thread wide, with a dark speck in the middle. Bedbugs can be found on their own, but more often congregate in groups. They are not social insects, however, and do not build or stay in nests. These groups of bedbugs are very often found in beds, usually either in the seams of a mattress (usually the seams closest to the sleeper), in the boxspring, or within the structure of the bed itself. They can also be found in a wide variety of locations in a home, such as behind baseboards, behind a picture frame, within books (near the bed), in telephones, or radios near the bed, and within the folds of curtains. When not feeding, bedbugs are likely to be found hiding in shaded areas such as the seam along which the floor and wall meet, or under the edge of the carpet. Bedbugs are capable of travelling as far as 100 feet to feed, but usually remain close to the host in bedrooms or on sofas where people may sleep. They feed every five to 10 days. The manner in which infestations spread throughout a home or within an apartment building is not entirely understood and differs from case to case.<p>It is important to inspect all adjacent rooms for infestation, as bedbugs travel easily and quickly along pipes and boards. In treatment, it is important to consider the insides of walls as potential places for bedbug infestation.<p><a id="Size_of_infestations" name="Size_of_infestations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Size of infestations</span></h3>
<p>The numerical size of a bedbug infestation is to some degree variable, as it is a function of the elapsed time from the initial infestation. With regards to the elapsed time from the initial infestation, even a single female bedbug brought into a home has a potential for reproduction, with its resulting offspring then breeding, resulting in a geometric progression of population expansion if control is not undertaken. Sometimes people are not aware of the insects, but do notice the bites. The visible bedbug infestation does not represent the infestation as a whole, as there may be infestations elsewhere in a home, however, the insects do have a tendency to stay close to their hosts (hence the name "bed" bugs).<p><a id="Detection_of_infestations" name="Detection_of_infestations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Detection of infestations</span></h3>
<p>Many misconceptions exist about bedbugs.<p>It is a common misconception that bedbug infestations can be detected by smell, or by the presence of small red blood stains. The most reliable way of detecting bedbug infestations is through the presence of bedbug feces, which can stain bedding.<!--del_lnk--> <p>Though bedbug bites can occur singly, they often follow a distinctive pattern of a linear group of three bites, sometimes macabrely referred to as "breakfast, lunch and dinner". These patterns of bites are caused when a bedbug is disturbed in feeding by a person moving, and then the bedbug resumes feeding. Bedbug bites also often occur in lines marking the paths of blood vessels running close to the surface of the skin. The effect of these bites on humans varies from person to person, but often cause welts and swelling that are more itchy and longer-lasting than mosquito bites. Some people, however, have little or no reaction to bedbug bites. Those whose bodies do not initially react may subsequently develop symptoms, however, due to an allergic reaction caused by the development of antigen. Bedbugs never crawl under one's skin and markings implying this may be signs of other skin infections or a severe allergic reaction to bedbug bites.<p>A technique for "catching" (detecting) bedbugs is to have a light source accessible from bed and to turn it on at about an hour before dawn, which is usually the time when bedbugs are most active. A flashlight is recommended instead of room lights, as the act of getting out of bed will cause any bedbugs present to scatter. Bedbugs can also sometimes be viewed during the day.<p>Some individuals have used glue traps placed in strategic areas around their home (sometimes used in conjunction with heating pads, or balloons filled with exhaled breath, thus offering the carbon dioxide that bedbugs look for) in order to attract and thus detect bedbug infestations. There are also commercial traps like "flea" traps whose effectiveness is really questionable except perhaps as a means of detection, but traps will certainly not work to control an infestation.<p>Perhaps the easiest method for detection is to place double sided carpet tape in long strips near or around the bed and check the strips after a day or more. This is also useful in detecting insect presence in general.<p>Veterinarians may mistake bedbugs' leavings on a pet's fur as "<!--del_lnk--> flea dirt".<p>The above having been said, bedbugs are known for being elusive, transient and nocturnal. For many, the only way to detect and identify with certainty an infestation is to contact a pest control professional.<p><a id="Incidence_of_infestations" name="Incidence_of_infestations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Incidence of infestations</span></h3>
<p>With the widespread use of <!--del_lnk--> DDT in the <!--del_lnk--> 1940s and <!--del_lnk--> '50s, bedbugs all but disappeared from <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> in the mid-twentieth century. Infestations remained common in many other parts of the world, however, and in recent years have begun to rebound in North America. Reappearance of bedbugs in the developed world has presented new challenges for pest control, and, without DDT and similarly banned agents, no fully effective treatment is now in use. The industry is only beginning to develop procedures and techniques.<p>Another reason for their increase is that pest control services more often nowadays use low toxicity gel-based pesticides for control of cockroaches, the most common pest in structures, instead of residual sprays. When residual sprays meant to kill other insects were commonly being used, they resulted in a collateral insecticidal effect on potential bedbug infestations; the gel-based insecticides primarily used nowadays do not have any effect on bedbugs, as they are incapable of feeding on these baits.<p>The Professional Pest Management Association, a US advocacy group for pest control operators (PCOs) conducted a "proactive bed bug public relations campaign" in 2005 and 2006, resulting in increased media coverage of bedbug stories and an increase in business for PCOs, possibly distorting the scale of the increase in bedbug infestations. <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Living_with_infestation" name="Living_with_infestation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Living with infestation</span></h3>
<p>If it is necessary to live with bedbugs in the short term, it is possible to create makeshift temporary barriers around a bed. Because bedbugs cannot fly or jump, an elevated bed can be protected by applying double-sided sticky tape (carpet tape) around each leg, or by keeping each leg on a plastic furniture block in a tray of water. Bed frame can be effectively ridded of adult bedbugs and eggs by use of steam. Small steam cleaners are available and are very effective for this local treatment. A suspect mattress can be protected by wrapping it in a painter's disposable plastic dropcloth, neatly sealing shut all the seams with packing tape, and putting it on a protected bed after a final visual inspection. Bedding can be sanitized by a 120 °F (49 °C) laundry dryer. Once sanitized, bedding should not be allowed to drape to the floor. An effective way to quarantine a protected bed is to store sanitized sleeping clothes in the bed during the day, and bathing before entering the bed.<p>Vermin and pets may complicate a barrier strategy. Bedbugs prefer human hosts, but will resort to other warm-blooded hosts if humans are not available, and some species can live up to eighteen months without feeding at all. A co-infestation of mice can provide an auxiliary food source to keep bedbugs established for longer. Likewise, a house cat or human guest might easily defeat a barrier by sitting on a protected bed. Such considerations should be part of any barrier strategy.<p><a id="Predators_near_bed_bug_infestations" name="Predators_near_bed_bug_infestations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Predators near bed bug infestations</span></h3>
<p>Some bed bug predators may also be found near bed bug infestations. The most common bed bug predator are <!--del_lnk--> masked hunters.<p>Jeffrey Hahn writes:<dl>
<dd>Adult masked hunters are dark brown to black and are elongate oval in shape. When full grown, they're about 3/4 inch long. They have a short, stout, 3-segmented beak. Immature masked hunters are similar but smaller and lack developed wings. They are often covered with dust, lint and other debris, giving them a grayish or whitish appearance. Underneath, however, they are dark-colored like adults. Masked hunters do not feed on human blood. However, they are capable of inflicting painful bites as a defensive reaction if they are disturbed or carelessly handled. The bite feels like a bee sting followed by numbness and swelling. Rarely does a masked hunter bite require medical attention. Masked hunters do not transmit any disease. <!--del_lnk--> </dl>
<p>It is not wise to introduce masked hunters to bed bug infestations in hopes of exterminating the bed bugs.<p><a id="Treatment" name="Treatment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Treatment</span></h2>
<p><a id="Self-treatment" name="Self-treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Self-treatment</span></h3>
<p>Some individuals have had success conducting their own exterminations by preparing an insecticide mixture of <!--del_lnk--> pyrethrins and fresh-water <!--del_lnk--> diatomaceous earth. At least one manufacturer produces a <!--del_lnk--> household insecticide D-20 with only .2% naturally derived pyrethrins and 1.0% Piperonyl Butoxide, which magnifies the pyrethrin's effectivenes by 10 times. Natural pyrethrins are more expensive than many alternatives. The function of the pyrethrins is to stimulate the nervous system of the bugs so that the spasms will allow the diatomaceous earth to desiccate, puncture, and kill the bugs through mechanical action. Great care should be taken not to use products with salt-water diatomaceous earth or heat-treated diatomaceous earth (the common industrial forms), which can damage the lungs of any mammal (dogs, cats, or humans) which inhale it (due to its extreme sharp crystalline edges), and has also been known to cause cancer. Fresh-water diatomaceous earth, however, is commonly used to <!--del_lnk--> deworm cats, dogs, and humans, and is considered as safe as table salt. What is sold as food-grade diatomite generally contains very low percentages of crystalline silica.<p>Others have used fruit and vegetable insecticides, comprised of a mixture of pyrethins and <!--del_lnk--> canola oil, which are usually safe for humans and most pets (aside from fish).<p>One person writes: Contrary to popularly disseminated information, extreme heat or extreme cold is usually not effective in eliminating bedbugs. Pest control professionals receive reports of infestations even in the dead of winter, and manufactured environments of extreme heat or cold (such as encasing a mattress in a bag and placing it in direct sunlight, or placing a suspect piece of bedding or clothing in a freezer) usually cannot stay consistently hot or cold enough to sufficiently kill bedbugs, which are not particularly sensitive to temperature extremes.<p>From a San Francisco tenant advocate: As someone who has suffered from bedbugs myself, and counsels and follows-through on approximately 35 bedbug cases a month, proper exposure to extreme heat and cold is the most effective means of healthfully treating bedbug infestations. While mattresses generally need replacement because of their nearly unpenitrable thickness; sealing belongings in black plastic bags and leaving them in the boiler room or on a hot rooftop for several days is very successful in killing bedbugs and their eggs. Bedbugs, in fact, are very sensitive to extreme temperatures if left 2-3 days. Adding dry ice to bagged goods suffocates living bedbugs, but does not harm eggs.<p>In addition, since bedbugs normally disperse, treatment of a bed or mattress is insufficient to eradicate an infestation.<p><a id="Professional_treatment" name="Professional_treatment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Professional treatment</span></h3>
<p><a id="Selection_of_professionals" name="Selection_of_professionals"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Selection of professionals</span></h4>
<p>Not all exterminators in North America are familiar with extermination techniques for bedbugs. In the past, <!--del_lnk--> fumigation with <!--del_lnk--> Cyanogas was used for bedbug control. This was very effective, but also very dangerous. This method is no longer used. Fumigation—that is the use of poison gases—is costly, and though this has been tried as a method of control in isolated cases, it is transient. New infestation can be imported shortly after a fumigation has taken place. Fumigation does work, but it may not be practical, and may not be permitted in most jurisidictions. Care must thus be taken when selecting an exterminator, in order to select a professional who knows how to conduct proper bedbug removal. The <!--del_lnk--> National Pest Management Association can assist in the location of pest control professionals.<p><a id="Necessary_number_of_professional_treatments" name="Necessary_number_of_professional_treatments"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Necessary number of professional treatments</span></h4>
<p>A survey of pest control professionals conducted by a pest control professor at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Massachusetts stated that 68% of all bedbug infestations require three or more treatments, 26% require two treatments, and 6% require just one. <!--del_lnk--> However, this survey does not seem to have taken into account the size of the infestation, the size of the venue being treated, the extensiveness of that venue's preparation for the treatment (thus enabling or inhibiting coverage of the poisons), the skill of the exterminator, whether popular nesting places have been disposed of, and the cause behind the original infestation. Treatment Exterminators will often apply a "contact kill" spray directly on bedbugs found in the apartment (such as a mixture of cyfluthrin, pyrethrins, and piperonyl butoxide), and then spray lambda-cyhalothrin on baseboards and other favorite hiding places. Lambda-cyhalothrin acts as a "slow kill" barrier which kills bedbugs after they cross it, and is usually microencapsulated, making it safe to pets and humans after it dries. Often, deltamethrin is also injected into larger crevices. The lambda-cyhalothrin and the deltamethrin are at their strongest for the first two weeks following their application, but usually retain effectiveness for up to 60 days.<p>Successful treatment of a bedbug infestation is often highly dependent on how thorough the pest control professional is. Although the assessment and judgment of the pest control professional should be respected, most treatments cover such areas within homes as closets, curtains, outside and inside furniture crevices (dresser and desk drawers, night tables, etc.), as well as the interior of electrical outlets and behind pictures hangings on walls. If the choice was made to retain bedding, professionals will often either treat or steam-clean bedframes and the undersurface of solid beds. Some higher-end pest control firms also offer to perform the aforementioned vacuuming<p><a id="Pre-treatment_preparation" name="Pre-treatment_preparation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Pre-treatment preparation</span></h4>
<p>Proper preparation is a mandatory requirement for control to be effective. Pest control firms should outline this in detail and provide detailed instructions on what to do. This is generally done by the resident; although some firms may offer preparation for an additional charge, this is uncommon. Preparation involves providing access for pest control treatment as well as taking measures to ensure that bedbugs are destroyed or contained. If a home is not properly prepared, successful elimination is practically impossible. Although preparation may be difficult for some people (for example, seniors or handicapped individuals), it is essential for effective treatment, and thus in such cases family members, friends or social or charitable agencies may need to provide assistance.<p><a id="Packing" name="Packing"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Packing</span></h5>
<p>All furniture and appliances in the dwelling usually need to be pulled away from the baseboards, and it is commonly asked that all furniture containing potential hiding crevices, such as bookshelves and desks, be emptied and left open for the exterminator to spray. Items in tightly sealed containers are usually safe from bedbug infestation and need not be emptied. Pest Control Operators may declare an item untreatable upon inspection--especially items of wood or paper.<p><a id="Laundry" name="Laundry"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Laundry</span></h5>
<p>Everything that can be laundered <i>should</i> be laundered, and laundered in advance of the treatment, then placed in plastic bags. This would include stuffed animals, drapes and so on.<p>The items should be securely tied into plastic bags, and emptied directly from the bags into the machines. (The bags should then be immediately disposed of.) It is heat, not water, that kills any bedbugs residing within the laundered items; so the items should be washed in hot water, regardless of normal washing directions, and should be dried with medium heat (preferably high heat) for 20 minutes or more. (For those who have the ability to measure the temperature of the water in their washing machine, or of the hot air in their dryer, the target heat range is 120°F (49°C).)<p>(If a marathon laundering session such as described is financially prohibitive, it has been posited by some that the items need only be run through the dryer, not the washing machine. However, the extensive water and spinning action associated with washing machines may assist in dislodging bedbugs from where they are residing within clothes and laundered.) However, this is optional as the heat of the cycle of drying will effectively kill <i>all</i> stages—eggs, immature stage (nymphs) and adults.<p>For items that require dry cleaning, the dry cleaners should be informed that the items in question are potentially infested, and the items should be bagged. (However, many dry cleaners then may refuse to accept the items.)<p>Steam cleaning of carpets can be helpful; although bedbugs will not be in the middle of the floor, they may be under the carpets at the edges of rooms. Vacuuming is especially important, however. Pesticide is applied at perimeters and is effective, but the more steps are taken to assist removal, the more thorough the elimination will be.<p><a id="Vacuuming" name="Vacuuming"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Vacuuming</span></h5>
<p>The mechanical removal of bedbugs by vacuuming is a most important part of preparing for control. Vacuuming alone will not solve the problem, but it will substantially reduce bedbug numbers and thus help reduce the population as part of preparing for treatment. A crevice attachment should be used on the seams of mattresses, on box springs, on bed legs, within furniture interiors, behind pictures, on curtains, and anywhere there is a possibility of the insects hiding (e.g. inside dresser drawers, dresser cases, under chairs, etc.). Carpets should also be vacuumed throughout the home, preferably with a power-head. Baseboards should also be vacuumed using the crevice tool—not swept—prior to the exterminator's arrival. Vacuum bags should then immediately be removed and placed in doubled plastic bags and placed into strong plastic bag for disposal. Spraying inside the vacuum cleaner bag with an aerosol insecticide or 50/50 alcohol/water mix is a good idea. The bags should be stored outside of home before collection. Incineration is not practical in the vast majority of urban centres and may be illegal.<p><a id="Steam_treatment" name="Steam_treatment"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Steam treatment</span></h5>
<p>Some pest control firms do offer steam treatment for items like mattresses or upholstered furniture especially when individuals are concerned about pesticides on bedding. This has only a very limited effectiveness, however, it is quite effective in this range of less than 1/2 inch of penetration. This also depends on the time that the steam is applied to the surface of the item. Small steam cleaners for domestic use can be useful for mattresses and the surfaces of upholstered furniture. This is a worthwhile option if there are issues of allergy, and the homeowner takes the time to treat carefully in this limited context.<p><a id="Managing_bedding" name="Managing_bedding"></a><h5> <span class="mw-headline">Managing bedding</span></h5>
<p>There are differing opinions as to whether it is necessary to dispose of mattress, boxsprings, futons, pillows, and other bedding. There is of course often a heavy cost involved in the complete replacement of such bedding. It is clear, also, that getting rid of infested bedding alone does not solve the problem. The decision to replace bedding or not depends on the condition of and often related level of infestation within the items, the comfort level of the owner, whether the owner can afford replacement, and aesthetics. A reasonable rule of thumb is that new bedding does not need to be replaced but if bedding is older and replacement may have been done soon in any case, then of course, replacing it AFTER control is a welcome clean start. Treatment of bedding items must be done with care and according to the label on the insecticide used. Mattresses typically need local treatment with non-residual insecticides at seams and borders. Boxsprings are more difficult to treat as there are more places for the insects to hide. The notion that getting rid of bedding helps solve the problem is misguided. Infestation must be handled first and then if new bedding is desired, the old bedding can be disposed of. Spread of infestation in apartment buildings is <i>increased</i> by tenants deciding to throw away old bedding. An infested mattress or box spring dragged in a hallway to an elevator will cause bedbugs to fall off or even run off the item, and these may then find their way into other units. As noted here, the use of plastic bags to protect bedding after treatment or to enclose bedbugs when the items are being thrown away are invaluable in preventing spread of infestation. It is also suggested to slash or mark up infested items so that others do not take them back into the building.<p>After the mattress and/or box spring or futon has been treated, placing these inside a cotton, polyvinyl or polyethylene bag is a good idea as a secondary means of defense. Bedbugs like to hide near the victim and are commonly found on seams of mattresses, or within the structure of box springs. The mattress bag serves to reduce this likelihood and in the case of box springs, it seals any remaining insects inside the bag. The mattress bag also protects the mattress from the mess of staining caused when bedbugs aggregate on seams. The bag is a good idea either until the infestation has been totally eliminated or in the case of good quality cotton bags, useful as a permanent protection for the mattress—and also to enable easier control if infestation recurs.<p>Those who end up disposing of suspect items should enclose them in plastic mattress bags, or large garbage bags, to prevent shedding bugs and eggs on their way to the disposal site. Care should also be taken to label throwaway items with a warning about the suspected bedbug infestation, as furniture is often reclaimed by dumpster divers.<p>New items should not be purchased until after the infestation has been thoroughly eliminated. Also, many retailers offer disposal of old mattresses. This can pose obvious problems if new and old mattresses are carried together on the same truck without the proper precautions taken.<p><a id="Treatment_2" name="Treatment_2"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Treatment</span></h4>
<p>Exterminators will often apply a "contact kill" spray directly on bedbugs found in the apartment (such as a mixture of <!--del_lnk--> cyfluthrin, <!--del_lnk--> pyrethrins, and <!--del_lnk--> piperonyl butoxide), and then spray <!--del_lnk--> lambda-cyhalothrin on baseboards and other favorite hiding places. Lambda-cyhalothrin acts as a "slow kill" barrier which kills bedbugs after they cross it, and is usually microencapsulated, making it safe to pets and humans after it dries. Often, <!--del_lnk--> deltamethrin is also injected into larger crevices. The lambda-cyhalothrin and the deltamethrin are at their strongest for the first two weeks following their application, but usually retain effectiveness for up to 60 days.<p>Gentrol and Phantom can also be used for bed bug control. Gentrol contains the active ingredient (S)-Hydroprene, an insect growth regulator (IGR) that disrupts the normal growth development of cockroaches and stored product pests, drain flies and fruit flies, as well as bed bugs. Phantom® uses an active ingredient known as <!--del_lnk--> chlorfenapyr. It is non-repellent and relatively long-lasting.<p>Successful treatment of a bedbug infestation is often highly dependent on how thorough the pest control professional is. Although the assessment and judgment of the pest control professional should be respected, most treatments cover such areas within homes as closets, curtains, outside and inside furniture crevices (dresser and desk drawers, night tables, etc.), as well as the interior of electrical outlets and behind pictures hangings on walls. If the choice was made to retain bedding, professionals will often either treat or steam-clean bedframes and the undersurface of solid beds. Some higher-end pest control firms also offer to perform the aforementioned vacuuming.<p>Most infestations are not successfully handled by one treatment alone. Most require exterminators to visit multiple times. In multi-unit dwellings, such as apartment buildings, the whole building should be treated, in order to avoid a situation where bed bugs travel out of the treated unit, only to infest other apartments and/or repeatedly reinfest the original unit.<p><a id="Post-treatment" name="Post-treatment"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Post-treatment</span></h4>
<p>Bedbugs can often be seen alive for up to two weeks following treatment of a dwelling, although they should not be seen in great number (e.g., only one or two). It is important to continue to monitor for bedbugs after the initial treatment.<p>Vacuuming should not be performed for a period of time following treatment, as some pesticides dry as a fine film, and can be prematurely removed from the environment if vacuumed, allowing infestations to survive the treatment.<p>Anecdotal evidence seems to suggest that many, and perhaps most, people who successfully deal with bedbug infestations find themselves overly paranoid about the possibility of reinfestation for varying lengths of time. These feelings of anxiety may have some relation to <!--del_lnk--> delusional parasitosis: "Sometimes an initial and real insect infestation precedes and triggers the delusion [...] Out of desperation the victims may move out of their home, only to report later that the ‘bugs’ have followed them there too." (<i>The Physician’s Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance</i>, J.A. Goddard, CRC Press, 1993.)<p>On the other hand, evidence likewise suggests that reinfestations do occur often, especially under certain circumstances. In multi-unit buildings, landlords often choose to save money by exterminating only those apartments where complaints of bed bugs have been received. Bed bugs easily travel from one apartment to the next along pipes and through holes or cracks in the wall, floor, or ceiling. So a thorough and repeated extermination of one apartment may clear the infestation for a time in that unit. Eventually, bed bugs may migrate back to their original home. Since immature bed bugs are as small as the period in a newspaper sentence, is also possible that items stored in sealed containers during the treatment period may contain bed bugs, nymphs, or eggs that were inadvertently stored. If even one bed bug survives the treatment(s), a reinfestation can occur. Likewise, an individual may have inadvertently carried a bed bug or nymph outside the home (in clothing, laptop case, purse), and these may cause infestations at work, in a car, and so on. This can lead to a recurrence at home.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedbug"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bede</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_1500_and_before_including_Roman_Britain.htm">British History 1500 and before (including Roman Britain)</a>; <a href="../index/subject.History.Historians_chroniclers_and_history_books.htm">Historians, chroniclers and history books</a></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16967.jpg.htm" title="Depiction of Bede from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493."><img alt="Depiction of Bede from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493." height="253" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nuremberg_Chronicle_Venerable_Bede.jpg" src="../../images/169/16967.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16967.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Depiction of Bede from the <!--del_lnk--> Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493.</div>
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<p><b>Bede</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[/biːd/]</span>), also <b>Saint Bede</b>, the <b>Venerable Bede</b>, or (from Latin) <i><b>Beda</b></i> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[/beda/]</span>), (ca. <!--del_lnk--> 672 or <!--del_lnk--> 673 – <!--del_lnk--> May 27, <!--del_lnk--> 735), was a <!--del_lnk--> monk at the <!--del_lnk--> Northumbrian <!--del_lnk--> monastery of Saint Peter at <!--del_lnk--> Wearmouth, today part of <!--del_lnk--> Sunderland, and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern <!--del_lnk--> Jarrow, <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> (see <!--del_lnk--> Wearmouth-Jarrow). Bede became known as <i><!--del_lnk--> Venerable Bede</i> soon after his death, but this was not linked to consideration for <!--del_lnk--> sainthood by the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Church. In fact, his title is believed to come from a mistranslation of the Latin inscription on his tomb in Durham Cathedral, intended to be <i>here lie the venerable bones of Bede</i>, but wrongly interpreted as <i>here lie the bones of the Venerable Bede.</i> His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in 1899 when he was declared a <!--del_lnk--> Doctor of the Church as <i><b>St Bede The Venerable</b></i>.<p>He is well known as an author and scholar, whose best-known work, <i><!--del_lnk--> Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum</i> (<i>The Ecclesiastical History of the English People</i>) gained him the title "The father of <!--del_lnk--> English history".<p>He is the only Englishman in <a href="../../wp/d/Dante_Alighieri.htm" title="Dante">Dante</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Paradise (<i><!--del_lnk--> Paradiso'</i> X.130), mentioned among theologians and doctors of the church in the same canto as <!--del_lnk--> Isidore of Seville and the Scot <!--del_lnk--> Richard of St. Victor. He is also the only English <!--del_lnk--> Doctor of the Church.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16968.jpg.htm" title="Bede's tomb in Durham Cathedral."><img alt="Bede's tomb in Durham Cathedral." height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bede.jpg" src="../../images/169/16968.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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</script><a id="Life" name="Life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Life</span></h2>
<p>Almost all that is known of Bede's life is contained in a notice added by himself when he was 59 to his <i>Historia</i> (v.24), which states that he was placed in the monastery at Wearmouth at the age of seven, that he became <!--del_lnk--> deacon in his nineteenth year, and <!--del_lnk--> priest in his thirtieth, remaining a priest for the rest of his life. He implies that he finished the <i>Historia</i> at the age of 59, and since the work was finished around 731, he must have been born in 672/3. He died on Wednesday 25th May 735. It is not clear whether he was of <!--del_lnk--> noble birth. He was trained by the <a href="../../wp/a/Abbot.htm" title="Abbot">abbots</a> <!--del_lnk--> Benedict Biscop and <!--del_lnk--> Ceolfrid, and probably accompanied the latter to Wearmouth's sister monastery of Jarrow in 682. There he spent his life, prominent activities evidently being teaching and writing. There he also died and was buried, but his bones were, towards the beginning of the eleventh century, removed to <a href="../../wp/d/Durham_Cathedral.htm" title="Durham Cathedral">Durham Cathedral</a>.<p><a id="Work" name="Work"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Work</span></h2>
<p>His works show that he had at his command all the learning of his time. It was thought that the library at Wearmouth-Jarrow was between 300-500 books, making it one of the largest and most extensive in England. It is clear that Biscop made strenuous efforts to collect books during his extensive travels.<p>Bede's writings are classed as scientific, historical and theological, reflecting the range of his writings from <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a> and <!--del_lnk--> metrics to <!--del_lnk--> Scripture commentaries. He was proficient in <!--del_lnk--> patristic literature, and quotes <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder, <a href="../../wp/v/Virgil.htm" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lucretius, <!--del_lnk--> Ovid, <!--del_lnk--> Horace and other <!--del_lnk--> classical writers, but with some disapproval. He knew some <!--del_lnk--> Greek, but no <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>. His <!--del_lnk--> Latin is generally clear and without affectation, and he was a skillful story-teller. However, his style can be considerably more obscure in his Biblical commentaries.<p>Bede practiced the <!--del_lnk--> allegorical method of interpretation, and was by modern standards credulous concerning the miraculous; but in most things his good sense is conspicuous and his kindly and broad sympathies, his love of truth and fairness, his unfeigned piety and his devotion to the service of others combine to make him an exceedingly attractive character.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16969.jpg.htm" title="Saxon chancel of the monastic church of St. Paul, Jarrow, with (right) a modern statue of Bede"><img alt="Saxon chancel of the monastic church of St. Paul, Jarrow, with (right) a modern statue of Bede" height="191" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stpauls_jarrow.jpg" src="../../images/169/16969.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16969.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Saxon chancel of the monastic church of St. Paul, Jarrow, with (right) a modern statue of Bede</div>
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<p><a id="Historia_Ecclesiastica" name="Historia_Ecclesiastica"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i></span></h3>
<p>The most important and best known of his works is the <i><!--del_lnk--> Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum,</i> giving in five books and 400 pages the history of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, ecclesiastical and political, from the time of <a href="../../wp/j/Julius_Caesar.htm" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a> to the date of its completion (731). The first twenty-one chapters, treating of the period before the mission of <!--del_lnk--> Augustine of Canterbury, are compiled from earlier writers such as <!--del_lnk--> Orosius, <!--del_lnk--> Gildas, <!--del_lnk--> Prosper of Aquitaine, the letters of <!--del_lnk--> Pope Gregory I and others, with the insertion of legends and traditions.<p>After 596, documentary sources, which Bede took pains to obtain throughout England and from Rome, are used, as well as oral testimony, which he employed with critical consideration of its value. He cited his references and was very concerned about the sources of all of his sources, which created an important historical chain.<p>Bede's use of something similar to the <i>anno Domini</i> era, created by the monk <!--del_lnk--> Dionysius Exiguus in 525, throughout <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i> was very influential in causing that era to be adopted thereafter in Western Europe. Specifically, he used <i>anno ab incarnatione Domini</i> (in the year from the incarnation of the Lord) or <i>anno incarnationis dominicae</i> (in the year of the incarnation of the lord). He never abbreviated the term like the modern AD. Unlike the modern assumption that <i>anno Domini</i> was from the birth of Christ, Bede explicitly refers to his incarnation or <!--del_lnk--> conception, traditionally on <!--del_lnk--> March 25. Within this work, he was also the first writer to use a term similar to the English <i>before Christ</i>. In book I chapter 2 he used <i>ante incarnationis dominicae tempus</i> (before the time of the incarnation of the lord). However, the latter was not very influential—only this isolated use was repeated by other writers during the rest of the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The first extensive use of 'BC' (hundreds of times) occurred in <i>Fasciculus Temporum</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Werner Rolevinck in 1474, alongside years of the world (<i>anno mundi</i>).<p><a id="Other_historical_and_theological_works" name="Other_historical_and_theological_works"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other historical and theological works</span></h3>
<p>Bede lists his works in an autobiographical note at the end of his <i>Ecclesiastical History.</i> He clearly considered his commentaries on many books of the Old and New Testaments as important; they come first on this list and dominate it in sheer number. These commentaries reflect the biblical focus of monastic life. "I spent all my life," he wrote, "in this monastery, applying myself entirely to the study of Scriptures." (Bede, <i>Hist. eccl.,</i> 5. 24).<p>His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, as well as lives in verse and prose of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne. In his <i>Letter on the Death of Bede</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Cuthbert of Jarrow describes Bede as still writing on his deathbed, working on a translation into Old English of the <!--del_lnk--> Gospel of John and on <!--del_lnk--> Isidore of Seville's <i>On the Nature of Things</i>. (McClure and Collins, p. 301).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:206px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/164/16446.jpg.htm" title=""The Venerable Bede Translates John" by J. D. Penrose"><img alt=""The Venerable Bede Translates John" by J. D. Penrose" height="193" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Venbedes.jpg" src="../../images/169/16970.jpg" width="204" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">"The Venerable Bede Translates John" by J. D. Penrose</div>
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<p><a id="Scientific_writings" name="Scientific_writings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Scientific writings</span></h3>
<p>The noted historian of science, <!--del_lnk--> George Sarton, called the eighth century "The Age of Bede;" clearly Bede must be considered as an important scientific figure. He wrote several major works: a work <i>On the Nature of Things</i>, modeled in part after the work of the same title by Isidore of Seville; a work <i>On Time</i>, providing an introduction to the principles of Easter <!--del_lnk--> computus; and a longer work on the same subject; <i>On the Reckoning of Time</i>, which became the cornerstone of clerical scientific education during the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Carolingian renaissance of the ninth century. He also wrote several shorter letters and essays discussing specific aspects of computus and a treatise on <!--del_lnk--> grammar and on <!--del_lnk--> figures of speech for his pupils.<p><i>The Reckoning of Time</i> included an introduction to the traditional ancient and medieval view of the <!--del_lnk--> cosmos, including an explanation of how the <!--del_lnk--> spherical earth influenced the changing <!--del_lnk--> length of daylight, of how the <a href="../../wp/s/Season.htm" title="Season">seasonal</a> motion of the Sun and Moon influenced the changing appearance of the <!--del_lnk--> New Moon at evening twilight, and a quantitative relation between the changes of the <!--del_lnk--> Tides at a given place and the daily motion of the moon. (Wallis 2004, pp. 82-85, 307-312). Since the focus of his book was calculation, Bede gave instructions for <!--del_lnk--> computing the date of Easter and the related time of the Easter Full Moon, for calculating the motion of the Sun and Moon through the <!--del_lnk--> zodiac, and for many other calculations related to the calendar.<p>For calendric purposes, Bede made a new calculation of the <!--del_lnk--> age of the world since the <!--del_lnk--> Creation. Due to his innovations in computing the age of the world, he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfred, his chronology being contrary to accepted calculations. Once informed of the accusations of these "lewd rustics," Bede refuted them in his Letter to Plegwin (Wallis 2004, pp. xxx, 405-415).<p>His works were so influential that late in the ninth century <!--del_lnk--> Notker the Stammerer, a monk of the <!--del_lnk--> Monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland, wrote that "God, the orderer of natures, who raised the Sun from the East on the fourth day of Creation, in the sixth day of the world has made Bede rise from the West as a new Sun to illuminate the whole Earth" (Wallis 2004, p. lxxxv).<p><a id="Vernacular_poetry" name="Vernacular_poetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vernacular poetry</span></h3>
<p>According to his disciple Cuthbert, Bede was also <i>doctus in nostris carminibus</i> ("learned in our song"). Cuthbert's letter on Bede's death, the <i>Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae</i>, moreover, commonly is understood to indicate that Bede also composed a five line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as <i>Bede’s Death Song</i> (text and translation Colgrave and Mynors 1969):<dl>
<dd>And he used to repeat that sentence from <a href="../../wp/p/Paul_of_Tarsus.htm" title="Paul of Tarsus">St. Paul</a> “It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God,” and many other verses of Scripture, urging us thereby to awake from the slumber of the soul by thinking in good time of our last hour. And in our own language,—for he was familiar with English poetry,—speaking of the soul’s dread departure from the body:</dl>
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<td>Facing that enforced journey, no man can be<br />
<p>More prudent than he has good call to be,<br /> If he consider, before his going hence,<br /> What for his spirit of good hap or of evil<br /> After his day of death shall be determined.</td>
<td>Fore ðæm nedfere nænig wiorðe<br />
<p>ðonc snottora ðon him ðearf siæ<br /> to ymbhycgenne ær his hinionge<br /> hwæt his gastæ godes oððe yfles<br /> æfter deað dæge doemed wiorðe.</td>
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<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16971.jpg.htm" title="The Death of St. Bede"><img alt="The Death of St. Bede" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Death_of_St_Bede_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16785.jpg" src="../../images/169/16971.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16971.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>The Death of St. Bede</i></div>
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<p>As Opland notes, however, it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede: most manuscripts of the letter do not use a <!--del_lnk--> finite verb to describe Bede’s presentation of the song, and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo-Latin literature. The fact that Cuthbert’s description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture, indeed, might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts (Opland 1980, 140-141). On the other hand, the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert’s Latin letter, the observation that Bede “was learned in our song,” and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all seem to suggest that his connection to the vernacular poem was stronger than mere quotation. By citing the poem directly, Cuthbert seems to be implying that its specific wording was in some way important, either as a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who generally appears to have frowned upon secular entertainment (McCready 1994, esp. 14-19) or as a direct quotation of Bede’s final original composition (Opland 1980, 140-141, for a discussion of some of the implications of this passage).<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bee</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Bees</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1359.jpg.htm" title="Osmia ribifloris"><img alt="Osmia ribifloris" height="296" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Osmia_ribifloris_bee.jpg" src="../../images/13/1359.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><i><!--del_lnk--> Osmia ribifloris</i></small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insecta</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Hymenoptera.htm" title="Hymenoptera">Hymenoptera</a><br />
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<td>Suborder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Apocrita<br />
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<td>(unranked)</td>
<td><b>Anthophila</b> ( = <b>Apiformes</b>)<br />
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<td>Superfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Apoidea<br />
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<center>Families</center>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Andrenidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Apidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Colletidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Halictidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Megachilidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Melittidae<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stenotritidae</td>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/65/6568.jpg.htm" title="Bee collecting pollen"><img alt="Bee collecting pollen" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bees_Collecting_Pollen_2004-08-14.jpg" src="../../images/13/1360.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/65/6568.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bee collecting pollen</div>
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<p><b>Bees</b> (a monophyletic lineage within the superfamily <b>Apoidea</b>, presently classified by the unranked taxon name <b>Anthophila</b>) are flying <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a>, closely related to <a href="../../wp/w/Wasp.htm" title="Wasp">wasps</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Ant.htm" title="Ant">ants</a>. There are approximately 25,000 species of bees, and they may be found on every continent except <a href="../../wp/a/Antarctica.htm" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>. Bees are adapted for feeding on <!--del_lnk--> nectar and <!--del_lnk--> pollen, the former primarily as an energy source, and the latter primarily for <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> and other nutrients. Most pollen is used as food for <!--del_lnk--> larvae.<p>Bees have a long <!--del_lnk--> proboscis that enables them to obtain the nectar from <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a>. Bees have <!--del_lnk--> antennae almost universally made up of thirteen segments in males and twelve in females. They all have two pairs of <!--del_lnk--> wings, the back pair being the smaller of the two; in a very few species, one sex or caste has relatively short wings that make flight difficult or impossible.<p>Many species of bees are poorly known. The smallest bee is the dwarf bee (<i>Trigona minima</i>) and it is about 2.1 mm (5/64") long. The largest bee in the world is <i><!--del_lnk--> Megachile pluto</i>, which can be as large as 39 mm (1.5"). The most common type of bee in North America are the many species of <!--del_lnk--> Halictidae, or sweat bees, though this may come as a surprise to natives, as they are so small and often mistaken for wasps or flies.<p>
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</script><a id="Pollination" name="Pollination"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pollination</span></h2>
<p>Bees play an important role in <!--del_lnk--> pollinating <!--del_lnk--> flowering plants, and are the major type of <a href="../../wp/p/Pollinator.htm" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> in ecosystems that contain flowering plants. Bees may focus on gathering nectar or on gathering pollen, depending on their greater need at the time. Bees gathering nectar may accomplish pollination, but bees that are deliberately gathering pollen are more efficient pollinators. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on insect pollination, most of this accomplished by bees.<p>Most bees are fuzzy and carry an <!--del_lnk--> electrostatic charge, thus aiding in the adherence of pollen. Female bees periodically stop foraging and groom themselves to pack the pollen into the <!--del_lnk--> scopa, which is on the legs in most bees, and on the ventral <!--del_lnk--> abdomen on others, and modified into specialized <!--del_lnk--> pollen baskets on the legs of <a href="../../wp/h/Honey_bee.htm" title="Honey bee">honey bees</a> and their relatives. Many bees are opportunistic foragers, and will gather pollen from a variety of plants, but many others are <!--del_lnk--> oligolectic, gathering pollen from only one or a few types of plant. A small number of plants produce nutritious floral oils rather than pollen, which are gathered and used by oligolectic bees. One small subgroup of <!--del_lnk--> stingless bees (called "<!--del_lnk--> vulture bees") is specialized to feed on <!--del_lnk--> carrion, and these are the only bees that do not use plant products as food. Pollen and nectar are usually combined together to form a "provision mass", which is often soupy, but can be firm. It is formed into various shapes (typically <!--del_lnk--> spheroid), and stored in a small chamber (a "cell"), with the egg deposited on the mass. The cell is typically sealed after the egg is laid, and the adult and larva never interact directly (a system called "mass provisioning").<p>Bees are extremely important as pollinators in <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, especially the domesticated <!--del_lnk--> Western honey bee, with <!--del_lnk--> contract pollination having overtaken the role of <a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" title="Honey">honey</a> production for beekeepers in many countries. <!--del_lnk--> Monoculture and <a href="../../wp/p/Pollinator_decline.htm" title="Pollinator decline">pollinator decline</a> have increasingly caused honey bee keepers to become <!--del_lnk--> migratory so that bees can be concentrated in areas of pollination need at the appropriate season. Many other species of bees are increasingly cultured and used to meet the agricultural pollination need. Bees also play a major, though not always understood, role in providing food for birds and wildlife. Many of these bees survive in refuge in wild areas away from agricultural spraying, only to be poisoned in massive spray programs for <!--del_lnk--> mosquitoes, <!--del_lnk--> gypsy moths, or other <!--del_lnk--> pest insects.<p>Visiting flowers is a dangerous occupation with high mortality rates. Many <!--del_lnk--> assassin bugs and <!--del_lnk--> crab spiders hide in flowers to capture unwary bees. Others are lost to birds in flight. <!--del_lnk--> Insecticides used on blooming plants can kill large numbers of bees, both by direct poisoning and by contamination of their food supply. A honey bee queen may lay 2000 eggs per day during spring buildup, but she also must lay 1000 to 1500 eggs per day during the foraging season, simply to replace daily casualties.<p>The population value of bees depends partly on the individual efficiency of the bees, but also on the population. Thus, while <!--del_lnk--> bumblebees have been found to be about ten times more efficient pollinators on <!--del_lnk--> cucurbits, the total efficiency of a colony of <a href="../../wp/h/Honey_bee.htm" title="Honey bee">honey bees</a> is much greater, due to greater numbers. Likewise, during early spring orchard blossoms, bumblebee populations are limited to only a few queens, thus they are not significant pollinators of early fruit.<p><a id="Bee_evolution" name="Bee_evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bee evolution</span></h2>
<p>Bees, like ants, are essentially a highly specialized form of wasp. The ancestors of bees were wasps in the family <!--del_lnk--> Crabronidae, and therefore <!--del_lnk--> predators of other insects. The switch from insect prey to pollen may have resulted from the consumption of prey insects that were flower visitors and were partially covered with pollen when they were fed to the wasp larvae. This same <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> scenario has also occurred within the <!--del_lnk--> vespoid wasps, where the group known as "<!--del_lnk--> pollen wasps" also evolved from predatory ancestors. The oldest bee fossil, of the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Melittosphex</i>, is 100 million years old and supports the theory that bees evolved from wasps . Other partial fossil evidence show that they <!--del_lnk--> evolved alongside <!--del_lnk--> flowers, at least 140 million years ago<!--del_lnk--> .<p>The earliest animal pollinated flowers were pollinated by insects such as <a href="../../wp/b/Beetle.htm" title="Beetle">beetles</a>, so the syndrome of insect pollination was well established before bees first appeared. The novelty is that bees are <i>specialized</i> as pollination agents, with behavioural and physical modifications that specifically enhance pollination, and are much more efficient at the task than beetles, <!--del_lnk--> flies, <!--del_lnk--> butterflies, <!--del_lnk--> pollen wasps, or any other pollinating insect. The appearance of such floral specialists is believed to have driven the <!--del_lnk--> adaptive radiation of the <!--del_lnk--> angiosperms, and, in turn, the bees themselves.<p><a id="Eusocial_and_semisocial_bees" name="Eusocial_and_semisocial_bees"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Eusocial and semisocial bees</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1361.jpg.htm" title="Bees vary tremendously in size. Here a tiny halictid bee is gathering pollen, while a giant bumblebee behind her gathers nectar from a lily."><img alt="Bees vary tremendously in size. Here a tiny halictid bee is gathering pollen, while a giant bumblebee behind her gathers nectar from a lily." height="238" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bee_scale_8948.JPG" src="../../images/13/1361.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1361.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bees vary tremendously in size. Here a tiny <!--del_lnk--> halictid bee is gathering pollen, while a giant <!--del_lnk--> bumblebee behind her gathers nectar from a <!--del_lnk--> lily.</div>
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<p>Bees may be solitary or may live in various types of communities. The most advanced of these are <!--del_lnk--> eusocial colonies found among the <!--del_lnk--> honeybees, <!--del_lnk--> bumblebees, and <!--del_lnk--> stingless bees. Sociality is believed to have evolved separately many times within the bees.<p>In some species, groups of cohabiting females may be sisters, and if there is a division of labor within the group, then they are considered <!--del_lnk--> semisocial.<p>If, in addition to a division of labor, the group consists of a mother and her daughters, then the group is called <!--del_lnk--> eusocial. The mother is considered the "queen" and the daughters are "workers". These castes may be purely behavioural alternatives, in which case the system is considered "primitively eusocial" (similar to many <!--del_lnk--> paper wasps), and if the castes are morphologically discrete, then the system is "highly eusocial".<p>There are many more species of primitively eusocial bees than highly eusocial bees, but they have been rarely studied. The biology of most such species is almost completely unknown. The vast majority are in the family <!--del_lnk--> Halictidae, or "sweat bees". Colonies are typically small, with a dozen or fewer workers, on average. The only physical difference between queens and workers is average size, if they differ at all. Most species have a single season colony cycle, even in the tropics, and only mated females (future queens, or "gynes") hibernate (called <!--del_lnk--> diapause). A few species have long active seasons and attain colony sizes in the hundreds. The <!--del_lnk--> orchid bees include a number of primitively eusocial species with similar biology. Certain species of <!--del_lnk--> allodapine bees (relatives of <!--del_lnk--> carpenter bees) also have primitively eusocial colonies, with unusual levels of interaction between the adult bees and the developing brood. This is "progressive provisioning"; a larva's food is supplied gradually as it develops. This system is also seen in honey bees and some bumblebees.<p>Highly eusocial bees live in colonies. Each colony has a single <!--del_lnk--> queen, together with <!--del_lnk--> workers and, at certain stages in the colony cycle, <!--del_lnk--> drones. When humans provide a home for a colony, the structure is called a <!--del_lnk--> hive. A honey bee hive can contain up to 40,000 bees at their annual peak, which occurs in the spring, but usually have fewer.<p><a id="Bumblebees" name="Bumblebees"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bumblebees</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1362.jpg.htm" title="Bumblebee"><img alt="Bumblebee" height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bumblebee_closeup.jpg" src="../../images/13/1362.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1362.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Bumblebee</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Bumblebees (<i>Bombus terrestris</i>, <i>B. pratorum</i>, et al.) are eusocial in a manner quite similar to the eusocial <!--del_lnk--> Vespidae such as <!--del_lnk--> hornets. The queen initiates a nest on her own (unlike queens of honeybees and stingless bees which start nests via swarms in the company of a large worker force). Bumblebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer. Nest architecture is simple, limited by the size of the nest cavity (pre-existing), and colonies are rarely perennial. Bumblebee queens sometimes seek winter safety in honeybee hives, where they are sometimes found dead in the spring by <!--del_lnk--> beekeepers, presumably stung to death by the honeybees. It is unknown whether any survive winter in such an environment.<p><a id="Stingless_bees" name="Stingless_bees"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stingless bees</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Stingless bees are very diverse in behaviour, but all are highly <!--del_lnk--> eusocial. They practice mass provisioning, complex nest architecture, and perennial colonies.<p><a id="Honey_bees" name="Honey_bees"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Honey bees</span></h3>
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<p>The true honey bees (genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Apis</i>) have arguably the most complex social behaviour among the bees. The European honey bee, <i><!--del_lnk--> Apis mellifera</i> is the best known bee species and one of the best known of all insects.<p><a id="Africanized_honey_bee" name="Africanized_honey_bee"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Africanized honey bee</span></h3>
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<p>Africanized bees, also called killer bees, are a hybrid strain of <i><!--del_lnk--> Apis mellifera</i> derived from experiments to cross European and African honey bees by Warwick E. Kerr. Several queen bees escaped his laboratory in South America and have spread throughout the Americas. Africanized honey bees are more defensive than European honey bees.<p><a id="Solitary_and_communal_bees" name="Solitary_and_communal_bees"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Solitary and communal bees</span></h2>
<p>Most other bees, including familiar species of bee such as the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern carpenter bee (<i><!--del_lnk--> Xylocopa virginica</i>), <!--del_lnk--> alfalfa leafcutter bee (<i><!--del_lnk--> Megachile rotundata</i>), <!--del_lnk--> orchard mason bee (<i>Osmia lignaria</i>) and the <!--del_lnk--> hornfaced bee (<i><!--del_lnk--> Osmia cornifrons</i>) are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile, and typically inhabits a nest she constructs herself. There are no <i>worker</i> bees for these species. Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor <!--del_lnk--> beeswax. They are immune from <!--del_lnk--> acarine and <i><!--del_lnk--> Varroa</i> <!--del_lnk--> mites, but have their own unique <!--del_lnk--> parasites, <!--del_lnk--> pests and <!--del_lnk--> diseases. (See <!--del_lnk--> diseases of the honeybee.)<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1364.jpg.htm" title="Honey Bee collecting nectar from small flowers. Location: McKinney, Texas."><img alt="Honey Bee collecting nectar from small flowers. Location: McKinney, Texas." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bee_IMG_0614_fixed_SMALL.jpg" src="../../images/13/1364.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1364.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Honey Bee collecting nectar from small flowers. Location: McKinney, Texas.</div>
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<p>Solitary bees are important pollinators, as pollen is gathered for provisioning the nest with food for their brood. Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste-like consistency. Many solitary bees have very advanced types of pollen carrying structures on their bodies. Most solitary bees are wild, with a few species being increasingly cultured for pollination.<p>Solitary bees are often <!--del_lnk--> oligoleges, in that they only visit one or more species of plant (unlike honeybees and bumblebees which are generalists). In a few cases only one species of bee can pollinate a <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plant</a> species, and some plants are <!--del_lnk--> endangered because their pollinator is <a href="../../wp/p/Pollinator_decline.htm" title="Pollinator decline">dying off</a>.<p>Solitary bees create nests in hollow <!--del_lnk--> reeds, holes in <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a>, or, most commonly, in tunnels in the ground. The female typically creates a compartment (a "cell") with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off. A nest may consist of numerous cells. When the nest is in wood, usually the last (those closer to the entrance) contain eggs that will become males. The adult does not provide care for the brood and usually dies after making one or more nests. The males typically emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge. Providing nest boxes for solitary bees is increasingly popular for <!--del_lnk--> gardeners. Solitary bees are either stingless or very unlikely to sting (only in self defense).<p>While solitary females each make individual nests, some species are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, giving the appearance to the casual observer that they are social.<p>In some species, multiple females share a common nest, but each makes and provisions her own cells independently. This type of group is called "communal" and is not uncommon. The primary advantage appears to be that a nest entrance is easier to defend when there are multiple females using that same entrance on a regular basis.<p><a id="Cleptoparasitic_bees" name="Cleptoparasitic_bees"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cleptoparasitic bees</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Cleptoparasitic bees, commonly called "cuckoo bees" because their behaviour is similar to <!--del_lnk--> cuckoo birds, occur in several bee families, though the name is technically best applied to the <!--del_lnk--> apid subfamily <!--del_lnk--> Nomadinae. Females of these bees lack pollen collecting structures (the <!--del_lnk--> scopa) and do not construct their own nests. They typically enter the nests of pollen collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells provisioned by the host bee. When the cuckoo bee larva hatches it consumes the host larva's pollen ball, and if the female cleptoparasite has not already done so, kills and eats the host larva. In a few cases where the hosts are social species, the cleptoparasite remains in the host nest and lays many eggs, sometimes even killing the host queen and replacing her.<p>Many cleptoparasitic bees are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts (i.e., the subgenus <i>Psithyrus</i>, which are parasitic bumble bees that infiltrate nests of species in the subgenus <i><!--del_lnk--> Bombus</i>). This common pattern gave rise to the ecological principle known as "<!--del_lnk--> Emery's Rule". Others parasitize bees in different families, like <i><!--del_lnk--> Townsendiella</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> nomadine <!--del_lnk--> apid, one species of which is a cleptoparasite of the <!--del_lnk--> melittid genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Hesperapis</i>, while the other species in the same genus attack <!--del_lnk--> halictid bees.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 21px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1365.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bee01.jpg"><img alt="" height="103" src="../../images/13/1365.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Honeybee on a <i><!--del_lnk--> Sphaeralcea</i> flower. Mesa, Az</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1366.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bee02.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/13/1366.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Honeybee in a <i><!--del_lnk--> Sphaeralcea</i> flower. Mesa, Az</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1367.jpg.htm" title="Image:Sweat bee1.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/13/1367.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Sweat bee, <i><!--del_lnk--> Agapostemon virescens</i> (female) on a <i><!--del_lnk--> Coreopsis</i> flower. Madison, Wi</div>
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<p>Bumblebee, <i><!--del_lnk--> Bombus</i> sp. startles <i><!--del_lnk--> Agapostemon virescens</i>. Madison, Wi</div>
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<p>Bumblebee, <i><!--del_lnk--> Bombus</i> sp. on a <i><!--del_lnk--> Coreopsis</i> flower. Madison, Wi</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beeching Axe</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16972.jpg.htm" title="Many railway lines were closed as a result of the Beeching Axe"><img alt="Many railway lines were closed as a result of the Beeching Axe" height="183" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brsince78_photo_1292.jpg" src="../../images/169/16972.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The <b>Beeching Axe</b> is an informal name for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> Government's attempt in the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s to control the spiralling cost of running the <!--del_lnk--> British railway system by closing what it considered to be little-used and unprofitable <!--del_lnk--> railway lines.<p>It was a reaction to the failed railway <!--del_lnk--> modernisation plan of the <!--del_lnk--> 1950s, which spent huge amounts of money on buying new equipment, such as new <!--del_lnk--> diesel and <!--del_lnk--> electric <!--del_lnk--> locomotives, without first examining the role of the railway and its requirements, recognising the implications of changing old-fashioned working practices, or tackling the problem of chronic overmanning. The result of this was to plunge the railway system deeply into debt.<p>
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</script><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
<p>In tune with the mood of the early 1960s, the transport minister in <a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Macmillan.htm" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Conservative government was <!--del_lnk--> Ernest Marples, the former director of a major road-construction company. Marples believed that the future of transport lay with roads, and that railways were a dead-end relic of the <!--del_lnk--> Victorian past.<p>An advisory group known as the Stedeford Committee (after its chair, Sir <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Stedeford) was set up to report on the state of British transport and provide recommendations. Also on the Committee was Dr. <!--del_lnk--> Richard Beeching, the chairman of <!--del_lnk--> British Railways appointed by the Conservative government. Stedeford and Beeching clashed on a number of issues related to the latter's proposals to drastically prune the rail infrastructure. In spite of questions being asked in Parliament, Sir Ivan's report was never published and the proposals for the future of the railways that came to be known as the "Beeching Plan" were adopted by the Government, resulting in the closure of a third of the rail network and the scrapping of a third of a million freight wagons.<p>Beeching believed the railway system should be run like a business and not a public service, and that if parts of the railway system did not pay their way—like some rural branch lines—they should be eliminated. He reasoned that once these were closed, the remaining core of the system would be restored to profitability.<p>Beeching made a study of traffic on all the railway lines in the country and concluded that 80% of the traffic was carried on just 20% of the network, with much of the rest of the system operating at a loss. In his report <!--del_lnk--> "The Reshaping of British Railways" issued on <!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1963, he proposed a massive closure program. The report proposed that out of Britain's then 18,000 miles (28 800 km) of railway, 6,000 miles (9 600 km) of mostly rural branch and cross-country lines should be closed. Furthermore, many other rail lines should lose their passenger services and be kept open for freight only, and many lesser-used stations should close on lines that were to be kept open. The report was accepted by the Government.<p>At the time, the highly controversial report was called the "Beeching Bombshell" or the "Beeching Axe" by the press. It sparked an outcry from many communities that would lose their rail services, many of which (especially in the case of rural communities) had no other means of public transport.<p>The government argued that many rail services could be provided more cheaply by <!--del_lnk--> buses, and in a policy known as "<!--del_lnk--> bustitution," promised that abandoned rail services would have their places taken by replacement bus services. In practice, this policy proved unsuccessful.<p>A significant part of the Beeching Plan also proposed that British Rail electrify some major main lines and adopt containerized freight traffic instead of outdated and uneconomic wagon-load traffic. In general, <!--del_lnk--> politicians jumped at the money-saving parts of the plan but were less enthusiastic about those parts that required expenditures. Some of those plans were adopted, however, such as the electrification of the <!--del_lnk--> West Coast Main Line.<p><a id="Rail_closures_by_year" name="Rail_closures_by_year"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Rail closures by year</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16974.jpg.htm" title="The remains of Rugby Central Station on the former Great Central Railway, one of many closed under the Beeching Axe"><img alt="The remains of Rugby Central Station on the former Great Central Railway, one of many closed under the Beeching Axe" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rugby_Central_station_remains2.jpg" src="../../images/169/16974.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>At its peak in <!--del_lnk--> 1950, the mileage of the British railway system was around 21,000 miles (33 800 km) and 6000 stations. By <!--del_lnk--> 1975, the system had shrunk to 12,000 miles (19 000 km) of track and 2000 stations, roughly the same size it was in <!--del_lnk--> 2003.<p>Contrary to popular belief, Beeching did not start rail closures, as a number of rail closures had occurred during the <!--del_lnk--> 1950s. Between 1950 and <!--del_lnk--> 1963, approximately 3000 miles (4800 km) of line had already been closed. After Beeching's report, the process was accelerated and dramatically expanded.<ul>
<li><b>Pre-Beeching closures</b><ul>
<li><b>1950</b>....150 miles (240 km) closed<li><b>1951</b>....275 miles (440 km) closed<li><b>1952</b>....300 miles (480 km) closed<li><b>1953</b>....275 miles (440 km) closed<li><b>1954</b> to <b>1957</b>....500 miles (800 km) closed<li><b>1958</b>....150 miles (240 km) closed<li><b>1959</b>....350 miles (560 km) closed<li><b>1960</b>....175 miles (280 km) closed<li><b>1961</b>....150 miles (240 km) closed<li><b>1962</b>....780 miles (1 250 km) closed</ul>
<li><b>Post Beeching closures</b><ul>
<li><b>1963</b>....324 miles (521 km) closed<li><b>1964</b>....1058 miles (1703 km) closed<li><b>1965</b>....600 miles (965 km) closed<li><b>1966</b>....750 miles (1 205 km) closed<li><b>1967</b>....300 miles (480 km) closed<li><b>1968</b>....400 miles (640 km) closed<li><b>1969</b>....250 miles (400 km) closed<li><b>1970</b>....275 miles (440 km) closed<li><b>1971</b>....23 miles (37 km) closed<li><b>1972</b>....50 miles (80 km) closed<li><b>1973</b>....35 miles (56 km) closed<li><b>1974</b>....0 miles (0 km) closed</ul>
</ul>
<p>Not all of the railway lines listed for closure were closed; some were kept open for a variety of reasons, including political manoeuvring. For example, the railway lines through the <a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Highlands.htm" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a>, although not cost-efficient by Beeching's definition, were kept open in part because of pressure from the powerful Highland lobby. It has been suggested that other lines may have been kept open because they passed through marginal constituencies. In addition, some lines listed for closure were kept open because the local roads were incapable of absorbing the traffic that would be transferred from the railway if it closed. As a result, there are still a fair number of rural railway lines in existence on the British railway system, although far fewer than there were before Beeching.<p>On the other hand, some routes that Beeching proposed should be kept open as major trunk routes, for example the <!--del_lnk--> Woodhead route, were eventually closed in favour of keeping alternative politically-sensitive routes open.<p>Overall, 2128 stations were closed on lines that were kept open. As well as minor railway lines, a few major inter-city railway lines were closed, where it was deemed that these lines were duplicates of other main-lines. The most notable of these was the the former <!--del_lnk--> Great Central Railway, which linked <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> to the midlands and north of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>.<p>Since 1974, railway closures in the UK have been virtually non-existent, and indeed there have been some re-openings, although a few railways across the country have closed in the last 20 years.<p><a id="Beeching_II" name="Beeching_II"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Beeching II</span></h2>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1964, Dr. Beeching issued a second, less well-known, report <!--del_lnk--> "The Development of the Major Railway Trunk Routes", widely known as "Beeching II", which went even further than the first report. The report singled out lines that were believed to be worthy of continued large-scale investment.<p>Essentially, it proposed that all railway lines other than major inter-city routes and important commuter lines around big cities had little future and should eventually close. If the report had been implemented, the railway system would have been cut to just 7000 miles (11 250 km), leaving Britain with little more than a skeletal railway system, with large parts of the country entirely devoid of railways.<p>The report was rejected by the then <!--del_lnk--> Labour government and Dr. Beeching resigned in <!--del_lnk--> 1965. Although politicians were ultimately responsible for the rail closures, Dr. Beeching's name has become synonymous with them ever since.<p><a id="Changing_attitudes_and_policies" name="Changing_attitudes_and_policies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Changing attitudes and policies</span></h2>
<p>In 1964, the Labour government was elected under <!--del_lnk--> prime minister <a href="../../wp/h/Harold_Wilson.htm" title="Harold Wilson">Harold Wilson</a>. During the election campaign, Labour promised to halt the rail closures if elected. Once elected, however, they quickly backtracked on this promise, and the closures continued, at a faster rate than under the previous administration and until the end of the decade.<p>In 1965, <!--del_lnk--> Barbara Castle was appointed transport minister, and she began to look at the country's transport problems as a whole. Mrs. Castle decided that at least 11,000 route miles (17 700 km) of "basic railway" would be needed for the foreseeable future and that the railway system should be stabilised at around this size.<p>However, towards the end of the 1960s it became increasingly clear that rail closures were not producing the promised savings or bringing the rail system out of deficit, and were unlikely ever to do so. Mrs. Castle also stipulated that some rail services that could not pay their way but had a valuable social role and so should be subsidised. However, by the time the legislation allowing this was introduced in 1968, many such services and railway lines that would have qualified for subsidies had already been closed or removed, lessening the impact of the legislation. A number of branch lines were nevertheless saved by this legislation.<p><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<p>The closures failed in their central purpose of restoring the railways to profitability, with the promised savings failing to materialise. By abolishing a third of the rail network, Beeching managed to achieve a saving of just £7 million whilst overall losses were in excess of £100 million . The losses were mainly because the branch lines acted as feeders to the main lines, and this feeder traffic was lost when the branches closed—in turn meaning less traffic for and worsening the finances of the main lines. The assumption at the time was that <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">car</a> owners would drive to the nearest railhead (which was usually the junction where the closed branch line would otherwise have taken them) and journey onwards by train, but in practice having once left home in their cars, they used them for the whole journey.<p>The "<!--del_lnk--> bustitution" policy of replacing rail services with buses also failed. Most of the replacement bus services were far slower and less convenient than the train services they replaced, and they proved unpopular with the public. Most of the replacement bus services only lasted a few years before being scrapped through lack of use, effectively leaving large parts of the country without any means of public transport.<p>The closures were brought to a halt in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1970s when it became apparent that they were not useful, that the benefit of the small amount of money saved by closing railways was outweighed by the <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollution</a> and <!--del_lnk--> congestion caused by increasing reliance on cars which followed, and by the general public's hatred of the cuts.<p>The last major railway closure resulting from Beeching was of the 80-mile-long (130 km) <!--del_lnk--> Waverley Route main line between <!--del_lnk--> Carlisle and <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, in <!--del_lnk--> 1969; plans have since been made to re-open a significant portion of this line. With a few exceptions, after the early 1970s proposals to close other lines were met with vociferous public opposition and were quietly shelved: this opposition stemmed from the public's experience of the many line closures during the main years of the cuts in the mid and late 1960s. Today, Britain's railways, like nearly every other railway system in the world, still run at a deficit.<p>Hindsight has shown that, in some areas, Beeching went too far. There was a need for some pruning of duplicate and deeply unprofitable services, but nowhere near as much as was stipulated. However it can be argued that some of the closures were a necessary emergency response to save the railway network from financial disaster, and that if they had not occurred, a far larger programme of cuts would have been later necessary.<p>One of the major criticisms made of the Beeching report was that it failed to take into account future trends such as <!--del_lnk--> population growth and greater demand for travel. The population of many of the towns which had their railways closed in the 1960s has grown significantly since, leaving the towns more in need of public transport. However, the trackbeds of many closed railways have been built over and they would be prohibitively expensive to re-open. This is as much a criticism of the policy since the Beeching closures of the wholesale disposal of former railway land rather than the protection of trackbeds using a system similar to the US <!--del_lnk--> Rail Bank scheme for possible future use.<p>In the early <!--del_lnk--> 1980s, under the government of <a href="../../wp/m/Margaret_Thatcher.htm" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a>, the possibility of more Beeching-style cuts was raised again briefly. In <!--del_lnk--> 1983 Sir David Serpell, a civil servant who had worked with Dr Beeching, compiled what became known as <!--del_lnk--> "The Serpell Report" which called for more rail closures. The report was met with fierce resistance from many quarters, and it was quickly abandoned.<p><a id="Reopenings" name="Reopenings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reopenings</span></h2>
<p>Since the Beeching era, a modest number of the closures have been reversed. Notable amongst these is the <!--del_lnk--> Robin Hood Line in <!--del_lnk--> Nottinghamshire, between <a href="../../wp/n/Nottingham.htm" title="Nottingham">Nottingham</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Worksop via <!--del_lnk--> Mansfield, which reopened in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1990s. Previously Mansfield had been the largest town in Britain to have no rail link.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands a new <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Snow Hill station was opened in <!--del_lnk--> 1987 to replace the earlier Snow Hill station, which had been closed and demolished in the early 1970s. The tunnel underneath <a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> city centre that served the station was also reopened, along with the line towards <!--del_lnk--> Kidderminster and <!--del_lnk--> Worcester. The former line from Snow Hill to <!--del_lnk--> Wolverhampton has been reopened as the <!--del_lnk--> Midland Metro <!--del_lnk--> tram system. The line from <!--del_lnk--> Coventry to Nuneaton was reopened to passengers in <!--del_lnk--> 1988.<p>In <a href="../../wp/n/Newcastle_upon_Tyne.htm" title="Newcastle upon Tyne">Newcastle upon Tyne</a>, most of the railways north of the river Tyne have been reopened and some new sections added: Shiremoor to Chillingham Road via North Shields, South Gosforth to <!--del_lnk--> Newcastle Central station and Kingston Park to Bank Foot. South of the River Tyne, the <!--del_lnk--> Newcastle Central station to South Shields section via Gateshead and <!--del_lnk--> Tyne Dock has in some parts followed the route of the old line, and in some been completely new. These lines opened as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Tyne and Wear Metro; the routes were originally run by the <!--del_lnk--> North Eastern Railway.<p>Beeching saw <!--del_lnk--> South Wales as a declining industrial region. As a result, it lost the majority of its network. Since 1983 it has experienced a major rail revival, with 32 new stations, and three lines reopened within 20 miles (32 km) of each other: <!--del_lnk--> Abercynon–<!--del_lnk--> Aberdare, <!--del_lnk--> Barry–<!--del_lnk--> Bridgend, and Bridgend–<!--del_lnk--> Maesteg.<p>In <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, a 35-mile (56 km) stretch of the former <!--del_lnk--> Waverley Route between <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Galashiels is expected to be reopened in <!--del_lnk--> 2011 now that funding has been approved. The closure of the line in <!--del_lnk--> 1969 left the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Borders area without any rail links. The Edinburgh-<!--del_lnk--> Bathgate line, reopening in <!--del_lnk--> 1985, was the first success of a new policy introduced by the Thatcher government of experimental reopenings that would become permanent only if well-used. It was and did. <!--del_lnk--> Plans are now in hand to reopen the section between Bathgate and Drumgelloch. More recently, a four-mile (6.4 km) section of the <!--del_lnk--> Argyle Line was reopened in December <!--del_lnk--> 2005, serving <!--del_lnk--> Chatelherault, Merryton and <!--del_lnk--> Larkhall for the first time since 1968. Also, after several years of 'false' promises dating to the 1980s, the railway from Stirling to Alloa and Kincardine is currently being rejuvenated, and will open in 2007, providing a passenger (and freight) route once again.<p>In addition a number of closed stations have reopened, and passenger services been restored on lines where they had been removed. Several lines have also reopened as <!--del_lnk--> heritage railways; see <!--del_lnk--> List of British heritage and private railways.<p>Notwithstanding the positive environmental implications of a reopening, many of the areas along these routes have expanded and grown over the last 40 years. Where some lines would never have been profitable in 1963 they could well be profitable now, and could even have a major impact on reducing road congestion and pollution in those areas. However in many instances it would be prohibitively expensive for lines closed by the Beeching Axe to be reopened; although it was not stipulated in the report, since Beeching there has been a policy of disposing of surplus-to-requirements railway land. Therefore many bridges, cuttings and embankments have been removed and the land sold off for development; closed station buildings on remaining lines have often been either demolished or sold.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeching_Axe"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beekeeping</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Recreation.htm">Recreation</a></h3>
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<p><b>Beekeeping</b> (or <b>apiculture</b>, from <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> apis</i>, a bee) is the practice of intentional maintenance of <!--del_lnk--> honeybee colonies, commonly in <!--del_lnk--> hives, by humans. A <b>beekeeper</b> (or apiarist) may keep <a href="../../wp/b/Bee.htm" title="Bee">bees</a> in order to collect <a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" title="Honey">honey</a> and <!--del_lnk--> beeswax, or for the purpose of <!--del_lnk--> pollinating <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">crops</a>, or to produce bees for sale to other beekeepers. A location where bees are kept is called an <!--del_lnk--> apiary.<p>
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</script><a id="History_of_beekeeping" name="History_of_beekeeping"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of beekeeping</span></h2>
<p>Beekeeping is one of the oldest forms of food production. Some of the earliest evidence of beekeeping is from <!--del_lnk--> rock painting, dating to around <!--del_lnk--> 13,000 BC. It was particularly well developed in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and was discussed by the Roman writers <a href="../../wp/v/Virgil.htm" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Gaius Julius Hyginus, <!--del_lnk--> Varro, and <!--del_lnk--> Columella. A pioneering beekeeping popularizer in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> was <!--del_lnk--> Amos Root.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1370.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bees_hive.jpg" src="../../images/13/1370.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Beekeeping was traditionally practiced for the bees' <a href="../../wp/h/Honey.htm" title="Honey">honey</a> harvest, although nowadays crop pollination service can often provide a greater part of a commercial beekeeper's income. Other hive products are pollen, <!--del_lnk--> royal jelly, and <!--del_lnk--> propolis, which are also used for nutritional and medicinal purposes, and <!--del_lnk--> wax which is used in <!--del_lnk--> candlemaking, <!--del_lnk--> cosmetics, wood polish, and for modelling. The modern use of hive products has changed little since ancient times.<p><!--del_lnk--> Western honeybees are not native to the Americas. American, <!--del_lnk--> Australian, and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> colonists imported honeybees from <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, partly for honey and partly for their usefulness as pollinators. The first honeybee species imported were likely <!--del_lnk--> European dark bees. Later <!--del_lnk--> italian bees, <!--del_lnk--> carniolan honeybees and <!--del_lnk--> caucasian bees were added.<p>Western honeybees were also brought to the <!--del_lnk--> Primorsky Krai in Russia by <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> settlers around <!--del_lnk--> 1850s. These <!--del_lnk--> Russian honey bees that are similar to the <!--del_lnk--> Carniolan bee were imported into the U.S. in <!--del_lnk--> 1990. The Russian honeybee has shown to be more resistant to the bee <!--del_lnk--> parasites <i><!--del_lnk--> Varroa destructor</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Acarapis woodi</i>.<p>Before the 1980s, most U.S. hobby beekeepers were farmers or relatives of a farmer, lived in rural areas, and kept bees with techniques passed down for generations. The arrival of <!--del_lnk--> tracheal mites in the <!--del_lnk--> 1980s and <!--del_lnk--> varroa mites and <!--del_lnk--> small hive beetles in the <!--del_lnk--> 1990s led to the discontinuation of the practice by most of these beekeepers as their bees could not survive among these new parasites.<p>In <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, other species of <!--del_lnk--> <i>Apis</i> exist which are used by local beekeepers for honey and <!--del_lnk--> beeswax. Non-<i>Apis</i> species of honeybees, known collectively as <!--del_lnk--> stingless bees, have also been kept from antiquity in <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Central America, although these traditions are dying, and the trigonine and meliponine species used are <!--del_lnk--> endangered.<p>
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<p><a id="Art_of_beekeeping" name="Art_of_beekeeping"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Art of beekeeping</span></h2>
<p>The control of a colony mainly consists in taking care of the state of the “demography” of the hives. Although some call it a "science," the "art" of the beekeeper is in managing a colony's population so that the maximum number of bees is available for a task at a particular time. Most beekeepers are interested in a surplus of honey. Maximal honey production occurs when the most workers bees (both foragers and ripeners) are present at the exact same time that nectar-producing flowers (in both numbers and nectar production) are also at an optimum. For pollination, both the grower and beekeeper are looking for a surplus of foraging honey bees. Package bee and queen producers try to have as many nurse (young worker) bees as possible on hand. Queen breeders also try to manage drone population numbers.<p>A colony of bees is composed of a single <!--del_lnk--> queen, many workers (infertile females), drones (males), and a brood (eggs, larvae, and pupae). A hive is the box used by beekeepers to house a colony.<p>A colony of bees tries to accumulate a surplus of provisions (<!--del_lnk--> nectar and <!--del_lnk--> pollen) during the more favorable seasons (when there is a lot of forage, such as flowers available, along with good weather) in order to be able to survive the more unfavourable seasons and reproduce. This period is the winter in the Northern hemisphere; in the Southern Hemisphere and in Africa this period is the dry season, or Summer.<p>The population of the colony varies according to the seasons. It is important for the colony to have a large population (30,000 to 60,000+ individuals) when there is a lot of forage available, in order to achieve the greatest possible harvest. The population is minimal in the winter (6,000 individuals) in order to reduce the consumption of provisions. The colony should not be too weak, however, because the bees which overwinter have to revive the colony again in the spring. If the population is too small over winter, another problem may be encountered: honey bees need to cluster together in winter in order to maintain the temperature (9 degrees celsius) required for their survival, and with reduced populations this is much more difficult to achieve.<p><a id="Types_of_beekeepers" name="Types_of_beekeepers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of beekeepers</span></h2>
<p>There are several types of beekeepers:<ul>
<li>Hobbyists — They have a different day job but find beekeeping fun as just a <!--del_lnk--> hobby.<li>Sideliners — Basically, sideliners have other income but <!--del_lnk--> moonlight as "beekeepers" for extra money.<li>Commercial — Beekeeping is their only source of income.</ul>
<p>Some southern U.S. and southern hemisphere (<a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>) beekeepers keep bees primarily to raise queens and package bees for sale. In the U.S., northern beekeepers can buy early spring queens and 3- or 4-pound packages of live worker bees from the South to replenish hives that die out during the winter, although this is becoming less practical due to the spread of the <!--del_lnk--> africanized bee,<p>In cold climates commercial beekeepers have to migrate with the seasons, hauling their hives on trucks to gentler southern climates for better wintering and early spring build-up. Many make "nucs" (small starter or nucleus colonies) for sale or replenishment of their own losses during the early spring. In the U.S. some may pollinate <!--del_lnk--> squash or <!--del_lnk--> cucumbers in Florida or make early honey from citrus groves in <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Texas or <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a>. The largest demand for pollination comes from the <a href="../../wp/a/Almond.htm" title="Almond">almond</a> groves in California. As spring moves northward so do the beekeepers, to supply bees for tree fruits, blueberries, strawberries, cranberries and later vegetables. Some commercial beekeepers alternate between pollination service and honey production but usually cannot do both at the same time.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1371.jpg.htm" title="A beekeeper collecting a bee swarm. If the queen can be swept to the frame and placed into the hive the remaining bees will follow her scent."><img alt="A beekeeper collecting a bee swarm. If the queen can be swept to the frame and placed into the hive the remaining bees will follow her scent." height="231" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beekeper_collecting_swarm.jpg" src="../../images/13/1371.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1371.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A beekeeper collecting a bee swarm. If the queen can be swept to the frame and placed into the hive the remaining bees will follow her scent.</div>
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<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Hemisphere, beekeepers usually harvest honey from July until September, though in warmer climates the season can be longer. The rest of the year is spent keeping the hive free of <!--del_lnk--> pests and <!--del_lnk--> disease, and ensuring that the bee colony has room in the <!--del_lnk--> hive to expand. Success for the hobbyist also depends on locating the apiary so bees have a good <!--del_lnk--> nectar source and <!--del_lnk--> pollen source throughout the year.<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> Southern Hemisphere, beekeeping is an all-the-year-round enterprise, although in cooler areas (to the south of Australia and New Zealand) the activity may be minimal in the winter (May to August). Consequently, the movement of commercial hives is more localised in these areas.<p><a id="Types_of_beekeeping_equipment" name="Types_of_beekeeping_equipment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of beekeeping equipment</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1372.jpg.htm" title="Wooden hives in Stripeikiai in Lithuania"><img alt="Wooden hives in Stripeikiai in Lithuania" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lithuania_Stripeikiai_Honeymaking_Museum.jpg" src="../../images/13/1372.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>There are considerable regional variations in the type of hive in which bees are kept. A hive is a set of wooden boxes filled with frames that each hold a sheet of wax or plastic foundation. The bottom box, or brood chamber, contains the queen and most of the bees; the upper boxes, or supers, contain just honey. The bees produce wax and build honeycomb using the wax sheets as a starting point, after which they may raise brood or deposit honey and pollen in the cells of the comb. These frames can be freely manipulated and honey supers with frames full of honey can be taken and extracted for their honey crop. In the USA, the <!--del_lnk--> Langstroth hive is commonly used. The Langstroth was the first type of hive with movable frames, and other designs of hive have been based on it. In the UK, the most common type of hive is the National Hive but it is not unusual to see some other sorts of hive (Smith, Commercial and WBC, rarely Langstroth). The more traditional <!--del_lnk--> skep is now largely unlawful in the United States, as the comb and brood cannot be inspected for diseases.<p>A few hobby beekeepers are adopting various <!--del_lnk--> top-bar hives commonly found in Africa. These have no frames and the honey filled comb is not returned to the hive after extraction, as it is in the Langstroth hive. Because of this the production of honey in a top bar hive is only about 20% that of a Langstroth hive, but the initial costs and equipment requirements are far lower. Top-bar hives also offer some advantages in interacting with the bees and the amount of weight that must be lifted is greatly reduced.<p><a id="Protective_clothing" name="Protective_clothing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Protective clothing</span></h3>
<p>When interacting with the bees, novice beekeepers usually wear protective clothing (including gloves and a hooded suit or hat and veil). Experienced beekeepers rarely use gloves because they make movement clumsy and can transmit disease from one hive to another. The face and neck are the most important areas to protect, so most beekeepers will at least wear a veil.<p>Defensive bees are attracted to the breath and a sting on the face can lead to much more pain and swelling than a sting elsewhere while a sting on a bare hand can usually be quickly removed by fingernail scrape to reduce the amount of venom injected.<p>The protective clothing is generally light colored and of a smooth material. This provides the maximum differentiation from the colony's natural predators (bears, skunks, etc.) which tend to be dark-colored and furry.<p><a id="Smoker" name="Smoker"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Smoker</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1373.jpg.htm" title="A well used bee smoker"><img alt="A well used bee smoker" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bee_smoker.jpg" src="../../images/13/1373.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1373.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A well used bee smoker</div>
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<p>Smoke is the beekeeper's second line of defense; protective clothing provides remarkably little protection from agitated bees. Most beekeepers use a "smoker"—a device designed to generate smoke from the incomplete combustion of various fuels. Smoke calms bees; it initiates a feeding response in anticipation of possible hive abandonment due to fire. Smoke also masks alarm pheromones released by guard bees or when bees are squashed in an inspection. The ensuing confusion creates an opportunity for the beekeeper to open the hive and work without triggering a defensive reaction. In addition, when a bee consumes honey the bee's abdomen distends, making it difficult to make the necessary flexes to sting.<p>Smoke is of no use with a swarm, because swarms do not have honey stores to feed on in response. Usually smoke is not needed since swarms tend to be less defensive, as they have no stores to defend, and a fresh swarm will have fed well from the hive.<p>Many types of fuel can be used in a smoker as long as it is natural and not contaminated with harmful substances. These fuels include hessian, cardboard, and rotten or punky wood. Some beekeeping supply sources also sell commercial fuels like pulped paper and compressed cotton, or even aerosol cans of smoke.<p><a id="Formation_of_new_colonies" name="Formation_of_new_colonies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Formation of new colonies</span></h2>
<p><a id="Swarming" name="Swarming"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Swarming</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1374.jpg.htm" title="A swarm about to land"><img alt="A swarm about to land" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Essaim_d%27abeilles_en_vol_%28modifi%C3%A9e%29.jpg" src="../../images/13/1374.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1374.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A swarm about to land</div>
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<p>The most successful colonies reproduce by swarming. In the beginning of spring, several queen cells are produced. About a week before the queens hatch, the old queen leaves the hive with half of the worker bees (all categories) and they form a swarm: right when they leave, the worker bees' crops are all stuffed with supplies, and because of this they are less inclined to sting: a new swarm is gentle for several hours.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1375.jpg.htm" title="A swarm attached to a branch"><img alt="A swarm attached to a branch" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Essaim_d%27abeilles_pos%C3%A9.JPG" src="../../images/13/1375.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1375.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A swarm attached to a branch</div>
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<p>This swarm is looking for shelter; a beekeeper who captures it and introduces it into a new hive helps to meet this need. Otherwise, it will return to a wild state, in which case it will find shelter in a hollow tree, an excavation, an abandoned chimney or even behind shutters.<p>Inside the hive, the first queen to be born will immediately kill all her rivals who are still in their cells. This is due to the fact that each colony can only have one queen. One week later, the new queen undertakes her first nuptial flight.<p>A colony can produce, from spring to the start of summer, up to three swarms: the primary, secondary and tertiary.<p><a id="Artifical_swarming" name="Artifical_swarming"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Artifical swarming</span></h3>
<p>When a colony accidentally loses its queen, it is said to be orphaned. The workers realize that the queen is absent after one or two days. The colony cannot survive without the queen laying eggs, renewing its population. So the workers select cells containing eggs aged less than three days and enlarge these cells. The larvae contained therein receive nothing but royal jelly, which ensures that they will grow up to be queens.<p>Beekeepers use this capability in order to multiply their colonies. In order to do this, they remove several honeycomb panels from a healthy hive. These panels must hold many worker bees and eggs aged less than three days. The workers are then placed into a little hive that has honeycombs filled with provisions. If everything goes well, a new queen is born two weeks later.<p><a id="Harvesting_honey" name="Harvesting_honey"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Harvesting honey</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1376.jpg.htm" title="Image:Protection.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/13/1376.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>A beekeeper removing frames from the hive</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 23px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1377.jpg.htm" title="Image:Langstroth Frames.jpg"><img alt="" height="100" src="../../images/13/1377.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>A frame</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1378.jpg.htm" title="Image:Smoker.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/13/1378.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Smoking the hive</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1379.jpg.htm" title="Image:Opening-cells .jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/13/1379.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
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<p>Opening the cells: Uncapping</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1380.jpg.htm" title="Image:Fork-Beekeeping .jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/13/1380.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>An uncapping fork</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1381.jpg.htm" title="Image:Discovered honey .jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/13/1381.jpg" width="92" /></a></div>
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<p>Uncapping the cells using an uncapping knife</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1382.jpg.htm" title="Image:Extractor Beekeeping.jpg"><img alt="" height="89" src="../../images/13/1382.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Extracting the honey</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1383.jpg.htm" title="Image:Filtering of honey .jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/13/1383.jpg" width="81" /></a></div>
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<p>Filtering the honey</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 24px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1384.jpg.htm" title="Image:Honey-miel.jpg"><img alt="" height="98" src="../../images/13/1384.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Pouring in pots (after maturation)</div>
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<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beekeeping"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Railway_transport.htm">Railway transport</a></h3>
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<caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>The <i>Beep</i></b></caption>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller;"><a class="image" href="../../images/169/16975.jpg.htm" title="The Beep"><img alt="The Beep" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Atsf1460.jpg" src="../../images/169/16975.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /> Santa Fe's #1460, affectionately known to railfans as the "Beep," works the railroad's Argentine yard sometime prior to the 1995 BNSF merger.</td>
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<tr>
<th style="color: black; background: #cc9966; text-align: center;">Power type</th>
<th style="color: black; background: #cc9966; text-align: center;">Diesel-electric</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Builder</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Baldwin Locomotive Works;<br /> rebuilt by the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Build date</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1970</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> AAR wheel arr.</th>
<td>B-B</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Gauge</th>
<td>4 <!--del_lnk--> ft 8<small><sup>1</sup><big>⁄</big><sub>2</sub></small> <!--del_lnk--> in (1435 <!--del_lnk--> mm)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Length</th>
<td>48 ft 0 in (14.88 m)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Total weight</th>
<td>254,000 <!--del_lnk--> lb (115,000 <!--del_lnk--> kg)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Prime mover</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EMD 16-567BC</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Engine type</th>
<td>2-stroke diesel</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Aspiration</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Roots blower</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Displacement</th>
<td>9,072 in³ (148.7 L)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Cylinders</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> V16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Cylinder size</th>
<td>8.5 in × 10 in<br /> (216 mm × 254 mm)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Transmission</th>
<td>DC generator,<br /> DC traction motors</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Top speed</th>
<td>65 <!--del_lnk--> mph (105 <!--del_lnk--> km/h)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Power output</th>
<td>1,500 <!--del_lnk--> hp (1,119 kW)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Tractive effort</th>
<td>63,500 lbf (282 kN)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Locomotive brakes</th>
<td>Straight air</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Train brakes</th>
<td>Air</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="color: black; background: #cc9966; text-align: center;">Career</th>
<td style="color: black; background: #cc9966; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway,<br /><!--del_lnk--> BNSF Railway</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Number</th>
<td>currently 1460</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Official name</th>
<td><i>SWBLW</i> (<b>SW</b>itcher, <b>B</b>aldwin <b>L</b>ocomotive <b>W</b>orks)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Locale</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The "<b>Beep</b>" (also referred to as the <b>SWBLW</b>) is a one-of-a-kind <!--del_lnk--> switcher <!--del_lnk--> locomotive built in <!--del_lnk--> 1970 by the <!--del_lnk--> Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway at its <!--del_lnk--> Cleburne, Texas workshops. Technically a rebuild, the Beep (a <!--del_lnk--> portmanteau of "<b>B</b>aldwin G<b><!--del_lnk--> eep</b>," whose official designation was derived from "<b>SW</b>itcher, <b>B</b>aldwin <b>L</b>ocomotive <b>W</b>orks") originally entered service on the Santa Fe as a <!--del_lnk--> Baldwin Model <!--del_lnk--> VO-1000. Following close on the heels of its highly-successful <a href="../../wp/c/CF7.htm" title="CF7">CF7</a> capital rebuilding program, the company hoped to determine whether or not remanufacturing its aging, non-EMD end cab switchers by fitting them with new EMD <!--del_lnk--> prime movers was an economically viable proposition. In the end, the conversion procedure proved too costly and only the one unit was modified, though it remains in active service to this day.<p>
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<p>In the early 1960s the <!--del_lnk--> Reading Company sent 14 of their VO-1000s to <!--del_lnk--> General Motors Electro-Motive Division to have them rebuilt to <!--del_lnk--> SW900 specifications. Unlike the "Beep," however, these locomotives retained most of their original carbodies. The units were subsequently given the designation <!--del_lnk--> VO-1000m.<p><a id="Development" name="Development"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Development</span></h3>
<p>VO-1000 No. 67729 emerged from the <!--del_lnk--> Baldwin Locomotive Works <!--del_lnk--> Eddystone, Pennsylvania facility in July, <!--del_lnk--> 1943 dressed in the Santa Fe <i>Zebra Stripe</i> livery and bearing #2220. In the early <!--del_lnk--> 1960s the unit would take on the blue and yellow <i>Billboard</i> paint scheme with "<b>SANTA FE</b>" displayed in small yellow letters above the accent stripe, as was the standard for all <!--del_lnk--> yard switchers. It is these colors that #2220 displayed when it was selected as a test subject. Much as with the CF7 conversions, the unit was stripped down to its bare frame, and the long hood, 1,000 hp power plant, <!--del_lnk--> trucks, control gear, and electrical system scrapped; only the Baldwin cab remained.<p>Mirroring the very first CF7 modification, the long hood and walkways from a decommissioned <!--del_lnk--> GP7 was fitted to the Baldwin's cast <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> frame, which (as it turned out) required a considerable amount of modification. The locomotive was configured in a <!--del_lnk--> B-B wheel arrangement and mounted atop two <!--del_lnk--> Blomberg B two-axle <!--del_lnk--> trucks, with all axles powered. A sixteen-cylinder <!--del_lnk--> EMD 567 series <!--del_lnk--> diesel engine, salvaged from a retired <!--del_lnk--> EMD F-unit, was installed and fitted with a two-stack exhaust manifold. Additionally, the unit received a state-of-the-art electrical system.<p>The completed Beep rolled out of the Cleburne shops in December of 1970 (with one of its original Baldwin builder's plates still affixed) sporting fresh blue and yellow paint, though now the words "<b>Santa Fe</b>" were applied in yellow in a large serif font (logotype) along the sides below the accent stripe in the style otherwise reserved for <!--del_lnk--> road switchers and other <!--del_lnk--> main line locomotives. It was also assigned #2450 (the first CF7 was given #2649, with successive numbers applied in descending order) and placed in service in south <!--del_lnk--> Texas.<p><a id="In_service" name="In_service"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">In service</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:307px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16976.jpg.htm" title="In its original incarnation, the "Beep" bore close resemblance to Western Pacific Railroad #581, a Baldwin VO-1000 seen here in a September, 1945 builder's photo."><img alt="In its original incarnation, the "Beep" bore close resemblance to Western Pacific Railroad #581, a Baldwin VO-1000 seen here in a September, 1945 builder's photo." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WP_581_builders_photo.jpg" src="../../images/169/16976.jpg" width="305" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16976.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In its original incarnation, the "Beep" bore close resemblance to <!--del_lnk--> Western Pacific Railroad #581, a Baldwin VO-1000 seen here in a September, 1945 builder's photo.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Train crews favored #2450 due to the superior riding qualities of its Blomberg trucks, which ran more smoothly than the original <!--del_lnk--> AAR Type-A switcher trucks; being several tons heavier than a typical GP7 imparted a higher tractive effort which was helpful when switching long cuts of cars. The Beep spent many years in lease service performing switching duties for the <!--del_lnk--> Port Terminal Railroad Association in <a href="../../wp/h/Houston%252C_Texas.htm" title="Houston, Texas">Houston</a>. In August, <!--del_lnk--> 1974 the unit was re-designated as #1160 as part of a general locomotive renumbering scheme. It was again renumbered along with the Santa Fe's few remaining EMD switchers and assigned #1460 in January, <!--del_lnk--> 1977.<p>The Beep was transferred to Cleburne as the shop switcher in the mid-1980s, where in <!--del_lnk--> 1985 it was given a number of external modifications. A cab <!--del_lnk--> air conditioning system was added, and the rear cab windows were modified from their original Baldwin pattern to a new three-pane configuration that accommodated the use of standard window glass sizes common to many EMD locomotives. The unit was given fresh paint (the <i>Billboard</i> colors were maintained) and placed back in service.<p>SW900 #1453, the Santa Fe's last "standard" EMD switcher, was retired in <!--del_lnk--> 1987, thereby making #1460 the only remaining end cab switcher on the roster. The Beep continued its work at Cleburne until the shops were closed later that year. Since then, the unit has worked as a shop switcher at both the Argentine shops in <!--del_lnk--> Kansas City and in <!--del_lnk--> Topeka, Kansas. The locomotive was equipped with remote control equipment (RCE) in the early 1990s so that it could be operated from a distance.<p>After the Santa Fe merged with the <!--del_lnk--> Burlington Northern Railroad in <!--del_lnk--> 1995 to form the <!--del_lnk--> BNSF Railway, the Beep was one of only three blue and yellow units not affected by the new company's sweeping renumbering program. <!--del_lnk--> #1460's cab sides were affixed with a BNSF sublettering "patch" and retrofitted with a four-stack exhaust manifold. The locomotive's 35-year term of service makes it without question the longest-lived Santa Fe rebuild still active in the BNSF system.<p><a id="Footnote" name="Footnote"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Footnote</span></h3>
<p>Santa Fe had designated a handful of other non-EMD switcher locomotives for rebuilding around 1970 (including two <!--del_lnk--> Fairbanks-Morse <!--del_lnk--> H-10-44s), but all of these units were subsequently scrapped when it was determined that the required modifications were not cost-effective.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beep_%28SWBLW%29"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beer</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Drink.htm">Drink</a></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16977.jpg.htm" title="A selection of bottled beers"><img alt="A selection of bottled beers" height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dutch_beers.jpg" src="../../images/169/16977.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16978.jpg.htm" title="A selection of cask beers"><img alt="A selection of cask beers" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cask_Ales.jpg" src="../../images/169/16978.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Beer</b> is one of the world's oldest <!--del_lnk--> alcoholic beverages, possibly brewed for the first time over 10,000 years ago, according to renowned beer writer <!--del_lnk--> Michael Jackson. It is a <!--del_lnk--> fermented beverage most often made from <!--del_lnk--> malted <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a>, <!--del_lnk--> hops, <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a> and water, and is <!--del_lnk--> carbonated in almost all cases. By altering the production method (changes in time and temperature, for example) or the ingredients, a staggeringly wide variety of different types of beer can be produced. Much like fine <!--del_lnk--> wines, many beers can also be aged and evolve into beverages that defy the common definitions of beer.<p>
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<dl>
<dd>
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<p>Beer is one of the oldest human-produced beverages, possibly dating back to at least the <!--del_lnk--> 7th millennium BC (perhaps prior even to <a href="../../wp/b/Bread.htm" title="Bread">bread</a>), and recorded in the written history of <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Earliest known chemical evidence of beer dates to circa 3500-3100 BC.<!--del_lnk--> As almost any substance containing <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrates, namely <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a> or <!--del_lnk--> starch, can naturally undergo fermentation, it is likely that beer-like beverages were independently invented among various cultures throughout the world.<p>In Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Levant, large-scale production of beer was common. In Europe, beer was being produced by or for monasteries as early as the <a href="../../wp/7/7th_century.htm" title="7th century">7th century</a>. By the <a href="../../wp/1/14th_century.htm" title="14th century">14th</a> and <a href="../../wp/1/15th_century.htm" title="15th century">15th centuries</a>, beer had achieved great popularity, at least in part because health epidemics made drinking beer safer than drinking water. However it was not until the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a>, according to <!--del_lnk--> Michael Jackson, that beer took on the styles and flavours that we might recognise in the beers of today.<p>Today, the <!--del_lnk--> brewing industry is a huge global <a href="../../wp/b/Business.htm" title="Business">business</a>, consisting of several <!--del_lnk--> multinational companies, and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from <!--del_lnk--> brewpubs to <!--del_lnk--> regional breweries.<p><a id="Brewing" name="Brewing"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Brewing</span></h2>
<p>Though the process of <!--del_lnk--> brewing beer is complex and varies considerably, the basic stages that are consistent are outlined below. There may be additional filtration steps between stages.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16980.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="277" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Brewer_designed_and_engraved_in_the_Sixteenth._Century_by_J_Amman.png" src="../../images/169/16980.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<ol>
<li><b>Mashing</b>: The first phase of brewing, in which the <!--del_lnk--> malted grains are crushed and soaked in warm water in order to create a malt extract. The mash is held at constant temperature long enough for enzymes to convert starches into fermentable sugars, usually about 45 to 90 minutes, depending on mash temperature (high temperatures = faster). The temperature is typically held at either a single temperature (single step) or a series of temperatures depending on the enzymes one wants to focus on. Typically with modern fully-modified malts, a single-stage infusion is all that is required. For most mashes, a temperature between 65-67°C (150-154°F) is typical, with higher temperatures yielding fuller bodied beers, and lower temperatures yielding more fermentable and lighter bodied beers. Multi-temperature mashes are used for acid-buffering reactions and protein rests for head-retention for some types of malts.<li><b>Sparging</b>: Water is filtered through the mash to dissolve the sugars. The darker, sugar-heavy liquid is called the <!--del_lnk--> wort. Typically the rinse water (sparge) is held between 76-82°C (170-180°F) to (1) keep sugars and gums from setting up and (2) above 82°C (180°F), tannin extraction could be a problem.<li><b>Boiling</b>: The <!--del_lnk--> wort is boiled along with any remaining ingredients (excluding yeast), to remove excess water and kill any <!--del_lnk--> microorganisms. The main function of boiling is to set proteins and such similar to cooking bread. The <!--del_lnk--> hops (whole, pelleted, or extract) are added at some stage during the boil. Bittering hops are added during the entire boil (1 hour +), flavoring are added between about 5 - 20 minutes, and aroma hops are added at 5 minutes or less.<li><b>Fermentation</b>: The <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a> is added (or <i>"pitched"</i>) and the beer is left to ferment. After primary fermentation, the beer may be allowed a second fermentation, which allows further settling of yeast and other particulate matter (<i>"trub"</i>) which may have been introduced earlier in the process. Some brewers may skip the secondary fermentation and simply filter off the yeast.<li><b>Packaging</b>: At this point, the beer contains alcohol, but not much carbon dioxide. The brewer has a few options to increase carbon dioxide levels. The most common approach by large-scale brewers is force <!--del_lnk--> carbonation, via the direct addition of <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> gas to the <!--del_lnk--> keg or bottle. Smaller-scale or more classically-minded brewers will add extra (<i>"priming"</i>) sugar (usually about 5 oz corn sugar per 5 gal) or a small amount of newly fermenting wort (<i>"kräusen"</i>) to the final vessel, resulting in a short refermentation known as <i>"cask-"</i> or <i>"bottle conditioning"</i>. This can be done by "bulk priming" or "bottle priming" methods. Bulk priming is the process of addiing the additional sugar to the entirety of the beer. Bottle priming is adding it to each bottle individually.</ol>
<p>After brewing, the beer is usually a finished product. At this point the beer is <!--del_lnk--> kegged, <!--del_lnk--> casked, <!--del_lnk--> bottled, or <!--del_lnk--> canned.<p>Unfiltered beers may be stored for further fermentation in conditioning tanks, casks or bottles to allow smoothing of harsh alcohol notes, integration of heavy hop flavours, and/or the introduction of oxidised notes such as wine or sherry flavours. Some beer enthusiasts consider a long conditioning period attractive for various strong beers such as <!--del_lnk--> Barley wines. There are some beer cafes in Europe, such as Kulminator in Antwerp, which stock beers aged ten years or more. Aged beers such as <i>Bass Kings Ale</i> from 1902, <i>Courage Imperial Russian Stout</i> and <i>Thomas Hardys Ale</i> are particularly valued. <p><a id="Ingredients" name="Ingredients"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ingredients</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16981.jpg.htm" title="Malted barley before roasting"><img alt="Malted barley before roasting" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sjb_whiskey_malt.jpg" src="../../images/169/16981.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The basic ingredients of beer are <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a>, a fermentable starch source, such as <!--del_lnk--> malted <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a>, and <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a>. It is common for a flavouring to be added, the most popular being <!--del_lnk--> hops. A mixture of starch sources may be used, with the secondary starch source, such as corn, rice and sugar, often being termed an <!--del_lnk--> adjunct, especially when used as a lower cost substitute for malted barley.<p><a id="Water" name="Water"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Water</span></h3>
<p>Beer is composed mainly of water, which when heated is known as brewing liquor. The characteristics of the water have an influence on the character of the beer. Although the effect of, and interactions between, various dissolved minerals in brewing water is complex, as a general rule, <!--del_lnk--> hard water is more suited to dark beer such as <!--del_lnk--> stout, while very soft water is more suited for brewing <!--del_lnk--> pale ale and <!--del_lnk--> pale lager.<p><a id="Starch_source" name="Starch_source"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hops</span></h3>
<p>Hops have commonly been used as a bittering agent in beer for over a thousand years, the earliest evidence of cultivation for this purpose dates back to the seventeenth century (according to Judith M. Bennett). <!--del_lnk--> Hops contain several characteristics very favourable to beer: (a) hops contribute a <!--del_lnk--> bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt, (b) hops also contribute aromas which range from flowery to citrus to herbal, (c) hops have an <!--del_lnk--> antibiotic effect that favours the activity of <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Brewer's yeast">brewer's yeast</a> over less desirable microorganisms and (d) the use of hops aids in "<!--del_lnk--> head retention", the length of time that a foamy head created by the beer's carbonation agent will last. The bitterness of commercially-brewed beers is measured on the <!--del_lnk--> International Bitterness Units scale. While <!--del_lnk--> hop plants are grown by farmers all around the world in many different varieties, there is no major commercial use for hops other than in beer.<p><a id="Yeast" name="Yeast"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Yeast</span></h3>
<p>A microorganism that is responsible for fermentation. A specific strain of <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a> is chosen depending on the type of beer being produced, the two main strains being <!--del_lnk--> ale yeast (<i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> lager yeast (<i><!--del_lnk--> Saccharomyces uvarum</i>), with some other variations available, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Brettanomyces</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Torulaspora delbrueckii</i>. Yeast will <!--del_lnk--> metabolise the sugars extracted from the grains, and produce <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> as a result. Before yeast's functions were understood, fermentations were conducted naturally using wild or airborne yeasts; although a few styles such as <!--del_lnk--> lambics still rely on this ancient method, most modern fermentations are conducted using pure yeast <!--del_lnk--> cultures.<p><a id="Clarifying_agent" name="Clarifying_agent"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Clarifying agent</span></h3>
<p>Some brewers add one or more <!--del_lnk--> clarifying agents to beer that are not required to be published as ingredients. Common examples of these include <!--del_lnk--> Isinglass finings, obtained from <!--del_lnk--> swimbladders of <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>; kappa <!--del_lnk--> carrageenan, derived from seaweed; <!--del_lnk--> Irish moss, a type of <!--del_lnk--> red alga; polyclar (artificial), and <!--del_lnk--> gelatin.<p><a id="Styles" name="Styles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Styles</span></h2>
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<p>A great many different types, or styles, of beer are brewed across the globe. The traditional European brewing nations - the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, The Netherlands and Austria - all have their own beer styles. These form the basis of the vast majority of beer brewed around the world. In some countries - notably the USA, Canada and Australia - brewers have adapted European styles to such an extent that they have effectively created their own indigenous types.<p>The greatest diversity of flavours and types of beer can be found in Belgium, as demonstrated by its <!--del_lnk--> trappist, <!--del_lnk--> lambic and other beer styles. Germany too has a history of regional beer types, however, over time, some of these beers have disappeared.<p>In tasting a beer for the first time, you might begin by asking: do I like this beer and why? Rather than concerning yourself with the beer's style, you might consider some of the physical attributes of the beer: aroma, appearance, mouthfeel (does it feel thin, creamy, syrupy in your mouth?), taste (sour, sweet, bitter, etc.) and the lack or presence of discernible alcohol. There are no "right" or "wrong" answers -- it's all a matter of taste.<p><i><b>Categorising by yeast</b></i><dl>
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<p>A common method of categorising beer is by the behaviour of the yeast used in the fermentation process. In this method of categorising, those beers which use a fast acting yeast which leaves behind residual sugars are termed ales, while those beers which use a slower and longer acting yeast which removes most of the sugars leaving a clean and dry beer are termed lagers.<p><a id="Ale" name="Ale"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ale</span></h3>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16983.jpg.htm" title="Cask ales"><img alt="Cask ales" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HandPumps.jpg" src="../../images/169/16983.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16983.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Cask ales</div>
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<p>A modern <!--del_lnk--> ale is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature.<p>Ales are normally brewed with <!--del_lnk--> top-fermenting yeasts, though a number of British brewers, including <!--del_lnk--> Fullers and <!--del_lnk--> Weltons, use ale yeast strains that have less pronounced top-fermentation characteristics. The important distinction for ales is that they are fermented at higher temperatures and thus ferment more quickly than lagers.<p>Ale is typically fermented at temperatures between 15 and 24<!--del_lnk--> °C (60 and 75<!--del_lnk--> °F). At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of <!--del_lnk--> esters and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly "fruity" compounds resembling but not limited to <a href="../../wp/a/Apple.htm" title="Apple">apple</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pear, <!--del_lnk--> pineapple, <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">banana</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Plum.htm" title="Plum">plum</a>, or <!--del_lnk--> prune. Typical ales have a sweeter, fuller <!--del_lnk--> body than lagers.<p>Differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorise. <!--del_lnk--> Steam beer, <!--del_lnk--> Kölsch, <!--del_lnk--> Alt and some modern British Golden Summer Beers use elements of both lager and ale production. Baltic Porter and Bière de Garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both. However, lager production is perceived to produce cleaner tasting, dryer and lighter beer than ale. <p><a id="Lager" name="Lager"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lager</span></h3>
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<div style="width:66px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16984.jpg.htm" title="A stein of lager"><img alt="A stein of lager" height="64" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beer.jpg" src="../../images/169/16984.jpg" width="64" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16984.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A stein of <!--del_lnk--> lager</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Lager is the English name for bottom-fermenting beers of Central European origin. They are the most commonly-consumed beer in the world. The name comes from the <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> <i>lagern</i> ("to store"). Lager yeast is a <!--del_lnk--> bottom-fermenting yeast, and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7-12 °C (45-55 °F) (the "fermentation phase"), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0-4 °C (32-40 °F) (the "lagering phase"). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of <!--del_lnk--> esters and other byproducts, resulting in a "crisper" tasting beer.<p>Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by <!--del_lnk--> Gabriel Sedlmayr the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the <!--del_lnk--> Spaten Brewery in <!--del_lnk--> Bavaria, and <!--del_lnk--> Anton Dreher, who began brewing a lager, probably of amber-red colour, in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> in 1840–1841. With modern improved yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1–3 weeks.<p>The <i>lagering</i> phase is not restricted to <i>lager</i> beers. In Germany, all beers are stored at low temperatures before consumption; in the British tradition, the practice of Cold Conditioning is similar in nature. <p><a id="Lambic_beers:_spontaneous_fermentation" name="Lambic_beers:_spontaneous_fermentation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Lambic beers: spontaneous fermentation</span></h3>
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<p>Lambic beers use wild yeasts, rather than cultivated ones. Many of these are not related to brewer's yeast (<i>Saccharomyces</i>), and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness.<p><a id="Pale_and_dark_beer" name="Pale_and_dark_beer"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pale and dark beer</span></h3>
<p>The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. <i>Pale lager</i> is a term used for beers made from <!--del_lnk--> malt dried with <!--del_lnk--> coke. Coke had been first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it wasn't until around 1703 that the term <i>pale ale</i> was first used. In terms of volume, most of today's beer is based on the <!--del_lnk--> pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of <!--del_lnk--> Plzeň, in the <!--del_lnk--> Czech Republic. The modern Pilsner lager is light in colour and high in carbonation, with a strong hop flavour and an <!--del_lnk--> alcohol by volume content of around 5%. The <!--del_lnk--> Pilsner Urquell and <!--del_lnk--> Heineken brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager, as are the American brands Budweiser, Coors, and Miller.<p>Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or pils malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants - such as caramel - are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as <!--del_lnk--> stout, use dark or patent malts. These have been roasted longer.<p><a id="Serving" name="Serving"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Serving</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16985.jpg.htm" title="Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels"><img alt="Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Keg_Fonts.jpg" src="../../images/169/16985.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16985.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels</div>
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<p><b>Draught beer</b> from a pressurized <!--del_lnk--> keg is the most common dispense method in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurized with <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers, notably <!--del_lnk--> stouts, such as <a href="../../wp/g/Guinness.htm" title="Guinness">Guinness</a> and "Smooth" bitters, such as <!--del_lnk--> Boddingtons, may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense <!--del_lnk--> head and a creamy <!--del_lnk--> mouthfeel.<p>In the 1980s Guinness introduced the <!--del_lnk--> beer widget, a nitrogen pressurized ball inside a can which creates a foamy head. The words "draft" and "draught" are often used as marketing terms to describe <!--del_lnk--> canned or <!--del_lnk--> bottled beers containing a beer widget.<p><a id="Cask_ales" name="Cask_ales"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cask ales</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16986.jpg.htm" title="Schlenkerla Rauchbier direct from the cask"><img alt="Schlenkerla Rauchbier direct from the cask" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GravityTap.jpg" src="../../images/169/16986.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16986.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Schlenkerla Rauchbier direct from the cask</div>
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<p><b>Cask ales</b> are unfiltered and unpasteurised. Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a <!--del_lnk--> stillage and allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically around 13°C / 55.4°F), before being tapped and vented — a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard <!--del_lnk--> spile or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to "drop" (clear) again, as well as to fully condition — this period can anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being "gravity-fed" directly into the glass.<p><a id="Bottles" name="Bottles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bottles</span></h3>
<p>Most beers are filtered before bottling. See <!--del_lnk--> Filtered beer. But some are bottle conditioned.<dl>
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<p><b><!--del_lnk--> Bottle conditioned</b> beers are unfiltered and unpasteurised. It is usually recommended that the beer is poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast, and this practice is customary with <!--del_lnk--> wheat beers. Typically when serving a <!--del_lnk--> hefeweizen 90% of the contents is poured and the remainder swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass.<p><a id="Cans" name="Cans"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cans</span></h3>
<p>A lot of beer is sold in <!--del_lnk--> beer cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries. In Sweden 60% of beer is sold in cans, in Denmark none at all. People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. Cans are commonly associated with cheap, mass-produced American beer such as Budwieser and Miller. Imported and micro-brewed beers are usually purchased in <!--del_lnk--> beer bottles.<p><a id="Serving_temperature" name="Serving_temperature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Serving temperature</span></h3>
<div class="floatleft"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/169/16987.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="123" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Manet%2C_Edouard_-_La_Serveuse_de_Bocks_%28The_Waitress%29%2C_1879.jpg" src="../../images/169/16987.jpg" width="100" /></a></span></div>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience. Colder temperatures allow fully attenuated beers such as <!--del_lnk--> pale lagers to be enjoyed for their crispness; while warmer temperatures allow the more rounded flavours of an ale or a <!--del_lnk--> stout to be perceived. Beer writer <!--del_lnk--> Michael Jackson proposes a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7°C/45°F) for "light" beers (American and Australian lagers), chilled (8°C/47°F) for Berliner Weisse, lightly chilled (9C/48F) for European lagers, all dark lagers, <!--del_lnk--> altbier and German wheat beers, cellar temperature (13°C/55°F) for regular British <!--del_lnk--> ale, <!--del_lnk--> stout and most Belgian specialities and room temperature (15.5°C/60°F) for strong dark ales (especially <!--del_lnk--> trappist) and <!--del_lnk--> barley wine.<p>
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<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:166px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16988.jpg.htm" title="Gambrinus - king of beer"><img alt="Gambrinus - king of beer" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gambrinus.jpg" src="../../images/169/16988.jpg" width="164" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16988.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Gambrinus - king of beer</div>
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<p><a id="Social_context" name="Social_context"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Social context</span></h3>
<p>Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing <a href="../../wp/p/Playing_card.htm" title="Playing card">cards</a>, <!--del_lnk--> darts or other <!--del_lnk--> pub games; attending <!--del_lnk--> beer festivals, or visiting a <!--del_lnk--> series of different pubs in one evening; <!--del_lnk--> rating beer; joining an organisation such as <!--del_lnk--> CAMRA; or <!--del_lnk--> brewing beer at home. Various <!--del_lnk--> drinking games, such as <!--del_lnk--> beer pong, and <!--del_lnk--> Quarters are also very popular.<p><a id="International_consumption" name="International_consumption"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">International consumption</span></h3>
<p>Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies. Beer is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Iraq and Syria as well as African countries (see <!--del_lnk--> African beer) and remote countries such as Mongolia. Sales of beer are four times as much as wine, the second most popular alcoholic beverage. <p><a id="Vessels" name="Vessels"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Vessels</span></h3>
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<p>Beer is drunk from a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a <!--del_lnk--> beer stein, a mug, a <!--del_lnk--> pewter <!--del_lnk--> tankard or even a <!--del_lnk--> beer bottle or <!--del_lnk--> can. Many drinkers consider that the type of vessel influences their enjoyment of the beer. In Europe, many breweries produce glassware intended only for their own beers. Most drinkers expect their beer to be served in a glass, preferably the glass chosen by the brewery. <p>The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation.<p>The rate of flow from the <!--del_lnk--> tap or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the end result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and <!--del_lnk--> turbulence of the beer and its release of <!--del_lnk--> carbonation.<p>Unfiltered bottled beers may be served with the addition of the remaining yeast at the bottom of the bottle to add both flavour and colour.<p><a id="Rating" name="Rating"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rating</span></h3>
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<p>Rating beer is a recent craze that combines the enjoyment of beer drinking with the hobby of <!--del_lnk--> collecting. People drink beer and then record their scores and comments on various internet websites. This is a worldwide activity and people in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> will swap bottles of beer with people living in <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>. People's scores may be tallied together to create lists of the most popular beers in each country as well as the most highly rated beers in the world.<p><a id="Health_effects" name="Health_effects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Health effects</span></h2>
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<p>Beer contains alcohol which has a number of health risks and benefits. However, beer includes a wide variety of other agents that are currently undergoing scientific evaluation.<p><a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Brewer's yeast">Brewer's yeast</a> is known to be a rich source of nutrients; therefore, as expected, beer can contain significant amounts of nutrients, including <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Selenium.htm" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Phosphorus.htm" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> biotin, and <a href="../../wp/b/B_vitamins.htm" title="B vitamins">B vitamins</a>. In fact, beer is sometimes referred to as "liquid bread" . Typically, the darker the brew, the more nutrient dense, with some sources maintaining that filtered beer loses much of its nutrition ,.<p>A 2005 Japanese study found that <!--del_lnk--> non-alcoholic beer may possess strong anti-cancer properties. Another study found nonalcoholic beer to mirror the cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages.<p>It is considered that over-eating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a <!--del_lnk--> beer belly, rather than beer consumption. A recent study, however, found a link between binge drinking and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself .<p>There is strong evidence that prolonged consumption of alcohol, especially in high volumes, can not only lead to liver damage but leaves the organ vulnerable to cancer cells.<p><a id="Strength" name="Strength"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Strength</span></h2>
<p>The alcohol content of beers varies by local custom. British ales average around 4% abv, while <!--del_lnk--> Belgian beers tend to average 8% abv. The strength of the typical global pale lager is 5% abv.<p>Typical brewing yeast cannot reproduce (and therefore cannot produce alcohol) above 12% abv. However, in the <!--del_lnk--> 1980s the Swiss brewery <!--del_lnk--> Hürlimann developed a yeast strain which could get as high as 14% for their <!--del_lnk--> Samichlaus beer.<p>Some brewers use <!--del_lnk--> champagne yeasts to artificially increase the alcohol content of their beers. <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Adams reached 20% abv with <i>Millennium</i> and then surpassed that amount to 25.6% abv with <i>Utopias</i>. The strongest beer sold in Britain was <!--del_lnk--> Dogfish Head's <i>World Wide Stout</i>, a 21% abv <!--del_lnk--> stout which was available from UK <!--del_lnk--> Safeways in 2003. In Japan in 2005, the Hakusekikan Beer Restaurant sold an <!--del_lnk--> eisbock, strengthened through freezing, believed to be 28% abv. The beer that is considered to be the strongest yet made is <!--del_lnk--> Hair of the Dog's <i>Dave</i> - a 29% abv <!--del_lnk--> barley wine made in 1994.<p><a id="Related_beverages" name="Related_beverages"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Related beverages</span></h2>
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<p>There are a number of related beverages such as <!--del_lnk--> kvass, <!--del_lnk--> sahti and <!--del_lnk--> pulque.<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>: Hundreds of local drinks made from <!--del_lnk--> millet, <a href="../../wp/s/Sorghum.htm" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, and other available starch crops.<li><a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Chicha, an Andean beverage made from germinated <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Bhutan.htm" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nepal.htm" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Sikkim.htm" title="Sikkim">Sikkim</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Chhaang, a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern <a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalaya">Himalaya</a>.<li><a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Jiǔ refers to all alcoholic drinks, most of which are distilled liquors (báijiǔ), but there are traditional grain-based relatives of beer such as <i>sulima</i>, made by the <!--del_lnk--> Mosuo people, and <i>lijiang yinjiu</i>, made by the <!--del_lnk--> Nakhi people, both in the <!--del_lnk--> Lijiang region of <!--del_lnk--> Yunnan.<li><a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Sahti, a traditional Finnish beer.<li><a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Brem, a Balinese fermented rice wine.<li><a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Sake, a <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a>-based fermented drink.<li><a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Soju<li><a href="../../wp/k/Kyrgyzstan.htm" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mongolia.htm" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Kumis (in Kyrgyz called kymyz), is the fermented mare's milk drink popular in many parts of Central Asia and Mongolia. It is very easy to obtain as it is sold in any market and at small stands on the side of the highway in rural areas as a source of income for the local nomads.<li><a href="../../wp/k/Kyrgyzstan.htm" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>: Bozo is a low alcohol, somewhat porridgey drink made from millet. The Kyrgyz are also fans of kymyz (see <!--del_lnk--> kumis).<li><a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Pulque, an indigenous beer made from the fermented sap of the <!--del_lnk--> agave plant.<li><a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>/<a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>: <!--del_lnk--> Kvass, a fermented nonalcoholic or mildly alcoholic beverage.<li>Bouza: An ancient Egyptian beer made from bread which is still made in <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.<li>Some <!--del_lnk--> Celtic peoples of the European Iron Age drank, according to some classical sources, a type of beer known as <!--del_lnk--> korma.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Food_and_agriculture.htm">Food and agriculture</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Plants.htm">Plants</a></h3>
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<th style="background: lightgreen;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Beet</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1385.jpg.htm" title="Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris"><img alt="Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris" height="299" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Koeh-167.jpg" src="../../images/13/1385.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><i>Beta vulgaris</i> subsp. <i>vulgaris</i></small></div>
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<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subkingdom:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tracheobionta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superdivision:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Spermatophyta<br />
</td>
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<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
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<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Caryophyllidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Caryophyllales<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chenopodiaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Beta</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>B. vulgaris</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Beta vulgaris</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a></small></td>
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<p>The <b>beet</b> (<i>Beta vulgaris</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> flowering plant in the family <!--del_lnk--> Chenopodiaceae, native to the <!--del_lnk--> coasts of western and southern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, from southern <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Isles.htm" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> south to the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. It is important because of its cultivated varieties, fodder beet, beetroot and the <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a>-producing <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar_beet.htm" title="Sugar beet">sugar beet</a>.<p>It is a <!--del_lnk--> herbaceous <!--del_lnk--> biennial or <!--del_lnk--> perennial plant with leafy stems growing to 1-2 m tall. The <!--del_lnk--> leaves are heart-shaped, 5-20 cm long on wild plants (often much larger in cultivated plants). The <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a> are produced in dense spikes, each flower very small, 3-5 mm diameter, green or tinged reddish, with five petals; they are wind-pollinated. The <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a> is a cluster of hard <!--del_lnk--> nutlets.<p>There are three <!--del_lnk--> subspecies:<ul>
<li><i>Beta vulgaris</i> subsp. <i>maritima</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Sea Beet. Northwestern Europe. Plant smaller, to 80 cm tall; root not swollen.<li><i>Beta vulgaris</i> subsp. <i>vulgaris</i>. Mediterranean Europe. Plant larger, to 2 m tall; with a rounded fleshy <!--del_lnk--> taproot. The ancestor of the cultivated beets (<i>not</i> subsp. <i>maritima</i>, as sometimes stated).<li><i>Beta vulgaris</i> subsp. <i>cicla</i> - see <!--del_lnk--> Chard</ul>
<p>The cultivated forms are thought to have come from sea-coast plants of Europe and Asia. With the imposition of the blockade of the continent during the Napoleonic wars there was an impetus to develop beet for their sugar content.<p>
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</script><a id="Cultivation_and_uses" name="Cultivation_and_uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cultivation and uses</span></h2>
<p>The root and leaves of subsp. <i>vulgaris</i> are edible and an important food crop. Beetroot can be peeled, steamed, and then eaten warm with butter as a <!--del_lnk--> delicacy; cooked, <!--del_lnk--> pickled, and then eaten cold as a <!--del_lnk--> condiment; or peeled, shredded raw, and then eaten as a <!--del_lnk--> salad. The leaves and stems can be steamed briefly as a vegetable, although this is preferably done with young plants. These and older leaves and stems can be sliced and <!--del_lnk--> stir-fried and have a flavour resembling <!--del_lnk--> taro leaves. The stems can also be cooked with another foodstuff (eg., <!--del_lnk--> black beans) for an increased nutritional value.<p>Beets are used as a food plant by the <!--del_lnk--> larvae of a number of <!--del_lnk--> Lepidoptera species — see <!--del_lnk--> List of Lepidoptera which feed on Beet.<p><a id="Cultivars" name="Cultivars"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cultivars</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/127/12777.jpg.htm" title="A selection of beets, also known as beetroots (cultivated Beta vulgaris), at a grocery store."><img alt="A selection of beets, also known as beetroots (cultivated Beta vulgaris), at a grocery store." height="198" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beets_produce-1.jpg" src="../../images/13/1386.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/127/12777.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A selection of beets, also known as beetroots (cultivated <i>Beta vulgaris</i>), at a grocery store.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Numerous <a href="../../wp/c/Cultivar.htm" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a> have been selected and bred for several different characteristics. For example, the "earthy" taste of some beet cultivars comes from the presence of the chemical compound <!--del_lnk--> geosmin. Researchers have not yet answered whether beets produce geosmin themselves, or whether it is produced by symbiotic soil <!--del_lnk--> microbes living in the plant. Nevertheless, breeding programs can produce cultivars with low geosmin levels yielding flavours more acceptable to shoppers.<p>Major <!--del_lnk--> Cultivar Groups include:<ul>
<li><b>Fodder beet <!--del_lnk--> wurzel</b> or <b>mangold</b> used as animal <!--del_lnk--> fodder.<li><b><a href="../../wp/s/Sugar_beet.htm" title="Sugar beet">Sugar beet</a></b> grown for <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a>.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Chard</b>, a beet which has been bred for leaves instead of roots and is used as a <!--del_lnk--> leaf vegetable.<li><b>Beetroot</b> or <b>table beet</b> (or, in the 19th century, "blood turnip") used as a <!--del_lnk--> root vegetable. Notable cultivars in this group include: <ul>
<li><b>Albina Vereduna</b>, a white variety.<li><b>Bull's Blood</b>, an open-pollinated variety originally from <!--del_lnk--> Britain, known for its dark red foliage. It is grown prinicipally for its leaves, which add colour to <!--del_lnk--> salads.<li><b>Burpee's Golden</b>, a beet with orange-red skin and yellow flesh.<li><b>Chioggia</b>, an open-pollinated variety originally grown in <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>. The concentric rings of its red and white roots are visually striking when sliced. As a heritage variety, Chioggia is largely unimproved and has relatively high concentrations of geosmin.<li><b>Detroit Dark Red</b> has relatively low concentrations of geosmin, and is therefore a popular commercial cultivar in the US.<li><b>India Beet</b> is not that sweet compared to Western beet.<li><b>Lutz Greenleaf</b>, a variety with a red root and green leaves, and a reputation for maintaining its quality well in storage.<li><b>Red Ace</b>, the principal variety of beet found in U.S. <!--del_lnk--> supermarkets, typical for its bright red root and red-veined green foliage.</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Nutritional_information" name="Nutritional_information"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nutritional information</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1387.jpg.htm" title="Sundried tomato tuna with baby beets."><img alt="Sundried tomato tuna with baby beets." height="184" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BeetrootTuna.JPG" src="../../images/13/1387.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1387.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sundried tomato tuna with baby beets.</div>
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<p>The various table beets contain significant amounts of <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin_C.htm" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a> in the roots, and the tops are an excellent source of <!--del_lnk--> vitamin A. They are also high in <!--del_lnk--> folate, as well as soluble and insoluble <!--del_lnk--> dietary fibre and several <!--del_lnk--> antioxidants.<p>Beetroot is among the <!--del_lnk--> sweetest of vegetables, containing more sugar even than <a href="../../wp/c/Carrot.htm" title="Carrot">carrots</a> or <!--del_lnk--> sweet corn. The content of sugar in beetroot is no more than 10%, in the sugar beet it is typically 15 to 20%.<p>An average sized cup (226.8 grams) of sliced beets will contain:<ul>
<li>Food energy 31 Cal (130 kJ)<li>Carbohydrate 8.5 g<li>Dietary fibre 1.5 g<li>Folate 53.2 µg<li>Phosphorus 32 mg<li>Potassium 259 mg<li>Protein 1.5 g</ul>
<p>Beetroots can be cooked and eaten like potatoes or turnips, although they are not commonly consumed in North America due to their flavour. Beet recipes include <!--del_lnk--> borscht, a beet soup common in Eastern Europe. Beetroot is a popular hamburger condiment in Australia. Beet leaves are edible, and are used in 'beet rolls', a food similar to <!--del_lnk--> cabbage rolls that replaces the cabbage with beet leaves.<p><a id="Beetroot_color" name="Beetroot_color"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Beetroot colour</span></h3>
<p>It is a popular misconception that the colour of red beetroot is due to a pigment known as <!--del_lnk--> anthocyanin which is the pigment in red cabbage. It is, in fact, due to a purple pigment <!--del_lnk--> betacyanin and a yellow pigment <!--del_lnk--> betaxanthin known collectively as <!--del_lnk--> betalins. Other breeds of beetroot which are not the usual deep red, such as 'Burpee's Golden' and 'Albina Vereduna', have a greater or lesser distribution of the two betalin pigments.<p><!--del_lnk--> Betacyanin in beetroot may cause red <!--del_lnk--> urine and <!--del_lnk--> feces in some people who are unable to break it down.<p>The pigments are contained in cell <!--del_lnk--> vacuoles. Beetroot cells are quite unstable and will 'leak' when cut, heated, or when in contact with air or sunlight. This is why red beetroots leave a purple stain. Leaving the skin on when cooking, however, will maintain the integrity of the cells and therefore minimise leakage.<p>The pigment is stable in acidic conditions, which is a major reason why beetroot is often pickled. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, it is the traditional colorant for pink <!--del_lnk--> lemonade. Beet juice is also a common choice for edible ink, such as for marking grades on cuts of meat.<p><a id="Medicinal_uses" name="Medicinal_uses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Medicinal uses</span></h3>
<p>Various cultivated forms of <i>Beta vulgaris</i> have been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times.<p>The <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Rome.htm" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> used beetroot as a treatment for fevers and constipation, amongst other ailments. <!--del_lnk--> Apicius in <i>De Re Coquinaria</i> gives five <!--del_lnk--> recipes for soups to be given as a <!--del_lnk--> laxative, three of which feature the root of beet. <a href="../../wp/h/Hippocrates.htm" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> advocated the use of beet leaves as binding for wounds.<p>Since Roman times, beetroot juice has been considered an <!--del_lnk--> aphrodisiac. It is a rich source of the mineral <a href="../../wp/b/Boron.htm" title="Boron">boron</a>, which plays an important role in the production of human sex hormones.<p>From the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, beetroot was used as a treatment for a variety of conditions, especially illnesses relating to digestion and the blood. <!--del_lnk--> Platina recommended taking beetroot with <!--del_lnk--> garlic to nullify the effects of 'garlic-breath'.<p>Today the beetroot is still championed as a <!--del_lnk--> cureall. One of the most controversial examples is the official position of the <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South African</a> Health Minister on the treatment of <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>. Dr <!--del_lnk--> Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, Health Minister under <!--del_lnk--> Thabo Mbeki, has been nicknamed 'Dr Beetroot' for promoting beets and other vegetables over anti-retroviral <!--del_lnk--> AIDS medicines, which she considers toxic.<p>Beetroots are rich in the nutrient <!--del_lnk--> Betaine. Betaine supplements, manufactured as a byproduct of sugar beet processing, are prescribed to lower potentially toxic levels of <!--del_lnk--> homocysteine (Hcy), a naturally occurring <!--del_lnk--> amino acid that can be harmful to blood vessels thereby contributing to the development of <!--del_lnk--> heart disease, <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> peripheral vascular disease.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Field Marshall Montgomery is reputed to have exhorted his troops to 'take favours in the beetroot fields', a euphemism for visiting <!--del_lnk--> prostitutes.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> rock group <!--del_lnk--> British Sea Power featured the song <!--del_lnk--> Favours in the beetroot fields on their debut album <!--del_lnk--> The Decline of British Sea Power.<li>The television cartoon "<!--del_lnk--> Doug" features a popular teenage rock band that has the name "The Beets".<li>In <i><!--del_lnk--> Jitterbug Perfume</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Tom Robbins, almost everything in the plot revolves around the beet.<li>"Beets" by <!--del_lnk--> Einstein's Little Homunculus waxes eloquent on the desirability of beets.</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> The Beatroots are a UK band created in 2000.<li><i>The Beatroots</i> is the name of a 1994 music album by <!--del_lnk--> The Fred Bison Five (Fred Bison is a pseudonym used by <!--del_lnk--> Nick Salomon).</ul>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Beetles</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1388.jpg.htm" title="Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata"><img alt="Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Colorado_potato_beetle.jpg" src="../../images/13/1388.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Colorado potato beetle, <i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i></small></div>
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<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
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<td><a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insecta</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pterygota<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Infraclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Neoptera<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Superorder:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Endopterygota<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><b>Coleoptera</b><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Suborders</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Adephaga<br /><!--del_lnk--> Archostemata<br /><!--del_lnk--> Myxophaga<br /><!--del_lnk--> Polyphaga<br /><i>See <!--del_lnk--> subgroups of the order Coleoptera</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Beetles</b> are the most diverse group of <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a>. Their <!--del_lnk--> order, <b>Coleoptera</b> (meaning "sheathed wing"), has more described <!--del_lnk--> species in it than in any other order in the <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal kingdom</a>. Forty percent of all described insect species are beetles (about 350,000 species), and new species are regularly discovered. Estimates put the total number of species, described and undescribed, at between 5 and 8 million. This is why <!--del_lnk--> J. B. S. Haldane, a Scottish geneticist, asked what his studies of nature revealed about God, replied, "An inordinate fondness for beetles."<p>Beetles can be found in almost all habitats, but are not known to occur in the sea or in the <!--del_lnk--> polar regions. They impact the <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem in several ways. On the one hand, they feed on <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, break down animal and plant debris, and eat other <a href="../../wp/i/Invertebrate.htm" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>. On the other hand, they are prey of various animals including birds and mammals. Certain species are agricultural pests, such as the red flour beetle <i>Tribolium castaneum</i>, the <!--del_lnk--> Colorado potato beetle <i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i>, or the mungbean beetle <i>Callosobruchus maculatus Fabr</i>, while others are important controls of agricultural pests. For example, <a href="../../wp/c/Coccinellidae.htm" title="Coccinellidae">lady beetles</a> (family Coccinellidae) consume <a href="../../wp/a/Aphid.htm" title="Aphid">aphids</a>, <!--del_lnk--> scale insects, <!--del_lnk--> thrips, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops.<p>
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</script><a id="Anatomy" name="Anatomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy</span></h2>
<p>The general <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> of beetles is quite uniform, though specific organs and appendages may vary greatly in appearance and function between the many families in the order. Beetle bodies are divided into three sections: the head, the <a href="../../wp/t/Thorax.htm" title="Thorax">thorax</a>, and the abdomen. Like all insects, beetles are segmented organisms, and all three of the major sections of the body may themselves be composed of several further segments, although these are not always readily discernable.<p>Beetles are generally characterised by a particularly hard <!--del_lnk--> exoskeleton and hard forewings (<!--del_lnk--> elytra). The beetle's exoskeleton is made up of numerous plates called <!--del_lnk--> sclerites, separated by thin sutures. This design creates the armoured defences of the beetle while maintaining flexibility. The elytra are not used for <!--del_lnk--> flight, but tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second pair of wings (<!--del_lnk--> alae). Elytra must generally be raised in order to move the hind flight wings. A beetle's flight wings are crossed with veins and, after landing, are folded, often along these veins, and stored below the elytra. In some beetles the ability to fly has been lost, most notably in the <!--del_lnk--> ground beetles (family Carabidae) and the <!--del_lnk--> true weevils (family Curculionidae), but also in some desert and cave-dwelling species of other families. Many of these species have the two elytra fused together, forming a solid shield over the abdomen. In a few families both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost, with the best known example being the glowworms of the family <!--del_lnk--> Phengodidae, in which the females are <!--del_lnk--> larviform throughout their lives.<p>Beetles have mouthparts similar to those of <!--del_lnk--> grasshoppers. Of these parts, the most commonly known are likely the <!--del_lnk--> mandibles, which appear as large pincers on the front of some beetles. The mandibles are a pair of hard, often tooth-like structures that move horizontally to grasp, crush, or cut food or enemies (see <a href="#Predation" title="">Predation</a>, below). Two pairs of finger-like appendages are found around the mouth in most beetles, serving to move food into the mouth. These are the maxillary and labial palpi.<p>The eyes are <!--del_lnk--> compound, and may display remarkable adaptability, as in the case of <!--del_lnk--> whirligig beetles (family Gyrinidae), in which the eyes are split to allow a view both above and below the waterline. Other species also have divided eyes (some Cerambycidae and Curculionidae), while many beetles have eyes that are notched to some degree. A few beetle genera also possess <!--del_lnk--> ocelli, which are small, simple eyes usually situated farther back on the head (on the vertex).<p>Beetle <!--del_lnk--> antennae are primarily organs of smell, but may also be used to physically feel out a beetle's environment. Further, they may be used in some families during mating, or among a few beetles for defence. Antennae vary greatly in form within the Coleoptera, but are often similar within any given family. In some cases males and females of the same species will have different antennal forms. Antennae may be <!--del_lnk--> clavate (<!--del_lnk--> flabellate and <!--del_lnk--> lamellate are sub-forms of clavate, or clubbed antennae), <!--del_lnk--> filiform, <!--del_lnk--> geniculate, <!--del_lnk--> moniliform, <!--del_lnk--> pectinate, or <!--del_lnk--> serrate. For images of these antennal forms, see <!--del_lnk--> antenna (biology)<p>The <!--del_lnk--> legs, which are multi-segmented, end in two to five small segments called tarsi, which are vaguely comparable to feet. Like many other insect orders beetles bear claws, usually one pair, on the end of the last tarsal segment of each leg. While most beetles use their legs for walking, legs may be variously modified and adapted for other uses. Among aquatic families (Dytiscidae, Haliplidae, many Hydrophilidae, and others) the legs, most notably the hind pair, are modified for swimming and often bear rows of long hairs to aid this purpose. Other beetles have <!--del_lnk--> fossorial legs that are widened and often spined for digging. Species with such adaptations are found among the scarabs, ground beetles, and <!--del_lnk--> clown beetles (family Histeridae). The hind legs of some beetles, such as <!--del_lnk--> flea beetles (within Chrysomelidae) and flea weevils (within Curculionidae), are enlarged and designed for jumping.<p><a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> is obtained via a <!--del_lnk--> tracheal system. Air enters a series of tubes along the body through openings called <!--del_lnk--> spiracles, and is then taken into increasingly finer fibres. Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system.<p>Beetles have <!--del_lnk--> hemolymph instead of <!--del_lnk--> blood, and the <!--del_lnk--> open circulatory system of the beetle is powered by a tube-like heart attached to the top inside of the thorax.<p><a id="Physiology" name="Physiology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Physiology</span></h2>
<p>There are few things that a beetle somewhere will not eat; even inorganic matter may be consumed. Some beetles are highly specialised in their diet; for example, the <!--del_lnk--> Colorado potato beetle, <i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i>, almost exclusively colonizes plants of the <a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" title="Potato">potato</a> family (<!--del_lnk--> Solanaceae). Others are generalists, eating both plants and animals. <!--del_lnk--> Ground beetles (family Carabidae) and <!--del_lnk--> rove beetles (family Staphylinidae), among others, are entirely carnivorous and will catch and consume other <a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> and small prey such as <!--del_lnk--> earthworms and <!--del_lnk--> snails. Decaying organic matter is a primary diet for many species. This can range from dung, which is consumed by <!--del_lnk--> coprophagous species such as certain <!--del_lnk--> scarab beetles (family Scarabaeidae), to dead animals, which are eaten by <!--del_lnk--> necrophagous species such as the <!--del_lnk--> carrion beetles (family Silphidae).<p>Various techniques are employed for retaining both air and water supplies. For example, <!--del_lnk--> predaceous diving beetles (family Dytiscidae) employ a technique of retaining air, when diving, between the abdomen and the elytra.<p><a id="Development" name="Development"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Development</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1389.jpg.htm" title="Scarabaeiform larva of the cockchafer, Melolontha melolontha"><img alt="Scarabaeiform larva of the cockchafer, Melolontha melolontha" height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Engerling1.jpg" src="../../images/13/1389.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1389.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Scarabaeiform larva of the <!--del_lnk--> cockchafer, <i>Melolontha melolontha</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Beetles are <!--del_lnk--> endopterygotes with complete <!--del_lnk--> metamorphosis.<p>Although beetle eggs are generally very small, their size, shape, colour, and content vary extensively among species, as is generally the case for most sexually reproducing species. A single female may lay from several dozen to several thousand eggs during its life time. Eggs are usually laid according to the substrate the <!--del_lnk--> larva will feed on upon hatching. Among others, they can be laid loose in the substrate (e.g. flour beetle), laid in clumps on leafs (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Colorado potato beetle), or individually attached (e.g. mungbean beetle and other seed borer) or buried in the medium (e.g. carrot weevil).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> larvae of beetles are usually the principal feeding stage of the lifecycle. Larvae tend to feed voraciously once they emerge from their eggs. Some feed externally on plants, such as those of certain leaf beetles, while others feed within their food sources (most metallic wood-boring beetles and longhorn beetles). The larvae of many beetle families are predatory like the adults (ground beetles, lady beetles, rove beetles). The larval period varies between species but can be as long as several years.<p>Beetle larvae can be differentiated from other insect larvae by their hardened, often darkened head, the presence of chewing mouthparts, and <!--del_lnk--> spiracles along the sides of the body. Like adult beetles, the larvae are varied in appearance, particularly between beetle families. Beetles whose larvae are somewhat flattened and are highly mobile are the ground beetles, some rove beetles, and others; their larvae are described as campodeiform. Some beetle larvae resemble hardened worms with dark head capsules and minute legs. These are elateriform larvae, and are found in the click beetle (Elateridae) and <!--del_lnk--> darkling beetle (Tenebrionidae) families. Some elateriform larvae of click beetles are known as <!--del_lnk--> wireworms. Beetles in the families of the <!--del_lnk--> Scarabaeoidea have short, thick larvae described as scarabaeiform, but more commonly known as grubs.<p>All beetle larvae go through several <!--del_lnk--> instars, which are the developmental stages between each <!--del_lnk--> moult. In many species the larvae simply increase in size with each successive instar. In some cases, however, more dramatic changes occur. Among certain beetle families or genera, particularly those that exhibit parasitic lifestyles, the first instar (the <!--del_lnk--> planidium) is highly mobile in order to search out a host, while the following instars are more sedentary and remain on or within their host. This is known as <!--del_lnk--> hypermetamorphosis; examples include the <!--del_lnk--> blister beetles (family Meloidae) and some rove beetles, particularly those of the genus <i>Aleochara</i>.<p>As with all <!--del_lnk--> endopterygote insects, beetle larvae pupate for a period of time, and from the <!--del_lnk--> pupa emerges a fully formed, sexually mature adult beetle, or <!--del_lnk--> imago. Adults have an extremely variable lifespan, from weeks to years, depending on the species.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<p>Beetles may display extremely intricate behaviour when mating. Smell is thought to be important in the location of a mate.<p>Conflict can play a part in the mating rituals of species such as <!--del_lnk--> burying beetles (genus <i>Nicrophorus</i>) where conflicts between males and females rage until only one of each is left, thus ensuring reproduction by the strongest and fittest. Many beetles are territorial and will fiercely defend their small patch of territory from intruding males.<p>Pairing is generally short but in some cases will last for several hours. During pairing <!--del_lnk--> sperm cells are transferred to the female to <!--del_lnk--> fertilise the egg.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1390.jpg.htm" title="Striped love beetle Eudicella gralli from the forests of Central Africa. The iridescent wing cases are used in marriage ceremonies."><img alt="Striped love beetle Eudicella gralli from the forests of Central Africa. The iridescent wing cases are used in marriage ceremonies." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Striped.love.beetle.arp.jpg" src="../../images/13/1390.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1390.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Striped love beetle <i>Eudicella gralli</i> from the forests of Central Africa. The iridescent wing cases are used in marriage ceremonies.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Parental_care" name="Parental_care"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Parental care</span></h2>
<p>Parental care varies between species, ranging from the simple laying of eggs under a leaf to certain <!--del_lnk--> scarab beetles, which construct impressive underground structures complete with a supply of dung to house and feed their young.<p>There are other notable ways of caring for the eggs and young, such as those employed by <!--del_lnk--> leaf rollers, who bite sections of leaf causing it to curl inwards and then lay the eggs, thus protected, inside.<p><a id="Predation" name="Predation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Predation</span></h2>
<p>Beetles and their larvae have a variety of strategies to avoid being eaten, for example using camouflage to avoid being spotted by predators. These include the <!--del_lnk--> leaf beetles (family Chysomelidae) that have a green colouring very similar to their habitat on tree leaves. More complex camouflage also occurs, as with some <!--del_lnk--> weevils (family Curculionidae), where various coloured scales or hairs cause the beetle to resemble bird dung.<p>A number of <!--del_lnk--> longhorn beetles (family Cerambycidae) bear a striking resemblance to <a href="../../wp/w/Wasp.htm" title="Wasp">wasps</a>. This defense, known as <!--del_lnk--> mimicry, can be found to a lesser extent in other beetle families, such as the scarab beetles.<p>Many species, including <a href="../../wp/c/Coccinellidae.htm" title="Coccinellidae">lady beetles</a> and <!--del_lnk--> blister beetles, can secrete poisonous substances to make them unpalatable. These same species often exhibit <!--del_lnk--> aposematism, where bright or contrasting colour patterns warn away potential predators.<p>Large <!--del_lnk--> ground beetles will tend to go on the attack, using their strong <!--del_lnk--> mandibles to forcibly persuade a predator to seek out easier prey.<p><a id="Evolutionary_history_and_classification" name="Evolutionary_history_and_classification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Evolutionary history and classification</span></h2>
<p>Beetles entered the <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_record.htm" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a> during the Lower <a href="../../wp/p/Permian.htm" title="Permian">Permian</a>, about 265 million years ago.<p>The four extant suborders of beetle are these:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Polyphaga is the largest suborder, containing more than 300,000 described species in more than 170 families, including <!--del_lnk--> rove beetles (Staphylinidae), <!--del_lnk--> scarab beetles (Scarabaeidae), <!--del_lnk--> blister beetles (Meloidae), <a href="../../wp/s/Stag_beetle.htm" title="Stag beetle">stag beetles</a> (Lucanidae), and <!--del_lnk--> true weevils (Curculionidae). These beetles can be identified by the cervical <!--del_lnk--> sclerites (hardened parts of the head used as points of attachment for muscles) absent in the other suborders.<li><!--del_lnk--> Adephaga contains about 10 families of predatory beetles, includes <!--del_lnk--> ground beetles (Carabidae), <!--del_lnk--> predacious diving beetles (Dytiscidae) and <!--del_lnk--> whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae). In these beetles the <!--del_lnk--> testes are tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of the <!--del_lnk--> exoskeleton) is divided by the hind <!--del_lnk--> coxae (the basal joints of the beetle's legs).<li><!--del_lnk--> Archostemata contains four families of mainly wood-eating beetles, including <!--del_lnk--> reticulated beetles (Cupedidae) and <!--del_lnk--> telephone-pole beetles (Micromalthidae).<li><!--del_lnk--> Myxophaga contains about 100 described species in four families, mostly very small, including <!--del_lnk--> skiff beetles (Hydroscaphidae) and <!--del_lnk--> minute bog beetles (Sphaeriusidae).</ul>
<p>These suborders diverged in the Permian and <a href="../../wp/t/Triassic.htm" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>. Their phylogenetic relationship is uncertain, with the most popular hypothesis being that Polyphaga and Myxophaga are most closely related, with Adephaga an outgroup to those two, and Archostemata an outgroup to the other three.<p>The large number of beetle species poses special problems for <!--del_lnk--> classification, with some families consisting of thousands of species and needing further division into subfamilies and tribes.<p>See the article <!--del_lnk--> subgroups of the order Coleoptera for a complete list of families and <!--del_lnk--> for a complete list of World families and subfamilies.<p><a id="Impact_on_humans" name="Impact_on_humans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Impact on humans</span></h2>
<p><a id="Pests" name="Pests"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pests</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1391.jpg.htm" title="Damage to beans by larvae of the common bean weevil, Acanthoscelides obtectus"><img alt="Damage to beans by larvae of the common bean weevil, Acanthoscelides obtectus" height="280" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bonenkever_Acanthoscelides_obtectus.jpg" src="../../images/13/1391.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1391.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Damage to beans by larvae of the <!--del_lnk--> common bean weevil, <i>Acanthoscelides obtectus</i></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Many agricultural, forestry, and household pests are represented by the order. These include:<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Colorado potato beetle, <i>Leptinotarsa decemlineata</i>, is a notorious pest of <a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" title="Potato">potato</a> plants. Crops are destroyed and the beetle can only be treated by employing expensive <!--del_lnk--> pesticides, many of which it has begun to develop immunity to. As well as potatoes, suitable hosts can be a number of plants from the potato family (<!--del_lnk--> Solanaceae), such as <!--del_lnk--> nightshade, <!--del_lnk--> tomato, <!--del_lnk--> aubergine and <!--del_lnk--> capsicum.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> bark beetles <i>Hylurgopinus rufipes</i> and <i>Scolytus multistriatus</i>, and the <!--del_lnk--> elm leaf beetle, <i>Pyrrhalta luteola</i>, attack <!--del_lnk--> elm trees. The bark beetles are important elm pests because they carry <!--del_lnk--> Dutch elm disease as they move from infected breeding sites to feed on healthy elm trees. The spread of the fungus by the beetle has led to the devastation of elm trees in many parts of the Northern Hemisphere, notably in Europe and North America.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> death watch beetle, <i>Xestobium rufovillosum</i>, (family <!--del_lnk--> Anobiidae) is of considerable importance as a pest of older wooden buildings in Britain. It attacks <!--del_lnk--> hardwoods such as <!--del_lnk--> oak and <a href="../../wp/c/Chestnut.htm" title="Chestnut">chestnut</a>, always where some fungal decay has taken or is taking place. It is thought that the actual introduction of the pest into buildings takes place at the time of construction.<li><!--del_lnk--> Asian long-horned beetle<li><!--del_lnk--> Citrus long-horned beetle</ul>
<p><a id="Beneficial_organisms" name="Beneficial_organisms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Beneficial organisms</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Both the larvae and adults of some <a href="../../wp/c/Coccinellidae.htm" title="Coccinellidae">lady beetles</a> (family Coccinellidae) are found in <a href="../../wp/a/Aphid.htm" title="Aphid">aphid</a> colonies. Other lady beetles feed on <!--del_lnk--> scale insects. If normal food sources are scarce they may feed on other things, such as small <!--del_lnk--> caterpillars, young plant bugs, aphid honeydew, and plant nectar.<li><!--del_lnk--> Ground beetles (family Carabidae) are common predators of many different insects and other arthropods, including fly eggs, caterpillars, and other pest insects.</ul>
<p>Some farmers introduce <!--del_lnk--> beetle banks to foster and provide cover for beneficial beetles.<p><a id="Scarab_beetles_in_Egyptian_culture" name="Scarab_beetles_in_Egyptian_culture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Scarab beetles in Egyptian culture</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1392.jpg.htm" title="Ancient Egyptian scene depicting a scarab beetle"><img alt="Ancient Egyptian scene depicting a scarab beetle" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Egypt.KV6.04.jpg" src="../../images/13/1392.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1392.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ancient Egyptian scene depicting a scarab beetle</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Several species of the <!--del_lnk--> dung beetles, most notably <i>Scarabaeus sacer</i> (often referred to as "scarab"), enjoyed a sacred status among the <!--del_lnk--> ancient Egyptians, as the creatures were likened to the god <!--del_lnk--> Khepri. Some scholars suggest that the people's practice of making <a href="../../wp/m/Mummy.htm" title="Mummy">mummies</a> was inspired by the brooding process of the beetle.<p>Many thousands of amulets and stamp seals have been excavated that depict the scarab. In many artifacts, the scarab is depicted pushing the sun along its course in the sky. During and following the <!--del_lnk--> New Kingdom, scarab amulets were often placed over the heart of the mummified deceased. The amulets were often inscribed with a spell from the <!--del_lnk--> Book of the Dead which entreated the heart, "Do not stand as a witness against me."<p><a id="Study_and_Collection" name="Study_and_Collection"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Study and Collection</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1393.jpg.htm" title="Beetle collection at the Melbourne Museum, Australia"><img alt="Beetle collection at the Melbourne Museum, Australia" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beetle_collection.jpg" src="../../images/13/1393.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1393.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beetle collection at the Melbourne Museum, Australia</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The study of beetles is called <!--del_lnk--> coleopterology, and its practitioners are coleopterists. See the list of notable <!--del_lnk--> coleopterists for more information.<p>Coleopterists have formed organizations to facilitate the study of beetles. Among these is The Coleopterists Society, an international organization based in the United States.<p>Research in this field is often published in peer-reviewed <!--del_lnk--> journals specific to the field of coleopterology, though journals dealing with general entomology also publish many papers on various aspects of beetle biology. Some of the journals specific to beetle research are:<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Coleopterist</i> (United Kingdom beetle fauna)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Coleopterists Bulletin</i> (published by The Coleopterists Society)</ul>
<p>There is a thriving industry in the collection of beetle specimens for amateur and professional collectors. Some countries have established laws governing or prohibiting the collection of certain rare (and often much sought after) species.<br style="clear:both" />
<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
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<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 38px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1394.jpg.htm" title="Image:Anthrenus verbasci 1 (aka).jpg"><img alt="" height="70" src="../../images/13/1394.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Varied carpet beetle</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/32/3254.jpg.htm" title="Image:Asian multicolored lady beetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="79" src="../../images/13/1395.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><a href="../../wp/c/Coccinellidae.htm" title="Coccinellidae">Lady beetle</a></div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 41px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1396.jpg.htm" title="Image:Cicindela sexguttata - six-spotted tiger beetle - desc-iridescent in sunlight on ground.jpg"><img alt="" height="63" src="../../images/13/1396.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Tiger beetle</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1397.jpg.htm" title="Image:Dungbeetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="91" src="../../images/13/1397.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>South African <!--del_lnk--> dung beetle</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 37px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1398.jpg.htm" title="Image:Emerald ash beetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="72" src="../../images/13/1398.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Emerald ash borer</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/13/1399.jpg.htm" title="Image:Aphthona flava flea beetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/13/1399.jpg" width="82" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Flea beetle</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1400.jpg.htm" title="Image:Jbeetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="84" src="../../images/14/1400.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Japanese beetle</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 25px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1401.jpg.htm" title="Image:Potato beetle larvae.jpg"><img alt="" height="96" src="../../images/14/1401.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Colorado potato beetle larvae</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 29px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1402.jpg.htm" title="Image:Spotted flower chafer.jpg"><img alt="" height="87" src="../../images/14/1402.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Spotted flower chafer</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1403.jpg.htm" title="Image:20050702 - Beetle (Cerambycidae Coleoptera) - California Prionus.JPG"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/14/1403.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Prionus californicus</i></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1404.png.htm" title="Image:Pelidnota punctat.png"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1404.png" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Pelidnota punctata</i></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1405.jpg.htm" title="Image:Beetle-Hissing.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1405.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Bess beetle</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1406.jpg.htm" title="Image:Longhorn Parandra brunnea 1.jpg"><img alt="" height="84" src="../../images/14/1406.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Longhorn beetle <i>Parandra brunnea</i></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1407.jpg.htm" title="Image:Harlequin.JPG"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1407.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><i>Acrocinus longimanus</i></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 32px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1408.jpg.htm" title="Image:Drugstore beetle 04.jpg"><img alt="" height="82" src="../../images/14/1408.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Drugstore beetle <i>Stegobium paniceum</i></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 34px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1409.jpg.htm" title="Image:Weevil bangalore.jpg"><img alt="" height="78" src="../../images/14/1409.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>A weevil</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 41px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1410.jpg.htm" title="Image:Hispid beetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="64" src="../../images/14/1410.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>A <i>Hispid</i></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1411.jpg.htm" title="Image:Rhinoceros beetle coin.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1411.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Rhinoceros beetle and a coin</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/126/12630.jpg.htm" title="Image:Lucanus-cervus-maskulinum.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/14/1412.jpg" width="110" /></a></div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/s/Stag_beetle.htm" title="Stag beetle">Stag beetle</a></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 23px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1413.jpg.htm" title="Image:DirkvdM blue beetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="100" src="../../images/14/1413.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>A shiny blue <!--del_lnk--> scarab beetle</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 14px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1414.jpg.htm" title="Image:PolkaDottedBeetle.jpg"><img alt="" height="118" src="../../images/14/1414.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><i>Anthia sexguttata</i> a <!--del_lnk--> carabid beetle</div>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetle"</div>
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Behavioral_finance | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Behavioural finance</h1>
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<p><b>Behavioural finance</b> and <b>behavioural economics</b> are closely related fields which apply scientific research on human and social cognitive and emotional <!--del_lnk--> biases to better understand <!--del_lnk--> economic <!--del_lnk--> decisions and how they affect <!--del_lnk--> market prices, <!--del_lnk--> returns and the <!--del_lnk--> allocation of resources. The fields are primarily concerned with the <!--del_lnk--> rationality, or lack thereof, of <!--del_lnk--> economic agents. <!--del_lnk--> Behavioural models typically integrate insights from <a href="../../wp/p/Psychology.htm" title="Psychology">psychology</a> with <!--del_lnk--> neo-classical economic theory.<p>Behavioural analyses are mostly concerned with the effects of <a href="../../wp/m/Market.htm" title="Market">market</a> decisions, but also those of <!--del_lnk--> public choice, another source of economic decisions with some similar biases.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> classical period, economics had a close link with psychology. For example, <a href="../../wp/a/Adam_Smith.htm" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> wrote an important text describing psychological principles of individual behaviour, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Theory of Moral Sentiments</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Jeremy Bentham wrote extensively on the psychological underpinnings of <!--del_lnk--> utility. Economists began to distance themselves from psychology during the development of neo-classical economics as they sought to reshape the discipline as a <!--del_lnk--> natural science, with explanations of economic behaviour deduced from assumptions about the nature of economic agents. The concept of <!--del_lnk--> homo economicus was developed and the psychology of this entity was fundamentally rational. Nevertheless, psychological explanations continued to inform the analysis of many important figures in the development of neo-classical economics such as <!--del_lnk--> Francis Edgeworth, <!--del_lnk--> Vilfredo Pareto, <!--del_lnk--> Irving Fisher and <a href="../../wp/j/John_Maynard_Keynes.htm" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a>.<p>Psychology had largely disappeared from economic discussions by the mid 20th century. A number of factors contributed to the resurgence of its use and the development of behavioural economics. <!--del_lnk--> Expected utility and <!--del_lnk--> discounted utility models began to gain wide acceptance which generated testable <!--del_lnk--> hypotheses about decision making under <!--del_lnk--> uncertainty and <!--del_lnk--> intertemporal consumption respectively, and a number of observed and repeatable anomalies challenged these hypotheses. Furthermore, during the 1960s <!--del_lnk--> cognitive psychology began to describe the brain as an information processing device (in contrast to <!--del_lnk--> behaviorist models). Psychologists in this field such as <!--del_lnk--> Ward Edwards, <!--del_lnk--> Amos Tversky and <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Kahneman began to benchmark their cognitive models of decision making under risk and uncertainty against economic models of rational behaviour.<p>Perhaps the most important paper in the development of the behavioural finance and economics fields was written by Kahneman and Tversky in 1979. This paper, '<!--del_lnk--> Prospect theory: Decision Making Under Risk', used cognitive psychological techniques to explain a number of documented anomalies in rational economic decision making. Further milestones in the development of the field include a well attended and diverse conference at the University of Chicago (see Hogarth & Reder, 1987), a special 1997 edition of the respected Quarterly Journal of Economics ('In Memory of Amos Tversky') devoted to the topic of behavioural economics and the award of the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel prize to Daniel Kahneman in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 'for having integrated insights from psychological research into economic science, especially concerning human judgment and decision-making under uncertainty.<p>Prospect theory is an example of <!--del_lnk--> generalized expected utility theory. Although not commonly included in discussions of the field of behavioural economics, generalized expected utility theory is similarly motivated by concerns about the descriptive inaccuracy of <!--del_lnk--> expected utility theory.<p>Behavioural economics has also been applied to problems of intertemporal choice. The most prominent idea is that of <!--del_lnk--> hyperbolic discounting, in which a high rate of discount is used between the present and the near future, and a lower rate between the near future and the far future. This pattern of discounting is <!--del_lnk--> dynamically inconsistent (or time-inconsistent), and therefore inconsistent with standard models of rational choice, since the rate of discount between time <i>t</i> and <i>t+1</i> will be low at time <i>t-1</i>, when <i>t</i> is the near future, but high at time <i>t</i> when <i>t</i> is the present and time <i>t+1</i> the near future.<p><a id="Methodology" name="Methodology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Methodology</span></h2>
<p>At the outset behavioural economics and finance theories were developed almost exclusively from experimental observations and survey responses, though in more recent times real world data has taken a more prominent position. <!--del_lnk--> fMRI has also been used to determine which areas of the brain are active during various steps of economic decision making. Experiments simulating market situations such as <!--del_lnk--> stock market trading and <!--del_lnk--> auctions are seen as particularly useful as they can be used to isolate the effect of a particular bias upon behavior; observed market behaviour can typically be explained in a number of ways, carefully designed experiments can help narrow the range of plausible explanations. Experiments are designed to be incentive compatible, with binding transactions involving real money the norm.<p><a id="Key_observations" name="Key_observations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Key observations</span></h2>
<p>There are three main themes in behavioural finance and economics (Shefrin, 2002):<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Heuristics: People often make decisions based on approximate rules of thumb, not strictly rational analyses. See also <!--del_lnk--> cognitive biases and <!--del_lnk--> bounded rationality.<li><!--del_lnk--> Framing: The way a problem or decision is presented to the decision maker will affect his action.<li>Market inefficiencies: There are explanations for observed market outcomes that are contrary to rational expectations and market efficiency. These include mispricings, non-rational decision making, and return anomalies. <!--del_lnk--> Richard Thaler, in particular, <!--del_lnk--> has written a long series of papers describing specific market anomalies from a behavioural perspective.</ul>
<p>Market wide anomalies cannot generally be explained by individuals suffering from cognitive biases, as individual biases often do not have a large enough effect to change market prices and returns. In addition, individual biases could potentially cancel each other out. Cognitive biases have real anomalous effects only if there is a social contamination with a strong emotional content (collective greed or fear), leading to more widespread phenomena such as <!--del_lnk--> herding and <!--del_lnk--> groupthink. Behavioural finance and economics rests as much on <!--del_lnk--> social psychology as on individual psychology.<p>There are two exceptions to this general statement. First, it might be the case that enough individuals exhibit biased (ie. different from rational expectations) behavior that such behavior is the norm and this behavior would, then, have market wide effects. Further, some behavioural models explicitly demonstrate that a small but significant anomalous group can have market-wide effects (eg. Fehr and Schmidt, 1999).<p><a id="Behavioral_finance_topics" name="Behavioral_finance_topics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behavioural finance topics</span></h2>
<p>Key observations made in behavioural finance literature include the lack of symmetry between decisions to acquire or keep resources, called colloquially the "<!--del_lnk--> bird in the bush" paradox, and the strong <!--del_lnk--> loss aversion or regret attached to any decision where some emotionally valued resources (e.g. a home) might be totally lost. Loss aversion appears to manifest itself in investor behaviour as an unwillingness to sell shares or other equity, if doing so would force the trader to realise a nominal loss (Genesove & Mayer, 2001). It may also help explain why housing market prices do not adjust downwards to market clearing levels during periods of low demand.<p>Applying a version of <!--del_lnk--> prospect theory, Benartzi and Thaler (1995) claim to have solved the <!--del_lnk--> equity premium puzzle, something conventional finance models have been unable to do.<p>Presently, some researchers in <!--del_lnk--> Experimental finance use experimental method, e.g. creating an artificial market by some kind of simulation software to study people's decision-making process and behaviour in financial markets.<p><a id="Behavioral_finance_models" name="Behavioral_finance_models"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Behavioural finance models</span></h3>
<p>Some financial models used in money management and asset valuation use behavioural finance parameters, for example<ul>
<li>Thaler's model of price reactions to information, with three phases, underreaction - adjustment - overreaction, creating a price <!--del_lnk--> trend</ul>
<p>The characteristic of overreaction is that the average return of asset prices following a series of announcements of good news is lower than the average return following a series of bad announcements. In other words, overreaction occurs if the market reacts too strongly to news that it subsequently needs to be compensated in the opposite direction. As a result, assets that were winners in the past should not be seen as an indication to invest in as their risk adjusted returns in the future are relatively low compared to stocks that were defined as losers in the past.<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> stock image coefficient</ul>
<p><a id="Criticisms_of_behavioral_finance" name="Criticisms_of_behavioral_finance"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Criticisms of behavioural finance</span></h3>
<p>Critics of behavioural finance, such as <!--del_lnk--> Eugene Fama, typically support the <!--del_lnk--> efficient market theory (though Fama may have reversed his position in recent years). They contend that behavioural finance is more a collection of anomalies than a true branch of <a href="../../wp/f/Finance.htm" title="Finance">finance</a> and that these anomalies will eventually be priced out of the market or explained by appeal to market microstructure arguments. However, a distinction should be noted between <!--del_lnk--> individual biases and <!--del_lnk--> social biases; the former can be averaged out by the market, while the other can create <!--del_lnk--> feedback loops that drive the market further and further from the equilibrium of the "<!--del_lnk--> fair price".<p>A specific example of this criticism is found in some attempted explanations of the <!--del_lnk--> equity premium puzzle. It is argued that the puzzle simply arises due to <!--del_lnk--> entry barriers (both practical and psychological) which have traditionally impeded entry by individuals into the stock market, and that returns between stocks and bonds should stabilize as electronic resources open up the stock market to a greater number of traders (See Freeman, 2004 for a review). In reply, others contend that most personal investment funds are managed through superannuation funds, so the effect of these putative barriers to entry would be minimal. In addition, professional investors and fund managers seem to hold more bonds than one would expect given return differentials.<p><a id="Behavioral_economics_topics" name="Behavioral_economics_topics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Behavioural economics topics</span></h2>
<p>Models in behavioural economics are typically addressed to a particular observed market anomaly and modify standard neo-classical models by describing decision makers as using <!--del_lnk--> heuristics and being affected by framing effects. In general, behavioural economics sits within the <!--del_lnk--> neoclassical framework, though the standard assumption of rational behaviour is often challenged.<p><i>Heuristics</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Prospect theory - <!--del_lnk--> Loss aversion - <!--del_lnk--> Status quo bias - <!--del_lnk--> Gambler's fallacy - <!--del_lnk--> Self-serving bias<p><i>Framing</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Cognitive framing - <!--del_lnk--> Mental accounting - <!--del_lnk--> Reference utility - <!--del_lnk--> Anchoring<p><i>Anomalies</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Disposition effect - <!--del_lnk--> endowment effect - <!--del_lnk--> equity premium puzzle - <!--del_lnk--> money illusion - <!--del_lnk--> dividend puzzle -<!--del_lnk--> fairness (<!--del_lnk--> inequity aversion) - <!--del_lnk--> Efficiency wage hypothesis - <!--del_lnk--> reciprocity - <!--del_lnk--> intertemporal consumption - <!--del_lnk--> present biased preferences - <!--del_lnk--> behavioural life cycle hypothesis - <!--del_lnk--> wage stickiness - <!--del_lnk--> price stickiness - <!--del_lnk--> Visceral influences - <!--del_lnk--> Earle's Curve of Predictive Reliability - <!--del_lnk--> limits to arbitrage - <!--del_lnk--> income and happiness - <!--del_lnk--> momentum investing<p><a id="Criticisms_of_behavioral_economics" name="Criticisms_of_behavioral_economics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Criticisms of behavioural economics</span></h3>
<p>Critics of behavioural economics typically stress the <!--del_lnk--> rationality of economic agents (see Myagkov and Plott (1997) amongst others). They contend that experimentally observed behavior is inapplicable to market situations, as learning opportunities and competition will ensure at least a close approximation of rational behaviour. Others note that cognitive theories, such as <!--del_lnk--> prospect theory, are models of <!--del_lnk--> decision making, not generalized economic behaviour, and are only applicable to the sort of once-off decision problems presented to experiment participants or survey respondents.<p>Traditional economists are also skeptical of the experimental and survey based techniques which are used extensively in behavioural economics. Economists typically stress <!--del_lnk--> revealed preferences, over stated preferences (from surveys) in the determination of economic value. Experiments and surveys must be designed carefully to avoid systemic biases, strategic behaviour and lack of incentive compatibility and many economists are distrustful of results obtained in this manner due to the difficulty of eliminating these problems.<p>Rabin (1998) dismisses these criticisms, claiming that results are typically reproduced in various situations and countries and can lead to good theoretical insight. Behavioural economists have also incorporated these criticisms by focusing on <!--del_lnk--> field studies rather than lab experiments. Some economists look at this split as a fundamental schism between <!--del_lnk--> experimental economics and behavioral economics, but prominent behavioral and experimental economists tend to overlap techniques and approaches in answering common questions. For example, many prominent behavioural economists are actively investigating <!--del_lnk--> neuroeconomics, which is entirely experimental and cannot be verified in the field.<p>Other proponents of behavioral economics note that neoclassical models often fail to predict outcomes in real world contexts. Behavioral insights can be used to update neoclassical equations, and behavioural economists note that these revised models not only reach the same correct predictions as the traditional models, but also correctly predict outcomes where the traditional models failed.<p><a id="Key_figures" name="Key_figures"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Key figures</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> George Akerlof - <!--del_lnk--> Dan Ariely - <!--del_lnk--> Colin Camerer - <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Fehr - <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Kahneman - <!--del_lnk--> Werner Güth - <!--del_lnk--> David Laibson - <!--del_lnk--> George Loewenstein - <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Lichtenstein - <!--del_lnk--> Lola Lopes - <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Rabin - <!--del_lnk--> Robert Shiller - <!--del_lnk--> Richard Thaler - <!--del_lnk--> Amos Tversky - <!--del_lnk--> Paul Slovic - <!--del_lnk--> Andrei Shleifer - <!--del_lnk--> Hersh Shefrin - <!--del_lnk--> Werner De Bondt<p><a id="Non-specialists_whose_work_is_important_to_the_field" name="Non-specialists_whose_work_is_important_to_the_field"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Non-specialists whose work is important to the field</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Herbert Simon - <!--del_lnk--> Gerd Gigerenzer - <!--del_lnk--> Fischer Black - <!--del_lnk--> John Tooby - <!--del_lnk--> Leda Cosmides - <!--del_lnk--> Paul Rubin - <!--del_lnk--> Donald Rubin - <!--del_lnk--> Ronald Coase - <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Caplin<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_finance"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Behistun Inscription</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Ancient_History_Classical_History_and_Mythology.htm">Ancient History, Classical History and Mythology</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16999.jpg.htm" title="The Behistun Inscription, carved into a cliffside, gives the same text in three languages, telling the story of King Darius' conquests, with the names of twenty-three provinces subject to him. It is illustrated by life-sized carved images of King Darius with other figures in attendance."><img alt="The Behistun Inscription, carved into a cliffside, gives the same text in three languages, telling the story of King Darius' conquests, with the names of twenty-three provinces subject to him. It is illustrated by life-sized carved images of King Darius with other figures in attendance." height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg" src="../../images/169/16999.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/169/16999.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <b>Behistun Inscription</b>, carved into a cliffside, gives the same text in three languages, telling the story of <!--del_lnk--> King Darius' conquests, with the names of twenty-three provinces subject to him. It is illustrated by life-sized carved images of King Darius with other figures in attendance.</div>
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<p>The <b>Behistun Inscription</b> (also <b>Bisitun</b> or <b>Bisutun</b>, بیستون in <!--del_lnk--> modern Persian; in Old Persian is <b>Bagastana</b> the meaning is "the god's place or land") is to <!--del_lnk--> cuneiform what the <a href="../../wp/r/Rosetta_Stone.htm" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a> is to <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian hieroglyphs: the document most crucial in the <!--del_lnk--> decipherment of a previously lost <!--del_lnk--> script. It is located in the <!--del_lnk--> Kermanshah Province of <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<p>The inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different <!--del_lnk--> cuneiform script languages: <!--del_lnk--> Old Persian, <!--del_lnk--> Elamite, and <!--del_lnk--> Babylonian. A British army officer, <!--del_lnk--> Sir Henry Rawlinson, had the inscription transcribed in two parts, in 1835 and 1843. Rawlinson was able to translate the Old Persian cuneiform text in 1838, and the Elamite and Babylonian texts were translated by Rawlinson and others after 1843. Babylonian was a later form of <!--del_lnk--> Akkadian: both are <!--del_lnk--> Semitic languages.<p>
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</script><a id="The_inscription" name="The_inscription"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The inscription</span></h2>
<p>The text of the inscription is a statement by <!--del_lnk--> Darius I of Persia, written three times in three different scripts and languages: two languages side by side, <!--del_lnk--> Old Persian and <!--del_lnk--> Elamite, and <!--del_lnk--> Babylonian above them. Darius ruled the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a> from <!--del_lnk--> 521 to <!--del_lnk--> 486 BC. Some time around <!--del_lnk--> 515 BC, he arranged for the inscription of a long tale of his accession in the face of the usurper <!--del_lnk--> Smerdis of Persia (and Darius' subsequent successful wars and suppressions of rebellion) to be inscribed into a cliff near the modern town of Bisistun, in the foothills of the <!--del_lnk--> Zagros Mountains of <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a>, just as one reaches them from the <!--del_lnk--> Kermanshah Plain.<p>The inscription is approximately 15 <!--del_lnk--> metres high by 25 metres wide, and 100 metres up a <!--del_lnk--> limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of <a href="../../wp/b/Babylonia.htm" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Media (<!--del_lnk--> Babylon and <!--del_lnk--> Ecbatana). It is extremely inaccessible as the mountainside was removed to make the inscription more visible after its completion. The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 593 lines in eight columns and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines. The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius, holding a <!--del_lnk--> bow as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying on his back before him. The prostrate figure is reputed to be the <!--del_lnk--> pretender <!--del_lnk--> Gaumata. Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and ten one-metre figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples. <!--del_lnk--> Faravahar floats above, giving his blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was (oddly enough) Darius' beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> pins and <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a>.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:332px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17000.jpg.htm" title="Column 1 (DB I 1-15), sketch by Fr. Spiegel (1881)"><img alt="Column 1 (DB I 1-15), sketch by Fr. Spiegel (1881)" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Behistun_DB1_1-15.jpg" src="../../images/170/17000.jpg" width="330" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17000.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Column 1 (DB I 1-15), sketch by <!--del_lnk--> Fr. Spiegel (1881)</div>
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<p>It is believed that Darius placed the inscription in an inaccessible position to make it tamper-resistant. Readability took second place to this demand: the text is completely illegible from ground level. The Persian king did not account for the creation of a pool of water at the bottom of the cliff, which brought increased human traffic to the area. Considerable damage has been caused to some figures.<p><a id="In_ancient_history" name="In_ancient_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">In ancient history</span></h2>
<p>The first historical mention of the inscription is by the Greek <!--del_lnk--> Ctesias of Cnidus, who noted its existence some time around <!--del_lnk--> 400 BC, and mentions a well and a garden beneath the inscription dedicated by Queen <!--del_lnk--> Semiramis of Babylon to <a href="../../wp/z/Zeus.htm" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> (the Greek analogue of <!--del_lnk--> Ahura Mazda). <!--del_lnk--> Tacitus also mentions it and includes a description of some of the long-lost ancillary monuments at the base of the cliff, including an altar to <!--del_lnk--> Hercules. What has been recovered of them, including a statue dedicated in 148 BC, is consistent with Tacitus' description. <!--del_lnk--> Diodorus also writes of "Bagistanon" and claims it was inscribed by Queen Semiramis.<p>After the fall of the Persian Empire and its successors, and the fall of cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten and fanciful origins became the norm. For centuries, instead of being attributed to Darius — one of the first Persian kings — it was believed to be from the reign of <!--del_lnk--> Chosroes II of Persia — one of the last.<p>A legend arose that it had been created by <!--del_lnk--> Farhad, a lover of Chosroes' wife, <!--del_lnk--> Shirin. Exiled for his transgression, Farhad is given the task of cutting away the mountain to find water; if he succeeds, he will be given permission to marry Shirin. After many years and the removal of half the mountain, he does find water, but is informed by Chosroes that Shirin had died. He goes mad, throws his axe down the hill, kisses the ground and dies. It is told in the book of <!--del_lnk--> Chosroes and Shirin that his axe was made out of a Pomegranate tree, and where he threw the axe a Pomegranate tree grew with fruit that would cure the ill. Shirin is not dead, naturally, and mourns upon hearing the news.<p><a id="Translation" name="Translation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Translation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17001.jpg.htm" title="Modern day picture of the inscription."><img alt="Modern day picture of the inscription." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Darius_I_the_Great%27s_inscription.jpg" src="../../images/170/17001.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17001.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Modern day picture of the inscription.</div>
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<p>The inscription was noted by an Arab traveller, <!--del_lnk--> Ibn Hawqal, in the mid-900s, who interpreted the figures as a teacher punishing his pupils. It was not until 1598, when the <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">Englishman</a> <!--del_lnk--> Robert Sherley saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Persia</a> on behalf of <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, that the inscription first came to the attention of western European scholars. His party came to the conclusion that it was a picture of the <!--del_lnk--> ascension of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> with an inscription in <!--del_lnk--> Greek.<p>Biblical misinterpretations by Europeans were rife for the next two centuries. French General Gardanne thought it showed Christ and his <!--del_lnk--> twelve apostles, and <!--del_lnk--> Sir Robert Ker Porter thought it represented the 12 <!--del_lnk--> tribes of Israel and <!--del_lnk--> Shalmaneser of Assyria. Italian explorer <!--del_lnk--> Pietro della Valle visited the inscription in the course of a pilgrimage in around 1621, and German surveyor <!--del_lnk--> Carsten Niebuhr visited in around 1764 while exploring Arabia and the middle east for <!--del_lnk--> Frederick V of Denmark, publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1777. Niebuhr's transcriptions were used by <!--del_lnk--> Georg Friedrich Grotefend and others in their efforts to decipher the Old Persian cuneiform script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802.<p>In 1835, <!--del_lnk--> Sir Henry Rawlinson, a British army officer training the army of the <!--del_lnk--> Shah of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisistun's name was anglicized as "Behistun" at this time, the monument became known as the "Behistun Inscription". Despite its inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four metres above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later.<p>Armed with the Persian text, and with about a third of the <!--del_lnk--> syllabary made available to him by the work of Grotefend, Rawlinson set to work on deciphering the text. Fortunately, the first section of this text contained a list of Persian kings identical to that found in <a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, and by matching the names and the characters, Rawlinson was able to crack the form of cuneiform used for Old Persian by 1838 and present his results to the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Asiatic Society in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Société Asiatique in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>.<p>Next came the remaining two texts. After a stretch of service in <a href="../../wp/a/Afghanistan.htm" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, Rawlinson returned in 1843. Using planks he crossed the gap between the Old Persian text and the Elamite, and copied that. He was then able to find an enterprising local boy to climb up a crack in the cliff and rig ropes across the Babylonian writing, so that <!--del_lnk--> papier-mâché casts of it could be taken. Rawlinson set to work and translated the Babylonian writing and language, working independently of <!--del_lnk--> Edward Hincks, <!--del_lnk--> Julius Oppert and <!--del_lnk--> William Henry Fox Talbot, who also contributed to the decipherment; <!--del_lnk--> Edwin Norris and others were the first to do the same for the Elamite. As three of the primary languages of <a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, and three variations of the cuneiform script, these decipherments were one of the keys to putting <!--del_lnk--> Assyriology on a modern footing.<p><a id="After_Rawlinson" name="After_Rawlinson"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">After Rawlinson</span></h2>
<p>Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the <!--del_lnk--> British Museum and led by Leonard William King and Reginald Campbell Thompson and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Michigan, obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson. It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text is inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text.<p>The monument suffered some damage from soldiers using it for target practice during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservation works. The site became a <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO <a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> in 2006. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun_Inscription"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beijing</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.htm">Geography of Asia</a></h3>
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<th bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;"><font style="font-size:14px"><b>Beijing</b> - <b>北京</b></font></th>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1415.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:SA_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg" src="../../images/14/1415.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<center><small>The <!--del_lnk--> Temple of Heaven, an enduring symbol of Beijing</small></center>
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<th bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="2">Location in the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a></th>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td align="center" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1416.png.htm" title="Beijing is highlighted on this map"><img alt="Beijing is highlighted on this map" height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:China-Beijing.png" src="../../images/14/1416.png" width="268" /></a><br />
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<th bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="2">Basic Information</th>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b>Origin of name</b>:</td>
<td>北 <i>běi</i> - north<br /> 京 <i>jīng</i> - capital<br /> "Northern Capital"</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b>Abbreviation</b>:</td>
<td>京 <i>Jīng</i></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Area</b>:</td>
<td>16,808 <!--del_lnk--> km² (<!--del_lnk--> 29th)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Population</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 2004):</td>
<td>14,930,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 26th) <small>Municipality</small></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td>
</td>
<td>approx. 7.5 million <small>Urban Area</small></td>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Density</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 2004):</td>
<td>888/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 4th) <small>Municipality</small></td>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> GDP</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 2004):<br /> - per capita</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">CNY</a> 428.3 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 15th)<br /><a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">CNY</a> 28,700 (<!--del_lnk--> 2nd)</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 2005)</td>
<td>0.882 (<!--del_lnk--> 2nd) — <font color="#009900">high</font></td>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b>Major <!--del_lnk--> nationalities</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 2000):</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Han - 96%<br /><!--del_lnk--> Manchu - 2%<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hui - 2%<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mongolian - 0.3%</td>
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<td><b>City <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">trees</a></b>:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chinese arborvitae<br /> (<i>Platycladus orientalis</i>)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Pagoda tree<br /> (<i>Sophora japonica</i>)</td>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b>City <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a></b>:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chrysanthemum<br /> (<i>Chrysanthemum morifolium</i>)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Chinese rose<br /> (<i>Rosa chinensis</i>)</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Elevation</b>:</td>
<td>43.5m</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> <b>Coordinates</b>:</td>
<td><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">39°54′20″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">116°23′29″E</span></span></td>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Postal code</b>:</td>
<td><b>1000</b>00 - <b>1026</b>00</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Area code</b>:</td>
<td>+86/10</td>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> License plate prefixes</b> :</td>
<td>京A, C, E, F, H, J<br /> 京B (taxis)<br /> 京G (outside urban area)<br /> 京O (police and authorities)<br /> 京V (military headquarters<br /> & central government)</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> ISO 3166-2</b>:</td>
<td>cn-11</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone"><b>Time zone</b></a> :</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> UTC+8</td>
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<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Website</b> :</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> www.beijing.gov.cn<br /><!--del_lnk--> www.ebeijing.gov.cn (<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>)</td>
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<tr>
<th bgcolor="#DDDDDD" colspan="2">Government</th>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Administration Type</b>:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Municipality</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> CPC Beijing<br /> Committee Secretary:</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Liu Qi</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Mayor</b>:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Wang Qishan</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> County-level divisions</b>:</td>
<td>18</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#F9F9F9">
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Township-level divisions</b>:</td>
<td>273</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Beijing</b> <small>[<!--del_lnk--> English Pronunciation]</small> (<a href="../../wp/c/Chinese_language.htm" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 北京 <small>[<!--del_lnk--> Chinese Pronunciation]</small>; <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: Běijīng; <!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[pei˨˩˦ tɕɪŋ˥˥]</span>), a city in northern <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, is the <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Capital of China">capital</a> of the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC). It was formerly known in English as <b>Peking</b> or <b>Peiking</b> <small>[<!--del_lnk--> English Pronunciation]</small>. Beijing is also one of the four <!--del_lnk--> municipalities of the PRC, which are equivalent to <!--del_lnk--> provinces in China's <!--del_lnk--> administrative structure. Beijing Municipality borders <!--del_lnk--> Hebei Province to the north, west, south, and for a small section in the east, and <!--del_lnk--> Tianjin Municipality to the southeast.<p>Beijing is China's second largest city in terms of <!--del_lnk--> population, after <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>. It is a major transportation hub, with dozens of railways, roads and expressways entering and leaving it in all directions. It is also the focal point of many international flights to China. Beijing is recognized as the <!--del_lnk--> political, <!--del_lnk--> educational, and <!--del_lnk--> cultural centre of the People's Republic of China, while <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> predominate in <!--del_lnk--> economic fields.<p>Beijing is one of the <!--del_lnk--> Four Great Ancient Capitals of China. It will also host the <!--del_lnk--> 2008 Summer Olympics.<p>
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</script><a id="Names" name="Names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Names</span></h2>
<p>Beijing (北京) literally means "Northern capital", in line with the common <!--del_lnk--> East Asian tradition whereby capital cities are explicitly named as such. Other cities similarly named include <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing (南京), China, meaning "southern capital"; <a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> (東京), <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Đông Kinh (東京; now <a href="../../wp/h/Hanoi.htm" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>), <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, both meaning "eastern capital"; as well as <!--del_lnk--> Kyoto (京都), <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Gyeongseong (京城; now <a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>), <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a>, both meaning simply "capital".<p><b>Peking</b> is the name of the city according to <!--del_lnk--> Chinese Postal Map Romanization, and the traditional customary name for Beijing in English. The term originated with French missionaries four hundred years ago and corresponds to an older pronunciation predating a subsequent <!--del_lnk--> sound change in <!--del_lnk--> Mandarin from <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[kʲ]</span> to <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[tɕ]</span>. (<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[tɕ]</span> is represented in <!--del_lnk--> pinyin as <b>j</b>, as in Bei<b>j</b>ing), and is still used in some languages (for example, the <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese name is <i>Pequim</i>).<p>In <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, the city has <!--del_lnk--> had many names. Between 1928 <!--del_lnk--> and 1949, it was known as <b>Peiping</b> (北平; <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: Beiping; <!--del_lnk--> Wade-Giles: Pei-p'ing), literally "Northern Peace". The name was changed — with the removal of the element meaning "capital" (<i>jing</i> or <i>king</i>, 京) — to reflect the fact that, with the <!--del_lnk--> Kuomintang government having established its capital in <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing (pinyin: Nanjing), Peking was no longer the capital of China, and that the warlord government based in Peking was not legitimate.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Communist Party of China reverted the name to Beijing (Peking) in 1949 again in part to emphasize that Beijing had returned to its role as China's capital. The government of the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_China.htm" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> on <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> has never formally recognized the name change, and during the 1950s and 1960s it was common in Taiwan for Beijing to be called Beiping to imply the illegitimacy of the PRC. Today, almost all of Taiwan, including the ROC government, uses <i>Beijing</i>, although some <!--del_lnk--> maps of China from <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> still use the old name along with pre-1949 political boundaries.<p><b>Yanjing</b> (燕京; <!--del_lnk--> Pinyin: Yānjīng; <!--del_lnk--> Wade-Giles: Yen-ching) is and has been another popular informal name for Beijing, a reference to the ancient <!--del_lnk--> State of Yan that existed here during the <!--del_lnk--> Zhou Dynasty. This name is reflected in the locally-brewed <!--del_lnk--> Yanjing Beer as well as <!--del_lnk--> Yenching University, an institution of higher learning that was merged into Peking University. During the <!--del_lnk--> Yuan Dynasty, Beijing was known as <b><!--del_lnk--> Khanbaliq</b> which is the <i>Cambuluc</i> described in <a href="../../wp/m/Marco_Polo.htm" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s accounts.<p>(<i>The history section below outlines other historical names of Beijing.</i>)<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>There were cities in the vicinities of Beijing by the <!--del_lnk--> 1st millennium BC, and the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> State of Yan, one of the powers of the <!--del_lnk--> Warring States Period (473-221 BC), <b>Ji</b> (薊/蓟), was established in present-day Beijing.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1417.jpg.htm" title="Remnants of city walls around Beijing (August 2004 image)."><img alt="Remnants of city walls around Beijing (August 2004 image)." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BeijingCityWalls1.jpg" src="../../images/14/1417.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1417.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Remnants of <!--del_lnk--> city walls around Beijing (August 2004 image).</div>
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<p>After the fall of the <!--del_lnk--> Yan, the subsequent <a href="../../wp/q/Qin_Dynasty.htm" title="Qin Dynasty">Qin</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Han, and <!--del_lnk--> Jin dynasties set-up local prefectures in the area. In <!--del_lnk--> Tang Dynasty it became the headquarter for Fanyang <!--del_lnk--> jiedushi, the virtual military governor of current northern <!--del_lnk--> Hebei area. <!--del_lnk--> An Lushan lauched <!--del_lnk--> An Shi Rebellion from here in 755. This rebellion is often regarded as a turning point of Tang dynasty, as the central government began to lose the control of the whole country.<p>In 936, the <!--del_lnk--> Later Jin Dynasty (936-947) of northern China ceded a large part of its northern frontier, including modern Beijing, to the <!--del_lnk--> Khitan <!--del_lnk--> Liao Dynasty. In 938, the <!--del_lnk--> Liao Dynasty set up a secondary capital in what is now Beijing, and called it Nanjing (the "Southern Capital"). In 1125, the <!--del_lnk--> Jurchen <!--del_lnk--> Jin Dynasty annexed Liao, and in 1153 moved its capital to Liao's Nanjing, calling it <b>Zhongdu</b> (中都), "the central capital." Zhongdu was situated in what is now the area centred around <!--del_lnk--> Tianningsi, slightly to the southwest of central Beijing.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_Empire.htm" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> forces burned Zhongdu to the ground in 1215 and rebuilt it to the north of the Jin capital in 1267. In preparation for the conquest of all of China, <!--del_lnk--> Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty founder <!--del_lnk--> Kublai Khan made this his capital as <b><!--del_lnk--> Khanbaliq</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Mongolian for "great residence of the Khan") or <b><!--del_lnk--> Dadu</b> (大都, <!--del_lnk--> Chinese for "grand capital"). This site is known as <i>Cambuluc</i> in <a href="../../wp/m/Marco_Polo.htm" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>'s accounts. Apparently, Kublai Khan, who wanted to become a Chinese emperor, established his capital at this location instead of more traditional sites in central China because it was closer to his power base in Mongolia. The decision of the Khan greatly enhanced the status of a city that had been situated on the northern fringe of <!--del_lnk--> China proper. Khanbaliq was situated north of modern central Beijing. It centred on what is now the northern stretch of the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Ring Road, and stretched northwards to between the <!--del_lnk--> 3rd and <!--del_lnk--> 4th Ring Roads. There are remnants of Mongol-era wall still standing.<p>After the fall of the <!--del_lnk--> Yuan Dynasty in 1368, the city was later rebuilt by the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a> and Shuntian (順天) prefecture was established in the area around the city. In 1403, the third Ming <!--del_lnk--> Emperor <!--del_lnk--> Yongle moved the Ming capital from <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing (Nanking) to the renamed <b>Beijing</b> (<b>Peking</b>) (北京), the "northern capital", situated in the north. The capital was also known as <b>Jingshi</b> 京師, simply meaning capital. During the Ming Dynasty, Beijing took its current shape, and the Ming-era city wall served as the <!--del_lnk--> Beijing city wall until modern times, when it was pulled down and the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Ring Road was built in its place.<p>It is believed that Beijing was the largest city in the world from 1425 to 1650 and from 1710 to 1825 <!--del_lnk--> .<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City was constructed soon after that (1406-1420), followed by the <!--del_lnk--> Temple of Heaven (1420), and numerous other construction projects. <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen, which has become a state symbol of the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> and is featured on its emblem, was burned down twice during the Ming Dynasty and the final reconstruction was carried out in 1651.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1418.jpg.htm" title="The Forbidden City, home to the Emperors of the Ming and Qing Dynasties."><img alt="The Forbidden City, home to the Emperors of the Ming and Qing Dynasties." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Forbidden_City1.JPG" src="../../images/14/1418.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1418.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City, home to the <!--del_lnk--> Emperors of the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming</a> and <a href="../../wp/q/Qing_Dynasty.htm" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing</a> Dynasties.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1419.jpg.htm" title="Beijing's Tian'anmen Square, as seen from the Tian'anmen Chenglou Building (taken in July of 2004)."><img alt="Beijing's Tian'anmen Square, as seen from the Tian'anmen Chenglou Building (taken in July of 2004)." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BeijingFromTian%27anmenChenglouJul2004.jpg" src="../../images/14/1419.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1419.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beijing's <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen Square, as seen from the Tian'anmen Chenglou Building (taken in July of 2004).</div>
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<p>After the <!--del_lnk--> Manchus overthrew the <a href="../../wp/m/Ming_Dynasty.htm" title="Ming Dynasty">Ming Dynasty</a> and established the <a href="../../wp/q/Qing_Dynasty.htm" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> in its place, Beijing remained China's capital throughout the Qing period. Just like during the preceding dynasty, Beijing was also known as <b>Jingshi</b>, which corresponded to the Manchu <b>Gemun Hecen</b> with the same meaning. It was the scene of the siege of the foreign legations during the <!--del_lnk--> Boxer Rebellion in 1900.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Xinhai Revolution of 1911, aimed at replacing Qing rule with a republic, originally intended to establish its capital at <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing. After high-ranking Qing official <!--del_lnk--> Yuan Shikai forced the abdication of the Qing emperor in Beijing and ensured the success of the revolution, the revolutionaries in Nanjing accepted that Yuan should be the president of the new <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_China.htm" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a>, and that the capital should remain at Beijing.<p>Yuan gradually consolidated power, culminating in his declaration of a Chinese Empire in late 1915 with himself as emperor. The move was highly unpopular, and Yuan himself died less than a year later, ending his brief reign. China then fell under the control of regional warlords, and the most powerful factions fought frequent wars (the <!--del_lnk--> Zhili-Anhui War, the <!--del_lnk--> First Zhili-Fengtian War, and the <!--del_lnk--> Second Zhili-Fengtian War) to take control of the capital at Beijing.<p>Following the success of the <!--del_lnk--> Kuomintang's <!--del_lnk--> Northern Expedition which pacified the warlords of the north, Nanjing was officially made the capital of the Republic of China in 1928, and Beijing was renamed <b>Beiping</b> (<b>Peip'ing</b>) (北平), "northern peace" or "north pacified", to emphasize that the warlord government in Beijing was not legitimate.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Second Sino-Japanese War, Beiping fell to <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> on <!--del_lnk--> 29 July <!--del_lnk--> 1937. During the occupation, the city was reverted to its former name, Beijing, and made the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> Provisional Government of the Republic of China, a <!--del_lnk--> puppet state that ruled the <!--del_lnk--> ethnic Chinese portions of Japanese-occupied <!--del_lnk--> North China. It was later merged into the larger <!--del_lnk--> Wang Jingwei Government based in Nanjing. With Japan's surrender in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, on <!--del_lnk--> 15 August <!--del_lnk--> 1945, however, Beijing's name was changed back to Beiping.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1949, during the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese Civil War, Communist forces entered Beijing without a fight. On <!--del_lnk--> October 1 of the same year, the <!--del_lnk--> Communist Party of China, under the leadership of <a href="../../wp/m/Mao_Zedong.htm" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, announced in <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen the creation of the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> in Beijing. Just a few days earlier, the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference had decided that Beiping would be the capital of the new government, and that its name would be changed back to Beijing.<p>At the time of the founding of the People's Republic, Beijing Municipality consisted of just its urban area and immediate suburbs. The urban area was divided into many small districts inside what is now the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Ring Road. Since then several surrounding <!--del_lnk--> counties have been incorporated into the Municipality, enlarging the limits of Beijing Municipality by many times and giving it its present shape. The <!--del_lnk--> Beijing city wall was torn down between 1965 and 1969 to make way for the construction of the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Ring Road.<p>Following the <!--del_lnk--> economic reforms of <!--del_lnk--> Deng Xiaoping, the urban area of Beijing has expanded greatly. Formerly within the confines of the <!--del_lnk--> 2nd Ring Road and the <!--del_lnk--> 3rd Ring Road, the urban area of Beijing is now pushing at the limits of the recently-constructed <!--del_lnk--> 5th Ring Road and <!--del_lnk--> 6th Ring Road (currently under construction), with many areas that were formerly farmland now developed residential or commercial neighborhoods. A new commercial area has developed in the <!--del_lnk--> Guomao area, <!--del_lnk--> Wangfujing and <!--del_lnk--> Xidan have developed into flourishing shopping districts, while <!--del_lnk--> Zhongguancun has become a major centre of electronics in China.<p>As the national capital, Beijing has also been the site of political turmoil in recent years. <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen Square, a well-known landmark in the city, was the site of the <!--del_lnk--> Tiananmen Square protests of 1976 and then the <a href="../../wp/t/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989.htm" title="Tiananmen Square protests of 1989">Tiananmen Square protests of 1989</a>, which ended in a military crackdown. Tian'anmen Square has also been the site of protests by <!--del_lnk--> Falun Gong.<p>In recent years, the expansion of Beijing has also brought to the forefront some problems of urbanization, such as heavy traffic, poor <!--del_lnk--> air quality, the loss of historic neighborhoods, and significant influx of migrants from poorer regions of the country, especially rural areas.<p>Early 2005 saw the approval by government of a plan to finally stop the sprawling development of Beijing in all directions. Development of the Chinese capital would now proceed in two semicircular bands just outside of the city centre (both west and east) instead of being in concentric rings.<p>Beijing has been chosen to host the <!--del_lnk--> 2008 Summer Olympics, an event that has sparked <!--del_lnk--> nationalistic pride across China.<p><a id="Geography_and_climate" name="Geography_and_climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography and climate</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1420.jpg.htm" title="A simulated-color image of Beijing, taken by NASA's Landsat 7."><img alt="A simulated-color image of Beijing, taken by NASA's Landsat 7." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Large_Beijing_Landsat.jpg" src="../../images/14/1420.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1420.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A simulated-colour image of Beijing, taken by <!--del_lnk--> NASA's <!--del_lnk--> Landsat 7.</div>
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<p>Beijing is situated at the northern tip of the roughly triangular <!--del_lnk--> North China Plain which opens to the south and east of the city. Mountains to the north, northwest and west shield the city and northern China's agricultural heartland from the encroaching desert steppes. The northwestern part of the municipality, especially <!--del_lnk--> Yanqing County and <!--del_lnk--> Huairou District, are dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> Jundu Mountains, while the western part of the municipality is framed by the <!--del_lnk--> Xishan Mountains. The <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Wall_of_China.htm" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>, which stretches across the northern part of Beijing Municipality, made use of this rugged topography to defend against nomadic incursions from the steppes. <!--del_lnk--> Mount Dongling in the Xishan ranges and on the border with <!--del_lnk--> Hebei is the municipality's highest point, with an altitude of 2303 <!--del_lnk--> m. Major rivers flowing through the municipality include the <!--del_lnk--> Yongding River and the <!--del_lnk--> Chaobai River, part of the <!--del_lnk--> Hai River system, and flowing in a southerly direction. Beijing is also the northern terminus of the <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Canal_of_China.htm" title="Grand Canal of China">Grand Canal of China</a> which was built across the North China Plain to <!--del_lnk--> Hangzhou. <!--del_lnk--> Miyun Reservoir, built on the upper reaches of the <!--del_lnk--> Chaobai River, is Beijing's largest reservoir, and crucial to its water supply.<p>The urban area of Beijing, located at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">39°54′20″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">116°23′29″E</span></span> (39.9056, 116.3914), is situated in the south-central part of the municipality and occupies a small but expanding part of the municipality's area. It spreads out in bands of concentric <!--del_lnk--> ring roads, of which the fifth and outermost (the <!--del_lnk--> Sixth Ring Road; the numbering starts at 2) passes through several satellite towns. <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace) and <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen Square are at the centre of Beijing, and are directly to the south of the <!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City, former residence of the emperors of China. To the west of Tian'anmen is <!--del_lnk--> Zhongnanhai, current residence of the paramount leaders of the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. Running through central Beijing from east to west is <!--del_lnk--> Chang'an Avenue, one of Beijing's main thoroughfares.<p>The city's <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> is harsh, characterized by hot, humid summers due to the East Asian <!--del_lnk--> monsoon, and cold, windy, dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast <!--del_lnk--> Siberian <!--del_lnk--> anticyclone. Average temperatures in January are at around -7 to -4 °<!--del_lnk--> C, while average temperatures in July are at 25 to 26 °<!--del_lnk--> C. Annual <!--del_lnk--> precipitation is over 600 <!--del_lnk--> mm, with 75% of that in <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">summer</a>. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Beijing also suffers from heavy pollution and poor <!--del_lnk--> air quality from industry and traffic. Dust from erosion of deserts in northern and northwestern China result in seasonal <!--del_lnk--> dust storms that plague the city. In the first four months of 2006 alone, there were no fewer than eight such storms. <!--del_lnk--> Efforts have been made of late to clean up Beijing in preparation for the <!--del_lnk--> 2008 Summer Olympics.<p><a id="City_layout" name="City_layout"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">City layout</span></h2>
<p><a id="Neighbourhoods" name="Neighbourhoods"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Neighbourhoods</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1421.jpg.htm" title="Southern end of Wangfujing Road (July 2004 image)."><img alt="Southern end of Wangfujing Road (July 2004 image)." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wangfujing_Nankou.jpg" src="../../images/14/1421.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1421.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Southern end of <!--del_lnk--> Wangfujing Road (July 2004 image).</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1422.jpg.htm" title="Beijing by night"><img alt="Beijing by night" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beijing_By_Night_2003.jpg" src="../../images/14/1422.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1422.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beijing by night</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1423.jpg.htm" title="Beijing Bookstore at Xidan"><img alt="Beijing Bookstore at Xidan" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xidan_Xinhuashudian.jpg" src="../../images/14/1423.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1423.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beijing Bookstore at <!--del_lnk--> Xidan</div>
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<p>Major neighbourhoods in urban Beijing include the following. Neighborhoods may overlap across multiple districts (see below):<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Andingmen 安定门<li><!--del_lnk--> Beiyuan 北苑<li><!--del_lnk--> Chaoyangmen 朝阳门<li><!--del_lnk--> Dongzhimen 东直门<li><!--del_lnk--> Fangzhuang 方庄<li><!--del_lnk--> Fuchengmen 阜成门<li><!--del_lnk--> Fuxingmen 复兴门<li><!--del_lnk--> Guomao 国贸<li><!--del_lnk--> Hepingli 和平里<li><!--del_lnk--> Wangjing 望京<li><!--del_lnk--> Wangfujing 王府井<li><!--del_lnk--> Wudaokou 五道口<li><!--del_lnk--> Xidan 西单<li><!--del_lnk--> Yayuncun 亚运村<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhongguancun 中关村</ul>
<p>Several place names in Beijing end with <i>men</i> (门), meaning "gate", as they were the locations of gates in the former <!--del_lnk--> Beijing city wall. Other place names end in <i>cun</i> (村), meaning "village", as they were originally villages outside the city wall.<p><a id="Towns" name="Towns"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Towns</span></h3>
<p>Towns within Beijing Municipality but outside the urban area include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Changping 昌平<li><!--del_lnk--> Huairou 怀柔<li><!--del_lnk--> Miyun 密云<li><!--del_lnk--> Liangxiang 良乡<li><!--del_lnk--> Liulimiao 琉璃庙<li><!--del_lnk--> Tongzhou 通州<li><!--del_lnk--> Yizhuang 亦庄</ul>
<p><a id="Subdivisions" name="Subdivisions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Subdivisions</span></h3>
<p>Beijing Municipality currently comprises 18 administrative sub-divisions, <!--del_lnk--> county-level units governed directly by the municipality (second-level divisions). Of these, 16 are <!--del_lnk--> districts and 2 are <!--del_lnk--> counties.<p>The urban and suburban areas of the city are divided into eight (8) districts:<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>District</th>
<th>Population (2000 census)</th>
<th>Area (km²)</th>
<th>Density (per km²)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dongcheng District (东城区: Dōngchéng Qū)</td>
<td>536,000</td>
<td>24.7</td>
<td>21,700</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Xicheng District (西城区: Xīchéng Qū)</td>
<td>707,000</td>
<td>30.0</td>
<td>23,567</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chongwen District (崇文区: Chóngwén Qū)</td>
<td>346,000</td>
<td>15.9</td>
<td>21,761</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Xuanwu District (宣武区: Xuānwǔ Qū)</td>
<td>526,000</td>
<td>16.5</td>
<td>31,879</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chaoyang District (朝阳区: Cháoyáng Qū)</td>
<td>2,290,000</td>
<td>470.8</td>
<td>4,864</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Haidian District (海淀区: Hǎidiàn Qū)</td>
<td>2,240,000</td>
<td>426.0</td>
<td>5,258</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Fengtai District (丰台区: Fēngtái Qū)</td>
<td>1,369,000</td>
<td>304.2</td>
<td>4,500</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shijingshan District (石景山区: Shíjǐngshān Qū)</td>
<td>489,000</td>
<td>89.8</td>
<td>5,445</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>City proper + inner suburbs</b></td>
<td><b>8.50 million</b></td>
<td><b>1377.9</b></td>
<td><b>6,171</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The following six districts encompass the more distant suburbs and satellite towns, constituting part of the <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan area:<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>District</th>
<th>Population (2000 census)</th>
<th>Area (km²)</th>
<th>Density (per km²)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mentougou District (门头沟区: Méntóugōu Qū)</td>
<td>267,000</td>
<td>1,331.3</td>
<td>201</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Fangshan District (房山区: Fángshān Qū)<br /> Fangshan County until 1986</td>
<td>814,000</td>
<td>1,866.7</td>
<td>436</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tongzhou District (通州区: Tōngzhōu Qū)<br /> Tong County until 1997</td>
<td>674,000</td>
<td>870.0</td>
<td>775</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shunyi District (顺义区: Shùnyì Qū)<br /> Shunyi County until 1998</td>
<td>637,000</td>
<td>980.0</td>
<td>650</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Changping District (昌平区: Chāngpíng Qū)<br /> Changping County until 1999</td>
<td>615,000</td>
<td>1,430.0</td>
<td>430</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Daxing District (大兴区: Dàxīng Qū)<br /> Daxing County until 2001</td>
<td>672,000</td>
<td>1,012.0</td>
<td>664</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Outer suburbs</b></td>
<td><b>3.68 million</b></td>
<td><b>7,490</b></td>
<td><b>491</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The other two districts and the two counties located further out govern semirural and rural areas:<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>District</th>
<th>Population (2000 census)</th>
<th>Area (km²)</th>
<th>Density (per km²)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pinggu District (平谷区: Pínggǔ Qū)<br /> Pinggu County until 2001</td>
<td>397,000</td>
<td>1,075.0</td>
<td>369</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Huairou District (怀柔区: Huáiróu Qū)<br /> Huairou County until 2001</td>
<td>296,000</td>
<td>2,557.3</td>
<td>116</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Miyun County (密云县: Mìyún Xiàn)</td>
<td>420,000</td>
<td>2,335.6</td>
<td>180</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yanqing County (延庆县: Yánqìng Xiàn)</td>
<td>275,000</td>
<td>1,980.0</td>
<td>139</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Peripheral areas</b></td>
<td><b>1.39 million</b></td>
<td><b>7,947.9</b></td>
<td><b>175</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Source: <!--del_lnk--> Geohive<p>Beijing's 18 districts and counties are further subdivided into 273 lower (third)-level administrative units at the <!--del_lnk--> township level: 119 <!--del_lnk--> towns, 24 <!--del_lnk--> townships, 5 <!--del_lnk--> ethnic townships and 125 <!--del_lnk--> subdistricts.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1424.jpg.htm" title="The Beijing CBD area around Dawangqiao and Dabeiyao, as seen from the Jingtong Expressway."><img alt="The Beijing CBD area around Dawangqiao and Dabeiyao, as seen from the Jingtong Expressway." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Modern_Beijing_Skyline_Oct2004.jpg" src="../../images/14/1424.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1424.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Beijing CBD area around <!--del_lnk--> Dawangqiao and <!--del_lnk--> Dabeiyao, as seen from the <!--del_lnk--> Jingtong Expressway.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In 2005, Beijing's nominal GDP was 681.45 billion <a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">RMB</a> (about 84 billion <!--del_lnk--> USD), a year-on-year growth of 11.1% from the previous year. Its per capita GDP was 44,969 RMB, an increase of 8.1% from the previous year and nearly twice as much as in 2000. Beijing's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 9.77 billion RMB, 210.05 billion RMB, and 461.63 billion RMB. Urban <!--del_lnk--> disposable income per capita was 17,653 yuan, a <!--del_lnk--> real increase of 12.9% from the previous year. Per capita pure income of rural residents was 7,860 RMB, a real increase of 9.6%. Per capita disposable income of the 20% low-income residents increased 16.7%, 11.4 percentage points higher than the growth rate of the 20% high-income residents. The <!--del_lnk--> Engel's coefficient of Beijing's urban residents reached 31.8% in 2005 and that of the rural residents was 32.8%, declining 4.5 percentage points and 3.9 percentage points, respectively, compared with 2000. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Beijing's <!--del_lnk--> real estate and <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobile</a> sectors continue to bloom in recent years. In 2005, a total of 28.032 million <!--del_lnk--> square metres of housing real estate was sold, for a total of 175.88 billion <a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">RMB</a>. The total number of automobiles registered in Beijing in 2004 was 2,146,000, of which 1,540,000 were privately-owned (a year-on-year increase of 18.7%). <!--del_lnk--> <p>The <!--del_lnk--> Beijing CBD, centered at the <!--del_lnk--> Guomao area, has been identified as the city's new <!--del_lnk--> central business district, and is home to a variety of corporate regional headquarters, shopping malls, and high-end housing. The <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Financial Street, in the <!--del_lnk--> Fuxingmen and <!--del_lnk--> Fuchengmen area, is a traditional financial centre. The <!--del_lnk--> Wangfujing and <!--del_lnk--> Xidan areas are major shopping districts. <!--del_lnk--> Zhongguancun, dubbed "China's Silicon Valley", continues to be a major centre in <a href="../../wp/e/Electronics.htm" title="Electronics">electronics</a>- and <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computer</a>-related industries, as well as <!--del_lnk--> pharmaceuticals-related research. Meanwhile, <!--del_lnk--> Yizhuang, located to the southeast of the urban area, is becoming a new centre in pharmaceuticals, IT, and materials engineering. <!--del_lnk--> Urban Beijing is also known for being a centre of pirated goods and anything from the latest designer clothing to the latest DVDs can be found in markets all over the city, often marketed to expatriates and international visitors.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10387.jpg.htm" title="A corner of the emerging Beijing CBD."><img alt="A corner of the emerging Beijing CBD." height="156" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bejingcbd.jpg" src="../../images/14/1425.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10387.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A corner of the emerging Beijing CBD.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Major industrial areas include <!--del_lnk--> Shijingshan, located on the western outskirts of the city. <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> is carried out outside the urban area of Beijing, with <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">maize</a> (corn) being the main crops. <a href="../../wp/v/Vegetable.htm" title="Vegetable">Vegetables</a> are also grown in the regions closer to the urban area in order to supply the city.<p>Beijing is increasingly becoming known for its innovative <!--del_lnk--> entrepreneurs and high-growth start-ups. This culture is backed by large community of both Chinese and foreign <!--del_lnk--> venture capital firms, such as <!--del_lnk--> Sequoia Capital, whose head office in China resides in Chaoyang, Beijing. Though Shanghai is seen as the economic center of China, this is typically based on the numerous large corporations based there, rather than as a centre for Chinese entrepreneurs.<p>The development of Beijing continues to proceed at a rapid pace, and the vast expansion of Beijing has created a multitude of problems for the city. Beijing is known for its <a href="../../wp/s/Smog.htm" title="Smog">smog</a> as well as the frequent "power-saving" programs instituted by the government. Citizens of Beijing as well as tourists frequently complain about the quality of the water supply and the cost of the basic services such as electricity and natural gas. The major industrial areas outside of Beijing were ordered to clean their operations or leave the Beijing area in an effort to alleviate the smog that covers the city. Most factories, unable to update, have moved and relocated to other cities such as <!--del_lnk--> Xi'an, China.<p><a id="Architecture" name="Architecture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Architecture</span></h2>
<p>Three styles of architecture predominate in urban Beijing. First, the traditional architecture of imperial China, perhaps best exemplified by the massive <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace), which remains the PRC's trademark edifice, the <!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City, and the <!--del_lnk--> Temple of Heaven. Next there is what is sometimes referred to as the "Sino-Sov" style, built between the 1950s and the 1970s, which tend to be boxy, bland, and poorly made. Finally, there are much more modern architectural forms — most noticeably in the area of the <!--del_lnk--> Beijing CBD. Pictured below are some images of Beijing architecture — blending the old and the new.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1426.jpg.htm" title="Image:Ancient Beijing Skyline.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1426.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The ancient Beijing skyline.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1427.jpg.htm" title="Image:70s Architecture Beijing.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1427.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The boxy look of buildings made in the 1970s.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1428.jpg.htm" title="Image:Architecture Beijing Modern.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1428.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The very modern contrast.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1429.jpg.htm" title="Image:Old Roof Architecture Beijing.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1429.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Details of traditional architecture.</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1430.jpg.htm" title="Image:BeijingArchitectureCombo70s90s.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1430.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>A mix of 70s and 90s styles.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1431.jpg.htm" title="Image:Blend Architecture Beijing.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1431.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Mix and match of the old and the new.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1432.jpg.htm" title="Image:TianGuard.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/14/1432.jpg" width="80" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The Tian'anmen</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1433.jpg.htm" title="Image:Wangfujing.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/14/1433.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Wangfujing, a major commercial street.</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>A bizarre and striking mixture of both old and new styles of architecture can be seen at the <!--del_lnk--> Dashanzi <!--del_lnk--> Art District, which mixes 1950s-design with a blend of the new. The influence of American urban form and social values in manifest in the creation of <!--del_lnk--> Orange County, China, a suburban development about one hour north of the city.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1434.jpg.htm" title="The Wangjing neighbourhood, in Chaoyang District, Beijing, is known for its large number of South Korean residents."><img alt="The Wangjing neighbourhood, in Chaoyang District, Beijing, is known for its large number of South Korean residents." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beijing_wangjing_1.jpg" src="../../images/14/1434.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1434.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Wangjing neighbourhood, in <!--del_lnk--> Chaoyang District, Beijing, is known for its large number of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Korean</a> residents.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The population of Beijing Municipality, defined as the total number of people who reside in Beijing for 6 months or more per year, was 15.38 million in 2005. 11.870 million people in Beijing Municipality had Beijing <i><!--del_lnk--> hukou</i> (permanent residence) and the remainder were on temporary residence permits. <!--del_lnk--> In addition, there is a large but unknown number of <!--del_lnk--> migrant workers (<i>min gong</i>) who live illegally in Beijing without any official residence permit (also termed <i>hei ren</i> which means "black people" (as in "black market") or unregistered people). The population of Beijing's urban core (city proper) is around 7.5 million.<p>Over 95% of Beijing's residents belong to the <!--del_lnk--> Han Chinese majority. Other major ethnic minorities include the <!--del_lnk--> Manchu, <!--del_lnk--> Hui, and <!--del_lnk--> Mongol, etc. A Tibetan <!--del_lnk--> high school exists for youth of Tibetan ancestry, nearly all of whom have come to Beijing from <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> expressly for their studies.<p>A sizable international community exists in Beijing, mostly attracted by the highly growing foreign business and trade sector, and many live in the Beijing urban area's densely populated northern, northeastern and eastern sections. In recent years there has also been an influx of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">South Koreans</a> who live in Beijing predominantly for business and study purpose. Many of them live in the <!--del_lnk--> Wangjing and <!--del_lnk--> Wudaokou areas.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1435.jpg.htm" title="Wangfujing Cathedral"><img alt="Wangfujing Cathedral" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WangfujingCathedral.jpg" src="../../images/14/1435.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1435.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wangfujing Cathedral</div>
</div>
</div>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="3">Ethnic groups in Beijing, 2000 census</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Nationality</th>
<th>Population</th>
<th>Percentage</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Han Chinese</td>
<td>12,983,696</td>
<td>95.69%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Manchu</td>
<td>250,286</td>
<td>1.84%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hui</td>
<td>235,837</td>
<td>1.74%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mongol</td>
<td>37,464</td>
<td>0.28%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Korean</td>
<td>20,369</td>
<td>0.15%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tujia</td>
<td>8372</td>
<td>0.062%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Zhuang</td>
<td>7322</td>
<td>0.054%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Miao</td>
<td>5291</td>
<td>0.039%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Uyghur</td>
<td>3129</td>
<td>0.023%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Tibetan</td>
<td>2920</td>
<td>0.022%</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Excludes members of the <!--del_lnk--> People's Liberation Army in active service.<br /> Source: Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司) and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China (国家民族事务委员会经济发展司), eds. <i>Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China</i> (《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社), 2003. (<!--del_lnk--> ISBN 7-105-05425-5)<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1436.jpg.htm" title="A Beijing performance of the classic opera Farewell my Concubine (September 2002)."><img alt="A Beijing performance of the classic opera Farewell my Concubine (September 2002)." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BejingOperaProduction.jpg" src="../../images/14/1436.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1436.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Beijing performance of the classic opera <i>Farewell my Concubine</i> (September 2002).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>People native to urban Beijing speak the <!--del_lnk--> Beijing dialect, which belongs to the Mandarin subdivision of <!--del_lnk--> spoken Chinese. <!--del_lnk--> Beijing dialect provides the basis for <!--del_lnk--> Standard Mandarin, the standard Chinese language used in the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>, the <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_China.htm" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> on <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Singapore.htm" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. Rural areas of Beijing Municipality have their own dialects akin to those of <!--del_lnk--> Hebei province, which surrounds Beijing Municipality.<p><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Opera, or Peking Opera (<i>Jingju</i>), is well-known throughout the national capital. Commonly lauded as one of the highest achievements of <!--del_lnk--> Chinese culture, Beijing Opera is performed through a combination of song, spoken dialogue, and codified action sequences, such as gestures, movement, fighting and acrobatics. Much of Beijing Opera is carried out in an archaic <!--del_lnk--> stage dialect quite different from modern Standard Mandarin and from the <!--del_lnk--> Beijing dialect; this makes the dialogue somewhat hard to understand, and the problem is compounded if one is not familiar with Chinese. As a result, modern theaters often have electronic titles in Chinese and English.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Siheyuan (四合院) is a traditional architectural style of Beijing. A siheyuan consists of a square housing compound, with rooms enclosing a central courtyard. This courtyard often contains a <!--del_lnk--> pomegranate or other type of tree, as well as potted flowers or a <a href="../../wp/a/Aquarium.htm" title="Fish tank">fish tank</a>. Siheyuans line <!--del_lnk--> Hutongs (胡同), or alleys, which connect the interior of Beijing's old city. They are usually straight and run east-to-west so that doorways can face north and south for <!--del_lnk--> Feng Shui reasons. They vary in width — some are very narrow, enough for only a few pedestrians to pass through at a time.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1437.jpg.htm" title="A Hutong （胡同） in eastern urban Beijing near Dongsishitiao. When photographed in March 2003, the left side was still standing; it has since given way to a new construction project."><img alt="A Hutong （胡同） in eastern urban Beijing near Dongsishitiao. When photographed in March 2003, the left side was still standing; it has since given way to a new construction project." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beijing_Hutongs_Mar2003.jpg" src="../../images/14/1437.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1437.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <b>Hutong</b> （胡同） in eastern urban Beijing near <!--del_lnk--> Dongsishitiao. When photographed in March 2003, the left side was still standing; it has since given way to a new construction project.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Once ubiquitous in Beijing, siheyuans and hutongs are now rapidly disappearing, as entire city blocks of hutongs are leveled and replaced with high-rise buildings. Residents of the hutongs are entitled to apartments in the new buildings of at least the same size as their former residences. Many complain, however, that the traditional sense of community and street life of the hutongs cannot be replaced. Some particularly historic or picturesque hutongs are being preserved and restored by the government, especially for the 2008 Olympics. One such example can be seen at <!--del_lnk--> Nanchizi.<p><!--del_lnk--> Mandarin cuisine is the local style of cooking in Beijing. <!--del_lnk--> Peking Roast Duck is perhaps the most well-known dish. The <!--del_lnk--> Manhan Quanxi ("<!--del_lnk--> Manchu-<!--del_lnk--> Han Chinese full banquet") is a traditional banquet originally intended for the ethnic-<!--del_lnk--> Manchu emperors of the <a href="../../wp/q/Qing_Dynasty.htm" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a>; it remains very prestigious and expensive.<p><!--del_lnk--> Teahouses are also common in Beijing. Chinese <a href="../../wp/t/Tea.htm" title="Tea">tea</a> comes in many varieties and some rather expensive types of Chinese tea are said to cure an ailing body extraordinarily well.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Jingtailan is a <!--del_lnk--> cloisonné metalworking technique and tradition originating from Beijing, and one of the most revered traditional crafts in China. <!--del_lnk--> Beijing lacquerware is well known for the patterns and images carved into its surface.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Fuling Jiabing is a traditional Beijing snack food, a pancake (<i>bing</i>) resembling a flat disk with filling, made from <i>fu ling</i> (<i><!--del_lnk--> Poria cocos (Schw.) Wolf</i>, or "tuckahoe"), an ingredient common in traditional <!--del_lnk--> Chinese medicine.<p><a id="Stereotypes" name="Stereotypes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Stereotypes</span></h3>
<p>Beijingers are stereotypically held to be open, confident, humorous, majestic in manner, enthusiastic about politics, art, culture, or other "grand" matters, unconcerned with thrift or careful calculation, and happy to take centre stage. They are also stereotypically aristocratic, arrogant, laid back, disdainful of "provincials", always "lording it over others", and strongly conscious of social class. These <!--del_lnk--> stereotypes may have originated from Beijing's status as China's capital for most of the past 800 years, and the high concentration of officials and other notables in Beijing that has resulted. Needless to say, these stereotypes are generally untrue.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2>
<p>With the growth of the city following economic reforms, Beijing has evolved as an important transportation hub. Encircling the city are five ring roads, nine expressways and city express routes, eleven China National Highways, several railway routes, and an international airport.<p><a id="Rail" name="Rail"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Rail</span></h3>
<p>Beijing has two major railway stations: <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Railway Station (or the central station) and <!--del_lnk--> Beijing West Railway Station. Three other railway stations in Metropolitan Beijing handle regular passenger traffic: <!--del_lnk--> Beijing East, <!--del_lnk--> Beijing North, and <!--del_lnk--> Fengtai. There are also several other small stations serving suburban area.<p>As for August 1, 2006, <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Railway Station has 167 trains stopping daily, while <!--del_lnk--> Beijing West Railway Station has 176 trains.<p>Beijing is a railway hub. There are <!--del_lnk--> railway lines from Beijing to <a href="../../wp/g/Guangzhou.htm" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Harbin, <!--del_lnk--> Baotou, <!--del_lnk--> Taiyuan, <!--del_lnk--> Chengde and <!--del_lnk--> Qinhuangdao.<p>International trains, including lines to cities in <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pyongyang.htm" title="Pyongyang">Pyongyang</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/North_Korea.htm" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> (DPRK), all run through Beijing. Direct trains to <!--del_lnk--> Kowloon, <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> <!--del_lnk--> SAR also depart from Beijing.<p>Construction on a <!--del_lnk--> Beijing-Tianjin high-speed rail began on July 4, 2005, and is scheduled to be completed in 2007.<p><a id="Roads_and_expressways" name="Roads_and_expressways"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roads and expressways</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1438.jpg.htm" title="The Badaling Expressway near the intersection with the Northern 6th Ring Road (November 2002 image)"><img alt="The Badaling Expressway near the intersection with the Northern 6th Ring Road (November 2002 image)" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BadalingExpwyNov02.jpg" src="../../images/14/1438.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1438.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Badaling Expressway near the intersection with the Northern <!--del_lnk--> 6th Ring Road (November 2002 image)</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Beijing is connected via road links from all parts of China. Nine <!--del_lnk--> expressways of China (with six wholly new expressways under projection or construction) connect with Beijing, as do eleven <!--del_lnk--> China National Highways. Within Beijing itself, an elaborate network of five ring roads has developed, but they appear more rectangular than ring-shaped. Roads in Beijing often are in one of the four compass directions (unlike, for example, <!--del_lnk--> Tianjin).<p>One of the biggest concerns with traffic in Beijing deals with its apparently ubiquitous traffic jams. Traffic in the city centre is often gridlocked, especially around rush hour. Even outside of rush hour, several roads still remain clogged up with traffic. Urban area ring roads and major through routes, especially near the <!--del_lnk--> Chang'an Avenue area, are often clogged up during rush hour.<p>Recently expressways have been extended (in some cases reconstructed as express routes) into the territories within the <!--del_lnk--> 3rd Ring Road. As they are either expressways or express routes, drivers do not need to pass through intersections with traffic lights. This may finally solve the difficulties in "hopping between one ring and another".<p>Another problem is that public transportation is underdeveloped (the subway system is presently minimal) and that even buses are jam-packed with people around rush hour. Beijing was poorly designed in terms of zoning and in terms of transportation system <!--del_lnk--> , <!--del_lnk--> . Compounding the problem is patchy enforcement of traffic regulations, and <!--del_lnk--> road rage. Beijing authorities claim that traffic jams may be a thing of a past come the <!--del_lnk--> 2008 Olympics. The authorities have introduced several bus lanes where, during rush hour, all vehicles except for public buses must keep clear.<p><!--del_lnk--> Chang'an Avenue runs east-west through the centre of Beijing, past <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen. It is a major through route and is often called the "First Street in China" by authorities.<p>
<br clear="all" />
<table align="center" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours">
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<td align="left" width="60">
</td>
<td align="center"><b><!--del_lnk--> Roads and <!--del_lnk--> Expressways of <strong class="selflink">Beijing</strong></b></td>
<td align="right" width="60"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1439.jpg.htm" title="Expressway Overpass"><img alt="Expressway Overpass" height="45" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yuegezhuang_Overpass.jpg" src="../../images/14/1439.jpg" width="60" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3">
<table>
<tr>
<td align="left" style="font-size: 90%; vertical-align: top;"><b>Main Roads</b>:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Chang'an Avenue (<!--del_lnk--> East, <!--del_lnk--> West) | <!--del_lnk--> Ping'an Avenue | <!--del_lnk--> Zhongzhou Road (<!--del_lnk--> North, <!--del_lnk--> South)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left" style="font-size: 90%; vertical-align: top;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Ring Roads</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><b>Open</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd Ring Road | <!--del_lnk--> 3rd Ring Road | <!--del_lnk--> 4th Ring Road | <!--del_lnk--> 5th Ring Road | <!--del_lnk--> 6th Ring Road</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td style="font-size: 90%;">
</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><b>Projected</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> 7th Ring Road |</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td align="left" style="font-size: 90%; vertical-align: top;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Expressways</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;" width="90"><b>Open</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Badaling Expressway (<!--del_lnk--> Jingda Expressway) | <!--del_lnk--> Jingcheng Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Airport Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingtong Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingha Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingshen Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingjintang Expressway (<!--del_lnk--> Jinghu Expressway) | <!--del_lnk--> Jingkai Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingshi Expressway (<!--del_lnk--> Jingzhu Expressway)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td style="font-size: 90%;">
</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><b>Partially under construction</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Jingcheng Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingkai Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Northern Airport Line | <!--del_lnk--> Jingping Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingbao Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Litian Expressway</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td style="font-size: 90%">
</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><b>Projected</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> 2nd Airport Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingjin Expressway (<!--del_lnk--> North, <!--del_lnk--> South)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td style="font-size: 90%">
</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><b>7 National Expressways</b>:</td>
<td style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> Jingtai Expressway (projected) | <!--del_lnk--> Jinghu Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jinggang'ao Expressway (partially complete) | <!--del_lnk--> Jingkun Expressway | <!--del_lnk--> Jingla Expressway (projected) | <!--del_lnk--> Jingwu Expressway (projected) | <!--del_lnk--> Jingha Expressway (alternate route)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td align="left" style="font-size: 90%; vertical-align: top;"><b><!--del_lnk--> National Highways</b></td>
<td colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"><!--del_lnk--> G101 | <!--del_lnk--> G102 | <!--del_lnk--> G103 | <!--del_lnk--> G104 | <!--del_lnk--> G105 | <!--del_lnk--> G106 | <!--del_lnk--> G107 | <!--del_lnk--> G108 | <!--del_lnk--> G109 | <!--del_lnk--> G110 | <!--del_lnk--> G111</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Air" name="Air"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Air</span></h3>
<p>Beijing's main airport is the <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Capital International Airport (PEK) near <!--del_lnk--> Shunyi, which is about 20 km northeast of Beijing city centre. Most domestic and nearly all international flights arrive and depart at Capital Airport. Capital Airport is the main hub for <!--del_lnk--> Air China. It is linked to central Beijing by the <!--del_lnk--> Airport Expressway and is a roughly 40-minute drive from the city centre during good traffic hours. In preparation for the 2008 Olympics, another expressway is being built to the Airport, as well as a lightrail system.<p>Other airports in the city include <!--del_lnk--> Liangxiang Airport, <!--del_lnk--> Nanyuan Airport, <!--del_lnk--> Xijiao Airport, <!--del_lnk--> Shahe Airport and <!--del_lnk--> Badaling Airport. However, these are primary for military use and less well-known to the public.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1440.jpg.htm" title="Inside a Beijing Subway station"><img alt="Inside a Beijing Subway station" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tiananmenstation01.jpg" src="../../images/14/1440.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1440.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Inside a Beijing Subway station</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Public_transit" name="Public_transit"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Public transit</span></h3>
<p>The evolving <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Subway has four lines (two above ground, two underground), with several more being built in preparation for the <!--del_lnk--> 2008 Summer Olympics. There were 599 <!--del_lnk--> bus and <!--del_lnk--> trolleybus routes in Beijing as of 2004. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Bus fares cost 2 <a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">Renminbi</a> for Air Conditioned Buses under 10km, and another 2 RMB per 10km. Non-air conditioned buses are 1 RMB per 10km. Subway tickets cost 3 <a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">Renminbi</a> for the 1, 2, 13, and 8T lines; 5 RMB for tickets allowing a transfer to Line 13, and 4 RMB for tickets allowing a transfer to Line 8T.<p><!--del_lnk--> Taxis are nearly ubiquitous, including a large number of unregistered taxis. As of June 30, 2006 all fares on legal taxies start at 10 <a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">Renminbi</a> for the first 3km (idling time is also a factor), and are 2.00 <a href="../../wp/r/Renminbi.htm" title="Renminbi">Renminbi</a> per extra kilometer. Most taxis are a mixed fleet of new Hyundai Elantra and Volkswagen Jetta (Borla) cars. After 15km, the base fare is increased by 50% (but only applied to the portion of the distance <i>over</i> 15km, so that the passenger is not retroactively charged extra for the first 15km). Between 11pm and 6am, the fee is increased by 20%, starting at 11 RMB and increasing at a rate of 2.4 RMB per km. Rides over 15km and between 11pm and 6am apply both charges, for a total increase of 80% (120%*150%=180%).<p><a id="Tourism" name="Tourism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Tourism</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/248/24816.jpg.htm" title="The Summer Palace in Beijing - photographed by Felice Beato in October 1860."><img alt="The Summer Palace in Beijing - photographed by Felice Beato in October 1860." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belvedere_of_the_God_of_Literature%2C_Summer_Palace.jpg" src="../../images/14/1441.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/248/24816.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Summer Palace in Beijing - photographed by Felice Beato in October 1860.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1442.jpg.htm" title="Wansong Pagoda"><img alt="Wansong Pagoda" height="219" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wan_song_monk_pagoda01.jpg" src="../../images/14/1442.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1442.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Wansong Pagoda</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1443.jpg.htm" title="Miaoying Temple, one of the most renowned Buddhist temples in Beijing"><img alt="Miaoying Temple, one of the most renowned Buddhist temples in Beijing" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DSCN0245.jpg" src="../../images/14/1443.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1443.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Miaoying Temple, one of the most renowned Buddhist temples in Beijing</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1444.jpg.htm" title="The Temple of Azure Clouds"><img alt="The Temple of Azure Clouds" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bys_lht.JPG" src="../../images/14/1444.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1444.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Temple of Azure Clouds</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Despite the turmoil of the <!--del_lnk--> nineteenth and <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="Twentieth century">twentieth</a> centuries — including damage caused by <!--del_lnk--> European military intervention, the <!--del_lnk--> Japanese invasion of WWII and the <!--del_lnk--> Cultural Revolution — and the recent intense <!--del_lnk--> urbanisation and transformation, including the demolition of <!--del_lnk--> hutongs, Beijing still maintains tourist attractions that are rich in history.<p>Although more known for its political significance in the West, the <!--del_lnk--> Tian'anmen (Gate of Heavenly Peace) has long been one of the most important tourist sites of Beijing, both by itself and as the main entrance to the <!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City. Other world-renowned sites include the <!--del_lnk--> Badaling section of the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Wall_of_China.htm" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Summer Palace, and the <!--del_lnk--> Temple of Heaven.<p><a id="Within_the_Beijing_metropolitan_area" name="Within_the_Beijing_metropolitan_area"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Within the Beijing metropolitan area</span></h3>
<p><a id="Buildings.2C_monuments.2C_and_landmarks" name="Buildings.2C_monuments.2C_and_landmarks"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Buildings, monuments, and landmarks</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Forbidden City (<a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tiananmen Square, site of the Tiananmen Square protests of <!--del_lnk--> May 4, 1919, <!--del_lnk--> 1976, and <a href="../../wp/t/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989.htm" title="Tiananmen Square protests of 1989">1989</a><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tiananmen (The Gate of Heavenly Peace)<li><!--del_lnk--> Great Hall of the People (National Legislature)<li><!--del_lnk--> National Museum of China<li><!--del_lnk--> Monument to the People's Heroes<li><!--del_lnk--> Mausoleum of Mao Zedong</ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Summer Palace (<a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ruins of the Old Summer Palace<li><!--del_lnk--> Bell Tower and Drum Tower<li>Historic <!--del_lnk--> Hutongs and <!--del_lnk--> Siheyuans in many older neighborhoods<li><!--del_lnk--> Lugou Bridge (Marco Polo Bridge)<li><!--del_lnk--> Prince Gong Mansion (Gong Wang Fu)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zheng Yici Peking Opera Theatre<li><!--del_lnk--> Liulichang Culture Street<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Ancient Observatory</ul>
<p><a id="Temples.2C_cathedrals.2C_and_mosques" name="Temples.2C_cathedrals.2C_and_mosques"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Temples, cathedrals, and mosques</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Temple of Heaven (<a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>), situated in the southern area of urban Beijing<li><!--del_lnk--> Temple of Earth, located in northern Beijing<li><!--del_lnk--> Temple of Sun, situated in the eastern area of urban Beijing<li><!--del_lnk--> Temple of Moon, located in western Beijing<li><!--del_lnk--> Tanzhe Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Jietai Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Yunju Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Yonghegong (Lama Temple)<li><!--del_lnk--> Guangji Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Confucius Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Great Bell Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Fa Yuan Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Miaoying Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhen Jue Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Wanshou Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Five Pagoda Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhihua Si Temple<li><!--del_lnk--> Temple of Azure Clouds<li><!--del_lnk--> Temple of Recumbent Buddha<li><!--del_lnk--> White Dagoba Temple in <!--del_lnk--> Beihai Park<li><!--del_lnk--> Badachu<li><!--del_lnk--> Immaculate Conception Cathedral<li><!--del_lnk--> Holy Saviour Church<li><!--del_lnk--> Niujie Mosque</ul>
<p><a id="Parks_and_gardens" name="Parks_and_gardens"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Parks and gardens</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Beihai Park<li><!--del_lnk--> Shichahai<li><!--del_lnk--> Jingshan Park<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Fragrant Hills (Xiangshan)<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Grandview Garden (Daguanyuan)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Botanical Garden<li><!--del_lnk--> Taoranting Park<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Zoo</ul>
<p>
<br />
<p><a id="Shopping_and_commercial_districts" name="Shopping_and_commercial_districts"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Shopping and commercial districts</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Wangfujing: Beijing's most upscale, globalized shopping district<li><!--del_lnk--> Xidan<li><!--del_lnk--> Silk Street<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing CBD<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Financial Street<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhongguancun<li><!--del_lnk--> Yizhuang</ul>
<p><a id="Outside_the_metropolitan_area.2C_but_within_the_municipality" name="Outside_the_metropolitan_area.2C_but_within_the_municipality"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Outside the metropolitan area, but within the municipality</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Sections of the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Wall_of_China.htm" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall</a> (<a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>) at: <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Badaling<li><!--del_lnk--> Juyongguan<li><!--del_lnk--> Mutianyu<li><!--del_lnk--> Simatai<li><!--del_lnk--> Jinshanling<li><!--del_lnk--> Jiankou</ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Ming Dynasty Tombs (<a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Peking Man Site at <!--del_lnk--> Zhoukoudian (<a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Shidu</ul>
<p><a id="Hotels_and_lodging" name="Hotels_and_lodging"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hotels and lodging</span></h3>
<p>In first two decades following the PRC's foundation in 1949, Beijing had virtually no hotels (at least by Western standards), due to economic and social conditions at the time. One system of institution providing a place for individuals traveling to Beijing from other locations to spend the night was the <i><!--del_lnk--> zhaodaisuo</i> (literally, "accommodation centre"). <i>Zhaodaisuo</i> were subordinate to state organisations or state organs. Older ones had communal public conveniences and amenities. Some <i>zhaodaisuos</i> still remain in use today.<p>In the late 1970s, Beijing, alongside much of China during the period of reform and economic opening under <!--del_lnk--> Deng Xiaoping, saw greater attempts at attracting and catering to international business. A large number of hotels and other facilities to accommodate business, tourist, and other visitors began to be constructed. Today, given Beijing's size and status as one of the most frequently visited and economically, politically, and culturally important cities in Asia, a great number of hotels exist, many rivalling the highest international standards.<p>The most well-known hotel is the <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Hotel, which is state-owned. Other notable hotels are the <!--del_lnk--> Great Wall Sheraton Hotel, the <!--del_lnk--> Jianguo Hotel, <!--del_lnk--> Raffles Beijing Hotel the <!--del_lnk--> China World Hotel, the <!--del_lnk--> St. Regis, <!--del_lnk--> Grand Hyatt at Oriental Plaza and the Peninsula Palace Hotel, operated by the Hong Kong-based <!--del_lnk--> Peninsula Group.<p><!--del_lnk--> Youth hostels have become more and more popular in the last few years and there are now quite a few in Beijing. Most hostels are located in the downtown area of Beijing, on the East 3rd Ring Road or in the old <!--del_lnk--> Hutongs.<p><a id="Nightlife" name="Nightlife"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nightlife</span></h3>
<p>Nightlife in Beijing is varied. Most clubs are situated in the area around <!--del_lnk--> Sanlitun or in the region near the <!--del_lnk--> Workers Stadium, especially to the north and to the west. New clubs opened on <!--del_lnk--> Gongrentiyuchang West Road.<p><!--del_lnk--> Wudaokou, in northwestern Beijing, is also a bustling centre of nightlife. There are more Koreans and other foreigners, mostly students, in the area.<p>Bar-wise, the following areas of Beijing are known as hubs for bars which open until late:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sanlitun<li><!--del_lnk--> Houhai<li><!--del_lnk--> Yuandadu</ul>
<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<p>Beijing is home to a great number of colleges and universities, including several well-regarded universities of international stature, especially including China's two most prestigious institutions, <!--del_lnk--> Peking University, and <!--del_lnk--> Tsinghua University.<p>Owing to Beijing's status as the political and cultural capital of China, a larger proportion of tertiary-level institutions are concreated here than probably any other city in China, reaching at least 59 in number. Many international students from <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Southeast Asia, and elsewhere come to Beijing to study every year, a growing trend, especially among Western students. The institutions listed here are administered by China's <!--del_lnk--> Ministry of Education.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Peking University (北京大学) (founded in 1898), which is best in Humanities, natural sciences, business and law.<li><!--del_lnk--> Tsinghua University (清华大学) (founded in 1911), which is best in engineering<li><!--del_lnk--> Renmin University of China (中国人民大学) (founded in 1937)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics (北京航空航天大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Normal University (北京师范大学) (founded 1902)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Institute of Technology (北京理工大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Jiaotong University (北京交通大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Central University of Finance and Economics (中央财经大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> University of International Business and Economics (对外经济贸易大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> University of International Relations (国际关系学院)<li><!--del_lnk--> University of Science and Technology Beijing (北京科技大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> China University of Political Science and Law (中国政法大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing University of Technology (北京工业大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Foreign Studies University (北京外国语大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Language and Culture University (北京语言大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> China Agricultural University (中国农业大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing University of Chemical Technology (北京化工大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing University of Chinese Medicine (北京中医药大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing University of Petroleum (石油大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications (北京邮电大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Capital Normal University (首都师范大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Forestry University (北京林业大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Communication University of China (中国传媒大学)<li><!--del_lnk--> Central Academy of Drama (中央戏剧学院)<li><!--del_lnk--> Central Conservatory of Music (中央音乐学院)<li><!--del_lnk--> Central Institute of Fine Arts (中央美术学院)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Film Academy (北京电影学院)<li><!--del_lnk--> Central University for Nationalities (中央民族大学)</ul>
<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h2>
<p>Beijing will host the <!--del_lnk--> 2008 Summer Olympics and the <!--del_lnk--> 2008 Summer Paralympics.<p>Professional sports teams based in Beijing include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Chinese Football Association Super League<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Guoan</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Chinese Basketball Association<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Ducks<li><!--del_lnk--> Beijing Olympians</ul>
</ul>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Beijing Aoshen Olympians of the <!--del_lnk--> ABA, formerly a <!--del_lnk--> CBA team, kept their name and maintained a roster of primarily Chinese players after moving to <!--del_lnk--> Maywood, California in 2005.<p><a id="City_and_regional_partnerships" name="City_and_regional_partnerships"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">City and regional partnerships</span></h2>
<p>Beijing maintains <!--del_lnk--> partnerships or "sister city" status with the following international locations. (<i>Note: some locations are <!--del_lnk--> provinces or <!--del_lnk--> regional-level units, not cities properly. Beijing itself is not technically a city, being a <!--del_lnk--> municipality</i>).<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>City</th>
<th>Country</th>
<th>Sister City since:</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/586.png.htm" title="Flag of Japan"><img alt="Flag of Japan" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Japan_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/586.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1979</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> February 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Algiers.htm" title="Algiers">Algiers</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/3/398.png.htm" title="Flag of Algeria"><img alt="Flag of Algeria" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Algeria_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/3/398.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1989</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Belgrade</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1446.png.htm" title="Flag of Serbia"><img alt="Flag of Serbia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Serbia_%28state%29_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/14/1446.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Serbia.htm" title="Serbia">Serbia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Lima.htm" title="Lima">Lima</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/741.png.htm" title="Flag of Peru"><img alt="Flag of Peru" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Peru.svg" src="../../images/7/741.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1983</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1984</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Flag of Spain"><img alt="Flag of Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1985</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/544.png.htm" title="Flag of Brazil"><img alt="Flag of Brazil" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brazil.svg" src="../../images/5/544.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1986</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Île-de-France</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Cologne.htm" title="Cologne">Cologne</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1987</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ankara</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/512.png.htm" title="Flag of Turkey"><img alt="Flag of Turkey" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Turkey.svg" src="../../images/5/512.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/72/7234.png.htm" title="Flag of Egypt"><img alt="Flag of Egypt" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt.svg" src="../../images/3/386.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1990</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Islamabad</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/610.png.htm" title="Flag of Pakistan"><img alt="Flag of Pakistan" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg" src="../../images/6/610.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Pakistan.htm" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1992</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/j/Jakarta.htm" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/595.png.htm" title="Flag of Indonesia"><img alt="Flag of Indonesia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Indonesia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/595.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1992</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bangkok.htm" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/601.png.htm" title="Flag of Thailand"><img alt="Flag of Thailand" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Thailand.svg" src="../../images/6/601.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Tel_Aviv.htm" title="Tel Aviv">Tel Aviv</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/614.png.htm" title="Flag of Israel"><img alt="Flag of Israel" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Israel_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/614.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Seoul.htm" title="Seoul">Seoul</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/590.png.htm" title="Flag of South Korea"><img alt="Flag of South Korea" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Korea_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/590.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Korea.htm" title="South Korea">Republic of Korea</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/k/Kiev.htm" title="Kiev">Kiev</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/745.png.htm" title="Flag of Ukraine"><img alt="Flag of Ukraine" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg" src="../../images/7/745.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1993</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Flag of Belgium"><img alt="Flag of Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/h/Hanoi.htm" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/603.png.htm" title="Flag of Vietnam"><img alt="Flag of Vietnam" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg" src="../../images/6/603.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Amsterdam.htm" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/545.png.htm" title="Flag of Netherlands"><img alt="Flag of Netherlands" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" src="../../images/5/545.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1994</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/592.png.htm" title="Flag of Russia"><img alt="Flag of Russia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/592.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1995</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1997</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/551.png.htm" title="Flag of Italy"><img alt="Flag of Italy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg" src="../../images/5/551.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> May 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Gauteng</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title="Flag of South Africa"><img alt="Flag of South Africa" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/14/1448.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1998</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/o/Ottawa.htm" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18768.png.htm" title="Flag of Canada"><img alt="Flag of Canada" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg" src="../../images/7/738.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Canberra.htm" title="Canberra">Canberra</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/785.png.htm" title="Flag of Australia"><img alt="Flag of Australia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg" src="../../images/7/785.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Manila.htm" title="Manila">Manila</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/599.png.htm" title="Flag of Philippines"><img alt="Flag of Philippines" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg" src="../../images/5/599.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 2005</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Tehran.htm" title="Tehran">Tehran</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18780.png.htm" title="Flag of Iran"><img alt="Flag of Iran" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Iran.svg" src="../../images/5/518.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ol class="references">
<li id="_note-0"><b>^</b> French region hosting the largest part of <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> metropolitan area<br />
<li id="_note-1"><b>^</b> A <!--del_lnk--> province of <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></ol>
<dl>
<dd>Source: <!--del_lnk--> www.ebeijing.gov.cn</dl>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Books</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> <i>The Diaries of Sir Ernest Satow, British Envoy in Peking (1900-06)</i> edited by Ian Ruxton in two volumes, Lulu Press Inc., April 2006 <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 1-4116-8804-X (Volume One); <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 1-4116-8805-8 (Volume Two)</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beirut</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_the_Middle_East.htm">Geography of the Middle East</a></h3>
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<p><span class="plainlinksneverexpand" id="coordinates"><!--del_lnk--> Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 33°53′13″N 35°30′47″E"><span style="white-space:nowrap">33°53′13″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">35°30′47″E</span></span></span></span><table class="infobox geography vcard" style="width: 23em;">
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="width:100%; font-size: 1.25em; white-space: nowrap;"><b><span class="fn org">Beirut</span><br /> بيروت‎</b></td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/12/1263.jpg.htm" title="Nejmeh Square in Central Beirut"><img alt="Nejmeh Square in Central Beirut" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nejmehsquare.jpg" src="../../images/12/1263.jpg" width="250" /></a></span></div><small>Nejmeh Square in Central Beirut</small></td>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/13/1328.png.htm" title="Location in the Republic of Lebanon"><img alt="Location in the Republic of Lebanon" height="268" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map_of_Lebanon.png" src="../../images/13/1328.png" width="250" /></a></span></div><small>Location in the Republic of Lebanon</small></td>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: smaller; padding-bottom: 0.7em;">Coordinates: <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for 33°53′13″N 35°30′47″E"><span style="white-space:nowrap">33°53′13″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">35°30′47″E</span></span></span></th>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Governorate</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Beirut</th>
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<td colspan="2"><b>Government</b></td>
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<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Mayor</th>
<td>Abdel Mounim Ariss</td>
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<td colspan="2"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b></td>
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<th> - City</th>
<td>19.8 <!--del_lnk--> km² (7.7 <!--del_lnk--> sq mi)</td>
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<td colspan="2"><b>Population</b> (2005)</td>
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<th> - City</th>
<td>1,574,397</td>
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<th> - <!--del_lnk--> Metro</th>
<td>1,792,111</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>+2 (<!--del_lnk--> UTC)</td>
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<th style="white-space: nowrap;"> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</th>
<td>+3 (<!--del_lnk--> UTC)</td>
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<td align="center" colspan="2"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> City of Beirut</td>
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<p><b>Beirut</b> (<b><span lang="ar" xml:lang="ar">بيروت</span></b> <!--del_lnk--> transliteration: <span lang="ar-Latn" xml:lang="ar-Latn"><span style="font-size:1em"><span class="Unicode">Bayrūt</span></span></span>) is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a>, <!--del_lnk--> largest city, and chief <!--del_lnk--> seaport of <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. It is sometimes referred to by its <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> name, <i>Beyrouth</i>. There are wide-ranging estimates of Beirut's population, from as low as 938,940 people, to 1,303,129 people, to as high as 2,012,000. The lack of an exact figure is due to the fact that no "comprehensive" population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932.<p>Beirut has regained its title as the commercial centre of the region. Beirut had undergone major reconstruction in recent years and has hosted the <!--del_lnk--> Francophonie and the Arab League summits in 2002. The city had been set to host the <!--del_lnk--> Jeux de la Francophonie (Francophone Games) in 2009. Beirut has suffered setbacks in recent years, and many question if the city still retains the necessary ingredients for the rebirth it had planned.<p>Beirut was considered as a possible candidate for the <!--del_lnk--> 2024 Summer Olympics games. The massive $1.2 billion Sannine Zenith project would have made Lebanon capable of holding the games.<p>The city is home to numerous international organizations. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <!--del_lnk--> Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in Downtown Beirut while the <!--del_lnk--> International Labour Organization (ILO) and <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) both have regional offices in Beirut covering the <!--del_lnk--> Arab world. The <!--del_lnk--> Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO) is also headquartered in Beirut.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Travel and Leisure magazine's 'World Best Awards 2006' Beirut was ranked the 9th (out of 10) city in the world, falling just short of <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> and coming ahead of <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco.<p>Beirut has both developed and less developed neighborhoods. Its most famous <!--del_lnk--> religiously mixed neighborhoods are Zarif and Verdun; <!--del_lnk--> Saifi Village is its most prominent and expensive residential one (a bit too expensive, maybe, as approximately half the residential units still remain unsold). Its most prominent Christian neighborhoods are <!--del_lnk--> Achrafieh and <!--del_lnk--> Gemmayzih, which has lately become a 'hot' neighbourhood, full of trendy restaurants and cafes, and hip bars.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1363.jpg.htm" title="Beirut Central District"><img alt="Beirut Central District" class="thumbimage" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beirut-Downtown.jpg" src="../../images/13/1363.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/13/1363.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beirut Central District</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1451.jpg.htm" title="Beirut, the Mediterranean, and snow-capped Mount Sannine"><img alt="Beirut, the Mediterranean, and snow-capped Mount Sannine" class="thumbimage" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beirut-Sannine.jpg" src="../../images/14/1451.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1451.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Beirut, the Mediterranean, and snow-capped Mount Sannine</div>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1453.jpg.htm" title="Roman baths in Centre Ville, Beirut"><img alt="Roman baths in Centre Ville, Beirut" class="thumbimage" height="400" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beirut-Roman-Bath.jpg" src="../../images/14/1453.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1453.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Roman baths in Centre Ville, Beirut</div>
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<p>Originally named <i>Bêrūt</i> "The Wells" by the <!--del_lnk--> Phoenicians, Beirut history goes back to more than 5000 years. Excavations in the Downtown of Beirut have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Arab and Ottoman civilizations. The first historical reference to Beirut dates from the <!--del_lnk--> 14th century BC, when it is mentioned in the <!--del_lnk--> cuneiform tablets of the "<!--del_lnk--> Amarna letters." <!--del_lnk--> Ammunira of <i>Biruta</i>-(Beirut) sent 3 letters to the pharaoh of Egypt. Biruta is also referenced in the letters from <!--del_lnk--> Rib-Hadda of <!--del_lnk--> Byblos. The most ancient settlement was on an island in the river that progressively silted up. The city was known in antiquity as <i>Berytus</i> (see also <!--del_lnk--> List of traditional Greek place names); this name was taken in 1934 for the archaeological journal published by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at the <!--del_lnk--> American University of Beirut.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 140 BC, the city was taken and destroyed by <!--del_lnk--> Diodotus Tryphon in his contest with <!--del_lnk--> Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the <!--del_lnk--> Seleucid monarchy. Beirut was soon rebuilt on a more regularized <!--del_lnk--> Hellenistic plan, renamed <i>Laodicea in Phoenicia</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Greek: Λαοδικεια ή του Φοινίκη) or <i>Laodicea in Canaan</i>, in honour of a Seleucid <!--del_lnk--> Laodice. The modern city overlies the ancient one and little archaeology had been accomplished until after the end of the civil war in <!--del_lnk--> 1991; now large sites in the devastated city centre have been opened to archaeological exploration. A dig in 1994 established that one of Beirut's modern streets, Souk Tawile, still follows the lines of an ancient Hellenistic/Roman one.<p>Mid-<!--del_lnk--> first century BC <a href="../../wp/c/Coin.htm" title="Coins">coins</a> of Berytus bear the head of <!--del_lnk--> Tyche, goddess of fortune; on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was taken up by the early printer <!--del_lnk--> Aldus Manutius in 15th century <!--del_lnk--> Venice.<p>Under the Romans it was enriched by the dynasty of <!--del_lnk--> Herod the Great, then made a <!--del_lnk--> colonia, <i>Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix</i>, in the late <!--del_lnk--> 1st century AD. Beirut's school of law was widely known at the time. Two of Rome's most famous jurists, <!--del_lnk--> Papinian and <!--del_lnk--> Ulpian, both natives of Phoenicia, taught at the law school under the <!--del_lnk--> Severan emperors. When <!--del_lnk--> Justinian assembled his <i><!--del_lnk--> Pandects</i> in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws were derived from these two jurists, and Justinian recognized the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire (533). Within a few years, as the result of a disastrous earthquake (551), the students were transferred to <!--del_lnk--> Sidon.<p>Beirut passed to the <!--del_lnk--> Arabs in 635. As a trading centre of the eastern <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> Beirut was overshadowed by <!--del_lnk--> Akka during the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. From 1110 to 1291 it was in the hands of <a href="../../wp/c/Crusades.htm" title="Crusades">Crusader</a> lords. No matter who was its nominal overlord, whether Turk or <!--del_lnk--> Mamluk, Beirut was ruled locally by <!--del_lnk--> Druze emirs. One of these, <!--del_lnk--> Fakr ed-Din Maan II, fortified it early in the <a href="../../wp/1/17th_century.htm" title="17th century">17th century</a>, but the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> retook it in 1763 and thenceforth, with the help of <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, Beirut successfully broke Akka's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading centre in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony at Akka under <!--del_lnk--> Jezzar and <!--del_lnk--> Abdullah pashas, Beirut declined to a small town (population about 10,000), fought over among the Druze, the Turks and the pashas. After <!--del_lnk--> Ibrahim Pasha captured Akka in 1832, Beirut began its early modern revival. In 1888 Beirut was made capital of a <!--del_lnk--> vilayet in Syria, including the <!--del_lnk--> sanjaks Latakia, <!--del_lnk--> Tripoli, Beirut, Akka and Bekaa. Beirut became a very cosmopolitan city and had close links with <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Beirut became a centre of <!--del_lnk--> missionary activity, which was generally very unsuccessful in conversions (a massacre of Christians in 1860 was the occasion for further European interventions), but did build an impressive education system. This include the Syrian Protestant College, which was established by American missionaries and eventually became the <!--del_lnk--> American University of Beirut (AUB). Beirut became the centre of Arab intellectual activity in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, the city thrived on exporting <!--del_lnk--> silk grown on nearby <!--del_lnk--> Mount Lebanon. After French engineers established a modern harbour (1894) and a rail link across <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> to <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, and then to <!--del_lnk--> Aleppo (1907), much of the trade was carried by <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> ships to <a href="../../wp/m/Marseille.htm" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, and soon French influence in the area exceeded that of any other European power. In 1911 the population mix was reported in the <i><a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> as Muslims, 36,000; Christians, 77,000; Jews, 2500; Druze, 400; foreigners, 4100. After the collapse of the <a href="../../wp/o/Ottoman_Empire.htm" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> following the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a>, Beirut, along with all of Lebanon was placed under the <!--del_lnk--> French Mandate.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1459.jpg.htm" title="Downtown Beirut"><img alt="Downtown Beirut" class="thumbimage" height="400" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Centralbeirut.jpg" src="../../images/14/1459.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1459.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Downtown Beirut</div>
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<p>Lebanon achieved independence in 1943 and Beirut became its capital city. Beirut remained the intellectual capital of the Arab world and a major commercial and tourist centre until <!--del_lnk--> 1975 when a brutal <!--del_lnk--> civil war broke out in Lebanon. During most of the war, the city was divided between the largely Muslim west part and the Christian east. The central area of the city, previously the focus of much of the commercial and cultural activities, became a no-man's land. Many of the city's best and brightest inhabitants fled to other countries. In <!--del_lnk--> 1983 French and US <!--del_lnk--> barracks were bombed, killing 302.<p>Since the end of the war in <!--del_lnk--> 1989, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, and by the start of the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourist</a>, cultural, and intellectual center in the Middle East, as well as a centre for commerce, fashion, and media. However, many would say the city has lost its premier status, due to competition from places like <a href="../../wp/d/Dubai.htm" title="Dubai">Dubai</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> in the fields of tourism, business, fashion, commerce, and banking. Reconstruction of <!--del_lnk--> downtown Beirut has been largely driven by <!--del_lnk--> Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Hariri. Beirut is home to the international designer <!--del_lnk--> Elie Saab, jeweller Robert Moawad, and to some of the most popular and successful <!--del_lnk--> satellite television stations, such as LBC, Future TV, New TV and others. The city was host to the Asian Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Championship. Beirut also successfully hosted the <!--del_lnk--> Miss Europe pageant eight times, 1960-1964, 1999, 2001-2002.<p>The assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Rafic Hariri, in 2005 in Beirut shook the entire country. The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on <!--del_lnk--> April 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1541.jpg.htm" title="Mosque and Church in Downtown Beirut"><img alt="Mosque and Church in Downtown Beirut" class="thumbimage" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beirut_Mosque_Church.jpg" src="../../images/15/1541.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1541.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mosque and Church in Downtown Beirut</div>
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<p>Beirut is one of the most religiously diverse cities of the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, with <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Muslims</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Sunni and <!--del_lnk--> Shi'ite), <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christians</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Maronite Catholics, <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Greek Catholics, <!--del_lnk--> Armenian Orthodox, <!--del_lnk--> Armenian Catholics, <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholics, <!--del_lnk--> Syriacs, <!--del_lnk--> Copts, <!--del_lnk--> Methodists, <!--del_lnk--> Protestants), <!--del_lnk--> Druze and atheists all having a significant presence. However, most of the <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jews</a> of Beirut emigrated to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> when the Lebanese Civil War started in 1975, though there are also populations of Lebanese Jews in France and Brazil, one of the more famous ones being <!--del_lnk--> Edmond Safra. Many of the denominations are actually tiny minorities or, like the Jews, almost non-existent (estimates place the Jewish population at less than 30). The Armenian Catholics, Roman Catholics, Syriacs, and Copts all number in the thousands and have a negligible prescence when compared to the other religions. For all intents and purposes, Lebanon really only has 8 major religions (Sunni Muslims, Shiite Muslims, Druze, Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, and Protestants). There is no counting of atheist people or non believers in Lebanon because of the predominance of religion in public life and in the governmental and administrative sphere.<p>Beirut was torn apart during the <!--del_lnk--> Lebanese Civil War and was divided between the Muslim West Beirut and the Christian East. The city today has been reunited and rebuilt, and its Christian-Muslim balance remains, even if it is a precarious balance. Tensions remain high between the various groups. Some say these tensions always existed, and the 1975-1990 <!--del_lnk--> Lebanese Civil War brought those tensions out into the open. Today, there is still much tension, especially between the Sunni and Shiite Muslims.<p>The patron god of Beirut in Phoenician mythology is Baal-Berit, also god of the sea.<p><a id="Colleges_and_universities" name="Colleges_and_universities"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Colleges and universities</span></h2>
<p>There are twenty-one universities in Beirut, including the <!--del_lnk--> American University of Beirut , <!--del_lnk--> Lebanese American University (originally, the first women's college in the Middle-East), <!--del_lnk--> University of Balamand, <!--del_lnk--> Notre Dame University], <!--del_lnk--> Université Saint-Joseph, <!--del_lnk--> Global University, <!--del_lnk--> Haigazian University, <!--del_lnk--> Lebanese University, <!--del_lnk--> Lebanese International University, <!--del_lnk--> Yves Saade University,Business and computer university {BCU}, <!--del_lnk--> American University College of Science and Technology, Middle East University, <!--del_lnk--> Beirut Arab University, the <!--del_lnk--> Near East School of Theology, and the Middle East Canadian Academy of Technology (<!--del_lnk--> MECAT).<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1544.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pigeon's Rock (Raouché)</div>
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<p>Backed by the <!--del_lnk--> Mount Lebanon mountains, Beirut is situated on a spur where the narrow coastal plain projects into the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Beirut's coast is rather diverse; rocky beaches, sandy shores, and cliffs are situated beside one another. Beirut is located halfway along the Lebanese coastline with Byblos and Tripoli to the North, and Sidon and Tyre to the South. The Lebanon Mountains surround much of Beirut, with Eastern Lebanon behind them. Its location makes it easy to reach from almost any location in Lebanon.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1549.jpg.htm" title="Pigeon's Rock, Beirut"><img alt="Pigeon's Rock, Beirut" class="thumbimage" height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beirut_sunset%286%29.jpg" src="../../images/15/1549.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1549.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pigeon's Rock, Beirut</div>
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<p>The city's airport, situated in the southern suburbs, was previously known as <!--del_lnk--> Beirut International Airport; in 2005 it was renamed <!--del_lnk--> Beirut Rafik Hariri International Airport in honour of the slain former prime minister, <!--del_lnk--> Rafik Hariri. The civilian airport was bombed by the Israeli military in July 2006 and was closed for two months. The airport reopened August 17, 2006. By land, the city has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria; the latter are also served by either <!--del_lnk--> service or <!--del_lnk--> taxis. Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.<p><a id="Arts_.26_Fashion" name="Arts_.26_Fashion"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Arts & Fashion</span></h2>
<p>There are hundreds of art galleries in Beirut and its suburbs. Lebanese people are very involved in art and art production. More than 5000 fine art artists and equal artists working in music, design, architecture, theatre, movie industry, photography and all other forms of art are producing in Lebanon. Every year hundreds of fine art students graduate from universities and institutions. Artist Workshops are flourishing all around Lebanon. In Beirut specifically, the art scene is very rich, vibrant and diverse.<p>On another scale, fashion and couture are very much thriving throughout the city. Fashion houses are opening up and a number of international fashion designers have displayed their work in various fashion shows. Beirut is home to international fashion designers such as <!--del_lnk--> Elie Saab, <!--del_lnk--> Zuhair Murad, and Georges Chakra.<p><a id="Famous_Births" name="Famous_Births"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Famous Births</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Fairuz, emblematic singer of Lebanon, born in 1935.<li><!--del_lnk--> Gibran Khalil Gibran, an international poet and philosopher who was born in 1883.<li><!--del_lnk--> Andrew Saliba, basket-ball champion in <!--del_lnk--> Gatineau.<li><!--del_lnk--> Keanu Reeves, Canadian actor.<li><!--del_lnk--> Elie Saab, world famous Lebanese fashion designer.<li><!--del_lnk--> Krikor Agapian, painter.<li><!--del_lnk--> Péri Cochin, television show host.<li><!--del_lnk--> Amin Maalouf, author born in 1949.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mika, Singer and composer born in 1983.<li><!--del_lnk--> Serj Tankian, Lead vocalist for the <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a> band, <!--del_lnk--> System of a Down.<li><!--del_lnk--> Michel Elefteriades, Greek-Lebanese politician, artist, producer and businessman.<li><!--del_lnk--> Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, a Lebanese inventor in New york who was the pioneer of the solar cell. (not beirut)<li><!--del_lnk--> K-Maro, Lebanese <a href="../../wp/r/Rhythm_and_blues.htm" title="RnB">RnB</a> singer born in Canada.<li><!--del_lnk--> Massari, Lebanese <!--del_lnk--> Hip-Hop singer.<li><!--del_lnk--> Camille Allam, Beirut artist, sculptor and also a musicologist.<li><!--del_lnk--> Dom Joly, comedian and journalist.<li><!--del_lnk--> Steve Kerr, 5 times NBA Champion</ul>
<p><a id="Sister_cities" name="Sister_cities"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (1992)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/3/309.png.htm" title="Flag of Armenia"><img alt="Flag of Armenia" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Armenia.svg" src="../../images/3/309.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Yerevan</b>, <a href="../../wp/a/Armenia.htm" title="Armenia">Armenia</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles</b>, <!--del_lnk--> USA (2006)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/544.png.htm" title="Flag of Brazil"><img alt="Flag of Brazil" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brazil.svg" src="../../images/5/544.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Vitória</b>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/544.png.htm" title="Flag of Brazil"><img alt="Flag of Brazil" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brazil.svg" src="../../images/5/544.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/s/S%25C3%25A3o_Paulo.htm" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/544.png.htm" title="Flag of Brazil"><img alt="Flag of Brazil" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brazil.svg" src="../../images/5/544.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1609.png.htm" title="Flag of Canada"><img alt="Flag of Canada" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Canada_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/16/1609.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/m/Montreal.htm" title="Montreal">Montreal</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/612.png.htm" title="Flag of Cyprus"><img alt="Flag of Cyprus" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Cyprus_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/6/612.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Nicosia</b>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cyprus.htm" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/72/7234.png.htm" title="Flag of Egypt"><img alt="Flag of Egypt" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Egypt.svg" src="../../images/3/386.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/790.png.htm" title="Flag of Greece"><img alt="Flag of Greece" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Greece.svg" src="../../images/7/790.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/a/Athens.htm" title="Athens">Athens</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/512.png.htm" title="Flag of Turkey"><img alt="Flag of Turkey" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Turkey.svg" src="../../images/5/512.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/i/Istanbul.htm" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/0/12.png.htm" title="Flag of United Arab Emirates"><img alt="Flag of United Arab Emirates" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg" src="../../images/0/12.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/d/Dubai.htm" title="Dubai">Dubai</a></b>, <!--del_lnk--> UAE</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut"</div>
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Belarus | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Belarus</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.European_Countries.htm">European Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Belarus. For more information see <a href="../../wp/b/Belarus_A.htm" title="SOS Children in Belarus">SOS Children in Belarus</a></div>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;">Рэспубліка Беларусь<br /> Республика Беларусь<br /> Republic of Belarus</span></b></td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/547.png.htm" title="Flag of Belarus"><img alt="Flag of Belarus" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belarus.svg" src="../../images/14/1451.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1452.png.htm" title="Emblem of Belarus"><img alt="Emblem of Belarus" height="85" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belarus_coa.png" src="../../images/14/1452.png" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><a href="../../wp/f/Flag_of_Belarus.htm" title="Flag of Belarus">Flag</a></small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Emblem</small></td>
</tr>
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</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>none</i></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian: Мы, беларусы<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> Transliteration: <i><!--del_lnk--> My, Belarusy</i>)<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> Translation: "We Belarusians")</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Location of Belarus" height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Europe_location_BLR_cropped.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="250" /></span></div>
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</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Minsk<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 53°55′N 27°33′E</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Belarusian, <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Republic</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Lukashenko</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sergey Sidorsky</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>From the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Declared</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1990 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Established</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1991 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Completed</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1991 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 207,600 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 93rd)<br /> 80,155 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible (183 km²)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2005 estimate</td>
<td>9,755,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 81st)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 1999 census</td>
<td>10,045,237</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>49/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 142nd)<br /> 127/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$79.13 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 64th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$7,700 (<!--del_lnk--> 78th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2003)</th>
<td>0.786 (<font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 67th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> rouble (<code><!--del_lnk--> BYR</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EET (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> EEST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+3)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .by</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+375</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Belarus</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Belarusian: Беларусь, <!--del_lnk--> Łacinka: Biełaruś; <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru" xml:lang="ru">Белору́ссия</span>) is a landlocked <!--del_lnk--> nation-state in <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe, which borders <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, and <a href="../../wp/l/Latvia.htm" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>. Its capital city is <!--del_lnk--> Minsk, and other important cities include <!--del_lnk--> Brest, <!--del_lnk--> Grodno, <!--del_lnk--> Gomel, <!--del_lnk--> Mogilev and <!--del_lnk--> Vitebsk. The country, with one-third covered in forests, is populated by 9,755,000 people (2005 est.). Officially, the country is known as the <b>Republic of Belarus</b> (Belarusian: Рэспубліка Беларусь, Łacinka: Respublika Biełaruś; Russian: Республика Беларусь, <i>Respublika Belarus</i>).<p>Throughout much of history, the area which is now known as Belarus was part of various countries including the <!--del_lnk--> Duchy of Polatsk, the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Duchy of Lithuania, <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Empire. Eventually, in 1922, Belarus became a republic in the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> as the <!--del_lnk--> Byelorussian SSR. The republic officially declared its sovereignty on <!--del_lnk--> 27 August <!--del_lnk--> 1990, and following the <!--del_lnk--> collapse of the Soviet Union, declared independence as the Republic of Belarus on <!--del_lnk--> 25 August <!--del_lnk--> 1991. Since 1994, <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Lukashenko has been the state's president. Belarus is currently in negotiations with neighboring Russia to integrate both of their economies, among other things, in a plan called the <!--del_lnk--> Union of Russia and Belarus.<p>The country continues to suffer from the effects of <!--del_lnk--> nuclear fallout from the 1986 <!--del_lnk--> Chernobyl accident, which took place in neighboring <!--del_lnk--> Ukraine.<p>
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</script><a id="History_of_the_name" name="History_of_the_name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History of the name</span></h2>
<p>Historically, the country was referred to in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> as "White Russia". Although this is not exactly correct – the correct translation is "White <!--del_lnk--> Ruthenia," which either describes the era of Eastern Europe populated by Slavics or the various states that occupied the area.<!--del_lnk--> Despite this, the practice of using the term White Russia continues as of 2006 with the following languages: "Weißrussland" in <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>, "Beyaz Rusya" in <!--del_lnk--> Turkish or "Λευκορωσία" (Leukorosía) in <!--del_lnk--> Greek (see <!--del_lnk--> wiktionary:Belarus for the full list). The first known use of "White Russia" to refer to Belarus was in the late 16th century by Englishman Sir <!--del_lnk--> Jerome Horsey. He used the term to describe the areas of <!--del_lnk--> Ivan the Terrible's empire. During the 17th century the Russian tsars used "White Ruthenia", asserting that they were trying to recapture their heritage from the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>. After the Commonwealth broke up, the lands that now make up Belarus were officially referred to as "Belarus" and "Belarusi", instead of the then-banned terms of "Litwa" and "Licwiny."<p>The spellings <b>Belorussia</b> and <b>Byelorussia</b> are transliterations of the name of the country in <!--del_lnk--> Russian. Belarus was named "Belorussia" in the days of <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia, and the Russian <!--del_lnk--> tsar was usually styled "Emperor of <!--del_lnk--> All the Russias — <!--del_lnk--> Great, <!--del_lnk--> Minor, and <!--del_lnk--> White". This practice continued throughout the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet era, with the country taking the official name of the "<!--del_lnk--> Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic". Some Belarusians object to the name "Byelorussia", as it is an unwelcome reminder of the days under Russian and Soviet rule. <p>In 2002, an informal survey was conducted by the website <!--del_lnk--> pravapis.org to see which version of the name was used on a majority of websites. By using Google, the website looked up various terms and it found that "Belarus", the official short form of the name, was used on 93% of websites checked. Spellings "Belorussia", "Bielorussia" and "Byelorussia" were used in 1%–2% of cases.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/139/13908.jpg.htm" title="Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, which eventually became the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth."><img alt="Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland, which eventually became the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth." height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth_map2.jpg" src="../../images/14/1454.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/139/13908.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Poland, which eventually became the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/270/27086.png.htm" title="Belarus and Poland after the result of the Polish-Soviet War in 1920."><img alt="Belarus and Poland after the result of the Polish-Soviet War in 1920." height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rzeczpospolita_1920.png" src="../../images/14/1455.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/270/27086.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Belarus and Poland after the result of the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Soviet_War.htm" title="Polish-Soviet War">Polish-Soviet War</a> in 1920.</div>
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<p>Between the 6th and 8th centuries, what is now known as Belarus was settled by the <!--del_lnk--> Slavs, who still dominate the country. The <!--del_lnk--> Early East Slavs gradually came into contact with the <!--del_lnk--> Varangians and were organized under the state of <!--del_lnk--> Rus', mainly in the area around modern-day <!--del_lnk--> Polatsk in the northern part of the country. In the 13th century, the state was badly affected by a <a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_Empire.htm" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> invasion, and eventually parts of Rus' were swallowed up by the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Duchy of Lithuania. <!--del_lnk--> The core lands of the duchy were territories around <!--del_lnk--> Kernavė, <!--del_lnk--> Trakai, <!--del_lnk--> Vilnius cities and <!--del_lnk--> Samogitia. During this time, the Belarusian territories were largely at peace, but duchy itself was often at war and had famous victories against <!--del_lnk--> Mongols in the east, <!--del_lnk--> Turks in the south and <!--del_lnk--> Teutonic Knights in the west. By the 15th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania stretched across much of <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe, from the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> to the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> February 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1386, <!--del_lnk--> Grand Duke of Lithuania <!--del_lnk--> Jogaila was crowned King of Poland, and allied the Grand Duchy with <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> in a <!--del_lnk--> personal union under one monarch. This personal union eventually resulted in the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth.htm" title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, a new state created in 1569. However, by 1795, the state was divided and annexed by <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia, <!--del_lnk--> Prussia and <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a> in the course of the <!--del_lnk--> Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Belarus territories remained part of the Russian Empire until being occupied by <!--del_lnk--> Germany during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Belarus first declared independence on <!--del_lnk--> 25 March <!--del_lnk--> 1918, forming the <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian People's Republic. The Republic, however, was short-lived, and the regime was overthrown soon after the German withdrawal. In 1919 Belarus became the <!--del_lnk--> Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR), and after Russian occupation of eastern Lithuania merged into the <!--del_lnk--> Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. After the <a href="../../wp/p/Polish-Soviet_War.htm" title="Polish-Soviet War">Polish-Soviet War</a> ended in 1921, Byelorussian lands were split between Poland and the recreated Byelorussian SSR, which became a founding member of the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Union of Soviet Socialist Republics</a> in 1922. <!--del_lnk--> In September 1939, the Soviet Union annexed the Polish-held Byelorussian land as a result of the <!--del_lnk--> Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. <!--del_lnk--> <p>In 1941, <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> launched <!--del_lnk--> Operation Barbarossa, invading the Soviet Union. Belarus was captured soon afterwards, and <!--del_lnk--> remained in Nazi hands until 1944. Much the country's infrastructure was destroyed and a large portion of its population was killed in the German invasion. The Jewish population of Belarus was also devastated during <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a>. It took until 1971 for the population of Belarus to reach the pre-war level. The Jewish population, however, never recovered. After the war ended, Byelorussia was among the 51 signatories to the founding of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, in 1945. The reconstruction that took place in Belarus after the war brought comparative prosperity to the Soviet Republic. During this time, Belarus became a major centre of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR. The increase in jobs brought in a huge immigrant population from the <!--del_lnk--> Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. During <a href="../../wp/j/Joseph_Stalin.htm" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s era, a policy of <!--del_lnk--> russification was started to "protect" Byelorussian SSR from influences by the West. This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Belorussian SSR government. The official use of the <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were also limited by <!--del_lnk--> Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, his successor <!--del_lnk--> Nikita Khrushchev continued the Russification program, stating in the Byelorussian SSR capital of <!--del_lnk--> Minsk that "The sooner we all start speaking <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, the faster we shall build <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a>."<p>In 1986, a section of Belarus was affected by the fallout from the <!--del_lnk--> Chernobyl power plant <!--del_lnk--> accident in neighboring <!--del_lnk--> Ukraine. When Soviet premier <a href="../../wp/m/Mikhail_Gorbachev.htm" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> began pushing through his <!--del_lnk--> Perestroika plan, the Belarusian people delivered a petition to him in December of 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. This event has been coined by historians as the "cultural Chernobyl". In June of 1988, <!--del_lnk--> mass graves were discovered at the city of <!--del_lnk--> Kurapaty. The graves allegedly contained about 250,000 of Stalin's victims. Some contend that this discovery was proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people and caused some to seek independence. Belarus declared itself sovereign on <!--del_lnk--> 27 July <!--del_lnk--> 1990, and the BSSR formally became the Republic of Belarus on <!--del_lnk--> 25 August <!--del_lnk--> 1991, attaining full independence. Around that time, <!--del_lnk--> Stanislav Shushkevich became Chairman of the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Soviet of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus. Shushkevich, along with <!--del_lnk--> Boris Yeltsin of Russia and <!--del_lnk--> Leonid Kravchuk of <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> met on <!--del_lnk--> December 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1991 in <!--del_lnk--> Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Independent States. Since 1994, the country has been led by <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Lukashenko, who has been criticized by Western governments, <!--del_lnk--> Human Rights Watch, and other Western <!--del_lnk--> NGO for his Soviet-style domestic policies.<p>As of 2005, there appears to be a movement in Belarus towards reuniting with <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>. In November 2005, a draft constitution was sent to both <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir Putin and Lukashenko for approval. This move, along with others, is part of the 1996 plan created by Lukashenko and former Russian President <!--del_lnk--> Boris Yeltsin to create a <!--del_lnk--> union between the two nations.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1457.jpg.htm" title="Victory Square, Minsk."><img alt="Victory Square, Minsk." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Victory-square.jpg" src="../../images/14/1457.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1457.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Victory Square, <!--del_lnk--> Minsk.</div>
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<p>Belarus is a <!--del_lnk--> republic, governed by a <!--del_lnk--> President and a <!--del_lnk--> bicameral <!--del_lnk--> parliament—the <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly—comprising a lower house, the 110 member <!--del_lnk--> House of Representatives, and an upper house, the 64 member <!--del_lnk--> Council of the Republic. The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the Prime Minister of Belarus, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister and make suggestions on the foreign and domestic policy of Belarus. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president and the ability to accept or reject the bills passed from the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the <!--del_lnk--> Constitution of Belarus. The President—since 1994, <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Lukashenko—is the <!--del_lnk--> head of state. The government is a <!--del_lnk--> Council of Ministers, headed by a <!--del_lnk--> prime minister; the members of the Council of Ministers need not be members of the legislature, and are appointed by the President. The judiciary comprises the <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court and various specialized courts, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Constitutional Court, which deal with specific issued related to the constitution or business law. The judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic.<p>In Belarus, while there are <!--del_lnk--> political parties that either support or oppose President Lukashenko, the majority of the seats in the National Assembly are filled by those not affiliated with any political parties ("non-partisans"). However, there are three political parties who hold seats in the House of Representatives: the <!--del_lnk--> Communist Party of Belarus (8 seats), the <!--del_lnk--> Agrarian Party of Belarus (3 seats), and the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus (1 seat). The other two parties that pledged their support to Lukashenko, the <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the <!--del_lnk--> Republican Party of Labour and Justice, did not secure any seats in October 2004 election. Opposition parties, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian People's Front and the <!--del_lnk--> United Civil Party of Belarus did not gain any seats. The UCPB and the BPF are some of the parties that comprise the <!--del_lnk--> People's Coalition 5 Plus, a group of political parties who oppose Lukashenko. Several organizations, including as the <!--del_lnk--> Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe(OSCE), declared the election un-free due to opposition parties negative results and the bias of the Belarusian media in favour of the government. However, in constitutional as well as political terms, the House is of marginal importance. At the 2000 election, it took four rounds of voting before all the seats were filled; in the end, 86% of the elected deputies were independents, and the remainder were the representatives of parties traditionally loyal to the president (OSCE, 2000). The <!--del_lnk--> next round of elections took place on March 19th, 2006, and this election also included selecting the President. Lukashenko was opposed in the election by <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Milinkevich, a candidate representing a coalition of oppositional parties. Another opposition candidate, <!--del_lnk--> Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the Lukashenko sponsored event, the <!--del_lnk--> All Belarusian People's Assembly. This event, among others, have caused for concern that the 2006 elections had irregularities. The President won a landslide victory, over 80% of the vote. It was however deemed unfair by the <!--del_lnk--> OSCE. (See <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian presidential election, 2006).<p>Lukashenko was quoted as saying that he has an "authoritarian ruling style" that he uses to run the country. The <!--del_lnk--> Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections. According to the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe, Belarus's constitution is "illegal and does not respect minimum democratic standards and thus violates the principles of separation of powers and the rule of law". The Belarusian government is also criticized for <a href="../../wp/h/Human_rights.htm" title="Human rights">human rights</a> violations and its actions against <!--del_lnk--> NGOs, independent journalists, national minorities and opposition politicians. During the rule of the current administration in Belarus, there have been several cases of persecution, including the <!--del_lnk--> disappearance or death of prominent opposition leaders and independent journalists. Belarus is also one of just two nations in Europe that retains the <!--del_lnk--> death penalty for certain crimes (the other being <a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" title="Albania">Albania</a>). In testimony to the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State <a href="../../wp/c/Condoleezza_Rice.htm" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a> labeled Belarus, among six nations, as part of the US's list of <i><!--del_lnk--> outposts of tyranny.</i> The Belarusian Foreign Ministry announced that the statement from Secretary Rice "are a poor basis" to form a good Belarusian-American alliance.<p>Belarus has been described as "a small-scale Soviet Union at its finest period".<p><a id="Administrative_Divisions" name="Administrative_Divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative Divisions</span></h2>
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<div style="width:322px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1460.png.htm" title="Administrative division."><img alt="Administrative division." height="276" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belarus.geohive.png" src="../../images/14/1460.png" width="320" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1460.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Administrative division.</div>
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<p>Belarus is divided into six <!--del_lnk--> provinces ("<!--del_lnk--> voblasts"), named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers. The city of Minsk, located in the Minsk province, has the special status of being a national subordinate as it isn't included in any voblast. Subdivision into <i>voblasts</i> is inherited from the Soviet era. Voblasts are further subdivided into <i><!--del_lnk--> raions</i> (commonly translated as "<!--del_lnk--> districts" or "regions"). Local legislative authorities (<i>raisovet</i>, "raion council") are elected by the raion's residents; local executive authorities (<i>raion administration</i>) are appointed by higher executive authorities. In the same way, each voblast has its own legislative authority (<i>oblsovet</i>), elected by residents, and an executive authority (<i>voblast administration</i>), whose leader is appointed by the President.<p>(Administrative centers are given in parentheses.)<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Minsk (capital)<li><!--del_lnk--> Brest Province (<!--del_lnk--> Brest)<li><!--del_lnk--> Homyel Province (<!--del_lnk--> Homyel')<li><!--del_lnk--> Hrodna Province (<!--del_lnk--> Hrodna)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mahilyow Province (<!--del_lnk--> Mahilyow)<li><!--del_lnk--> Minsk Province (<!--del_lnk--> Minsk)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vitsebsk Province (<!--del_lnk--> Vitsebsk)</ol>
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1461.jpg.htm" title="Swamps, forests and a lake in Belarus."><img alt="Swamps, forests and a lake in Belarus." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Swamp_lake_Balarus.jpg" src="../../images/14/1461.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1461.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Swamps, forests and a lake in Belarus.</div>
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<p>Belarus is <!--del_lnk--> landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of <!--del_lnk--> marshy land. Lakes and rivers punctuate the country. The largest marsh territory is <!--del_lnk--> Polesia, which is also amongst the largest marshes in Europe. There are 11,000 lakes in Belarus, but the majority of the lakes are smaller than 0.5 <!--del_lnk--> square kilometres (124 <!--del_lnk--> acres). Three major rivers run through the country, the <!--del_lnk--> Neman River, the <!--del_lnk--> Pripyat River, and the <!--del_lnk--> Dnepr River. Belarus' highest point is <!--del_lnk--> Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill), 345 <!--del_lnk--> metres (1,132 <!--del_lnk--> ft), and its lowest point is on the Neman River, 90 metres (295 ft). The <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> ranges from harsh <a href="../../wp/w/Winter.htm" title="Winter">winters</a> (average January temperatures are in the range −8 °<!--del_lnk--> C(18 °<!--del_lnk--> F) to −2 °C (28 °F)) to cool and moist <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">summers</a> (average temperature 15 °C (59°F) to 20 °C(68°F)).<p>Forest covers about 34 % of the total landscape, making forestry products one of the most abundant natural resources in Belarus. Other natural resources to be found in Belarus include <!--del_lnk--> peat deposits, small quantities of <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">oil</a> and natural gas, <a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" title="Granite">granite</a>, dolomite <!--del_lnk--> limestone, <!--del_lnk--> marl, <!--del_lnk--> chalk, <a href="../../wp/s/Sand.htm" title="Sand">sand</a>, <!--del_lnk--> gravel, and <a href="../../wp/c/Clay.htm" title="Clay">clay</a>. About one fifth of the territory, mostly in the South-Eastern provinces of <!--del_lnk--> Homyel and <!--del_lnk--> Mahilyow, continues to be affected by fallout from the 1986 <!--del_lnk--> nuclear power plant disaster in <!--del_lnk--> Chernobyl, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>. While the amount of radiation has decreased (by one percent) since the disaster, most of the area is considered uninhabitable.<p>Belarus is bordered by the following nations: Latvia (north), Lithuania (northwest), Poland (west), Russia (north and east) and the Ukraine (south).<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1462.jpg.htm" title="Obverse of the 500 Belarusian ruble (BYB/BYR), the national currency."><img alt="Obverse of the 500 Belarusian ruble (BYB/BYR), the national currency." height="88" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belarus-2000-Bill-500-Obverse.jpg" src="../../images/14/1462.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1462.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Obverse of the 500 <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian ruble (BYB/BYR), the national currency.</div>
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<p>The Belarusian <!--del_lnk--> economy remains about 80% state-controlled, as it has been since Soviet times. The country is relatively stable, economically, but depends to a large extent on raw material supplies from its close ally <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>. <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">Industry</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> remain largely in state hands. Belarus is therefore one of the very few state-capitalistic national economies remaining. Agriculture is dominated by collective farming, with the major sub-sectors the <!--del_lnk--> cultivation of <a href="../../wp/p/Potato.htm" title="Potato">potatoes</a> and <!--del_lnk--> cattle breeding. Historically important branches of industry include <a href="../../wp/t/Textile.htm" title="Textile">textiles</a> and wood processing. After 1965, creation of heavy industry and <!--del_lnk--> mechanical engineering (<!--del_lnk--> tractors, <!--del_lnk--> refrigerators) significantly strengthened the country's development. Within the Soviet Union, Belarus was one of the industrially most developed republics. Economically, Belarus engages itself in the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Independent States, <!--del_lnk--> Eurasian Economic Community and <!--del_lnk--> Union with Russia. After 1990, with the introduction of free market structures into the former Soviet Union, industrial production plunged. However, economic growth returned in 1996 and in 2001 Belarus was first of CIS countries to reach 1990 levels of industrial production and agricultural production. Gross domestic product (GDP) for 2005 was $79.13 billion (estimate), which equates to an annual income of approximately $7,700 dollar per head. In 2005 <!--del_lnk--> GDP increased by about 8-9%, with the inflation rate averaging about 8%. According to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">UN</a>, average monthly income grew from 20 <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">United States dollars</a> to 225 USD during the last 10 years.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> unemployment rate, according to Belarusian government statistics, was about 2% in 2005. However, foreign experts have suggested that the real rate is probably higher. More controversial is the decision to abandon the <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian ruble (BYR) in favour of the <!--del_lnk--> Russian ruble (RUB), starting on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2008, according to Russian news agency <!--del_lnk--> ITAR-TASS.<p>The Belarusian economy is impacted by the political situations inside the republic. The impact is mostly felt in the form of sanctions against the country or the leadership of Belarus. For example, the the European Union adopted Council Regulation (EC) No 765/2006 on 18 May 2006. The Regulation provided for a freeze on the funds of President Lukashenko and between 30 to 35 high-level officials of Belarus. The sanctions also provided for travel bans for the aforementioned leaders. The sanction was imposed by the EU after the nation-block declared that the 19 March 2006 elections were fraudulent and for the crackdown on opposition groups. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1463.png.htm" title="Change in the population of Belarus (1992-2003)."><img alt="Change in the population of Belarus (1992-2003)." height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belarus-demography.png" src="../../images/14/1463.png" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1463.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Change in the population of Belarus (1992-2003).</div>
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<p>The majority of the <!--del_lnk--> population of Belarus are native <!--del_lnk--> Belarusians, who comprise 81.2% of the total population of 10,293,011 people. <!--del_lnk--> Russians are the second largest group making up 11.4% of the population. The <!--del_lnk--> Poles and <!--del_lnk--> Ukrainians account for 3.9% and 2.4% of the population, respectively.<p>Languages commonly spoken in Belarus are <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian, which are both official languages of Belarus.<p>The population density is about 50 persons per <!--del_lnk--> square kilometer (127/sq. mi) and 71.7% of the total population lives in <!--del_lnk--> urban areas. Of the urban population, 24% live in <!--del_lnk--> Minsk, the national capital and largest city.<p>Most of the population, 69.7%, are between the ages of 14 and 64. Sixteen percent of the population is under 14 years, while 14.6% are age 65 or older. The median age of the population is 37. The average life expectancy for Belarusian citizens is 68.72 years; for males it is 63.03 years and for females it is 74.96 years.<p>The literacy rate in Belarus, which is the number of people aged 15 and older who can read and write, is at 99%, with men at 99.8%, and women at 99.3%. The male-to-female ratio in 2005 was estimated to be .88 males to every female.<p>Most demographic indicators for Belarus resemble other European countries, notably with both the population growth rate and the natural growth rate in the negative. The population growth is currently at −0.06% in 2005, with a fertility rate of 1.43. The population is also growing older, and by the year 2050, the majority of the population will be over the age of 50. The migration rate is +2.3 for every 1 000 people in Belarus.<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> Save the Children international organisation report (comparing 167 countries) Belarus has the highest rating among all ex-USSR countries. It has 16 place for Mothers' index rank, 14 for Women's index rank and 20 for Children's index rank. Closest ex-USSR counties are <a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" title="Estonia">Estonia</a> (18 for Womens rank), <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> (21/31/26) and <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> (27/34/64) <p>Largest cities in Belarus (population in thousands, 2006)<p><!--del_lnk--> Minsk - 1741.4<br /><!--del_lnk--> Homyel - 481.2<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mogilev - 365.1<br /><!--del_lnk--> Vitebsk - 342.4<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hrodna - 314.8<br /><!--del_lnk--> Brest - 298.3<br /><!--del_lnk--> Babruysk - 220.8<br /><!--del_lnk--> Baranovichi - 168.6<br /><!--del_lnk--> Barysau - 150.4<br /><!--del_lnk--> Orsha - 130.5<br /><!--del_lnk--> Pinsk - 125.3<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mazyr - 111.8<br /><!--del_lnk--> Salihorsk - 101.4<br /><!--del_lnk--> Novapolatsk - 101.3<br />
<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1464.jpg.htm" title="Russian Orthodox church in Brest, Belarus."><img alt="Russian Orthodox church in Brest, Belarus." height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brest_Kirche.jpg" src="../../images/14/1464.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1464.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Russian Orthodox church in Brest, Belarus.</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1465.jpg.htm" title="1961 USSR postage stamp depicting Belarusian traditional costumes."><img alt="1961 USSR postage stamp depicting Belarusian traditional costumes." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Soviet_Union-1961-Stamp-0.03._Belarusians.jpg" src="../../images/14/1465.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1465.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 1961 <!--del_lnk--> USSR postage stamp depicting Belarusian traditional costumes.</div>
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<p>Traditional Belarusian dress originates from the time of <!--del_lnk--> Kievan Rus and over time was under the influence of cultures of neighbors: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Aside from its predominantly Ruthenian roots, <!--del_lnk--> Belarusian cuisine is very close to Lithuanian. It is sometimes considered as somewhat less rich and impressive than those of its imposing neighbors. In fact, however, this may result from the general lack of national identity which still continues to hold back the development of a nation and also led to the loss of many culinary traditions in the last 100 years.<p>Certain aspects of the Belarusian culture have been lost over time because of the <!--del_lnk--> Russification period. President Lukashenko has introduced laws that force <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radio</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> stations to showcase a percentage of Belarusian talent daily, but it does not specify whether the performance has to be in the Belarusian or Russian language. <!--del_lnk--> The said radio and television stations are state-owned, mostly controlled by the <!--del_lnk--> National State Teleradiocompany (TVR).<p>Musically, Belarus has a mixture of artists and sytles, based on what language they sing. On the radio, Belarusian artists can be heard alongside Russian artists. Belarusian TV shows concerts, usually state run, showing the same performers along with military bands from Belarus. Famous rock bands from the country include NRM, Neurodubel, Ulis, Nowaje Nieba and Krama. Several Belarusian acts perform in Poland and Lithuania, where the population of Belarusian speakers are very high. Lithuania is also the host of the Belarusian alternative music festival Basowiszcza. <!--del_lnk--> Belarus, since 2004, has been sending artists to the <a href="../../wp/e/Eurovision_Song_Contest.htm" title="Eurovision Song Contest">Eurovision Song Contest</a>. <!--del_lnk--> <p>The Belarusian government sponsors many annual cultural festivals: "<!--del_lnk--> Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk"; "Minsk Spring"; "Slavonic Theatrical Meetings"; International Jazz Festival; National Harvesting Festival; "Arts for Children and Youth"; the Competition of Youth Variety Show Arts; "Muses of Niesvizh"; "Mir Castle"; and the National Festival of the Belarusian Song and Poetry. These events showcase talented Belarusian performers, whether it is in <a href="../../wp/m/Music.htm" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Art.htm" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poetry.htm" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dance.htm" title="Dance">dance</a> or <!--del_lnk--> theatre. At these festivals, various prizes named after Soviet and Belarusian heroes are awarded for excellence in music or art. Several state holidays, like <!--del_lnk--> Independence Day or <!--del_lnk--> Victory Day draw big crowds and include various displays such as <!--del_lnk--> fireworks and <!--del_lnk--> military parades. Most of the festivals take place in Vitebsk or Minsk.<p>Belarus has four <!--del_lnk--> World Heritage Sites, two of them shared between Belarus and its neighbors. The four are: the <!--del_lnk--> Mir Castle Complex; the <!--del_lnk--> Niasvizh Castle; the <!--del_lnk--> Belovezhskaya Pushcha (shared with <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>); and the <!--del_lnk--> Struve Geodetic Arc (shared with <a href="../../wp/e/Estonia.htm" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Latvia.htm" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Moldova.htm" title="Moldova">Moldova</a>, Russia, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and Ukraine).<p><a id="International_rankings" name="International_rankings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">International rankings</span></h2>
<p>Every year, several non-governmental groups and international organizations release ratings that compare various nations to each other on issues of government corruption, freedom in the press, economic activity and women's rights. This is a sampling of the various groups with their report, along with the results of how Belarus is ranked.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Save the Children: <!--del_lnk--> State of the World's Mothers 2006, 16th for mothers, 14th for women and 20th for children out of 167 countries<li><!--del_lnk--> A.T. Kearney/<!--del_lnk--> Foreign Policy Magazine: <!--del_lnk--> Globalization Index 2005, not ranked out of 62 countries<li><!--del_lnk--> Heritage Foundation/<a href="../../wp/t/The_Wall_Street_Journal.htm" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>: <!--del_lnk--> 2005 <!--del_lnk--> Index of Economic Freedom, ranked 143rd out of 155 countries (with a score of 3.99, Repressed)<li><!--del_lnk--> IMD International: <!--del_lnk--> World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005, not ranked out of 60 economies (countries and regions)<li><!--del_lnk--> The Economist: <!--del_lnk--> The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005, ranked 100th out of 111 countries<li><!--del_lnk--> Reporters without borders: <!--del_lnk--> Third annual worldwide press freedom index (2004), ranked 144th out of 167 countries<li><!--del_lnk--> Transparency International: <!--del_lnk--> Corruption Perceptions Index 2004, ranked 74th out of 146 countries<li><!--del_lnk--> United Nations Development Programme: <!--del_lnk--> Human Development Index 2004, ranked 62nd out of 177 countries<li><!--del_lnk--> World Economic Forum: <!--del_lnk--> Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking, not ranked out of 104 countries</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus"</div>
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<!-- NEWS --><div id="news"><span class="boxtop"></span><dl><dt>SOS Belarus News</dt><dd><span>25/04/2006</span> <a href="../../wp/t/The_Shadow_Of_Chernobyl.htm">The Shadow of Chernobyl</a></dd><dd><span>25/04/2006</span> <a href="../../wp/r/Report_From_Chernobyl.htm">Report from Chernobyl : Pure Heaven for Big Families</a></dd><dd><span>25/04/2006</span> <a href="../../wp/c/Chernobyl_Interview.htm">An Interview with Director of the SOS Social Centre Borovljany</a></dd></dl><span class="boxbot"></span></div><!-- ENDNEWS -->
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<h2>SOS Children in Belarus</h2>
<img src="../../wp/j/Jwp_map_belarus_en.gif" width="405" height="326" alt="Sponsorship Locations in SOS Children in Belarus" class="left" /><p><strong>Apart from one other small admin office run by another, SOS Children is the only major NGO still working in Belarus on the aftermath from Chernobyl.</strong></p><p>Every year, over 200 children from the area around Chernobyl receive treatment for radiation damage<br />at the SOS Social Centre, with priority given to children from very poor or single-parent families While they are being treated, their parents can stay with them and depending on the treatment this could be a period of up to eight weeks. As well as medical treatment, the centre offers remedial education and a wide range of chances for children to be children.</p><p>Belarus was severely affected by the Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986. Large areas were contaminated and many people, particularly children, developed cancer and other diseases related to radio-active exposure. It was for this reason that SOS Childrens Villages decided to build a village which as well as providing a home for destitute children, would also include a treatment centre for children suffering from the effects of radiation.</p><p>In 1991 the state government gave SOS Childrens Charity a plot of land in Borowljany about 15 miles north east of the capital Minsk. The village has thirteen family houses which are home to 100 children. A youth house has been established in Minsk for the older children who have grown up in the village and are on the verge of independence.</p><p>A second SOS Children's Village was opened in 2004 in Marina Gorka, about 25 miles from Minsk and consists of 12 family houses. There is also an SOS Social Centre that runs a Family Strengthening Programme for 700 vulnerable children and their families in the local community. </p><p>The present borders of Belarus date from 1939, when Stalin annexed eastern Poland. The country was occupied between 1941 and 1944, when it lost 2.2 million people, including most of its large Jewish population. It became independent in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union.</p><p>Despite recent economic growth, poverty remains widespread, affecting at least 30 per cent of the population particularly families with children, families with low levels of education and rural families. The average per capita daily income is less than £46.50 in the UK. The increasing number of social orphans is o of the most worrying manifestations of the social and economic crisis gripping the country. Child abandonment, neglect and abuse are all rising, with a leading cause being alcoholism among parents.</p><h3>Local Contact in Belarus</h3>
<p>SOS Children's Village Association Belarus,<br />Swerdlowastr.32a,<br />220050 Minsk,<br />Belarus</p><p>tel +375/17/227 82 28 e-mail [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Belarus Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/b/Benin_B.htm">Benin</a></p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Belfast</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background:#E0E0E0;"><big><b>Belfast</b></big><br /><i><span lang="ga" xml:lang="ga">Béal Feirste</span></i></td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background: white; text-align: center; font-size: 85%;"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1467.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Belfast"><img alt="Coat of arms of Belfast" height="98" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belfast_city_crest_painting.png" src="../../images/14/1467.png" width="100" /></a></th>
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<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 85%;">Pro Tanto Quid Retribuamus<br /> "What shall we give in return for so much"</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="background: #E0E0E0; text-align: center;"><b>Location</b></td>
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<div style="position: absolute; display: block; left: 158px; top: 81px; width:8px; height:8px; padding:0"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1468.gif.htm" title="Location of Belfast"><img alt="Location of Belfast" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Locationinireland.gif" src="../../images/14/1468.gif" width="11" /></a></div>
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1469.png.htm" title="Map highlighting Belfast"><img alt="Map highlighting Belfast" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NorthernIrelandBelfast.png" src="../../images/14/1469.png" width="200" /></a></span></div>
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<div align="center">WGS-84 (<!--del_lnk--> GPS) Coordinates:<br /><!--del_lnk--> 54.596° N 5.914° W</div>
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<td colspan="2" style="background: #E0E0E0; text-align: center;"><b>Statistics</b></td>
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<th style="background: #EDEDED;"><!--del_lnk--> Province:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ulster</td>
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<th style="background: #EDEDED;"><!--del_lnk--> County:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> County Antrim</td>
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<th style="background: #EDEDED;"><!--del_lnk--> District:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Belfast</td>
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<th style="background: #EDEDED;"><!--del_lnk--> Area:</th>
<td>115 km²</td>
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<th style="background: #EDEDED;"><!--del_lnk--> Population (2001)</th>
<td><span style="font-size: smaller;">City Proper:<br /> 276,459 <br /><!--del_lnk--> Greater Belfast:<br /> 579,276 </span></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9;"><b>Website:</b> <!--del_lnk--> www.belfastcity.gov.uk</td>
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<p><b>Belfast</b> (<!--del_lnk--> Irish: <span lang="ga" xml:lang="ga"><i>Béal Feirste</i></span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city</a> in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the capital of <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>. It is the largest city in Northern Ireland and the province of <!--del_lnk--> Ulster, and after <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, is the second-largest city on the island of <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. In the <!--del_lnk--> 2001 census the population within the city limits (the Belfast Urban Area) was 276,459, while 579,276 people lived in the <!--del_lnk--> Greater Belfast area (the Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area). The city is situated near the mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> River Lagan at the south-western end of <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Lough, a long natural inlet ideal for the shipping trade that made the city famous. It is flanked by the <!--del_lnk--> Castlereagh Hills on the south and the <!--del_lnk--> Antrim Hills on the north. The city straddles the <!--del_lnk--> County Antrim and <!--del_lnk--> County Down boundary.<p>The name Belfast originates from the <!--del_lnk--> Irish <i>Béal Feirste</i>, or 'mouth of the <!--del_lnk--> Farset' (<i>feirste</i> is the genitive of the word <i>fearsaid</i>, "a spindle"), the river on which the city was built. The river Farset has been superseded by the <!--del_lnk--> River Lagan as the more important river; the Farset now languishes under the High Street in obscurity. Bridge Street indicates where there was originally a bridge across the Farset.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>The site of Belfast has been occupied since the <a href="../../wp/b/Bronze_Age.htm" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Giant's Ring, a 5000 year old <!--del_lnk--> henge, is located near the city, and the remains of <a href="../../wp/i/Iron_Age.htm" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <!--del_lnk--> hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. It became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being settled by <!--del_lnk--> English and <!--del_lnk--> Scottish settlers during the <!--del_lnk--> Plantation of Ulster. Belfast blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, and thanks to its thriving <!--del_lnk--> linen, rope-making, <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> and <!--del_lnk--> shipbuilding industries, became the most industrialised city in <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. At the beginning of the 20th century, Belfast had a larger population than <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>.<p>Belfast has been the capital of <a href="../../wp/n/Northern_Ireland.htm" title="Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a> since its creation in 1921 by the <!--del_lnk--> Government of Ireland Act. Since it began to emerge as a major city, it has been the scene of much sectarian conflict between its <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Protestant populations. The opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed '<!--del_lnk--> nationalist' and '<!--del_lnk--> unionist' respectively. The most recent example of this is <!--del_lnk--> the Troubles - a civil conflict that raged from c.1969 to the late 1990s.<p>Belfast was heavily bombed in 1941 during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, killing 1,000 people and leaving tens of thousands more homeless.<dl>
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<p>Belfast's industry has suffered serious decline since the <!--del_lnk--> 1960s, creating much unemployment in the city. In recent years, large amounts of money have been invested in the city's infrastructure in an effort to stimulate the economy. In February 2006 Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and UK average.<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Belfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland. The <!--del_lnk--> Good Friday Agreement has encouraged large-scale redevelopment, such as Victoria Square, the <!--del_lnk--> Cathedral Quarter, the <!--del_lnk--> Titanic Quarter and Laganside including the new <!--del_lnk--> Odyssey complex and the landmark <!--del_lnk--> Waterfront Hall. Much of the <!--del_lnk--> city centre has now been pedestrianised. <!--del_lnk--> Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in Belfast. The <!--del_lnk--> University of Ulster also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on <a href="../../wp/f/Fine_art.htm" title="Fine art">fine art</a> and <!--del_lnk--> design.<p>Despite bad publicity over the past few decades, Belfast is now a popular citybreak destination and a 2003 <!--del_lnk--> quality of life survey found Belfast residents to be the most contented city-dwellers in the UK. However as with other areas of Northern Ireland, significant problems remain. For example in 2003 the amount extorted from the public and businesses by <!--del_lnk--> paramilitary <!--del_lnk--> racketeering was estimated at £125,000,000 per year.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>Belfast is situated at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">54°35′50″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">05°56′20″W</span></span>. A consequence of this latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. In the middle of the darkest period in December, local sunset is at 3.50 p.m. while sunrise is as late as 8.45 a.m. However, this is counterbalanced by the period from May to July. In mid-to-late June, sunset occurs after 10 p.m. and the daylight survives until 11 p.m. on fine nights, while sunrise is as early as 4 a.m. (sometimes earlier).<p>To the north of Belfast are the <!--del_lnk--> Glens of Antrim in <!--del_lnk--> County Antrim, and to the south, the <!--del_lnk--> Castlereagh Hills in <!--del_lnk--> County Down. Overlooking the city are <!--del_lnk--> Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and <!--del_lnk--> Cavehill while to the east lies Belfast Lough.<p>To the residents of Northern Ireland, the <!--del_lnk--> Greater Belfast area is divided into four areas and is commonly referred to in these locations; <!--del_lnk--> East Belfast, <!--del_lnk--> North Belfast, <!--del_lnk--> South Belfast and <!--del_lnk--> West Belfast. Each area is a <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary constituency.<p><a id="Areas_.26_districts" name="Areas_.26_districts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Areas & districts</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The areas & districts of Belfast reflect the still divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole. Areas tend to be highly segregated, especially in working class neighbourhoods. Many of the areas existed as separate towns and villages before the expansion of Greater Belfast.<p><a id="Postcodes" name="Postcodes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Postcodes</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Belfast City Centre is divided by two postcodes, BT1 for the area lying north of the <!--del_lnk--> City Hall, and BT2 for the area south of the City Hall. The industrial estate and docklands share BT3. The rest of the <!--del_lnk--> Greater Belfast area postcodes are set out in a <!--del_lnk--> clockwise system, with BT4 being to the under-right of BT3, and BT5 being right of BT4, with BT6 being to the under-left of BT5, etc.<p><i>BT</i> stands for <i>Belfast</i>. Although Belfast is only a city, its abbreviation is used across the whole of Northern Ireland.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h2>
<p>Like much of the country, Belfast has a temperate climate with significant rainfall. Average daily maximums are 18 °C (64 °F) in July, 6 °C (43 °F) in January. There is significant rainfall on over two hundred days in an average year, and an annual rainfall total of approximately 846 milimetres (33.3 in), still barely half that received in Western Ireland and Scotland, though is still substantially more than <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> or the south-east coast of Ireland. While sleet and snow fall occasionally in Winter, as an urban, coastal area, snow lies in Belfast on an average of only 2—3 days per year. Belfast is not noted for its temperature extremes.<p>The highest temperature recorded in Belfast was 30.8 °C (87.44 °F) on 12 July 1983. The lowest was -13 °C (8.6 °F).<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th height="17" style="background: #99CCCC; color: #000080">Month</th>
<th abbr="January" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Jan</th>
<th abbr="February" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Feb</th>
<th abbr="March" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Mar</th>
<th abbr="April" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Apr</th>
<th style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">May</th>
<th abbr="June" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Jun</th>
<th abbr="July" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Jul</th>
<th abbr="August" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Aug</th>
<th abbr="September" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Sep</th>
<th abbr="October" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Oct</th>
<th abbr="November" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Nov</th>
<th abbr="December" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Dec</th>
<th style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Year</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Average high</th>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color:#000000;">6<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (43<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color:#000000;">7<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (45<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color:#000000;">9<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (48<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000000;">12<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (54<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000000;">15<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (59<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFCC66; color:#000000;">18<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (64<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFCC66; color:#000000;">18<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (64<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFCC66; color:#000000;">18<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (64<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000000;">16<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (61<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000000;">13<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (55<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color:#000000;">9<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (48<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color:#000000;">7<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (45<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFF99; color:#000000;"><b>13<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (55<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th height="16;" style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Average low</th>
<td style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;">2<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (36<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;">2<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (36<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;">3<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (37<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;">4<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (39<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;">6<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (43<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;">9<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (48<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;">11<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (52<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;">11<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (52<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;">9<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (48<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;">7<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (43<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;">4<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (39<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFFF; color: black;">3<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (37<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFCC; color: black;"><b>6<small><sup>°C</sup></small> (43<small><sup>°F</sup></small>)</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;">Total rainfall</th>
<td style="background: #6695ED;">80<small>mm</small> (3.1<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #80FFC0;">52<small>mm</small> (2<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #80FFC0;">50<small>mm</small> (2<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #C0FFC0;">48<small>mm</small> (1.9<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #80FFC0;">52<small>mm</small> (2<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #67CEEB;">68<small>mm</small> (2.7<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #6695ED;">94<small>mm</small> (3.7<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #6695ED;">77<small>mm</small> (3<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #6695ED;">80<small>mm</small> (3.1<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #6695ED;">83<small>mm</small> (3.3<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #6695ED;">72<small>mm</small> (2.8<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #6695ED;">90<small>mm</small> (3.5<small>"</small>)</td>
<td style="background: #FFFFFF;"><b>846<small>mm</small> (33.3<small>"</small>)</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Points_of_interest" name="Points_of_interest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Points of interest</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> City Hall, dating from 1906, <!--del_lnk--> Queen's University of Belfast (1849), and other <!--del_lnk--> Victorian and <!--del_lnk--> Edwardian buildings display a large number of sculptures. Among the grandest buildings are two former banks: <!--del_lnk--> Ulster Bank (1860), in Waring Street and <!--del_lnk--> Northern Bank (1769), in nearby Donegall Street. Also notable is the <!--del_lnk--> Linenhall Library (1788), in Donegall Square North. Architect <!--del_lnk--> Charles Lanyon is responsible for many of the city's Victorian buildings. Some of Belfast's oldest buildings still remain in the <!--del_lnk--> Cathedral Quarter area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area.<p>The world's largest <!--del_lnk--> dry dock is located in the city, and the giant cranes (<!--del_lnk--> Samson and Goliath) of the <!--del_lnk--> Harland and Wolff shipyard, builders of the <a href="../../wp/r/RMS_Titanic.htm" title="RMS Titanic"><i>Titanic</i></a>, can be seen from afar. Other long-gone industries included Irish <!--del_lnk--> linen and rope-making.<p>Sections of the city contain numerous <!--del_lnk--> sectarian murals, reflecting the political and religious allegiances of the communities living there. Areas such as the <!--del_lnk--> Shankill Road contain murals that are almost entirely <!--del_lnk--> Protestant, depicting republican violence, loyalty to the <!--del_lnk--> British Crown, the <!--del_lnk--> Ulster Volunteer Force and <!--del_lnk--> Ulster Defence Association. Conversely, murals in areas such as the <!--del_lnk--> Falls Road, which is almost entirely <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic, feature political themes such as a <!--del_lnk--> united Ireland and the <!--del_lnk--> Provisional IRA, as well as traditional folklore and the <!--del_lnk--> Irish language. The <!--del_lnk--> Irish folk hero <!--del_lnk--> Cúchulainn has appeared on both republican and loyalist murals, representing the heroic Celtic past for the former and legendary battles between Ulster and the other provinces for the latter. In recent years some paramilitary murals have been replaced, in both loyalist and republican areas, with less controversial images. These include memorials to the late Belfast footballer <!--del_lnk--> George Best.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> four star <!--del_lnk--> Europa Hotel, located in the City Centre, was bombed twenty-seven times during the troubles and is among one of the most bombed hotels in Europe<p>The ornately decorated <!--del_lnk--> Crown Liquor Saloon in Great Victoria Street is notable as being the only bar owned by the <!--del_lnk--> National Trust. The Crown is situated across the road from the Europa Hotel and escaped serious damage despite the frequent bomb attacks on the Europa. Many locals have quipped that this merely shows that "God loves a drinker".<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Royal Courts of Justice in Chichester Street is home to Northern Ireland's <!--del_lnk--> Supreme Court. The <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Botanic Gardens has many features, including a unique palm house.<p>Belfast also contains the tallest building (as distinct from structure) on the island of Ireland. <!--del_lnk--> Windsor House stands at 80 metres (262 ft) and has twenty-three floors. Once completed, the <!--del_lnk--> Obel Tower will surpass Windsor House, although a taller building than this has been given planning permission in Dublin.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Albert Clock stands at the end of High Street, and was built in memory of <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria's</a> <!--del_lnk--> Prince Consort, <!--del_lnk--> Prince Albert. The <!--del_lnk--> Ormeau Baths Gallery on Ormeau Avenue is one of Ireland's premier <!--del_lnk--> contemporary art spaces. <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Zoo is located in the north of the City, on the slopes of <!--del_lnk--> Cavehill. Founded in 1833 by <!--del_lnk--> Bishop Crolly, <!--del_lnk--> St. Malachy's College is one of Ireland's oldest <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic <!--del_lnk--> grammar schools.<p><!--del_lnk--> St George's Market, built between 1890 and 1896, is Belfast's last surviving <!--del_lnk--> Victorian covered <!--del_lnk--> market. It was restored at a cost of £4.5 million in 1997, and hosts regular Friday and Saturday markets.<p><!--del_lnk--> Belfast City Cemetery contains the graves of many notable Belfast residents including <!--del_lnk--> Viscount Pirrie and Sir Edward Harland.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1471.jpg.htm" title="Image:Belfast City Hall - Carisenda.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/14/1471.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Belfast City Hall</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1472.jpg.htm" title="Image:Belfast Castle2.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1472.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Belfast Castle</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1473.jpg.htm" title="Image:Belfast Palm House.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/14/1473.jpg" width="91" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The Palm House at the <!--del_lnk--> Botanic Gardens</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 30px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1474.jpg.htm" title="Image:H&W Cranes2.jpg"><img alt="" height="86" src="../../images/14/1474.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Samson & Goliath</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1475.jpg.htm" title="Image:Albert Clock from Queen's Square.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/14/1475.jpg" width="90" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p><!--del_lnk--> Albert Clock</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1476.jpg.htm" title="Image:Bobby sands mural in belfast320.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/14/1476.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>A republican mural dedicated to <!--del_lnk--> Bobby Sands</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1477.jpg.htm" title="Image:Loyalist political mural.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/14/1477.jpg" width="106" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>A loyalist mural depicting republican killings.</div>
</div>
</td>
<td>
<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 50px 0;"><a href="../../images/14/1478.jpg.htm" title="Image:Lagan Weir South.jpg"><img alt="" height="46" src="../../images/14/1478.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
<div class="gallerytext">
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Lagan Weir</div>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Local_politics" name="Local_politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Local politics</span></h2>
<p>In 1997, <!--del_lnk--> Unionists lost control of <!--del_lnk--> Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the <!--del_lnk--> Alliance Party of Northern Ireland gaining the balance of power between <!--del_lnk--> Nationalists and Unionists. This position was confirmed in the council elections of <!--del_lnk--> 2001 and <!--del_lnk--> 2005. Since then it has had three Nationalist mayors, two from the <!--del_lnk--> SDLP and one from <!--del_lnk--> Sinn Féin.<p>In the 2005 local government elections, the voters of Belfast elected fifty-one councillors to Belfast City Council from the following political parties: 15 <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 14 <!--del_lnk--> Sinn Féin, 8 <!--del_lnk--> Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP), 7 <!--del_lnk--> Ulster Unionist Party (UUP), 4 <!--del_lnk--> Alliance Party, 2 <!--del_lnk--> Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), and 1 Independent (<!--del_lnk--> Frank McCoubrey).<p>Belfast has four UK parliamentary and Assembly constituencies - <!--del_lnk--> North Belfast, <!--del_lnk--> West Belfast, <!--del_lnk--> South Belfast and <!--del_lnk--> East Belfast. All four extend somewhat beyond the city boundaries into parts of <!--del_lnk--> Castlereagh, <!--del_lnk--> Lisburn and <!--del_lnk--> Newtownabbey districts. In 2003, they elected 7 Sinn Féin, 6 DUP, 5 UUP, 4 SDLP, 1 PUP, and 1 Alliance MLAs (members of the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Ireland Assembly). In the <!--del_lnk--> 2005 general election, they elected 2 DUP MPs, 1 SDLP MP, and 1 Sinn Féin MP.<p>Belfast is <!--del_lnk--> twinned with:<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <b><a href="../../wp/n/Nashville%252C_Tennessee.htm" title="Nashville, Tennessee">Nashville, Tennessee</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="People's Republic of China"><img alt="People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> <b><!--del_lnk--> Hefei</b>, <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="PRC">China</a>.</ul>
<p><a id="Local_sport" name="Local_sport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Local sport</span></h2>
<p>Belfast has several notable sports teams playing sports as diverse as football and rugby, traditional Irish Gaelic games, and North American sports such as American football and ice hockey. In addition, the <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Marathon is run annually on <!--del_lnk--> May Day, attracting almost 14,000 participants in 2006.<p>The 2005-06 <!--del_lnk--> Irish League <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> champions <!--del_lnk--> Linfield are based at <!--del_lnk--> Windsor Park in the south of the city, as is the <!--del_lnk--> Northern Ireland national football team. Other Premier League football teams include <!--del_lnk--> Glentoran based in east Belfast, <!--del_lnk--> Cliftonville and <!--del_lnk--> Crusaders in north Belfast and <!--del_lnk--> Donegal Celtic in west Belfast. Belfast was also the hometown of the renowned footballer <!--del_lnk--> George Best.<p><!--del_lnk--> Casement Park, with a capacity of 32,000 making it the second largest <!--del_lnk--> Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster, is located in west Belfast and is home to the <!--del_lnk--> Antrim <!--del_lnk--> gaelic football and <!--del_lnk--> hurling teams.<p>2005–06 <!--del_lnk--> Celtic League champions and former <!--del_lnk--> European Rugby Union champions <!--del_lnk--> Ulster play at <!--del_lnk--> Ravenhill in East Belfast.<p>Belfast is represented in the <!--del_lnk--> Elite Ice Hockey League by the <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Giants. The Belfast Giants were recently crowned the 2005/2006 Elite League Champions, in a season which saw ex-NHL star Theo Fleury play for the team. Home matches are played at the <!--del_lnk--> Odyssey Arena.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Bulls <a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" title="American football">American football</a> team represent Belfast in the <!--del_lnk--> IAFL, competing for the <!--del_lnk--> Shamrock Bowl.<p>The city's <!--del_lnk--> King George's Field is one of the memorials to <a href="../../wp/g/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George V of the United Kingdom">King George V</a> located throughout the United Kingdom. Professional <!--del_lnk--> WWE Friday Night SmackDown wrestler <!--del_lnk--> Dave Finlay is also from Belfast.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
<p>Belfast is, by European standards, a relatively car-dependent city, with an extensive road network including the ten lane <!--del_lnk--> M2 motorway.<p>Most public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by the subsidiaries of <!--del_lnk--> Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by <!--del_lnk--> Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the City Centre on twelve <!--del_lnk--> quality bus corridors running along main radial roads, resulting in poor connections between different suburban areas. More distant suburbs are served by <!--del_lnk--> Ulsterbus.<p><!--del_lnk--> Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a <!--del_lnk--> share basis in some areas. However these are outnumbered by private hire <!--del_lnk--> minicabs.<p><!--del_lnk--> Northern Ireland Railways provides <!--del_lnk--> suburban services along three lines running through Belfast’s northern suburbs to <!--del_lnk--> Carrickfergus and <!--del_lnk--> Larne, eastwards towards <!--del_lnk--> Bangor and south-westwards towards <!--del_lnk--> Lisburn and <!--del_lnk--> Portadown. This service is known as the <!--del_lnk--> Belfast Suburban Rail system.<p>Important rail stations in Belfast are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Belfast Central<li><!--del_lnk--> Great Victoria Street<li><!--del_lnk--> Botanic<li><!--del_lnk--> City Hospital</ul>
<p>The most significant road scheme in Belfast for some years began early in 2006, with the conversion of two junctions along the <!--del_lnk--> Westlink dual carriageway from at grade to <!--del_lnk--> grade separated standard. The Westlink, a dual carriageway skirting the western edge of the City Centre, connects all three Belfast <!--del_lnk--> motorways and has suffered from chronic congestion for some years. Work is likely to finish in 2009 although some commentators have argued that this may simply create a new bottleneck at the <!--del_lnk--> at-grade York Street intersection until that too is converted to a fully free-flowing grade separated junction, currently scheduled to take place between 2011 and 2016.<p>The Lagan and Lough Cycle Way, part of the <!--del_lnk--> National Cycle Network, runs through the city centre along the Laganside promenade and linking north to Jordanstown through the docks and along the lough shore and south-west to Lisburn along the Lagan towpath.<p>The city has two airports: The <!--del_lnk--> George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and <!--del_lnk--> Belfast International Airport which is near <!--del_lnk--> Lough Neagh. The International Airport offers domestic, European and transatlantic flights. The City Airport is much closer to the city centre, however it is considerably smaller and serves domestic flights and limited European destinations.<p><a name="2001_Census"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">2001 Census</span></h2>
<p>Belfast Urban Area is within the Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area (BMUA) as classified by the <!--del_lnk--> NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA). On Census day (<!--del_lnk--> 29 April <!--del_lnk--> 2001) there were 276,459 people living in Belfast Urban Area. Of these:<ul>
<li>21.7% were aged under 16 years and 19.7% were aged 60 and over<li>46.8% of the population were male and 53.2% were female<li>47.2% were from a <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> background and 48.6% were from a <!--del_lnk--> Protestant background<li>5.4% of people aged 16–74 were unemployed.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Belgium</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Geography.European_Geography.European_Countries.htm">European Countries</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b><i>Koninkrijk België</i><br /><i>Royaume de Belgique</i><br /><i>Königreich Belgien</i></b><br /><b>Kingdom of Belgium</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/11/1141.png.htm" title="Flag of Belgium"><img alt="Flag of Belgium" height="108" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium.svg" src="../../images/14/1481.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1482.gif.htm" title="Coat of arms of Belgium"><img alt="Coat of arms of Belgium" height="104" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belgium_coa.gif" src="../../images/14/1482.gif" width="85" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i>Eendracht maakt macht</i><br /><a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>: <i>L'union fait la force</i><br /><a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>: <i>Einigkeit macht stark</i><br /> (<a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>: "Unity Makes Strength")</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: "<!--del_lnk--> La Brabançonne" (The Song of Brabant)</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1483.png.htm" title="Location of Belgium"><img alt="Location of Belgium" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBelgium.png" src="../../images/14/1483.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Capital</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 50°54′N 4°32′E</span></small></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Largest city</th>
<td>Brussels, <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a><sup>1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Federal constitutional monarchy</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> King</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Albert II</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Guy Verhofstadt</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence from <!--del_lnk--> Netherlands</th>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Declared</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1830 </td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Recognised</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1839 </td>
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<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">Accession to EU</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1957</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 30,528 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 140th)<br /> 11,787 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>6.4</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2005 estimate</td>
<td>10,419,000 (<!--del_lnk--> 77th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2001 census</td>
<td>10,296,350</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>342/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 29th)<br /> 886/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2004 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$316.2 <!--del_lnk--> billion (<!--del_lnk--> 30th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$31,400 (<!--del_lnk--> 12th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2004)</th>
<td>0.945 (<font color="#009900">high</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 13th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">Euro</a> (<!--del_lnk--> €)<sup>2</sup> (<code><!--del_lnk--> EUR</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CET (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CEST (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2)</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .be<sup>3</sup></td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+32</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> Brussels is the largest urban area, Antwerp is the largest city with legal status.<br /><sup>2</sup> Prior to 1999: <!--del_lnk--> Belgian franc.<br /><sup>3</sup> The <!--del_lnk--> .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> member states.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
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<p>The <b>Kingdom of Belgium</b> (<a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>: <i>Koninkrijk België</i>; <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>: <i>Royaume de Belgique</i>; <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>: <i>Königreich Belgien</i>) is a country in <!--del_lnk--> northwest Europe bordered by <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">the Netherlands</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and is one of the founding and core members of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>. Belgium has a population of over ten million people, in an area of around 30,000 <!--del_lnk--> square kilometres (11,700 square miles).<p>Straddling the cultural boundary between <!--del_lnk--> Germanic and <!--del_lnk--> Romance Europe, Belgium is linguistically divided. It has two main languages: 60%, mainly in the region <!--del_lnk--> Flanders, speak <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> (while Belgians of <i>both</i> major languages often refer to it as <!--del_lnk--> Flemish) ; <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> is spoken by 40% in the southern region <!--del_lnk--> Wallonia and in the officially bilingual <!--del_lnk--> Brussels-Capital Region which also includes a Dutch-speaking minority. Less than 1% of the Belgian people, live in the <!--del_lnk--> German-speaking Community in the east of the country. This linguistic diversity often leads to political and cultural conflict and is reflected in Belgium's complex <!--del_lnk--> system of government and <!--del_lnk--> political history.<p>Belgium derives its name from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> name of the most northern part of <!--del_lnk--> Gaul, <i><!--del_lnk--> Gallia Belgica</i>, named after a group of mostly <!--del_lnk--> Celtic tribes, <i><!--del_lnk--> Belgae</i>. Historically, Belgium has been a part of the <!--del_lnk--> Low Countries, which also include the Netherlands and Luxembourg and used to cover a somewhat larger region than the current <!--del_lnk--> Benelux group of states. From the end of the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> until the seventeenth century, it was a prosperous centre of commerce and culture. From the sixteenth century until the Belgian revolution in 1830, Belgium, at that time called the <!--del_lnk--> Southern Netherlands, was the site of many battles between the European powers, and has been dubbed "the battlefield of Europe" or "the cockpit of Europe". More recently, Belgium was a founding member of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, hosting its headquarters, as well as those of many other major <!--del_lnk--> international organisations, such as <a href="../../wp/n/NATO.htm" title="NATO">NATO</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Over the past two millennia, the area that is now known as Belgium has seen significant demographic, political and cultural upheavals. The first well-documented population move was the conquest of the region by the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Republic in the 1st century <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">BC</a>, followed in the 5th century by the <!--del_lnk--> Germanic <a href="../../wp/f/Franks.htm" title="Franks">Franks</a>. The Franks established the <!--del_lnk--> Merovingian kingdom, which became the <!--del_lnk--> Carolingian Empire in the 8th century. During the Middle Ages, the Low Countries were split into many small <!--del_lnk--> feudal states. Most of them were united in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries by the house of <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy as the <!--del_lnk--> Burgundian Netherlands. These states gained a degree of autonomy in the 15th century and were thereafter named the <!--del_lnk--> Seventeen Provinces.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1484.png.htm" title="The Seventeen Provinces (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the Bishopric of Liège (green area). For a detailed description, see Seventeen Provinces."><img alt="The Seventeen Provinces (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the Bishopric of Liège (green area). For a detailed description, see Seventeen Provinces." height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map-1477_Low_Countries.png" src="../../images/14/1484.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1484.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Seventeen Provinces (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the <!--del_lnk--> Bishopric of Liège (green area). For a detailed description, see <!--del_lnk--> Seventeen Provinces.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The history of Belgium can be distinguished from that of the Low Countries from the 16th century. The <!--del_lnk--> Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), divided the Seventeen Provinces into the <!--del_lnk--> United Provinces in the north and the <!--del_lnk--> Southern Netherlands in the south. The southern provinces were ruled successively by the <a href="../../wp/h/Habsburg_Spain.htm" title="Habsburg Spain">Spanish</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Austrian <!--del_lnk--> Habsburgs. Until independence, the Southern Netherlands were sought after by numerous French conquerors and were the theatre of most <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the <!--del_lnk--> Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries—including territories that were never under Habsburg rule, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Bishopric of Liège—were overrun by France, ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. The reunification of the Low Countries as the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the end of the <!--del_lnk--> French Empire in 1815.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/49/4903.jpg.htm" title="Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834), in the Ancient Art Museum, Brussels"><img alt="Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834), in the Ancient Art Museum, Brussels" height="208" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wappers_belgian_revolution.jpg" src="../../images/14/1485.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/49/4903.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834), in the Ancient Art Museum, Brussels</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The 1830 <!--del_lnk--> Belgian Revolution led to the establishment of an <!--del_lnk--> independent, <!--del_lnk--> Catholic and neutral Belgium under a provisional government. Since the installation of <!--del_lnk--> Leopold I as king in 1831, Belgium has been a <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> and <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary democracy. Between independence and <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the democratic system evolved from an <a href="../../wp/o/Oligarchy.htm" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a> characterised by two main parties, the Catholics and the Liberals, to a <!--del_lnk--> universal suffrage system that has included a third party, the Labour Party, and a strong role for the <a href="../../wp/t/Trade_union.htm" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>. Originally, French, which was the adopted language of the <!--del_lnk--> nobility and the <!--del_lnk--> bourgeoisie, was the official language. The country has since developed a bilingual Dutch-French system.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Conference of 1885 agreed to hand over <!--del_lnk--> Congo to <!--del_lnk--> King Leopold II as his private possession, called the <!--del_lnk--> Congo Free State. In 1908, it was ceded to Belgium as a colony, henceforth called the <!--del_lnk--> Belgian Congo. Belgium's neutrality was violated in 1914, when Germany invaded Belgium as part of the <!--del_lnk--> Schlieffen Plan. The former <!--del_lnk--> German colonies <!--del_lnk--> Ruanda-Urundi—now called <a href="../../wp/r/Rwanda.htm" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Burundi.htm" title="Burundi">Burundi</a>—were occupied by the Belgian Congo in 1916. They were mandated in 1924 to Belgium by the <a href="../../wp/l/League_of_Nations.htm" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>. Belgium was again invaded by Germany in <!--del_lnk--> 1940 during the <a href="../../wp/b/Blitzkrieg.htm" title="Blitzkrieg">blitzkrieg</a> offensive. The country was occupied until the winter of 1944-45 when it was liberated by Allied troops. The Belgian Congo gained its independence in <!--del_lnk--> 1960 during the <!--del_lnk--> Congo Crisis, and Ruanda-Urundi became independent in 1962.<p>After <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Belgium joined NATO and, together with the Netherlands and Luxembourg, formed the <!--del_lnk--> Benelux group of nations. Belgium is also one of the six founding members of the 1951 established <!--del_lnk--> European Coal and Steel Community, and the 1957 established <!--del_lnk--> European Economic Community and <!--del_lnk--> European Atomic Energy Community. Belgium hosts the headquarters of NATO and a major part of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>'s institutions and administrations, including the <!--del_lnk--> European Commission, the <!--del_lnk--> Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a>, as well as parts of its administration.<p>During the 20th century, and in particular since World War II, the history of Belgium has been increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main communities. This period saw a rise in intercommunal tensions, and the unity of the Belgian state has come under scrutiny. Through constitutional reforms in the 1970s and 1980s, <!--del_lnk--> regionalisation of the unitary state had led to the establishment of a three-tiered system of <!--del_lnk--> federalism, linguistic-community and regional governments, a compromise designed to minimise linguistic tensions. Nowadays, these federal entities uphold more legislative power than the national bicameral parliament, whereas national government still controls nearly all taxation, over 80% of the finances of the community and region governments, and 100% of the social security.<p><a id="Government_and_politics" name="Government_and_politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Government and politics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1486.jpg.htm" title="Guy Verhofstadt, Prime Minister since July 1999"><img alt="Guy Verhofstadt, Prime Minister since July 1999" height="246" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belgian_prime_minister_Guy_Verhofstadt.jpg" src="../../images/14/1486.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1486.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Guy Verhofstadt, Prime Minister since July 1999</div>
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<p>Belgium is a <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional</a> <!--del_lnk--> popular monarchy and <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary democracy</a> that evolved after World War II from a <!--del_lnk--> unitary state to a <!--del_lnk--> federation. The <!--del_lnk--> bicameral <!--del_lnk--> parliament is composed of a <!--del_lnk--> Senate and a <!--del_lnk--> Chamber of Representatives. The former is a mix of directly elected senior politicians and representatives of the communities and regions; while the latter represents all Belgians over the age of eighteen in a <!--del_lnk--> proportional voting system. Belgium is one of the few countries that has <!--del_lnk--> compulsory voting, thus having one of the highest rates of <!--del_lnk--> voter turnout in the world.<p>The federal government, formally nominated by the king, must have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives. It is led by the <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister. The numbers of Dutch- and French-speaking ministers are equal as prescribed by the Constitution. The King or Queen is the <!--del_lnk--> head of state, though with limited <!--del_lnk--> prerogatives. Actual power is vested in the Prime Minister and the <!--del_lnk--> different governments, who govern the country. The judicial system is based on <!--del_lnk--> civil law and originates from the <!--del_lnk--> Napoleonic code. The <!--del_lnk--> Court of Appeal is one level below the <!--del_lnk--> Court of Cassation, an institution based on the <!--del_lnk--> French Court of Cassation.<p>Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organized around the need to represent the main language communities. Since around 1970, the significant national Belgian <!--del_lnk--> political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the interests of these communities. The major parties in each community belong to three main political families: the <!--del_lnk--> right-wing <!--del_lnk--> Liberals, the <!--del_lnk--> centrist <!--del_lnk--> Christian Democrats, and the <!--del_lnk--> left-wing <!--del_lnk--> Social Democrats. Other important younger parties are the <!--del_lnk--> Green parties and, especially in Flanders, the <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> and <!--del_lnk--> far-right parties. Politics is influenced by lobby groups, such as <a href="../../wp/t/Trade_union.htm" title="Trade union">trade unions</a> and business interests in the form of the <!--del_lnk--> Federation of Enterprises in Belgium.<p>The current king, <!--del_lnk--> Albert II, succeeded King <!--del_lnk--> Baudouin (<i>Boudewijn</i> in Dutch) in 1993. Since 1999, Prime Minister <!--del_lnk--> Guy Verhofstadt from the <!--del_lnk--> VLD has led a six-party Liberal-Social Democrat-Greens <!--del_lnk--> coalition, often referred to as 'the rainbow government'. This was the first government without the Christian Democrats since 1958. In the <!--del_lnk--> 2003 elections, Verhofstadt won a second term in office and has led a Liberal-Social Democrat coalition of four parties. In recent years, there has also been a steady rise of the Flemish far right nationalist <!--del_lnk--> separatist party <!--del_lnk--> Vlaams Blok, meanwhile superseded by <!--del_lnk--> Vlaams Belang amidst allegations of racism promoted by the party. <p>A significant achievement of the two successive Verhofstadt governments has been the achievement of a balanced budget; Belgium is one of the few member-states of the EU to have done so. This policy was applied by the successive governments during the 1990s under pressure from the <!--del_lnk--> European Council. The fall of the previous government was mainly because of the <!--del_lnk--> dioxin crisis, a major food intoxication scandal in 1999 that led to the establishment of the Belgian Food Agency. This event resulted in an atypically large representation by the Greens in parliament, and a greater emphasis on environmental politics during the first Verhofstadt government. One Green policy, for example, resulted in <!--del_lnk--> nuclear phase-out legislation, which has been modified by the current government. The absence of Christian Democrats from the ranks of the government has enabled Verhofstadt to tackle social issues from a more <a href="../../wp/l/Liberalism.htm" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> point of view and to develop new legislation on the use of <!--del_lnk--> soft drugs, <!--del_lnk--> same-sex marriage and <!--del_lnk--> euthanasia. During the two most recent parliaments, the government has promoted active diplomacy in Africa, opposed a military intervention during the <!--del_lnk--> Iraq disarmament crisis, and has passed legislation concerning <!--del_lnk--> war crimes. Both of Verhofstadt's terms have been marked by disputes between the Belgian communities. The major points of contention are the nocturnal air traffic routes at <!--del_lnk--> Brussels Airport and the status of the electoral district of <!--del_lnk--> Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<table align="right" class="wikitable" style="vertical-align:top;">
<caption><b>Belgium is divided into three communities and into three regions.</b></caption>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/51/5104.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vlaamse_GemeenschapLocatie.png" src="../../images/14/1487.png" width="150" /></a><br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Flemish Community</b><p>(<b><a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> speaking</b>)</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1488.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Franse_GemeenschapLocatie.png" src="../../images/14/1488.png" width="150" /></a><br /><b><!--del_lnk--> French Community</b></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1489.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Duitstalige_GemeenschapLocatie.png" src="../../images/14/1489.png" width="150" /></a><br /><b><!--del_lnk--> German-speaking<br /> Community</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/51/5103.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Vlaams_GewestLocatie.png" src="../../images/14/1490.png" width="150" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Flemish region</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1491.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wallonia_%28Belgium%29.png" src="../../images/14/1491.png" width="150" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Walloon region</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/22/2266.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="126" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BelgiumBrussels.png" src="../../images/14/1492.png" width="150" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Brussels-Capital region</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The country's <!--del_lnk--> constitution was revised on <!--del_lnk--> 14 July <!--del_lnk--> 1993 to create a unique federal state, based on three levels:<ol>
<li>The federal government, based in Brussels.<li>The three language communities: <ul>
<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Flemish (i.e., Dutch-speaking) Community;<li>the <!--del_lnk--> French (i.e., French-speaking) Community;<li>the <!--del_lnk--> German-speaking Community.</ul>
<li>The three regions (which differ from the language communities with respect to the German-speaking community and the Brussels region): <ul>
<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Flemish region;<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Walloon Region; and<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Brussels-Capital Region.</ul>
</ol>
<p>Conflicts between the bodies are resolved by the <!--del_lnk--> Court of Arbitration. The setup allows a compromise so distinctly different cultures can live together peacefully.<p>The Flemish Community absorbed the Flemish Region in 1980 to form the government of <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>. The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region is included in both Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Flemish and Walloon regions are furthermore subdivided in administrative entities, the provinces.<p>At the highest level of this three-tiered setup is the <!--del_lnk--> federal government which manages <!--del_lnk--> foreign affairs, <!--del_lnk--> development aid, <!--del_lnk--> defence, <!--del_lnk--> military, police, economic management, <!--del_lnk--> social welfare, <!--del_lnk--> social security transport, energy, telecommunications, and scientific research, limited competencies in education and culture, and the supervision of taxation by regional authorities. The federal government controls more than 90 per cent of all taxation. The community governments are responsible for the promotion of language, culture and education in mostly schools, libraries and theatres. The third tier is the Regional governments, who manage mostly land and property based issues such as housing, transportation etc. For example, the building permit for a school building in Brussels belonging to the public school system would be regulated by the regional government of Brussels. However, the school as an institution would fall under the regulations of the Flemish government if the primary language of teaching is Dutch, but under the French Community government if the primary language is French.<p><a id="Geography.2C_climate.2C_and_environment" name="Geography.2C_climate.2C_and_environment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography, climate, and environment</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1493.png.htm" title="Brussels, Antwerp (Antwerpen), Ghent (Gent), Charleroi, Liège, Bruges (Brugge) and Namur are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000"><img alt="Brussels, Antwerp (Antwerpen), Ghent (Gent), Charleroi, Liège, Bruges (Brugge) and Namur are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Be-map.png" src="../../images/14/1493.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1493.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> (Antwerpen), <!--del_lnk--> Ghent (Gent), <!--del_lnk--> Charleroi, <!--del_lnk--> Liège, <!--del_lnk--> Bruges (Brugge) and <!--del_lnk--> Namur are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000</div>
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<p>Belgium, with an area of 30 528 <!--del_lnk--> square kilometres (11,787 <!--del_lnk--> sq. mi), has three main geographical regions: the coastal plain in the north-west, the central plateau, and the <!--del_lnk--> Ardennes uplands in the south-east. The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and <!--del_lnk--> polders. Polders are areas of land, close to or below sea level that have been reclaimed from the sea, from which they are protected by <!--del_lnk--> dikes or, further inland, by fields that have been drained with canals. The second geographical region, the central plateau, lies further inland. This is a smooth, slowly rising area that has many fertile valleys and is irrigated by many waterways. Here one can also find rougher land, including caves and small <!--del_lnk--> gorges.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1494.jpg.htm" title="Landscape in the Hautes Fagnes, in the Ardennes"><img alt="Landscape in the Hautes Fagnes, in the Ardennes" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hautes-Fagnes.jpg" src="../../images/14/1494.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1494.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Landscape in the <!--del_lnk--> Hautes Fagnes, in the Ardennes</div>
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<p>The third geographical region, called the Ardennes, is more rugged than the first two. It is a thickly forested plateau, very rocky and not very good for farming, which extends into northern France. This is where much of Belgium's wildlife can be found. Belgium's highest point, the <!--del_lnk--> Signal de Botrange is located in this region at only 694 <!--del_lnk--> metres (2,277 <!--del_lnk--> ft).<p>The climate is maritime <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a>, with significant precipitation in all seasons (<!--del_lnk--> Köppen climate classification: <i>Cfb</i>; the average temperature is 3 °C (37°F) in January, and 18° <!--del_lnk--> C (64 °<!--del_lnk--> F) in July; the average precipitation is 65 <!--del_lnk--> millimetres (2.6 <!--del_lnk--> in) in January, and 78 millimetres (3.1 in) in July).<p>Because of its high population density and location in the centre of Western Europe, Belgium faces serious <!--del_lnk--> environmental problems. A 2003 report suggested that the water in Belgium's rivers was of the lowest quality in Europe, and bottom of the 122 countries studied.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Densely populated, Belgium is located at the heart of one of the world's most highly industrialised regions. Currently, the Belgium economy is heavily service-oriented and shows a dual nature with a dynamic <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flemish</a> part and <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> as its main multilingual and multi-ethnic centre and a GNP/person which is one of the highest from the <!--del_lnk--> European union, and a <!--del_lnk--> Walloon economy that lags roughly one quarter behind (in GNP/person).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1495.jpg.htm" title="Steelmaking along the Meuse River at Ougrée, near Liège."><img alt="Steelmaking along the Meuse River at Ougrée, near Liège." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ougree_16.jpg" src="../../images/14/1495.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1495.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Steelmaking along the <!--del_lnk--> Meuse River at <!--del_lnk--> Ougrée, near <!--del_lnk--> Liège.</div>
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<p>Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, in the early 1800s. <!--del_lnk--> Liège and <!--del_lnk--> Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis and there was famine in Flanders (1846–50). After World War II, <!--del_lnk--> Ghent and <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> experienced a fast expansion of the <!--del_lnk--> chemical and <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> industries. The <a href="../../wp/1/1973_oil_crisis.htm" title="1973 oil crisis">1973</a> and <!--del_lnk--> 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a prolonged recession. The Belgian steel industry has since experienced serious decline. This has been responsible for inhibiting the economic development of <!--del_lnk--> Wallonia. In the 1980s and 90s, the economic centre of the country continued to shift northwards to Flanders. Nowadays, industry is concentrated in the populous Flemish area in the north.<p>By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of <!--del_lnk--> GDP. Currently, budget is in balance and public debt is equal to 94.3 % of GDP (end 2005) <!--del_lnk--> PDF. In 2004, the real growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2.7% but is expected to fall to 1.3% in 2005.<p>Belgium has a particularly <!--del_lnk--> open economy. It has developed an excellent <!--del_lnk--> transportation infrastructure of ports, canals, <!--del_lnk--> railways and highways to integrate its industry with that of its neighbours. Antwerp is the second-largest European port. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate the member economies. In 1999, Belgium adopted the <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">euro</a>, the single European currency, which replaced the <!--del_lnk--> Belgian franc in 2002. The Belgian economy is strongly oriented towards foreign trade, in particular of high value-added goods. The main imports are food products, machinery, rough diamonds, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and accessories, and textiles. The main exports are automobiles, food and food products, iron and steel, finished diamonds, textiles, plastics, petroleum products, and nonferrous metals. Since 1922, Belgium and <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> have been a single trade market within a <!--del_lnk--> customs and <!--del_lnk--> currency union—the <!--del_lnk--> Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union. Its main trading partners are Germany, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States and Spain. Belgium ranks ninth on the 2005 <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <!--del_lnk--> Human Development Index.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1496.jpg.htm" title="Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Brussels is the National Basilica of Belgium. It stands as a symbol of the historical link between the Belgian monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church."><img alt="Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Brussels is the National Basilica of Belgium. It stands as a symbol of the historical link between the Belgian monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church." height="234" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Basilica_of_the_Sacred_Heart_in_Belgium.jpg" src="../../images/14/1496.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1496.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Basilica of the Sacred Heart, <a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a> is the National <!--del_lnk--> Basilica of Belgium. It stands as a symbol of the historical link between the <!--del_lnk--> Belgian monarchy and the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> population density (342 per km² or 886 per sq. mi) of Belgium is one of the highest in Europe, after that of the Netherlands and some microstates such as <a href="../../wp/m/Monaco.htm" title="Monaco">Monaco</a>. The areas with the highest population density are around the Brussels-<a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a>-<!--del_lnk--> Ghent-<!--del_lnk--> Leuven agglomerations, also known as the <!--del_lnk--> Flemish Diamond, as well as other important urban centres as <!--del_lnk--> Liège, <!--del_lnk--> Charleroi, <!--del_lnk--> Mons, <!--del_lnk--> Kortrijk, <!--del_lnk--> Bruges, <!--del_lnk--> Hasselt and <!--del_lnk--> Namur. The Ardennes have the lowest density. As of 2005, the Flemish Region has a population of about 6,043,161, Wallonia 3,395,942 and Brussels 1,006,749. Almost all of the population is urban (97.3% in 1999). The main cities and their populations are Brussels (1,006,749), Antwerp (457,749), Ghent (230,951), Charleroi (201,373), and Liège (185,574).<p>About 58 percent of the country is Dutch-speaking, 41 percent French-speaking, and less than 1 percent German-speaking. Brussels, with 8% of the country's population, is officially bilingual (French-Dutch). Brussels evolved from a mainly Dutch-speaking city when the Belgian state became independent in 1830, with at that time only French as an official language. A large majority of its population (estimated at around 85 or 90%, which cannot been precisely known, since there is no more census) is registered as Francophone; this includes a large amount of Brussels residents of foreign stock who adopted French as their second (after their mother tongue) or main language.<p>Both the <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> spoken in Belgium and the <!--del_lnk--> Belgian French have minor differences in <!--del_lnk--> vocabulary and <!--del_lnk--> semantic nuances from the varieties spoken in the Netherlands and France. Many people can still speak <!--del_lnk--> dialects of <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> but concerning the <!--del_lnk--> Walloon it is only understood and spoken occasionally, mostly by elderly people. These dialects, along with some other ones like <!--del_lnk--> Picard or <!--del_lnk--> Limburgish, are not used in public life.<p>The <i><!--del_lnk--> laicist</i> <!--del_lnk--> constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. According to the <i>2001 Survey and Study of Religion</i>, about 47 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to the Catholic Church. According to these figures, the Muslim population is the second-largest religious community, at 3.5 percent (see <!--del_lnk--> Religion in Belgium). Since independence, Catholicism, counterbalanced by strong <!--del_lnk--> freethought and especially <!--del_lnk--> freemason movements, has had an important role in Belgium's politics, in particular via the Christian trade union (<!--del_lnk--> CSC/ACV) and the Christian Democrat parties (<!--del_lnk--> CD&V, <!--del_lnk--> CDH).<p>The vast majority of Belgians are either <a href="../../wp/f/Flemish_people.htm" title="Flemish people">Flemish</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Walloon. Together, they constitute a little over 85 percent of the population. The remaining 15% is largely made up of (in order of size) <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italians</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Moroccans</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Turks and <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a>.<!--del_lnk--> <p>An estimated 98 percent of the adult population is <!--del_lnk--> literate. Education is compulsory from the ages of six to 18, but many Belgians continue to study until the age of about 23. Among the <!--del_lnk--> OECD countries in 1999, Belgium had the third-highest proportion of 18–21-year-olds enrolled in <!--del_lnk--> postsecondary education, at 42 percent. Nevertheless, in recent years, concern is rising over <!--del_lnk--> functional illiteracy. In the period 1994–1998, 18.4 percent of the population lacked functional literacy skills. Mirroring the historical political conflicts between the freethought and Catholic segments of the population, the Belgian educational system in each communities is split into a <i>laïque</i> branch controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, and a <!--del_lnk--> subsidised religious – mostly Catholic – branch controlled by both the communities and the religious authorities – usually the <!--del_lnk--> dioceses. It should however be noted that – at least for the <!--del_lnk--> Catholic schools – the religious authorities have very limited power over these schools.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p>Belgian cultural life has tended to concentrate within each community. The shared element is less important, because there are no bilingual universities, except the royal military academy, no common media, and no single, common large cultural or scientific organisation where both main communities are represented.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1497.jpg.htm" title="The Tower of Babel, by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, (1563) oil on board, now found in Vienna's Kunsthistorisches Museum"><img alt="The Tower of Babel, by Pieter Brueghel the Elder, (1563) oil on board, now found in Vienna's Kunsthistorisches Museum" height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brueghel-tower-of-babel.jpg" src="../../images/14/1497.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/14/1497.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> The Tower of Babel</i>, by <!--del_lnk--> Pieter Brueghel the Elder, (<!--del_lnk--> 1563) oil on board, now found in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Kunsthistorisches Museum</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Belgium is well-known for its fine art and architecture. The region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence over European art. The <!--del_lnk--> Mosan art, the <!--del_lnk--> Early Netherlandish, the Flemish <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> painting, and major examples of <!--del_lnk--> Romanesque, <!--del_lnk--> Gothic, <!--del_lnk--> Renaissance and <!--del_lnk--> Baroque architecture, and the Renaissance <!--del_lnk--> vocal music of the <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries, are milestones in the history of art. Famous names in this classic tradition are <!--del_lnk--> Jan van Eyck, <!--del_lnk--> Pieter Brueghel the Elder, <a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Paul_Rubens.htm" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Anthony_van_Dyck.htm" title="Anthony van Dyck">Anthony van Dyck</a>.<p>This rich artistic production, often referred to as a whole as <!--del_lnk--> Flemish art, gradually declined during the second half of the 17th century. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, many original artists appeared. In music, <!--del_lnk--> Adolphe Sax invented the <a href="../../wp/s/Saxophone.htm" title="Saxophone">saxophone</a> in 1846. <!--del_lnk--> Henri Vieuxtemps, <!--del_lnk--> Eugène Ysaÿe and <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Grumiaux were major 19th- and 20th-century violinists. Perhaps the most famous Belgian composer of this time was <!--del_lnk--> César Franck. The first Belgian singer to successfully pursue an international career is the pioneer of varieté and pop music <!--del_lnk--> Bobbejaan Schoepen. Jazz musician <!--del_lnk--> Toots Thielemans is world famous, so is singer <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Brel. In rock music <!--del_lnk--> Front 242, <!--del_lnk--> dEUS are well known (See also <!--del_lnk--> Music of Belgium). In architecture, <!--del_lnk--> Victor Horta was a major initiator of the <!--del_lnk--> Art Nouveau style. Belgium has produced famous <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">romantic</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Expressionism.htm" title="Expressionism">expressionist</a> and <!--del_lnk--> surrealist painters; these include <!--del_lnk--> Egide Wappers, <!--del_lnk--> James Ensor, <!--del_lnk--> Constant Permeke and <!--del_lnk--> René Magritte. In literature, Belgium has produced several well-known authors, such as the poets <!--del_lnk--> Emile Verhaeren and novelists <!--del_lnk--> Hendrik Conscience and <!--del_lnk--> Georges Simenon. The poet and playwright <!--del_lnk--> Maurice Maeterlinck won the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. The best known <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Belgian comics are <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Adventures_of_Tintin.htm" title="The Adventures of Tintin">The Adventures of Tintin</a></i> by <!--del_lnk--> Hergé but many other major authors of comics have been Belgian, including <!--del_lnk--> Edgar P. Jacobs, <!--del_lnk--> Willy Vandersteen and <!--del_lnk--> André Franquin.<p>More recently, notable <!--del_lnk--> Belgian cinema directors have emerged, most of them strongly influenced by <!--del_lnk--> French cinema. The absence of a major Belgian cinema company has forced them to emigrate or participate in low-budget productions. Belgian directors include <!--del_lnk--> Stijn Coninx, <!--del_lnk--> Luc and <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Pierre Dardenne; actors include <!--del_lnk--> Jan Decleir, <!--del_lnk--> Marie Gillain; and films include <i><!--del_lnk--> Man Bites Dog (film)</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Alzheimer Affair</i>. In the 1980s, Antwerp's <!--del_lnk--> Royal Academy of Fine Arts produced the important fashion trendsetters, the <!--del_lnk--> Antwerp Six.<p>Belgium has also contributed to the development of science and technology. <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">Mathematician</a> <!--del_lnk--> Simon Stevin, <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Andreas Vesalius and <!--del_lnk--> cartographer <!--del_lnk--> Gerardus Mercator are among the most influential scientists from the beginning of the <!--del_lnk--> Early Modern Age in the Low Countries. More recently, at the end of the 19th century, in <!--del_lnk--> applied science, the <!--del_lnk--> chemist <!--del_lnk--> Ernest Solvay and the <a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" title="Engineering">engineer</a> <!--del_lnk--> Zenobe Gramme have given their names to the <!--del_lnk--> Solvay process and the <!--del_lnk--> Gramme dynamo. <!--del_lnk--> Georges Lemaître is a famous Belgian <!--del_lnk--> cosmologist credited with proposing the <a href="../../wp/b/Big_Bang.htm" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory of the origin of the universe in 1927. Three <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to Belgians: <!--del_lnk--> Jules Bordet in 1919, <!--del_lnk--> Corneille Heymans in 1938, and <!--del_lnk--> Albert Claude and <!--del_lnk--> Christian De Duve in 1974. <!--del_lnk--> Ilya Prigogine was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, <!--del_lnk--> Father Damien was chosen as the Greatest Belgian of all time by the Flemish <!--del_lnk--> VRT, whereas the <!--del_lnk--> Walloons chose <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Brel.<p>One cannot understand Belgian cultural life without considering the folk festivals, which play a major role in the country's cultural life. Examples are the Carnival of <!--del_lnk--> Binche and <!--del_lnk--> Aalst, the Ducasse of <!--del_lnk--> Ath, the procession of the Holy Blood in Bruges, the 15th-of-August festival in Liège, and the Walloon festival in Namur. A major non-official holiday is the <!--del_lnk--> Saint Nicholas Day, which commemorates the festival of the children and, in Liège, of the students.<p><!--del_lnk--> Cycling is especially popular. Among the well known cyclists, <!--del_lnk--> Eddy Merckx won five <a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" title="Tour de France">Tours de France</a> and is considered one of the best cyclists ever because of his numerous victories in the <i>Tour</i> as well as other bicycle races.<p>Belgium has two current female tennis champions: <!--del_lnk--> Kim Clijsters and <!--del_lnk--> Justine Henin-Hardenne. <!--del_lnk--> Football is also very popular.<p>Belgium is well known for its <!--del_lnk--> cuisine. Many highly ranked restaurants can be found in the high-impact gastronomic guides, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Michelin Guide. Brands of Belgian chocolate, like <!--del_lnk--> Neuhaus and <!--del_lnk--> Côte d'Or, are world renowned and widely sold; even the cheapest and most popular brand, <!--del_lnk--> Leonidas, has earned a reputation for its quality. Belgium produces over 500 varieties of beer (see <!--del_lnk--> Belgian beer). Belgians have a reputation for loving <!--del_lnk--> waffles and <!--del_lnk--> French fries (both originated at Belgium). The national food is <!--del_lnk--> steak (or <!--del_lnk--> mussels) with French fries and <a href="../../wp/l/Lettuce.htm" title="Lettuce">lettuce</a>.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Neighbouring countries</span></h2>
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<td rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; !important" width="5%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/510.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Armillary_sphere.png" src="../../images/5/510.png" width="50" /></a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <a class="image" href="../../images/5/515.png.htm" title="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation West.png"><img alt="Image:Template CanadianCityGeoLocation West.png" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_West.png" src="../../images/5/515.png" width="17" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a></td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/545.png.htm" title="Flag of Netherlands"><img alt="Flag of Netherlands" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg" src="../../images/5/545.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td>
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<td rowspan="5" style="text-align: center; !important" width="5%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/510.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="65" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Armillary_sphere.png" src="../../images/5/510.png" width="50" /></a></td>
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<td rowspan="3" style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%">
</td>
<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/513.png.htm" title="North"><img alt="North" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_North.png" src="../../images/5/513.png" width="17" /></a></td>
<td rowspan="3" style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Flag of Germany"><img alt="Flag of Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
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<td nowrap style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/515.png.htm" title="West"><img alt="West" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_West.png" src="../../images/5/515.png" width="17" /></a> <b><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Flag of Belgium"><img alt="Flag of Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> <strong class="selflink">Belgium</strong></b> <a class="image" href="../../images/5/516.png.htm" title="East"><img alt="East" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_East.png" src="../../images/5/516.png" width="17" /></a></td>
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<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/517.png.htm" title="South"><img alt="South" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Template_CanadianCityGeoLocation_South.png" src="../../images/5/517.png" width="17" /></a></td>
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<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="Flag of France"><img alt="Flag of France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
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<td style="text-align: center; !important" width="30%"><a class="image" href="../../images/8/852.png.htm" title="Flag of Luxembourg"><img alt="Flag of Luxembourg" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg" src="../../images/8/852.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/l/Luxembourg.htm" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Belize</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>Belize</b></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/81/8171.png.htm" title="Flag of Belize"><img alt="Flag of Belize" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belize.svg" src="../../images/15/1503.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1504.png.htm" title="Coat of Arms of Belize"><img alt="Coat of Arms of Belize" height="85" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belize_coa.png" src="../../images/15/1504.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of Arms</small></td>
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</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <span lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>Sub Umbra Floreo</i></span><br /> (<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "Under the Shade I Flourish")</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> Land of the Free</i><br /><!--del_lnk--> Royal anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> God Save the Queen</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1505.png.htm" title="Location of Belize"><img alt="Location of Belize" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBelize.png" src="../../images/15/1505.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Capital</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Belmopan<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 17°15′N 88°46′W</span></small></td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Largest city</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Belize City</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td>English</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth Realm</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Monarch</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Elizabeth II</a></td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Colville Young</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Said Musa</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>From the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Date</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1981 </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 22,966 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 150th)<br /> 8,867 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>0.7</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - July 2006 estimate</td>
<td>287,730 (<!--del_lnk--> 179th<sup>**</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>12/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 203rd<sup>**</sup>)<br /> 31/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$2.098 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 163rd)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$7,832 (<!--del_lnk--> 77th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2003)</th>
<td>0.753 (<font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 91<sup>st</sup>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Belizean dollar (<code><!--del_lnk--> BZD</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> UTC-6)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bz</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+501</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small>** These ranks are based on the 2005 figures.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Belize</b>, formerly known as <b>British Honduras</b>, is a small nation on the eastern coast of <!--del_lnk--> Central America on the <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a> bordered by <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> to the northwest and <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> to the west and south. The country is a <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary democracy and <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a> which recognizes <!--del_lnk--> Queen Elizabeth II as Sovereign. The name is shared by the <!--del_lnk--> Belize River, Belize's longest river, and <!--del_lnk--> Belize City, the former capital and largest city.<p>The only <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>-speaking country in <!--del_lnk--> Central America, Belize was a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <!--del_lnk--> colony for more than a century and was known as <!--del_lnk--> British Honduras until <!--del_lnk--> 1973. It became an independent nation in 1981. Belize is a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Sistema de Integración Centroamericana (<!--del_lnk--> SICA) and considers itself to be culturally both <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean and <!--del_lnk--> Central American.<p>Belize is the smallest (in terms of population) non-island sovereign state in the Americas.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1506.jpg.htm" title="Xunantunich, Belize"><img alt="Xunantunich, Belize" height="112" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Xunantunich1976.jpg" src="../../images/15/1506.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1506.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Xunantunich, Belize</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/m/Maya_civilization.htm" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> spread over Belize between <!--del_lnk--> 1500 BC and <!--del_lnk--> 300 AD and flourished until about <!--del_lnk--> 900 AD. European settlement began with British <!--del_lnk--> privateers and <!--del_lnk--> shipwrecked <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> seamen as early as <!--del_lnk--> 1638.<p>The origin of the name <b>Baylize</b> is not terribly clear, but one theory is that it derives from the Spanish <!--del_lnk--> pronunciation of Wallace which is the last name of the pirate who created the first settlement in Belize in 1638. Another possibility is that the name is from the Maya word <i>belix</i>, meaning "muddy water", applied to the <!--del_lnk--> Belize River.<p>The early "settlement of Belize in the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Honduras" grew from a few habitations located at Belize Town and St George's Caye into a de-facto colony of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> during the late <a href="../../wp/1/18th_century.htm" title="18th century">18th century</a>. In the early <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> the settlement was called British Honduras, and in 1871 it became a <!--del_lnk--> Crown Colony.<p><!--del_lnk--> Hurricane Hattie inflicted significant damage upon Belize in <!--del_lnk--> 1961. The government decided that a coastal capital city lying below sea level was too risky. Over several years, the British colonial government designed a new capital, <!--del_lnk--> Belmopan, at the exact geographic centre of the country, and in 1970 began slowly moving the governing offices there.<p>British Honduras became a <!--del_lnk--> self-governing colony in January 1964 and was renamed <i>Belize</i> in June 1973; it was the United Kingdom's last colony on the American mainland. <!--del_lnk--> George Price led the country to full independence on <!--del_lnk--> 21 September <!--del_lnk--> 1981 after delays caused by territorial disputes with neighbouring <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, which did not formally recognise the country until 1991.<p>Throughout Belize's history, <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> has claimed ownership of all or part of the territory. This claim is occasionally reflected in <!--del_lnk--> maps showing Belize as Guatemala's most eastern <!--del_lnk--> province. As of 2006, the border dispute with Guatemala remains unresolved and quite contentious<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> ; at various times the issue has required mediation by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <!--del_lnk--> CARICOM heads of Government, the <!--del_lnk--> Organization of American States and on one occasion, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. Since independence, a British garrison has been retained in Belize at the request of the Belizean Government. Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence building measures approved by the OAS, including the <!--del_lnk--> Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project.<p>Belize was recently the site of <!--del_lnk--> unrest directed at the country's ruling party concerning tax increases in the national budget.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1507.jpg.htm" title="Belizean protests, 21st January 2005"><img alt="Belizean protests, 21st January 2005" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Protest_0082.JPG" src="../../images/15/1507.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1507.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Belizean protests, 21st January 2005</div>
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<p>Belize is a <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary</a> <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democracy</a> and a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations.<p>The primary <!--del_lnk--> executive organ of government is the <!--del_lnk--> cabinet, led by a <!--del_lnk--> prime minister who is <!--del_lnk--> head of government. Cabinet ministers are members of the majority political party in parliament and usually hold elected seats within it concurrent with their cabinet positions.<p>The bicameral Belizean <!--del_lnk--> parliament is the National Assembly, which consists of a government <!--del_lnk--> House of Representatives and a <!--del_lnk--> Senate. The 29 members of the House are popularly elected to a maximum 5-year term and introduce legislation affecting the development of Belize. The 12 members of the Senate are appointed by the Governor General. The Senate is headed by a president, who is selected by its members, and is responsible for debating and approving bills passed by the House.<p>Belize is a full participating member of the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean Community (CARICOM).<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1508.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="258" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BelizeNumbered.png" src="../../images/15/1508.png" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Belize consists of six districts:<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Belize District- capital <!--del_lnk--> Belize City<li><!--del_lnk--> Cayo District- capital <!--del_lnk--> San Ignacio<li><!--del_lnk--> Corozal District- capital <!--del_lnk--> Corozal Town<li><!--del_lnk--> Orange Walk District- capital <!--del_lnk--> Orange Walk Town<li><!--del_lnk--> Stann Creek District- capital <!--del_lnk--> Dangriga<li><!--del_lnk--> Toledo District- capital <!--del_lnk--> Punta Gorda</ol>
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:349px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1509.jpg.htm" title="Map of Belize"><img alt="Map of Belize" height="419" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belize_pol_03.jpg" src="../../images/15/1509.jpg" width="347" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1509.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Belize</div>
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<p>Belize is located between the <!--del_lnk--> Hondo and <!--del_lnk--> Sarstoon Rivers, with the <!--del_lnk--> Belize River flowing down in the centre of the country. The north of Belize consists mostly of flat, swampy coastal plains, in places heavily forested. The south contains the low <!--del_lnk--> mountain range of the <!--del_lnk--> Maya Mountains, whose <!--del_lnk--> Victoria Peak is the highest point in Belize at 3,675 <!--del_lnk--> feet (1,120 <!--del_lnk--> m) tall. The <a href="../../wp/c/Caribbean_Sea.htm" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean</a> coast is lined with a <!--del_lnk--> coral reef and some 450 islets and islands known locally as <i>cayes</i>, pronounced "keys". Belize is home to the longest barrier reef in the western hemisphere stemming approximately 200 miles (322 <!--del_lnk--> km) and the second longest in the world after the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Barrier_Reef.htm" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>. Three of the four coral <!--del_lnk--> atolls in the Western Hemisphere are also located off the coast of Belize. Belize is also the only Central American country without a coast on the Pacific Ocean.<p>The <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> is <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropical</a> and generally very hot and humid. The rainy season lasts from May to November and <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Hurricane">hurricanes</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">floods</a> are frequent natural hazards.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1510.jpg.htm" title="The majority of the Belizean economy is comprised of the tourism industry. Agriculture is also a key part of the economy."><img alt="The majority of the Belizean economy is comprised of the tourism industry. Agriculture is also a key part of the economy." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belize_farming_gm.jpg" src="../../images/15/1510.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1510.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The majority of the Belizean economy is comprised of the <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industry</a>. <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> is also a key part of the economy.</div>
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<p>The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, agro-based <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industry</a>, and merchandising, with <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> and <!--del_lnk--> construction assuming greater importance. <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">Sugar</a>, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the <a href="../../wp/b/Banana.htm" title="Banana">banana</a> industry is the country's largest employer. <!--del_lnk--> Citrus production has become a major industry along the <!--del_lnk--> Hummingbird Highway. More recently, discoveries of <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> deposits in the <!--del_lnk--> Cayo District and possible deposits in the <!--del_lnk--> Toledo District have radically altered Belize's previously untapped mining and manufacturing capabilities.<p>The ruling government's expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, initiated in September 1998, led to <!--del_lnk--> GDP growth of 6.4% in 1999 and 10.5% in 2000. Growth decelerated in 2001 to 3% due to the global slowdown and severe <a href="../../wp/t/Tropical_cyclone.htm" title="Hurricane">hurricane</a> damage to agriculture, <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a> and tourism. Growth was in 2005 3.8%. Major concerns continue to be the rapidly expanding <!--del_lnk--> trade deficit and foreign debt. A key short-term objective remains the reduction of <a href="../../wp/p/Poverty.htm" title="Poverty">poverty</a> with the help of international donors.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<p>Belize is considered as having a relatively young and growing population. Its <!--del_lnk--> birth rate is among the highest in the world and there are indications that this trend will continue for the foreseeable future.<p><a id="Age_and_gender" name="Age_and_gender"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Age and gender</span></h3>
<p>The greatest portion of Belize's <!--del_lnk--> population is under the age of 30. Nearly 40% of Belizeans are under 15; a similar number are between the ages of 15 and 65. Males slightly outnumber females, though this trend is beginning to change among certain <!--del_lnk--> ethnic groups, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Creoles and the <!--del_lnk--> Garifuna, where there are more middle-age and elderly women. <!--del_lnk--> Maya and <a href="../../wp/m/Mestizo.htm" title="Mestizo">Mestizo</a> families are more likely to have male-dominated households.<p><a id="Birth_and_death_rates.2FLife_expectancy" name="Birth_and_death_rates.2FLife_expectancy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Birth and death rates/Life expectancy</span></h3>
<p>Belize's birth rate currently stands at nearly 25/1000. Nearly 6 persons die per year out of a 1,000 members of the population; this figure includes murders, accidents and death from natural causes. Infant mortality, high at the beginning of the 20th century, is now down to a mere 24 babies out of a thousand. Male babies are more likely to die, however, than females. The life expectancy of a typical male is 66 years, while for a female it is 70. HIV/AIDS, while not a serious threat to national stability, does affect enough of the population to give Belize a high rating among Caribbean and Central American nations.<p><a id="Ethnic_groups.2C_nationalities.2C_and_languages" name="Ethnic_groups.2C_nationalities.2C_and_languages"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ethnic groups, nationalities, and languages</span></h3>
<p>According to the latest <!--del_lnk--> census, Belize's population is close to 300,000, and much of that number is <!--del_lnk--> multiracial and <!--del_lnk--> multiethnic. The Maya are the most established of all ethnic groupings, having been in Belize and the <!--del_lnk--> Yucatan region since the 500's AD. White <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> settlers entered the area in the 1630's to cut logwood for export and began settling down. The first African <!--del_lnk--> slaves began arriving from elsewhere in the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean and Africa and began intermarrying with whites and each other, to create the <!--del_lnk--> Creole ethnic grouping. After 1800, <a href="../../wp/m/Mestizo.htm" title="Mestizo">Mestizo</a> settlers from <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Guatemala.htm" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> began to settle in the North; the <!--del_lnk--> Garifuna, a mix of <!--del_lnk--> African and <!--del_lnk--> Carib ancestry, settled in the South by way of <a href="../../wp/h/Honduras.htm" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> not long after that.<p>The 1900s saw the arrival of <!--del_lnk--> Asian settlers from Mainland <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Taiwan.htm" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, <a href="../../wp/k/Korea.htm" title="Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Central American immigrants and expatriate Americans and Africans also began to settle in the country, presenting an interesting potage. However, this was balanced by the migration of Creoles and other ethnic groups to the United States and elsewhere for better opportunities.<p>Currently, Mestizos comprise 50% of the population, and Creoles 25%. The rest is a mix of Maya, Garifuna, <!--del_lnk--> Mennonite Dutch/German farmers, Central Americans, whites from America, and most recently black Africans and Cubans brought to assist the country's development.<p>Not surprisingly, this mix creates an equally interesting mix of language and communication. <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> is the official language (Belize having been a British colony) but most Belizeans use the more familiar <!--del_lnk--> Belize Creole, a raucous and playful English-based language that contains colorful terms not usually translatable in English. <a href="../../wp/s/Spanish_language.htm" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> has become important as the mother tongue of Mestizo and Central American settlers, and is a second language for much of the country. Less well known are the ancient Maya dialects, Garifuna (a mélange of Spanish, Carib and other tongues) and the Dutch-German of the Mennonites. Literacy currently stands at near 80%.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h2>
<p>Belize is a predominantly <!--del_lnk--> Christian society. <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion, accepted by the great majority of the populace. Newer religions like <!--del_lnk--> Buddhists, <!--del_lnk--> Muslims, <!--del_lnk--> Jainists, <!--del_lnk--> Daoists and <!--del_lnk--> Bahá'í cover much of the remaining population. <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> is common among South Asian immigrants; <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a> is also common among the Middle-eastern immigrants and has also gained a following among Creoles and Garifuna. Religious freedom is guaranteed and churches dot the streets of Belize almost as frequently as places of business; catholics frequently visit the country for special gospel revivals.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 37px 0;"><a href="../../images/15/1511.jpg.htm" title="Image:Belize.AltunHa.Panorama.01.jpg"><img alt="" height="71" src="../../images/15/1511.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Altun Ha archaeological site, Belize</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 43px 0;"><a href="../../images/15/1512.jpg.htm" title="Image:Belize.BzeCity.SwingBridge.01.jpg"><img alt="" height="60" src="../../images/15/1512.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>The Swing Bridge, on Haulover Creek. Belize City</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 43px 0;"><a href="../../images/15/1513.jpg.htm" title="Image:Belize.BzeCity.MemorialPark.01.jpg"><img alt="" height="60" src="../../images/15/1513.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Memorial Park, Belize City</div>
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<p><a id="Further_reading" name="Further_reading"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belize"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Belton House</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Architecture.htm">Architecture</a></h3>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23733.gif.htm" title="Belton House, Lincolnshire, The South facade."><img alt="Belton House, Lincolnshire, The South facade." height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_House_2006.Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23733.gif" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23733.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Belton House, <!--del_lnk--> Lincolnshire, The South <!--del_lnk--> facade.</div>
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<p><b>Belton House</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> country house near <!--del_lnk--> Grantham, <!--del_lnk--> Lincolnshire, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> mansion is surrounded by <!--del_lnk--> formal gardens and a series of avenues leading to <!--del_lnk--> follies within a greater wooded <a href="../../wp/p/Park.htm" title="Park">park</a>. Belton has been described as a compilation of all that is finest of <!--del_lnk--> Carolean architecture, the only truly <!--del_lnk--> vernacular style of architecture that England had produced since the time of the <!--del_lnk--> Tudors. The house has also been described as the most complete example of a typical English country house; the claim has even been made that Belton's principal facade was the inspiration for the modern <!--del_lnk--> British motorway signs (<a class="image" href="../../images/12/1280.png.htm" title="Image:HH icon.png"><img alt="Image:HH icon.png" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:HH_icon.png" src="../../images/12/1280.png" width="15" /></a>) which give directions to <!--del_lnk--> stately home. Only <!--del_lnk--> Brympton d'Evercy has been similarly lauded as the perfect English country house.<p>For three hundred years, Belton House was the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> Brownlow and Cust family, who had first acquired land in the area in the late 16th century. Between 1685 and 1688 the young Sir John Brownlow and his wife had the present mansion built. Despite great wealth they chose to build a modest country house rather than a grand contemporary <!--del_lnk--> Baroque palace. The contemporary, if provincial, Carolean style was the selected choice of design. However, the new house was fitted with the latest <!--del_lnk--> innovations such as sash windows for the principal rooms, and more importantly completely separate areas for the staff. As the Brownlows rose from <!--del_lnk--> baronets to <!--del_lnk--> barons upward to <!--del_lnk--> earls and then once again became barons, successive generations made changes to the interior of the house which reflected their changing social position and tastes, yet the fabric and design of the house changed little.<p>Following <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> (a period when the <!--del_lnk--> Machine Gun Corps was based in the park), the Brownlows, like many of their <!--del_lnk--> peers, were faced with mounting financial problems. In 1984 they gave the house away — complete with most of its contents. The recipients of their gift, the <!--del_lnk--> National Trust, today fully opens Belton to the public. It is in a good state of repair and visited by many thousands of tourists each year.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_history" name="Early_history"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early history</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23734.jpg.htm" title="Clarendon House, London, designed by Roger Pratt, was the inspiration for Belton House. Clarendon House is in the same vogue, though less Baroque in ornament, as Vaux-le-Vicomte built in France just a few years earlier."><img alt="Clarendon House, London, designed by Roger Pratt, was the inspiration for Belton House. Clarendon House is in the same vogue, though less Baroque in ornament, as Vaux-le-Vicomte built in France just a few years earlier." height="219" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ClarendonHouseSKILLMAN%2C_W._after_SPILBURGH_J.jpg" src="../../images/237/23734.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23734.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Clarendon House, London, designed by <!--del_lnk--> Roger Pratt, was the inspiration for Belton House. Clarendon House is in the same vogue, though less Baroque in ornament, as <!--del_lnk--> Vaux-le-Vicomte built in France just a few years earlier.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23735.gif.htm" title="The 17th-century stable block at Belton House is known to be entirely by William Stanton, and is less accomplished in design than the main house."><img alt="The 17th-century stable block at Belton House is known to be entirely by William Stanton, and is less accomplished in design than the main house." height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_Stables._Giano..gif" src="../../images/237/23735.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23735.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The 17th-century stable block at Belton House is known to be entirely by William Stanton, and is less accomplished in design than the main house.</div>
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<p>The Brownlow family, a dynasty of <!--del_lnk--> lawyers, began accumulating land in the Belton area from approximately 1598. In 1609 they acquired the <!--del_lnk--> reversion of the <a href="../../wp/m/Manorialism.htm" title="Manorialism">manor</a> of Belton itself from the Pakenham family, who finally sold the <!--del_lnk--> manor house to Sir John Brownlow I in 1617. The old house was situated near the church in the garden of the present house and remained largely unoccupied, since the family preferred their other houses elsewhere. John Brownlow had married an heiress but was childless; he was attached to his only two blood relations, a great-nephew, also called John Brownlow, and a great-niece, Alice Sherard. The two cousins married in 1676; three years later, the couple inherited the Brownlow estates from their great uncle together with an income of <a href="../../wp/p/Pound_sterling.htm" title="Pound sterling">£</a>9,000 per annum and £20,000 in cash. They immediately bought a <!--del_lnk--> townhouse in the newly fashionable <!--del_lnk--> Southampton Square in <!--del_lnk--> Bloomsbury, and decided to build a new country house at Belton.<p>Work on the new house began in 1685. The architect thought to have been responsible for the initial design is <!--del_lnk--> William Winde, although the house has also been attributed to Sir <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Wren.htm" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a>, while others believe the design to be so similar to <!--del_lnk--> Roger Pratt's <!--del_lnk--> Clarendon House, London, that it could have been the work of any talented <!--del_lnk--> draughtsman. The assumption popular today, that Winde was the architect, is based on the stylistic similarity between the completed Belton and <!--del_lnk--> Coombe Abbey by Winde. Further evidence is a letter dated 1690, in which Winde recommends a <!--del_lnk--> plasterer and gives advice about the completion of the interiors.<p>Whoever the architect, Belton follows closely the design of Clarendon House, completed in 1647. This great London townhouse (demolished circa 1683) has been one of the most admired buildings of its era due to "its elegant symmetry and confident and commonsensical design". Sir <!--del_lnk--> John Summerson has described Clarendon House as "the most influential house of its time among those who aimed at the grand manner" and Belton as "much the finest surviving example of its class." It is known that John and Alice Brownlow assembled one of the finest teams of <!--del_lnk--> craftsmen available at the time to work on the project. This dream team was headed by the master <!--del_lnk--> mason William Stanton who oversaw the project. His second in command John Thompson, had worked with Sir Christopher Wren on several of the latter's London churches, while the chief <!--del_lnk--> joiner John Sturges had worked at Chatsworth under <!--del_lnk--> William Talman. The <!--del_lnk--> wrought-ironworker John Warren worked under Stanton at <!--del_lnk--> Denham Place, <!--del_lnk--> Buckinghamshire, and the fine wrought iron gates and <!--del_lnk--> overthrow at Belton may be his. So competent were the builders of Belton that Winde may have done little more than provide the original plans and drawings, leaving the interpretation to the on-site craftsmen. This theory is further demonstrated by the external appearance of the adjoining stable block. More provincial, and less masterful in proportion, it is known to have been entirely the work of Stanton.<p><a id="Architecture" name="Architecture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Architecture</span></h2>
<p><a id="Ethos" name="Ethos"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ethos</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23736.gif.htm" title="Belton House, the north facade. The 17th-century double room design enabled greater symmetry between facades, while allowing the house to be compact and under the one roof."><img alt="Belton House, the north facade. The 17th-century double room design enabled greater symmetry between facades, while allowing the house to be compact and under the one roof." height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_House_North_Front._Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23736.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23736.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Belton House, the north <!--del_lnk--> facade. The 17th-century double room design enabled greater symmetry between facades, while allowing the house to be compact and under the one roof.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23737.gif.htm" title="The west facade. Many of the windows are false (see plan below), and are so placed as to provide symmetry. The Baroque wrought-iron gate screen (possibly by John Warren) closes a courtyard between house and stables, thus creating the effect of a cour d'honneur to the house's west entrance (C on plan below)."><img alt="The west facade. Many of the windows are false (see plan below), and are so placed as to provide symmetry. The Baroque wrought-iron gate screen (possibly by John Warren) closes a courtyard between house and stables, thus creating the effect of a cour d'honneur to the house's west entrance (C on plan below)." height="181" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton._West._Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23737.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23737.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The west <!--del_lnk--> facade. Many of the windows are false (see plan below), and are so placed as to provide <a href="../../wp/s/Symmetry.htm" title="Symmetry">symmetry</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Baroque wrought-iron gate screen (possibly by John Warren) closes a courtyard between house and stables, thus creating the effect of a <i><!--del_lnk--> cour d'honneur</i> to the house's west entrance (<b>C</b> on plan below).</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23738.gif.htm" title="The approach to the house through the courtyard to the west entrance (C on plan below). This is the entrance which would have been used most often by the family, who lived privately in the west wing. The clock tower is designed on an axis with, and to complement, the cupola on top of the mansion itself."><img alt="The approach to the house through the courtyard to the west entrance (C on plan below). This is the entrance which would have been used most often by the family, who lived privately in the west wing. The clock tower is designed on an axis with, and to complement, the cupola on top of the mansion itself." height="230" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton._Arch._Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23738.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23738.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The approach to the house through the courtyard to the west entrance (<b>C</b> on plan below). This is the entrance which would have been used most often by the family, who lived privately in the west wing. The clock tower is designed on an <!--del_lnk--> axis with, and to complement, the <!--del_lnk--> cupola on top of the mansion itself.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23739.jpg.htm" title="Belton House first floor plan. Key: A: Upper storey of kitchen, (now Hondecoeter Room); B: Service room (now Breakfast Room); C: Back stairs and West Entrance; D: Closet; E:School Room; F:Withdrawing room (now Red Drawing Room; G:Little Parlour (now Tapestry Room); H:Great Parlour (now Saloon); J: Marble Hall; K: Withdrawing Room (now Tyrconnel Room); L: Great Staircase; M: Upper storey of chapel; N: Gallery of private pew overlooking chapel; O: Ante Room (now Chapel Drawing Room);P: Back stairs & east Entrance; Q: Sweetmeat closet; R Bed chamber (now Blue Room). Please note: This is an unscaled plan for illustrative purposes only."><img alt="Belton House first floor plan. Key: A: Upper storey of kitchen, (now Hondecoeter Room); B: Service room (now Breakfast Room); C: Back stairs and West Entrance; D: Closet; E:School Room; F:Withdrawing room (now Red Drawing Room; G:Little Parlour (now Tapestry Room); H:Great Parlour (now Saloon); J: Marble Hall; K: Withdrawing Room (now Tyrconnel Room); L: Great Staircase; M: Upper storey of chapel; N: Gallery of private pew overlooking chapel; O: Ante Room (now Chapel Drawing Room);P: Back stairs & east Entrance; Q: Sweetmeat closet; R Bed chamber (now Blue Room). Please note: This is an unscaled plan for illustrative purposes only." height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_Plan.jpg" src="../../images/237/23739.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23739.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Belton House first floor plan. Key: <b>A</b>: Upper storey of kitchen, (now Hondecoeter Room); <b>B</b>: Service room (now Breakfast Room); <b>C</b>: Back stairs and West Entrance; <b>D</b>: Closet; <b>E</b>:School Room; <b>F</b>:Withdrawing room (now Red Drawing Room; <b>G</b>:Little Parlour (now Tapestry Room); <b>H</b>:Great Parlour (now Saloon); <b>J</b>: Marble Hall; <b>K</b>: Withdrawing Room (now Tyrconnel Room); <b>L</b>: Great Staircase; <b>M</b>: Upper storey of chapel; <b>N</b>: Gallery of private <!--del_lnk--> pew overlooking chapel; <b>O</b>: Ante Room (now Chapel Drawing Room);<b>P</b>: Back stairs & east Entrance; <b>Q</b>: Sweetmeat closet; <b>R</b> Bed chamber (now Blue Room). <i><b>Please note</b>: This is an unscaled plan for illustrative purposes only.</i></div>
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<p>The late 17th century in England was a time of great progress in design. Following the austere years of <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth rule, a great flourishing and development in both architecture and the arts began after the <!--del_lnk--> restoration of the monarchy in 1660. <!--del_lnk--> Royalist exiles and wealthy young men who made the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Tour, returned home with new ideas — often extravagant variations on classical themes. This was, for England, the dawn of the <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> era. The new wave of architects such as Roger Pratt, <!--del_lnk--> John Webb, and Sir <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Wren.htm" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> were not just building vast edifices in Renaissance-inspired styles, but also transforming existing older houses. Representative of the utilisation of older houses is <!--del_lnk--> Coleshill House in <!--del_lnk--> Berkshire, where Pratt transformed the medieval, but now redundant, great hall into a classically inspired entrance hall complete with an <!--del_lnk--> imperial staircase. The reason the Great Hall was redundant was that employers now wished to live separately from their servants, no longer eating together in a Great Hall, and banishing from the principal parts of the house all evidence and odours of cooking and staff. Employers began to live in fine airy rooms, above the ground floor, with privacy from their servants, who were now confined, unless required, to specifically delegated floors — often the ground and uppermost attic floors. This was a period of great social change in British history, and the educated prided themselves on enlightenment and elegance. While Belton is not in the Baroque style, it displays all the traits typical of the new tendencies.<p>Belton was designed in a restrained, almost <a href="../../wp/p/Palladian_architecture.htm" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian</a>-inspired architecture, popular immediately before the ornate Baroque style emerged in England. The general form this architecture took was of severely symmetrical, often rectangular houses, with a <!--del_lnk--> pediment over the central bays. This almost rigid concept was to influence the design of innumerable houses, including Belton. Later to be known as the "Carolean" style (from "Carolus," the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> name for the reigning monarch <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>), it was popular with the minor <!--del_lnk--> aristocracy and <!--del_lnk--> gentry for both their town and country houses until long after Charles II's death.<p>Belton is built of the local <!--del_lnk--> Ancaster stone, with a lighter <!--del_lnk--> ashlar from <!--del_lnk--> Ketton for the <!--del_lnk--> quoining. The "H"-shaped plan was a design which became popular in the late <!--del_lnk--> Elizabethan period. However, by the late 16th century, domestic architecture had evolved further than the "one room deep" ranges of the earlier "H" plan houses, such as <!--del_lnk--> Montacute House. The new layout placed rooms back to back, creating a house two rooms deep. This became known as "double pile". As at Belton, this permitted rooms to be not just better lit and heated but also better accessed and related to each other, and with the greatest advantage of all — greater privacy. On the construction side, the double room depth allowed the house to be more compact and under one, more easily constructed, roof, thus lowering building costs. Houses now had the appearance of being more solid, with more than just one or two facades.<p>The exterior of the house, as well as other outbuildings on the property, inspired the design of <!--del_lnk--> Edith Wharton's house, The Mount, in <!--del_lnk--> Lenox, Massachusetts.<p><a id="Design" name="Design"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Design</span></h3>
<p>The plan of the rooms at Belton was passé for a grand house of its time. Following the Restoration and the influx of European ideas, it had become popular for large houses to follow the continental fashion of a suite of <!--del_lnk--> state rooms consisting of a <!--del_lnk--> withdrawing room, dressing room, and bedroom proceeding from either side of a central <!--del_lnk--> saloon or hall. These rooms were permanently reserved for use by a high ranking guest, such as a visiting monarch. While Belton does have a saloon at its centre, <!--del_lnk--> enfilades of state rooms of lessening grandeur do not flank it. The possible reason for this unusual layout is that, while the Brownlows possessed great wealth, their title was only a <!--del_lnk--> baronetcy, and their fortune was barely a century old. They would have been regarded as <!--del_lnk--> gentry, not <!--del_lnk--> aristocracy. As a result, building a suite of state rooms would have been in hope rather than anticipation of a royal guest. However, the lack of a fashionable and formal suite of <!--del_lnk--> state apartments and the Brownlows' lack of social credentials did not prevent a visit from King <a href="../../wp/w/William_III_of_England.htm" title="William III of England">William III</a> to the newly completed house in 1695. The King occupied the "Best bedchamber," a large room with an adjoining closet, directly above the saloon, leading directly from the second floor Great Dining Chamber.<p>This design followed the older style of having reception rooms and bedrooms scattered over the two main floors. The layout used followed Roger Pratt's theory that guest and family rooms should be quite separate. As a consequence of this philosophy, the family occupied the rooms on the first and second floors of the west wing, while the great staircase rose to the east side of the house, with the best guest bedrooms in the east wing. The staircase was thus designed to be grand and imposing, forming part of the guest's state route from the Hall and Saloon on the first floor to the principal dining room and bedroom on the second. This older concept is more clearly exemplified at the Elizabethan <!--del_lnk--> Hardwick Hall in neighbouring <!--del_lnk--> Derbyshire.<p>The principal entrance hall, reception and family bedrooms were placed on the first floor above a low <!--del_lnk--> semi-basement containing service rooms. The two principal entrances to the mansion in the centre of both the north and south facades were accessed by external staircases, originally a single broad flight on the north side and a double staircase on the south. These staircases have since been replaced by the simpler designs illustrated on the plan (<i>right</i>).<p>The second floor has a matching <!--del_lnk--> fenestration, with windows of equal value to those on the first floor below. The very latest innovation, <!--del_lnk--> sash windows, was used on both floors. The semi-basement and <!--del_lnk--> attic storey used the more old-fashioned <!--del_lnk--> mullioned and <!--del_lnk--> transomed windows, indicating the lower status of the occupants of these floors. It was clearly emphasised from without that the two main floors of the house were purely for state and family use, and the staff and service areas were confined to the semi-basement and attic floors. This concept of keeping staff and domestic matters out of sight (when not required) was relatively new and had first been employed by Pratt in the design of <!--del_lnk--> Coleshill House in Berkshire. The contemporary social commentator of the day <!--del_lnk--> Roger North lauded <!--del_lnk--> back stairs, of which Belton has two examples (<b>C</b> and <b>P</b> on plan), as one of the most important inventions of his day.<p>The principal room is the large Marble Hall (<b>J</b>) at the centre of the south front; this hall is the beginning of a grand procession of rooms, and corresponds to the former great Parlour or <!--del_lnk--> Saloon on the north front. The Marble Hall is flanked by the former Little Parlour (<b>G</b>, now the Tapestry Room) and the Great Staircase Hall (<b>L</b>), while the Saloon (<b>H</b>) is flanked by two withdrawing rooms (<b>F</b>, <b>K</b>). While the Marble Hall and Saloon were at the centre of a small <!--del_lnk--> enfilade of reception rooms, they were not intended to form the heart of a suite of <!--del_lnk--> state rooms in the <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> fashion. Indeed, one of the most important rooms, the Great Dining Room (now the library), was quite separate on the floor above, directly above the Marble Hall. The bedrooms are arranged in individual suites on both floors of the two wings (<b>E</b>, <b>R</b>, <i>etc.</i>) which flank what is sometimes called the "state centre" of the house. The main staircase, set to one side of the Marble Hall, is one of the few things at Belton which is asymmetrically placed. It has a robust plaster-work ceiling incorporating the Brownlow crest by the London plasterer Edward Goudge, "now looked on as ye best master in England in his profession," William Winde reported in 1690.<p>Bodily and spiritual needs were balanced symmetrically within the mansion: the kitchen (<b>A</b>) and the chapel (<b>M</b>) were both large two-storied halls, rising from the semi-basement to the first floor. This design not only provided a great and lofty space, but also allowed the servants to worship in the chapel without leaving the service floor, while their employers would worship from a private gallery (<b>N</b>), complete with fireplace, overlooking the chapel on the first floor.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23740.gif.htm" title="The rooftop belvedere and cupola."><img alt="The rooftop belvedere and cupola." height="96" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_Roof.gif" src="../../images/237/23740.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23740.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The rooftop <!--del_lnk--> belvedere and <!--del_lnk--> cupola.</div>
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<p>One of the most Carolean features of the house is the <!--del_lnk--> balustrade and <!--del_lnk--> cupola surmounting the roof, another element introduced to English architecture by Roger Pratt. The cupola at Belton does not light a lofty domed hall, as is often the case in Europe, but houses a staircase which gives access to a large viewing platform on top of a lead roof, concealed from the ground by the balustrade which tops the more conventional and visible <!--del_lnk--> hipped roof. From this vantage point, the owners of Belton could admire the perfect symmetry of their avenues and formal gardens spreading from the house. This feature of the house was removed by the architect <!--del_lnk--> James Wyatt when he was modernising the house in the eighteenth century. It was restored to its original form in the 1870s by the 3rd Earl Brownlow.<p><a id="Interior_and_contents" name="Interior_and_contents"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Interior and contents</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23741.gif.htm" title="One of the three large canvasses by Melchior d'Hondecoeter in the room named after him at Belton House. The paintings were acquired in 1873 by the 3rd Earl Brownlow. They had been already cut to fit their previous setting. There was insufficient space at Belton for a fourth canvas of the set. This is now in the US."><img alt="One of the three large canvasses by Melchior d'Hondecoeter in the room named after him at Belton House. The paintings were acquired in 1873 by the 3rd Earl Brownlow. They had been already cut to fit their previous setting. There was insufficient space at Belton for a fourth canvas of the set. This is now in the US." height="256" longdesc="/wiki/Image:M_d%27Hondecoeter._Belton.gif" src="../../images/237/23741.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23741.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> One of the three large canvasses by <!--del_lnk--> Melchior d'Hondecoeter in the room named after him at Belton House. The paintings were acquired in 1873 by the 3rd Earl Brownlow. They had been already cut to fit their previous setting. There was insufficient space at Belton for a fourth canvas of the set. This is now in the US.</div>
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<p>Some of Belton's many rooms have been altered over the last 300 years both in use and design. One of the principal rooms, the <b>Marble Hall</b> (<b>J</b>), the first of the large reception rooms, serves as an entrance hall from the south entrance. By the time of Belton's conception, the <!--del_lnk--> great hall was no longer a place for the household to eat, but intended as a grand entrance to the house. The hall was originally hung with 28 portraits of Kings, Queens, and Emperors, from <!--del_lnk--> William the Conqueror to William III, intended to give the house an air of dynastic importance. The less numerous and far newer Brownlow family portraits were hung in the Great Dining Room immediately above. The room takes its name from the <!--del_lnk--> chequer board patterned floor of black and white marble tiles. The room is fully paneled in <!--del_lnk--> lime wood, and parts of the paneling contain embellishments attributed to <!--del_lnk--> Grinling Gibbons. In the early 19th century, this room, and some others, was re-modelled by <!--del_lnk--> Jeffry Wyatville, who in addition to graining and painting the panelling to imitate <!--del_lnk--> oak inserted fake doors in the panelling to balance real doors already in place.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23742.jpg.htm" title="Adelaide, wife of the 3rd Earl Brownlow. She and her husband restored many of the Carolean features to Belton, and are largely responsible for the interior as it appears today. The Brownlows were members of The Souls a fashionable salon made up of aesthetic aristocrats. This portrait by Leighton hangs on the staircase at Belton."><img alt="Adelaide, wife of the 3rd Earl Brownlow. She and her husband restored many of the Carolean features to Belton, and are largely responsible for the interior as it appears today. The Brownlows were members of The Souls a fashionable salon made up of aesthetic aristocrats. This portrait by Leighton hangs on the staircase at Belton." height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Leighton_Brownlow.jpg" src="../../images/237/23742.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23742.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Adelaide, wife of <!--del_lnk--> the 3rd Earl Brownlow. She and her husband restored many of the Carolean features to Belton, and are largely responsible for the interior as it appears today. The Brownlows were members of <!--del_lnk--> The Souls a fashionable <!--del_lnk--> salon made up of <!--del_lnk--> aesthetic aristocrats. This portrait by <!--del_lnk--> Leighton hangs on the staircase at Belton.</div>
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<p>The second of the principal reception rooms, the <b>Saloon</b> (<b>H</b>), opens from the Marble Hall. This large paneled room is on an <!--del_lnk--> axis to the avenues of the formal north gardens. Originally known as the Great Parlour, this has always been the chief reception room of the house. It retains its original marble fireplace and has an ornate plaster ceiling which is a <!--del_lnk--> Victorian copy of the original ceiling by the Carolean <!--del_lnk--> plasterer <!--del_lnk--> Edward Goudge. Today, the room is furnished with family portraits and furniture which date back to the ownership of the house by <!--del_lnk--> Lord Tyrconnel (1721–1754), Sir John Brownlow II's nephew. The centrepiece of the room is a large <!--del_lnk--> Aubusson carpet made in 1839 for the 1st Earl Brownlow.<p>Either side of the Saloon are two smaller drawing rooms (<b>F</b>, <b>K</b>), which would originally have served as private withdrawing rooms from the more public activities which would have taken place in the Marble Hall and Saloon. One of these withdrawing rooms was transformed into the principal or state bedroom during the occupancy of Lord Tyrconnel in an attempt to create a more fashionable suite of Baroque state rooms. Ironically, when a queen (<!--del_lnk--> Adelaide, widow of <a href="../../wp/w/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="William IV of the United Kingdom">William IV</a>) did next stay at Belton in 1840, the state bedroom was put back in its original location in the chamber above the Saloon now known as the Queen's Room.<p>The final large reception room on the first floor is the <b>Hondecoeter Room</b> (<b>A</b>), so named because of the three huge oil paintings by <!--del_lnk--> Melchior d'Hondecoeter (1636–1695), depicting scenes of birds in courtyards, which are fitted into the neo-Carolean panelling. The paneling was introduced to the room by the 3rd Earl Brownlow in 1876. This room, furnished as the principal dining room of the mansion, was formed in 1808 from the upper part of the earlier kitchen which had originally risen two storeys.<p>The staircase hall (<b>L</b>) to the east of the marble hall is unusually placed at Belton, as in a house of this period one would expect to find the staircase in the hall. The stairs rise in three flights around the west, north, and east walls to the former Great Dining Room above the marble hall. Thus the staircase served as an important state procession link between the three principal reception rooms of the house. The <b>Great Dining Room</b>, now the Library, has been greatly altered and all traces of Carolean decoration removed, first by <!--del_lnk--> James Wyatt in 1778 when it was transformed into a drawing room with a vaulted ceiling, and again in 1876, when its use was again changed, this time to a library. The room contains some 6000 volumes, a superb examples of book collecting over 350 years. When Lord Tyrconnel died in 1754 a catalogue of his library identified almost 2,300 books. Almost all of these remain in the Belton library today.<p>Leading from the Library is the <b>Queen's Room</b>, the former "Best Bed Chamber." This paneled room was redecorated in the early 19th century for the visit of Queen Adelaide. It contains the great <!--del_lnk--> canopied <a href="../../wp/r/Rococo.htm" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> style bed in which the Queen slept, complete with the royal <!--del_lnk--> monogram "AR" (<i>Adelaide Regina</i>) <!--del_lnk--> embroidered on the bedhead. Other rooms on the second floor are mostly bedrooms, which include the <b>Chinese Room</b> with its original hand painted 18th century Chinese wallpaper, the yellow bedroom, and the <b>Windsor Bedroom</b>, so called following its use by the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Windsor on his visits to Belton during the 1930s with his mistress <!--del_lnk--> Wallis Simpson. <!--del_lnk--> The 6th Baron Brownlow, the King's Lord-in-waiting became heavily involved in the <!--del_lnk--> abdication crisis of 1936. Today Belton has a permanent exhibition devoted to that event.<p><a id="Gardens_and_the_park" name="Gardens_and_the_park"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gardens and the park</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23743.gif.htm" title="The "Italian garden", Orangery and Church. The Orangery and "Italian garden" were designed by Jeffry Wyatville in the early 19th century. The church contains the tombs of the Browlow and Cust owners of Belton House."><img alt="The "Italian garden", Orangery and Church. The Orangery and "Italian garden" were designed by Jeffry Wyatville in the early 19th century. The church contains the tombs of the Browlow and Cust owners of Belton House." height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_Garden.gif" src="../../images/237/23743.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23743.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The "Italian garden", <!--del_lnk--> Orangery and Church. The <!--del_lnk--> Orangery and "Italian garden" were designed by <!--del_lnk--> Jeffry Wyatville in the early 19th century. The church contains the <!--del_lnk--> tombs of the <!--del_lnk--> Browlow and Cust owners of Belton House.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23744.gif.htm" title="The Italian garden from the Orangery looking towards the "Lion Exedra" (a semi-circular screen) designed by Jeffry Wyatville"><img alt="The Italian garden from the Orangery looking towards the "Lion Exedra" (a semi-circular screen) designed by Jeffry Wyatville" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_Exedra._Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23744.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23744.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Italian garden from the <!--del_lnk--> Orangery looking towards the "Lion <!--del_lnk--> Exedra" (a semi-circular screen) designed by <!--del_lnk--> Jeffry Wyatville</div>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23745.gif.htm" title="Looking from the east front of the house, along the Eastern Avenue, through the park towards Viscount Tyrconnel's Belmount Tower, a belvedere built circa 1750. During World War I Belton's park was home to the Machine Gun Corps and in World War II the Royal Air Force Regiment were stationed in the park."><img alt="Looking from the east front of the house, along the Eastern Avenue, through the park towards Viscount Tyrconnel's Belmount Tower, a belvedere built circa 1750. During World War I Belton's park was home to the Machine Gun Corps and in World War II the Royal Air Force Regiment were stationed in the park." height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton._Belvedere.Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23745.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23745.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Looking from the east front of the house, along the Eastern Avenue, through the park towards <!--del_lnk--> Viscount Tyrconnel's Belmount Tower, a <!--del_lnk--> belvedere built circa 1750. During <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> Belton's park was home to the <!--del_lnk--> Machine Gun Corps and in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Air Force Regiment were stationed in the park.</div>
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<p>In 1690, Sir John Brownlow was granted permission to enclose an area of 1000 <!--del_lnk--> acres (4 km²) to transform into a park, with a grant to keep deer. There is evidence to suggest that some of this area had been a park since at least 1580. The park was laid out with avenues, including the still surviving Eastern Avenue which led east from the house. Brownlow also had a large pond or lake dug and planted 21,400 ash trees, 9,500 oak trees, and 614 fruit trees. It is thought that William Winde may have advised on the layout of the gardens. Closer to the house were a series of more formal gardens, including canal ponds bordered by plantations containing symmetrical walks resembling the "<!--del_lnk--> rond-points" introduced by the landscape gardener <!--del_lnk--> André Le Nôtre.<p>Sir John Brownlow was succeeded at Belton first by his brother, who was content to permit Brownlow's widow, Alice, to remain in occupation. She spent the remainder of her life at Belton arranging advantageous marriages for her five daughters. On her death in 1721, the house passed to her husband's nephew (and also his son-in-law) Sir John Brownlow III (late <!--del_lnk--> Viscount Tyrconnel). Tyrconnel, a <!--del_lnk--> dilettante of no great intellect, was responsible for many of the architectural features which survive in the park and garden. Between 1742 and 1751, he had constructed a series of <!--del_lnk--> follies, including a <!--del_lnk--> Gothic ruin, a cascade, and a prospect or <!--del_lnk--> belvedere known as the Belmount Tower. As built, the tower had a small wing flanking each side.<p><a id="The_twentieth_century" name="The_twentieth_century"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The twentieth century</span></h2>
<p>In the last three decades of the nineteenth century the 3rd Earl Brownlow spent much time and money restoring Belton, and consequently the house entered the twentieth century in a good state of repair and preservation. However, the 20th century was to present Belton and its estate with serious problems. These included the introduction of <!--del_lnk--> income tax and <!--del_lnk--> death duties which would leave the finances of the Brownlow family severely depleted.<p>At the beginning of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, like many other British landowners, the 3rd Earl Brownlow offered his house and park to the Government for war service. The offer was accepted, and the largest and most drastic changes were made in the park since the time of Viscount Tyrconnel's folly building. In 1915 the home depôt and training ground of the <!--del_lnk--> Machine Gun Corps were established in the southern part of Belton park. The lie of the land there, where the River Witham passes between the Lower Lincolnshire Limestone and the <!--del_lnk--> Upper Lias mudstone, lent itself to the development of the necessary firing ranges close to good communications by way of the <!--del_lnk--> Great North Road and the <!--del_lnk--> East Coast main line railway station at <!--del_lnk--> Grantham. The depôt was closed in 1919, the site cleared and the land restored to Lord Brownlow in 1920. Little sign of the Machine Gun Corps's stay remains in the park, but links in the form of plaques and inscriptions can be followed from the south gate of Belton park to the memorial gate on the way from there to the town centre and in the north aisle of Grantham parish church.<p>Belton again saw war service during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, when the park became home to the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Air Force Regiment, a newly formed unit within the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Air_Force.htm" title="Royal Air Force">RAF</a>. Initially formed in 1942, the regiment soon moved to Belton where it was housed in <!--del_lnk--> nissen huts in the park.<p><a id="Late_twentieth_century" name="Late_twentieth_century"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Late twentieth century</span></h3>
<p>The years following World War I were severely testing for the owners of many great estates. The staff both indoor and outdoor, which had previously been plentiful, essential, and cheap, was now in short supply. Millions of men had left private service to join the army, and very few returned. Female domestic staff had been called up for war service in factories, and now realised there was an easier and better paid existence outside of the gates of the great country houses. With both fortunes and staff depleted many owners of country houses now fought a losing battle to retain them.<p>Belton House remained relatively untouched during this period, largely owing to the failing fortunes of the Brownlow family. The 3rd Earl Brownlow (1844–1921) and his Countess lived for only a few months of the year at Belton, where they came for the <!--del_lnk--> fox-hunting, and divided the remainder of their time between their house in London and <!--del_lnk--> Ashridge, another country house in Hertfordshire. Ashridge, a huge <!--del_lnk--> Gothic revival pile, had come to the Brownlows in the nineteenth century through the Eggerton family. It was sold, with its art collection and furnishings, to pay the <!--del_lnk--> death duties arising on the death of the 3rd Earl in 1921. Hence Belton became the Brownlow's sole country home. Further death duties were incurred in 1927 on the death of the 3rd Earl's successor, his second cousin Adelbert Cust, 5th Baron Brownlow.<p>In the ensuing period many thousands of country houses of great architectural value were demolished, or had whole wings razed to the ground. In 1955, a house was demolished every five days. In this respect Belton was fortunate to survive at all, as in addition to the family's problems, the house was now deteriorating to such an extent that in 1961 the 6th Baron employed the architect <!--del_lnk--> Francis Johnson to oversee a large restoration program lasting three years. Not only was the roof repaired but much of the paneling taken down and repaired, and new cornices installed. Also attempts were made to curtail serious infestations of <!--del_lnk--> dry rot. By the time of the death of the 6th Baron in 1978, and the again resultant death duties, coupled with the rising costs of the upkeep, Belton became too much for the Brownlow family.<p><a id="The_National_Trust" name="The_National_Trust"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The National Trust</span></h3>
<p>The seventh Baron attempted to retain the house and estate by opening to the public. He successfully implemented an adventure playground in the nearby woods to attract families to the house as a tourist attraction. However, the financial difficulties were too great and in January, 1984, he transferred ownership of the house to the National Trust, a charitable body experienced in the management of such properties. The National Trust further purchased at a cost of eight million pounds the 1,317 acres (5.33 km²) of parkland and much of the contents of the house. This was made possible by a grant from the <!--del_lnk--> National Heritage Memorial Fund<p>The Trust quickly produced a guide book for the 1984 season and opened to the public. A priority was the establishment of a restaurant, which would not only augment the estate's income, but also encourage people to spend more time at Belton, and travel greater distances to visit. Though the house, its contents and out-buildings were in an adequate state of repair at the time of the gift, they have since become part of an ongoing program of conservation and restoration. At the same time the National Trust has introduced new features and attractions such as a silver exhibition which displays a collection of silver amassed by the Brownlow family, dating from 1698. Further revenue is raised from the use of the property as a filming location, and from licensing the Marble Hall and Tapestry Room for civil weddings, with receptions being held in the stables. The house is featured in BBC's 1988 adaptation of <i><!--del_lnk--> Moondial</i>. and also as "Rosings Park" in the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a>'s 1995 television version of <i><!--del_lnk--> Pride and Prejudice</i>. Thus Belton House has entered the twenty first century well equipped for its continued survival while still reflecting the glories of its historic past.<p><a id="Owners_of_Belton_House" name="Owners_of_Belton_House"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Owners of Belton House</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23747.gif.htm" title="The tomb of Sir John Brownlow I and his wife Alice Pulteney. "...marble hands clasped everlastingly in mutual consolation for their childless marriage"."><img alt="The tomb of Sir John Brownlow I and his wife Alice Pulteney. "...marble hands clasped everlastingly in mutual consolation for their childless marriage"." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton_tomb._Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23747.gif" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23747.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The tomb of Sir John Brownlow I and his wife Alice Pulteney. "...marble hands clasped everlastingly in mutual consolation for their childless marriage".</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23748.gif.htm" title="The funerary chapel of the owners of Belton House, in the parish church adjacent to the mansion's garden."><img alt="The funerary chapel of the owners of Belton House, in the parish church adjacent to the mansion's garden." height="293" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Belton._Church.Giano.gif" src="../../images/237/23748.gif" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23748.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> funerary chapel of the owners of Belton House, in the parish church adjacent to the mansion's garden.</div>
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<p>Until its acceptance by the National Trust, Belton House was in the ownership of the family of its builder, albeit often through tortuous descent following the failure of three generations to produce a son and heir. This caused the ownership to pass sideways and sometimes backwards through the <!--del_lnk--> female line.<p>The owners of Belton are buried in the village of <!--del_lnk--> Belton's <!--del_lnk--> parish church close to the house. Their tombs are collectively one of the most complete sets of family memorials in England — continuous generation to generation for almost 350 years. The earliest Brownlow buried here is the founder of the family fortune the lawyer Richard Brownlow (1555–1638), and one of the most recent is the 6th Baron Brownlow (1899–1978).<p>The owners of Belton House have been:<ul>
<li>Sir John Brownlow I (1594–1679) Bequeathed Belton to his great nephew John Brownlow II.<li>Sir John Brownlow II (1659–1697). Builder of Belton House<li>Sir William Brownlow (1665–1702). Brother of Sir John Brownlow II, permitted his widowed sister-in-law to retain Belton.<li>Sir John Brownlow III (1690–1754). Created <!--del_lnk--> Viscount Tyrconnel in 1718. Nephew and son-in-law of Sir John Brownlow II.<li>Sir John Cust (1718–1770). <a href="../../wp/s/Speaker_of_the_British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="Speaker of the British House of Commons">Speaker</a> of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a> and nephew of Tyrconnel.<li>Sir Brownlow Cust (1744–1807). Created <!--del_lnk--> Baron Brownlow in 1776. Son of Sir John Cust.<li>John, 2nd Baron Brownlow (1779–1853). Created 1st <!--del_lnk--> Earl Brownlow in 1815. Son of Sir Brownlow Cust.<li>John, (Eggerton-Cust), 2nd Earl Brownlow (1842–1867) Grandson of John, 2nd Baron Brownlow.<li>Adelbert, 3rd (and last) Earl Brownlow (1844–1921). Brother of John, 2nd Earl Brownlow.<li>Adelbert Salusbury Cockayne Cust, 5th Baron Brownlow (1867–1927). Second cousin of Adelbert, 3rd Earl Brownlow.<li>Perigrine Cust, 6th Baron Brownlow (1899–1978).<li>Edward Cust, 7th Baron Brownlow (born 1936).<li><!--del_lnk--> The National Trust (1984 onwards).</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belton_House"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ben-Hur (1959 film)</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Films.htm">Films</a></h3>
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<table cellspacing="2" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%;">
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 110%; text-align: center;"><i>Ben-Hur</i></th>
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<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="320" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benh.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /> Film poster</th>
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<th>Directed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> William Wyler</td>
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<th>Produced by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sam Zimbalist<br /><!--del_lnk--> William Wyler</td>
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<th>Written by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Karl Tunberg,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gore Vidal (uncredited),<br /><!--del_lnk--> Christopher Fry (uncredited)</td>
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<th>Starring</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charlton Heston,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jack Hawkins,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Haya Harareet,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Stephen Boyd,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hugh Griffith</td>
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<th>Music by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Miklós Rózsa</td>
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<th>Distributed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer</td>
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<th>Release date(s)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> November 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1959 (premiere in <!--del_lnk--> NYC)<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="Flag of United Kingdom"><img alt="Flag of United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> December 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1959</td>
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<th>Running time</th>
<td>212 min.</td>
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<th>Language</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
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<th>Budget</th>
<td>$15,000,000 (approx. $109,000,000 [2006])</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> IMDb profile</b></th>
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<p><i><b>Ben-Hur</b></i> is a <!--del_lnk--> 1959 <!--del_lnk--> epic film directed by <!--del_lnk--> William Wyler, and is the most popular live-action version of <!--del_lnk--> Lew Wallace's novel, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1880). It stars <!--del_lnk--> Charlton Heston as <!--del_lnk--> Judah Ben-Hur and <!--del_lnk--> Stephen Boyd as Messala. It premiered at <!--del_lnk--> Loews Theatre in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> on <!--del_lnk--> November 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1959. The film went on to <!--del_lnk--> win eleven <!--del_lnk--> Academy Awards, including <!--del_lnk--> Best Picture, a feat equaled only by <i><!--del_lnk--> Titanic</i> (1997) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Lord of the Rings: Return of the King</i> (2003).<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Plot" name="Plot"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plot</span></h2>
<div class="notice spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>Judah Ben-Hur is a rich <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> prince and merchant in <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> at the beginning of the 1st century. Preceding the arrival of a new governor, Judah Ben-Hur's childhood friend Messala arrives as military <!--del_lnk--> commanding officer of the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> legions. At first Judah and Messala are happy to meet after years apart, but their different political views separate them; Messala believes in the glory of <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a> and worldly imperial power, while Judah is devoted to his faith and Jewish nationalism. During the welcome parade for the governor, a roofing tile falls down from Judah's house and startles the governor's horse, nearly killing him. Although Messala knows that it was an accident, in order to intimidate the restive Jewish populace by punishing a powerful local family and good friend, he sends Judah to the <!--del_lnk--> galleys and throws his mother and sister into prison. Judah swears to come back and take revenge. En route to the sea, Judah is denied water when his slave gang arrives at Nazareth. He collapses, having lost the will to live, when an as-yet unknown <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a> gives him water and a motivation to survive.<div class="thumb tleft">
</div>
<p>After three years as a galley slave, the ship to which Judah is assigned becomes the flagship of Quintus Arrius, sent by the <!--del_lnk--> Emperor to destroy a fleet of Macedonian <!--del_lnk--> pirates. Judah's new commander notices his resolve and will to survive, although he declines the offer to transfer to Arrius' gladiatorial team, declaring that God will aid him. The Roman armada attacks the pirates and his galley is sunk, but Judah manages to save the life of Arrius. They are soon rescued and Arrius adopts Judah as his son. Thus regaining his freedom and wealth, and having learned Roman ways (including becoming an expert <!--del_lnk--> charioteer), he eventually returns to Judea. Soon the Arab sheik Ilderin hires Ben-Hur to drive his chariot and Judah defeats Messala in a chariot race before the governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate. Messala, who attempts to cheat his way to victory, is mortally wounded in the race, but tells Judah where he can find his mother and sister: In the "valley of the lepers," as they had contracted <!--del_lnk--> leprosy while in prison. Although he has accomplished his goal of revenge on Messala, Judah's soul remains tormented.<p>The film is subtitled "A Tale of the Christ", and it is at this point that Jesus's presence is substantially increased. After Judah sees his mother and sister in the leper colony, Judah's love interest Esther witnesses the <a href="../../wp/s/Sermon_on_the_Mount.htm" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a>. She tells Judah about it; they take his mother and sister to see Jesus, but they cannot get near him, as his trial has begun. Judah attempts to give Jesus water during his march to <!--del_lnk--> Calvary, echoing Jesus's kindness to him, but is shoved away by the guards. Judah witnesses the crucifixion. His mother and sister are healed by a miracle, as are his own heart and soul. He tells his family that as he heard Jesus talk of forgiveness while on the cross, saying, "I felt His voice take the sword out of my hand". The film begins with the <!--del_lnk--> Magi visiting the infant Jesus, and ends with the empty crosses of <!--del_lnk--> Calvary in the background and a shepherd and his flock (a prominent Judeo-Christian symbol) in the foreground.<div class="notice spoiler endspoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div>
<p><a id="Cast" name="Cast"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cast</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable" width="50%">
<tr bgcolor="#CCCCCC">
<th>Actor</th>
<th>Role</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charlton Heston</td>
<td>Judah Ben-Hur</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jack Hawkins</td>
<td>Quintus Arrius</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Haya Harareet</td>
<td>Esther</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Stephen Boyd</td>
<td>Messala</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hugh Griffith</td>
<td>Sheik Ilderim</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Martha Scott</td>
<td>Miriam</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Cathy O'Donnell</td>
<td>Tirzah</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Sam Jaffe</td>
<td>Simonides</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Finlay Currie</td>
<td>Balthasar, and narrator of pre-credits sequence</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Terence Longdon</td>
<td>Drusus, Messala's assistant</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Frank Thring</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pontius Pilate</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Claude Heater</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> (uncredited)</td>
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<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2>
<p><a id="Financing" name="Financing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Financing</span></h3>
<p><i>Ben-Hur</i> was an extremely expensive production, requiring 300 sets scattered over 340 acres (1.4 km²). Its production was a gamble made by <!--del_lnk--> MGM to save itself from bankruptcy at $15 million; the gamble paid off when it earned a whopping total (in its time) of $75 million.<p><a id="Aspect_ratio" name="Aspect_ratio"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aspect ratio</span></h3>
<p>The movie was filmed in a process known as "<!--del_lnk--> MGM Camera 65", 65mm negative stock from which was made into a 70mm <!--del_lnk--> anamorphic print with an aspect ratio of 2.76:1, one of the widest prints ever made, having a width of almost three times its height. A special lens which produced a 1.25X compression was used along with a 65mm negative (whose normal aspect ratio was 2.20:1) to produce this extremely wide aspect ratio. This allowed for spectacular panoramic shots in addition to six-channel audio. In practice, however, "Camera 65" prints were shown in an aspect ratio of 2.5:1 on most screens, so that theaters were not required to install new, wider screens or curtail the height of screens already installed.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p><a id="Casting" name="Casting"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Casting</span></h3>
<p>Many other men were offered the role of Ben-Hur before Charlton Heston. <!--del_lnk--> Burt Lancaster claimed he turned down the role of Judah Ben-Hur because he "didn't like the violent morals in the story". <!--del_lnk--> Paul Newman turned it down because he said he didn't have the legs to wear a tunic. <!--del_lnk--> Rock Hudson was also offered the role.<p>Out of respect, the face of Jesus is never shown. He was played by an old friend of director Wyler, Claude Heater, who received no credit for his only film role.<p><a id="The_chariot_race" name="The_chariot_race"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The chariot race</span></h3>
<p>Even by current standards, the chariot race in <i>Ben-Hur</i> is considered to be one of the most spectacular action sequences ever filmed. Filmed at <!--del_lnk--> Cinecittà Studios outside <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> long before the advent of <!--del_lnk--> computer-generated effects, it took over three months to complete, using 8000 extras on the largest film set ever built, some 18 acres (73,000m²). Eighteen chariots were built, with half being used for practice. The race took five weeks to film. Tour buses visited the set every hour.<p>The large "island" in the middle of the stadium is fictional. It was designed to aid filmmaking, since a backdrop of a stone wall is cheaper to film than a backdrop of thousands of extras. In a real stadium, such an island would prevent spectators from viewing the race properly.<p>Charlton Heston spent four weeks learning how to drive a chariot. He was taught by the stunt crew, who offered to teach the entire cast, but Heston and Boyd were the only ones who took them up on the offer (Boyd had to learn in just two weeks, due to his late casting). At the beginning of the chariot race, Heston shook the reins and nothing happened; the horses remained motionless. Finally someone way up on top of the set yelled, "Giddy-up!" The horses then roared into action, and Heston was flung backward off the chariot.<p>To give the scene more impact and realism, three lifelike dummies were placed at key points in the race to give the appearance of men being run over by chariots. Most notable is the stand-in dummy for Stephen Boyd's Messala that gets tangled up under the horses, getting battered by their hooves. This resulted in one of the most grisly death scenes in motion pictures at this time and shocked audiences.<p>There are several <!--del_lnk--> urban legends surrounding the chariot sequence, one of which states that a stuntman died during filming. Stuntman <!--del_lnk--> Nosher Powell claims in his autobiography, "We had a stunt man killed in the third week, and it happened right in front of me. You saw it, too, because the cameras kept turning and it's in the movie". There is no conclusive evidence to back up Powell's claim and it has been adamantly denied by director William Wyler, who states that neither man nor horse was injured in the famous scene. Another urban legend states that a car can be seen during the chariot race; the book <i>Movie Mistakes</i> claims this is a myth.<p>However, one of the best-remembered moments in the race came from a near-fatal accident. When Judah's chariot jumps another which has crashed in its path, the charioteer is seen to be almost thrown from his mount and only just manages to hang on and climb back in to continue the race. In reality, while the jump was planned, the character being flipped into the air was not, and stuntman Joe Canutt, son of second unit director <!--del_lnk--> Yakima Canutt, was considered fortunate to escape with only a minor chin injury. Nonetheless, when director Wyler intercut the long shot of Canutt's leap with a close-up of Heston clambering back into his chariot, a memorable scene resulted.<p><a id="The_galley_sequence" name="The_galley_sequence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The galley sequence</span></h3>
<p>The galley slave sequence is <!--del_lnk--> anachronistic: in reality, <!--del_lnk--> galley slaves did not exist until the <a href="../../wp/1/16th_century.htm" title="16th century">16th century</a>. The Roman navy was, from the outset, comprised completely of <!--del_lnk--> volunteers. All seamen, be they rowers/sailors or marines, joined up of their own volition and received regular pay and leave.<p>The original design for the boat Judah is enslaved upon was so heavy that it couldn't float. The scene therefore had to be filmed in a studio, but another problem remained: the cameras didn't fit inside, so the boat was cut in half and made able to be wider or shorter on demand. The next problem was the oars were too long, so those were cut too; however, this made it look unrealistic because the oars were too easy to row, so weights had to be added.<p>During filming, director Wyler noticed that one of the extras was missing a hand. He had the man's stump covered in blood, with a phony bone protruding from it, to add realism to the scene when the galley is rammed. Wyler made similar use of another extra who was missing a foot.<p><a id="Possible_homosexual_subtext" name="Possible_homosexual_subtext"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Possible homosexual subtext</span></h3>
<p>In interviews for the <!--del_lnk--> 1986 book <i><!--del_lnk--> Celluloid Closet</i>, and later the <!--del_lnk--> 1995 documentary of the same name, screenwriter <!--del_lnk--> Gore Vidal asserts that he persuaded director Wyler to allow a carefully veiled homoerotic subtext between Messala and Ben-Hur. Vidal says his aim was to explain Messala’s extreme reaction to Judah Ben-Hur’s refusal to name fellow Jews. Surely, Vidal argued, Messala should have been able to understand that Judah, his close friend since childhood, would not be willing to name the names of his fellow Jews to a Roman officer. Vidal suggested a motivation to Wyler: Messala and Judah had been homosexual lovers while growing up, and then separated for a few years while Messala was in Rome. When Messala returns to Judea, he wants to renew the relationship with Judah, but Judah is no longer interested. It is the anger of a scorned lover which motivates Messala’s vindictiveness toward Judah. Since the Hollywood <!--del_lnk--> production code would not permit this to appear on screen explicitly, it would have to be implied by the actors. Knowing Heston’s aversion to homosexuality, Vidal suggested to Wyler that he direct Stephen Boyd to play the role that way, but not tell Heston. Vidal claims that Wyler took his advice, and that the results can be seen in the film, however, Vidal is the only person ever to make this claim, and all others queried about it have denied that it was even considered, including William Wyler and Chartlon Heston, who, when asked about Vidal's story, insisted that Vidal had little to do with the final film..<p><a id="Differences_between_novel_and_film" name="Differences_between_novel_and_film"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Differences between novel and film</span></h2>
<div class="notice spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>There are several differences between the original novel and the film. The changes made serve to make the film's storyline more immediately dramatic.<ul>
<li>The most striking difference is that Ben-Hur does not actually kill Messala, although the latter is seriously injured in the chariot race. In revenge for this, Messala plots to have Ben-Hur murdered, but his plans go wrong. It is revealed at the end of the novel that Iras (who is Messala's mistress and does not appear in the 1959 film) has murdered Messala in a fit of anger.</ul>
<ul>
<li>Another striking difference is that Ben-Hur becomes a convert to Christianity much sooner in the novel, not after the Crucifixion, and he does not display the harsh bitterness that he does in the William Wyler film. Similarly, the healing of Ben-Hur's mother and sister takes place earlier in the book, not immediately after the death of Christ.</ul>
<p><a id="Awards_and_recognition" name="Awards_and_recognition"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards and recognition</span></h2>
<p>The film won an unprecedented 11 <!--del_lnk--> Academy Awards, a number matched only by <i><!--del_lnk--> Titanic</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 1997 and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Return of the King</i> in <!--del_lnk--> 2003. It won <!--del_lnk--> Best Motion Picture, <!--del_lnk--> Best Leading Actor for <!--del_lnk--> Charlton Heston, <!--del_lnk--> Best Supporting Actor for <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Griffith, <!--del_lnk--> Best Director, <!--del_lnk--> Best Set Decoration, Colour — Edward C. Carfagno, William A. Horning, and Hugh Hunt, <!--del_lnk--> Best Cinematography, Colour, <!--del_lnk--> Best Costume Design, Colour, <!--del_lnk--> Best Special Effects, <!--del_lnk--> Best Film Editing — John D. Dunning and <!--del_lnk--> Ralph E. Winters, <!--del_lnk--> Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic or Comedy Picture and <!--del_lnk--> Best Sound.<p>The film also won the <!--del_lnk--> Best Motion Picture, Drama, <!--del_lnk--> Best Motion Picture Director, <!--del_lnk--> Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture for Stephen Boyd and a Special Award to Andrew Marton for directing the chariot race sequence. It won the <!--del_lnk--> Best Motion Picture, the <!--del_lnk--> Best Motion Picture and the DGA award Outstanding Directorial Achievement in a Motion Picture.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1998 the film ranked #72 on the <!--del_lnk--> American Film Institute list of the <!--del_lnk--> Best American Movies of All Time, and #56 at <!--del_lnk--> AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers. In <!--del_lnk--> 2001 the film ranked #49 on the American Film Institute list of the <!--del_lnk--> Most Thrilling American Movies. In <!--del_lnk--> 2004 the film was selected for preservation by the United States <!--del_lnk--> National Film Registry. In <!--del_lnk--> 2005 the music score of the film ranked #21 on the American Film Institute list of the <!--del_lnk--> Best Score of American Films.<p><a id="DVD_release" name="DVD_release"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">DVD release</span></h2>
<p>Ben-Hur has been released to DVD on two occasions. The first was on <!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2001 as a two-disc set, and the second on <!--del_lnk--> September 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2005 as a four-disc set.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben-Hur_%281959_film%29"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ben Jonson</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_15001750.htm">British History 1500-1750</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Writers_and_critics.htm">Writers and critics</a></h3>
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<caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>Ben Jonson</b></caption>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15279.jpg.htm" title=" "><img alt=" " height="261" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ben_Jonson.jpg" src="../../images/152/15279.jpg" width="200" /></a><br /> Ben Jonson by Abraham Blyenberch, <!--del_lnk--> c. <!--del_lnk--> 1617.</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Born:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> c. <!--del_lnk--> June 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1572<br /><!--del_lnk--> Westminster, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Died:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1637<br /><!--del_lnk--> Westminster, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;"><a href="../../wp/e/Employment.htm" title="Employment">Occupation(s)</a>:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dramatist, <!--del_lnk--> poet and <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actor</a></td>
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<p><b>Benjamin Jonson</b> (<!--del_lnk--> c. <!--del_lnk--> June 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1572 – <!--del_lnk--> August 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1637) was an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> Renaissance <!--del_lnk--> dramatist, <!--del_lnk--> poet and <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actor</a>. He is best known for his plays <i><!--del_lnk--> Volpone</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Alchemist</i> and his lyric poems. A man of vast reading and a seemingly insatiable appetite for controversy, Jonson had an unparalleled breadth of influence on Jacobean and Caroline playwrights and poets.<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h3>
<p>Although he was born in <!--del_lnk--> Westminster, <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, Jonson claimed his family was of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <!--del_lnk--> Border country descent, and this claim may be supported by the fact that his <!--del_lnk--> coat of arms bears three <!--del_lnk--> spindles or <!--del_lnk--> rhombi, a device shared by a Borders family, the Johnstones of <!--del_lnk--> Annandale. His father died a month before Ben's birth, and his mother remarried two years later, to a master <!--del_lnk--> bricklayer. Jonson attended school in <!--del_lnk--> St. Martin's Lane, and was later sent to <!--del_lnk--> Westminster School, where one of his teachers was <!--del_lnk--> William Camden. Jonson remained friendly with Camden, whose broad scholarship evidently influenced his own style, until the latter's death in <!--del_lnk--> 1623. On leaving, Jonson was once thought to have gone on to the <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>; Jonson himself said that he did not go to university, but was put to a trade immediately: a legend recorded by <!--del_lnk--> Fuller indicates that he worked on a garden wall in <!--del_lnk--> Lincoln's Inn. He soon had enough of the trade, probably bricklaying, and spent some time in the <!--del_lnk--> Low Countries as a volunteer with the regiments of <!--del_lnk--> Francis Vere. Jonson reports that while in the Netherlands, he killed an opponent in single combat and stripped him of his weapons.<!--del_lnk--> Since the war was otherwise languishing during his service, this fight appears to have been the extent of his combat experience. Ben Jonson married some time before <!--del_lnk--> 1594, to a woman he described to Drummond as "a shrew, yet honest." His wife has not been decisively identified, but she is sometimes identified as the Ann Lewis who married a Benjamin Jonson at <!--del_lnk--> St Magnus-the-Martyr, near <a href="../../wp/l/London_Bridge.htm" title="London Bridge">London Bridge</a>. The registers of St. Martin's Church state that his eldest daughter Mary died in November, 1593, when she was only six months old. His eldest son Benjamin died of the plague ten years later (Jonson's epitaph to him <i><!--del_lnk--> On My First Sonne</i> was written shortly after), and a second Benjamin died in 1635. For five years somewhere in this period, Jonson lived separate from his wife, enjoying instead the hospitality of <!--del_lnk--> Lord Aubigny.<p><a id="Early_career" name="Early_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early career</span></h3>
<p>By the summer of 1597, Jonson had a fixed engagement in the <!--del_lnk--> Admiral's Men, then performing under <!--del_lnk--> Philip Henslowe's management at <!--del_lnk--> The Rose. <!--del_lnk--> John Aubrey reports, on uncertain authority, that Jonson was not successful as an actor; whatever his skills as an actor, he was evidently more valuable to the company as a writer.<p>By this time, Jonson had begun to write original plays for the Lord Admiral's Men; in <!--del_lnk--> 1598, he was mentioned by <!--del_lnk--> Francis Meres in his <i>Palladis Tamia</i> as one of "the best for tragedy." None of his early tragedies survive, however. An undated comedy, <i>The Case is Altered</i>, may be his earliest surviving play.<p>In 1597, he was imprisoned for his collaboration with <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Nashe in writing the play <i><!--del_lnk--> The Isle of Dogs</i>. Copies of the play were destroyed, so the exact nature of the offense is unknown. However there is evidence that he satirized <!--del_lnk--> Lord Cobham. It was the first of several run-ins with the authorities.<p>In 1598, Jonson produced his first great success, <i><!--del_lnk--> Every Man in his Humour</i>, capitalising on the vogue for humour plays that had been begun by <!--del_lnk--> George Chapman with An Humorous Day's Mirth. <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a> was among the first cast. This play was followed the next year by <i><!--del_lnk--> Every Man Out of His Humour</i>, a pedantic attempt to imitate <!--del_lnk--> Aristophanes. It is not known whether this was a success on stage, but when published, it proved popular and went through several editions.<p>That same year, Jonson's irascibility landed him in jail. In a <!--del_lnk--> duel on <!--del_lnk--> September 22 in <!--del_lnk--> Hogsden Fields, he killed one of his fellow-actors, a member of the Admiral's Men named Gabriel Spenser. In prison, Jonson was visited by a Roman Catholic priest, and the result was his conversion to <!--del_lnk--> Catholicism, to which he adhered for twelve years. He escaped hanging by pleading <!--del_lnk--> benefit of clergy, a legal maneuver which, by Jonson's day, meant only that he was able to gain leniency by reciting a brief bible verse in Latin. The move saved his life but he was forced to forfeit his property and was branded on his left thumb. Neither the affair nor his Catholic conversion seem to have injured Jonson's reputation, as he was back working for Henslowe within months.<p>In 1601, Jonson was employed by Henslowe to revise <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Kyd's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Spanish Tragedy</i>; the version of the play with his additions was published in <!--del_lnk--> quarto in 1602.<p>Jonson's other work for the theatre in the last years of <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth I's reign was, unsurprisingly, marked by fighting and controversy. <i>Cynthia's Revels</i> was produced by the <!--del_lnk--> Children of the Chapel Royal at <!--del_lnk--> Blackfriars Theatre in 1600. It satirized both <!--del_lnk--> John Marston, who Jonson believed had accused him of lustfulness, probably in <i>Histrio-Mastix</i>, and <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Dekker, against whom Jonson's animus is not known. Jonson attacked the same two poets again in <!--del_lnk--> 1601's <i>Poetaster</i>. Dekker responded with <i>Satiromastix</i>, subtitled "the untrussing of the humorous poet." The final scene of this play, while certainly not to be taken at face value as a portrait of Jonson, offers a caricature that is recognizable from Drummond's report: boasting about himself and condemning other poets, criticizing actors' performances of his plays, and calling attention to himself in any available way.<p>This "<!--del_lnk--> War of the Theatres" appears to have been concluded with reconciliation on all sides. Jonson collaborated with Dekker on a pageant welcoming <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I</a> to England in 1603, although Drummond reports that Jonson called Dekker a rogue. Marston dedicated <i>The Malcontent</i> to Jonson, and the two collaborated with Chapman on <i>Eastward Ho</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> 1605 play whose anti-Scottish sentiment landed both authors in jail for a brief time.<p>His trouble with English authorities continued. In <!--del_lnk--> 1603, he was questioned by the <a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">Privy Council</a> about <i>Sejanus</i>, a politically-themed play about corruption in the Roman Empire. He was again in trouble for topical allusions in a play, now lost, in which he took part. After the discovery of the <!--del_lnk--> Gunpowder Plot, he appears to have been asked by the <!--del_lnk--> Privy Council to attempt to prevail on certain priests connected with the conspirators to cooperate with the government; whatever steps he took in this regard do not appear to have been successful (Teague, 249).<p>At the beginning of the reign of <a href="../../wp/j/James_I_of_England.htm" title="James I of England">James I of England</a> in 1603, Jonson joined other poets and playwrights in welcoming the reign of the new King. Jonson quickly adapted himself to the additional demand for <!--del_lnk--> masques and entertainments introduced with the new reign and fostered by both the king and his consort, <!--del_lnk--> Anne of Denmark.<p><a id="Ben_Jonson.27s_ascendance" name="Ben_Jonson.27s_ascendance"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ben Jonson's ascendance</span></h3>
<p>Jonson flourished as a dramatist during the first decade or so of James's reign; by <!--del_lnk--> 1616, he had produced all the plays on which his reputation as a dramatist depends. These include the tragedy of <i>Catiline</i> (acted and printed 1611), which achieved only limited success, and the comedies <i><!--del_lnk--> Volpone</i>, (acted 1605 and printed in 1607), <i>Epicoene, or the Silent Woman</i> (1609), <i><!--del_lnk--> The Alchemist</i> (1610), <i><!--del_lnk--> Bartholomew Fair</i> (1614) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Devil is an Ass</i> (1616). <i>The Alchemist</i> and <i>Volpone</i> appear to have been successful at once. Of <i>Epicoene</i>, Jonson told Drummond of a satirical verse which reported that the play's subtitle was appropriate, since its audience had refused to applaud the play (i.e., remained silent). Yet <i>Epicoene</i>, along with <i>Bartholomew Fair</i> and (to a lesser extent) <i>The Devil is an Ass</i> have in modern times achieved a certain degree of recognition.<p>At the same time, Jonson pursued a more prestigious career as a writer of <!--del_lnk--> masques for James' court. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Satyr</i> (1603) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Masque of Blackness</i> (1605) are but two of the some two dozen masques Jonson wrote for James or for Queen Anne; the latter was praised by <!--del_lnk--> Swinburne as the consummate example of this now-extinct genre, which mingled speech, dancing, and spectacle. On many of these projects he collaborated, not always peacefully, with designer <!--del_lnk--> Inigo Jones. Perhaps partly as a result of this new career, Jonson gave up writing plays for the public theaters for a decade.<p>1616 saw a pension of 100 marks (about £60) a year conferred upon him, leading some to identify him as England's first <!--del_lnk--> Poet Laureate. This sign of royal favour may have encouraged him to publish the first volume of the folio collected edition of his works that year. Other volumes followed in 1631 and 1640.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1618, Ben Jonson set out for his ancestral <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> on foot. He spent over a year there, and the best-remembered hospitality which he enjoyed was that of the Scottish poet, <!--del_lnk--> Drummond of Hawthornden. Drummond undertook to record as much of Jonson's conversation as he could in his diary, and thus recorded aspects of Jonson's personality that would otherwise have been less clearly seen. Jonson delivers his opinions, in Drummond's terse reporting, in an expansive and even magisterial mood. In the postscript added by Drummond, he is described as "a great lover and praiser of himself, a contemner and scorner of others".<p>While in Scotland, he was made an honorary <!--del_lnk--> citizen of <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>. On returning to England, he was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University.<p>The period between 1605 and 1620 may be viewed as Jonson's heyday. In addition to his popularity on the public stage and in the royal hall, he enjoyed the patronage of aristocrats such as <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Sidney (daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Philip Sidney) and <!--del_lnk--> Lady Mary Wroth. This connection with the Sidney family provided the impetus for one of Jonson's most famous lyrics, the <!--del_lnk--> country house poem <i>To <!--del_lnk--> Penshurst</i>.<p><a id="Decline_and_death" name="Decline_and_death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Decline and death</span></h3>
<p>The 1620s begin a lengthy and slow decline for Jonson. He was still well-known; from this time dates the prominence of the <!--del_lnk--> Sons of Ben or the "<!--del_lnk--> Tribe of Ben", those younger poets such as <!--del_lnk--> Robert Herrick, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Lovelace, and <!--del_lnk--> Sir John Suckling who took their bearing in verse from Jonson. However, a series of setbacks drained his strength and damaged his reputation.<p>Jonson returned to writing regular plays in the <!--del_lnk--> 1620s, but these are not considered among his best. They are of significant interest for the study of the culture of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>'s England. <i>The Staple of News</i>, for example, offers a remarkable look at the earliest stage of English <!--del_lnk--> journalism. The lukewarm reception given that play was, however, nothing compared to the dismal failure of <i>The New Inn</i>; the cold reception given this play prompted Jonson to write a poem condemning his audience (the <i>Ode to Myself</i>), which in turn prompted <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Carew, one of the "Tribe of Ben," to respond in a poem that asks Jonson to recognize his own decline (MacLean, 88).<p>The burning of his library in <!--del_lnk--> 1623 was a severe blow, as his <i>Execration upon Vulcan</i> shows. In <!--del_lnk--> 1628 he became city chronologer of <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, succeeding <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Middleton; he accepted the salary but did little work for the office. He had suffered a debilitating stroke that year and this position eventually became a <!--del_lnk--> sinecure. In his last years he relied heavily for an income on his great friend and patron, <!--del_lnk--> William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle.<p>The principal factor in Jonson's partial eclipse was, however, the death of James and the accession of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_I_of_England.htm" title="Charles I of England">King Charles I</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1625. Justly or not, Jonson felt neglected by the new court. A decisive quarrel with Jones harmed his career as a writer of court masques, although he continued to entertain the court on an irregular basis. For his part, Charles displayed a certain degree of care for the great poet of his father's day: he increased Jonson's annual pension to £100 and included a <!--del_lnk--> tierce of wine.<p>Despite the strokes that he suffered in the 1620s, Jonson continued to write. At his death in 1637 he seems to have been working on another play, <i>The Sad Shepherd</i>. Though only two acts are extant, this represents a remarkable new direction for Jonson: a move into <!--del_lnk--> pastoral drama.<p>Jonson was buried in <a href="../../wp/w/Westminster_Abbey.htm" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>, with the inscription, "O Rare Ben Jonson," laid in the slab over his grave. It has been suggested that this could be read "Orare Ben Jonson" (pray for Ben Jonson), which would indicate a deathbed return to Catholicism.<p><a id="His_Work" name="His_Work"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">His Work</span></h2>
<p><a id="Drama" name="Drama"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Drama</span></h3>
<p>Apart from two tragedies that largely failed to impress Renaissance audiences and have not gained much in reputation since, Jonson's work for the public theaters was in <!--del_lnk--> comedy. These plays vary in some respects. The minor early plays, particularly those written for the <!--del_lnk--> boy players, present somewhat looser plots and less-developed characters than those written later, for adult companies. His late plays or "dotages," particularly <i>The Magnetic Lady</i> and <i>The Sad Shepherd</i>, exhibit some signs of an accommodation with the romantic tendencies of Elizabethan comedy.<p>With these exceptions noted, however, Jonson's comic style remained constant and easily recognizable. He announces his program in the prologue to the <!--del_lnk--> folio version of <i>Every Man in His Humour</i>; he promises to represent "deeds, and language, such as men do use." He planned to write comedies that revived the classical premises of Elizabethan dramatic theory—or rather, since all but the loosest English comedies could claim to have descended from <!--del_lnk--> Plautus and <!--del_lnk--> Terence, he intended to apply those premises with rigor (Doran, 120ff). This commitment entailed negations: after <i>The Case is Altered</i>, Jonson eschewed distant locations, noble characters, romantic plots, and other staples of Elizabethan comedy. Jonson focused instead on the satiric and realistic inheritance of <!--del_lnk--> new comedy. He sets his plays in contemporary settings, peoples them with recognizable types, and sets them to actions that, if not strictly realistic, involve everyday motives such as greed and jealousy. To this classical model Jonson applies the two features of his style which save his classical imitations from mere pedantry: the vividness with which he depicts the lives of his characters, and the intricacy of his plots. Coleridge, for instance, claimed that <i>The Alchemist</i> had one of the three most perfect plots in literature.<p><a id="Poetry" name="Poetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Poetry</span></h3>
<p>Jonson's poetry, like his drama, is informed by his classical learning. Some of his better-known poems are close translations of Greek or Roman models; all display the careful attention to form and style that often came naturally to those trained in classics in the <!--del_lnk--> humanist manner. Jonson, however, largely avoided the debates about rhyme and meter that had consumed Elizabethan classicists such as <!--del_lnk--> Campion and <!--del_lnk--> Harvey. Accepting both rhyme and stress, Jonson uses them to mimic the classical qualities of simplicity, restraint, and precision.<p>“Epigrams” (published in the 1616 folio) is an entry in a genre that was popular among late-Elizabethan and Jacobean audiences. Jonson’s epigrams explore various attitudes, most of them from the satiric stock of the day: complaints against women, courtiers, and spies abound. The condemnatory poems are short and anonymous; Jonson’s epigrams of praise, including a famous poem to Camden and lines to Lucy Harington, are somewhat longer and mostly addressed to specific individuals. The poems of “The Forest” also appeared in the first folio. Most of the fifteen poems are addressed to Jonson’s aristocratic supporters, but the most famous are his country-house poem “To Penshurst” and the poem “To Celia” (“Come, my Celia, let us prove”) that appears also in ‘’Volpone.’’<p>‘’Underwoods,’’ published in the expanded folio of 1640, is a larger and more heterogeneous group of poems. It contains ‘’A Celebration of Charis,’’ Jonson’s most extended effort at love poetry; various religious pieces; encomiastic poems including the poem to Shakespeare and a sonnet on <!--del_lnk--> Mary Wroth; the ‘’Execration against Vulcanl” and others. The 1640 volume also contains three elegies which have often been ascribed to Donne (one of them appeared in Donne’s posthumous collected poems).<p><a id="Relationship_with_Shakespeare" name="Relationship_with_Shakespeare"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Relationship with Shakespeare</span></h2>
<p>There are many legends about Jonson's rivalry with <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, some of which may be true. Drummond reports that during their conversation, Jonson scoffed at two apparent absurdities in Shakespeare's plays: a nonsensical line in <i><!--del_lnk--> Julius Caesar</i>, and the setting of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Winter's Tale</i> on the non-existent seacoast of Bohemia. Drummond also reports Jonson saying that Shakespeare "wanted art." Whether Drummond is viewed as accurate or not, the comments fit well with Jonson's well-known theories about literature.<p>In <i>Timber</i>, which was published posthumously and reflects his lifetime of practical experience, Jonson offers a fuller and more conciliatory comment. He recalls being told by certain actors that Shakespeare never blotted (i.e., crossed out) a line when he wrote. His own response, "Would he had blotted a thousand," was taken as malicious. However, Jonson explains, "He was, indeed, honest, and of an open and free nature, had an excellent phantasy, brave notions, and gentle expressions, wherein he flowed with that facility that sometimes it was necessary he should be stopped".<!--del_lnk--> Jonson concludes that "there was ever more in him to be praised than to be pardoned."<p><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Fuller relates stories of Jonson and Shakespeare engaging in debates in the <!--del_lnk--> Mermaid Tavern; Fuller imagines conversations in which Shakespeare would run rings around the more learned but more ponderous Jonson. That the two men knew each other personally is beyond doubt, not only because of the tone of Jonson's references to him but because Shakespeare's company produced a number of Jonson's plays, at least one of which (<i><!--del_lnk--> Every Man in his Humour</i>) Shakespeare certainly acted in. However, it is now impossible to tell how much personal communication they had, and tales of their friendship cannot be substantiated in the present state of knowledge.<p>Jonson's most influential and revealing commentary on Shakespeare is the second of the two poems that he contributed to the prefatory verse that opens Shakespeare's <!--del_lnk--> First Folio. This poem, "To the memory of my beloved, The AUTHOR, Mr. William Shakespeare: And what he hath left us," did a good deal to create the traditional view of Shakespeare as a poet who, despite "small Latine and less Greek," had a natural genius. The poem has traditionally been thought to exemplify the contrast Jonson perceived between himself, the disciplined and erudite classicist, scornful of ignorance and skeptical of the masses, and Shakespeare, represented in the poem as a kind of natural wonder whose genius was not subject to any rules except those of the audiences for which he wrote. But the poem itself qualifies this view: "Yet must I not give Nature all: Thy Art, / My gentle Shakespeare, must enjoy a part." Some view this elegy as a conventional exercise, but a rising number of critics see it as a heartfelt tribute to the "Sweet Swan Of Avon," the "Soul of the Age!" It has been compellingly argued that Jonson helped to edit the <!--del_lnk--> First Folio, and he may have been inspired to write this poem, surely one of his greatest, by reading his fellow playwright's works, a number of which had been previously either unpublished or available in less satisfactory versions, in a relatively complete form.<p><a id="Reception_and_Influence" name="Reception_and_Influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reception and Influence</span></h2>
<p>During most of the seventeenth century Jonson was a towering literary figure, and his influence was enormous. Before the civil war The Tribe of Ben touted his importance, and during the Restoration Jonson's satirical comedies and his theory and practice of "humour characters" (which are often misunderstood; see William Congeve's letters for clarification) was extremely influential, providing the blueprint for many Restoration comedies. Even a rather good-hearted comedy, Congreve's <i>The Way of the World</i>, arguably the greatest play by the greatest playwright of this age, is to a large extent a reworking of Jonson's <i>Epicoene</i>. In the eighteenth century Jonson's status began to decline. In the Romantic era, Jonson suffered the fate of being unfairly compared and contrasted to Shakespeare, as the taste for Jonson's type of satirical comedy decreased. Jonson was at times appreciated by the Romantics, but overall he was denigrated for not writing in a Shakespearean vein. In the twentieth century, Jonson's status rose significantly.<p><a id="Drama_2" name="Drama_2"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Drama</span></h2>
<p>As G. E. Bentley compellingly argues in <i>Shakespeare and Jonson: Their Reputations in the Seventeenth Century Compared</i>, Jonson was more respected and more influential than Shakespeare in the seventeenth century. After the English theatres were reopened on the <!--del_lnk--> Restoration of <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_II_of_England.htm" title="Charles II of England">Charles II</a>, Jonson's work, along with Shakespeare's and <!--del_lnk--> Fletcher's work, formed the initial core of the Restoration repertory. It was not until after 1710 that Shakespeare's plays (ordinarily in heavily revised forms) were more frequently performed than those of his Renaissance contemporaries. Many critics since the eighteenth century have ranked Jonson below only Shakespeare among English Renaissance dramatists. Critical judgment has tended to emphasize the very qualities that Jonson himself lauds in his prefaces, in Timber, and in his scattered prefaces and dedications: the realism and propriety of his language, the bite of his satire, and the care with which he plotted his comedies. For some critics, the temptation to contrast Jonson (representing art or craft) with Shakespeare (representing nature, or untutored genius) has seemed natural; Jonson himself may be said to initiate this interpretation in his poem on Shakespeare.<p><!--del_lnk--> John Dryden offered a similar assessment in the Essay of Dramatic Poesie, when he has his avatar Neander compare Shakespeare to <a href="../../wp/h/Homer.htm" title="Homer">Homer</a> and Jonson to <a href="../../wp/v/Virgil.htm" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>: the former represented profound creativity, the latter polished artifice. But "artifice" was in the seventeenth century almost synonymous with "art"; Jonson, for instance, used "artificer" as a synonym for "artist" (<i>Discoveries,</i> 33). For Lewis Theobald, too, Jonson “ow[ed] all his Excellence to his Art,” in contrast to Shakespeare, the natural genius. A consensus had seened to have formed: Jonson was the first English poet to understand classical precepts with much accuracy, and he was the first to apply those precepts successfully to contemporary life. But there were also more negative spins on Jonson's learned art; for instance, in the 1750s, <!--del_lnk--> Edward Young casually remarked on the way in which Jonson’s learning worked, like Samson’s strength, to his own detriment.<p>The <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">romantic</a> revolution in criticism brought about an overall decline in the critical estimation of Jonson. Hazlitt refers dismissively to Jonson’s “laborious caution.” Coleridge, while more respectful, describes Jonson as psychologically superficial: “He was a very accurately observing man; but he cared only to observe what was open to, and likely to impress, the senses.” Coleridge placed Jonson second only to Shakespeare; other romantic critics were less approving. The early nineteenth century was the great age for recovering Renaissance drama. Jonson, whose reputation had survived, appears to have been less interesting to some readers than writers such as Middleton or Heywood, who were in some senses “discoveries” of the nineteenth century. Moreover, the emphasis the romantic writers placed on imagination, and their concomitant tendency to distrust studied art, lowered Jonson's status, if it also sharpened their awareness of the difference traditionally noted between Jonson and Shakespeare. In the next era Swinburne, who was more interested in Jonson than most Victorians, wrote, “The flowers of his growing have every quality but one which belongs to the rarest and finest among flowers: they have colour, form, variety, fertility, vigour: the one thing they want is fragrance”—by “fragrance,” Swinburne means spontaneity.<p>In the twentieth century, Jonson’s body of work has been subject to a more varied set of analyses, broadly consistent with the interests and programs of modern literary criticism. In an essay printed in <i>The Sacred Wood</i> T.S. Eliot attempts to repudiate the charge that Jonson was an arid classicist by analyzing the role of imagination in his dialogue. Eliot was appreciative of Jonson's overall conception and his "surface," a view consonant with the modernist reaction against Romantic criticism, which tended to denigrate playwrights who did not concentrate on representations of psychological depth. Around mid-century, a number of critics and scholars followed Eliot’s lead, producing detailed studies of Jonson’s verbal style. At the same time, study of Elizabethan themes and conventions, such as those by E.E. Stoll and <!--del_lnk--> M. C. Bradbrook, provided a more vivid sense of how Jonson’s work was shaped by the expectations of his time.<p>The proliferation of new critical perspectives after mid-century touched on Jonson inconsistently. Jonas Barish was the leading figure in a group of critics that was appreciative of Jonson's artistry. On the other hand, Jonson received less attention from the new critics than did some other playwrights and his work was not of programmatic interest to psychoanalytic critics. But Jonson’s career eventually made him a focal point for the revived <!--del_lnk--> sociopolitical criticism. Jonson’s work, particularly his masques and pageants, offers significant information regarding the relations of literary production and political power, as do his contacts with and poems for aristocratic patrons; moreover, his career at the centre of London’s emerging literary world has been seen as exemplifying the development of a fully commodified literary culture. In this respect, Jonson has been seen as a transitional figure, an author whose skills and ambition led him to a leading role both in the declining culture of patronage and in the rising culture of mass consumption.<p><a id="Poetry_2" name="Poetry_2"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Poetry</span></h2>
<p>If Jonson's reputation as a playwright has traditionally been linked to Shakespeare, his reputation as a poet has, since the early twentieth century, been linked to that of <!--del_lnk--> John Donne. In this comparison, Jonson represents the <!--del_lnk--> cavalier strain of poetry, which emphasized grace and clarity of expression; Donne, by contrast, epitomized the <!--del_lnk--> metaphysical school of poetry, with its reliance on strained, <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">baroque</a> metaphors and often vague phrasing. Since the critics who made this comparison (<!--del_lnk--> Herbert Grierson for example), were to varying extents rediscovering Donne, this comparison often worked to the detriment of Jonson's reputation.<p>The grounds for describing Jonson as the "father" of cavalier poets are clear: many of the cavalier poets described themselves as his "sons" or his "tribe." For some of this tribe, the connection was as much social as poetic; Herrick describes meetings at "the Sun, the Dog, the Triple Tunne." All of them, including those like Herrick whose accomplishments in verse are generally regarded as superior to Jonson's, took inspiration from Jonson's revival of classical forms and themes, his subtle melodies, and his disciplined use of <!--del_lnk--> wit. In all of these respects, Jonson may be regarded as among the most important figures in the prehistory of English <a href="../../wp/a/Augustan_literature.htm" title="Augustan literature">neoclassicism</a>.<p>Jonson's poetry continues to interest scholars for the light it sheds on English literary history, particularly as regards politics, systems of patronage, and intellectual attitudes. For the general reader, Jonson's reputation rests on a few lyrics that, though brief, are surpassed for grace and precision by very few Renaissance poems: "On his first son"; "To Celia"; "Drink to me only with thine eyes"; the poem on Penshurst; and the epitaph on <!--del_lnk--> boy player Solomon Pavy.<p><a id="Jonson.27s_works" name="Jonson.27s_works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Jonson's works</span></h2>
<p><a id="Plays" name="Plays"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Plays</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i>A Tale of a Tub,</i> comedy (ca. 1596? revised? performed 1633; printed 1640)<li><i>The Case is Altered,</i> comedy (ca. 1597-8; printed 1609), with <!--del_lnk--> Henry Porter and <!--del_lnk--> Anthony Munday?<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Every Man in His Humour,</i> comedy (performed 1598; printed 1601)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Every Man out of His Humour,</i> comedy ( performed 1599; printed 1600)<li><i>Cynthia's Revels</i> (performed 1600; printed 1601)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Poetaster,</i> comedy (performed 1601; printed 1602)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sejanus: His Fall,</i> tragedy (performed 1603; printed 1605)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Eastward Ho,</i> comedy (performed and printed 1605), a collaboration with <!--del_lnk--> John Marston and <!--del_lnk--> George Chapman<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Volpone,</i> comedy (ca. 1605-6; printed 1607)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Epicoene, or the Silent Woman,</i> comedy (performed 1609; printed 1616)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Alchemist,</i> comedy (performed 1610; printed 1612)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Catiline: His Conspiracy,</i> tragedy (performed and printed 1611)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Bartholomew Fair,</i> comedy (performed Oct. 31, 1614; printed 1631)<li><i>The Devil is an Ass,</i> comedy (performed 1616; printed 1631)<li><i>The Staple of News,</i> comedy (performed Feb. 1626; printed 1631)<li><i>The New Inn, or The Light Heart,</i> comedy (licensed Jan. 19, 1629; printed 1631)<li><i>The Magnetic Lady, or Humors Reconciled,</i> comedy (licensed Oct. 12, 1632; printed 1641)<li><i>The Sad Shepherd,</i> pastoral (ca. 1637, printed 1641), unfinished<li><i>Mortimer his Fall,</i> history (printed 1641), a fragment</ul>
<p><a id="Masques" name="Masques"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Masques</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><i>The Coronation Triumph,</i> or <i>The King's Entertainment</i> (performed March 15, 1604; printed 1604); with <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Dekker<li><i>A Private Entertainment of the King and Queen on May-Day (The Penates)</i> (May 1, 1604; printed 1616)<li><i>The Entertainment of the Queen and Prince Henry at Althorp (The Satyr)</i> (June 25, 1603; printed 1604)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Masque of Blackness</i> (Jan. 6, 1605; printed ca. 1608)<li><i>Hymenaei</i> (Jan. 5, 1606; printed 1606)<li><i>The Entertainment of the Kings of Great Britain and Denmark (The Hours)</i> (July 24, 1606; printed 1616)<li><i>The Masque of Beauty</i> (Jan. 10, 1608; printed ca. 1608)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Masque of Queens</i> (Feb. 2, 1609; printed 1609)<li><i>Hue and Cry after Cupid,</i> or <i>The Masque at Lord Haddington's Marriage</i> (Feb. 9, 1608; printed ca. 1608)<li><i>The Speeches at Prince Henry's Barriers,</i> or <i>The Lady of the Lake</i> (Jan. 6, 1610; printed 1616)<li><i>Oberon, the Faery Prince</i> (Jan. 1, 1611; printed 1616)<li><i>Love Freed from Ignorance and Folly</i> (Feb. 3, 1611; printed 1616)<li><i>Love Restored</i> (Jan. 6, 1612; printed 1616)<li><i>A Challenge at Tilt, at a Marriage</i> (Dec. 27, 1613/Jan. 1, 1614; Printed 1616)<li><i>The Irish Masque at Court</i> (Dec. 29, 1613; printed 1616)<li><i>Christmas, his Masque</i> (Christmas 1616; printed 1641)<li><i>The Vision of Delight</i> (Jan. 6, 1617; printed 1641)<li><i>Lovers Made Men,</i> or <i>The Masque of Lethe,</i> or <i>The Masque at Lord Hay's</i> (Feb. 22, 1617; printed 1617)<li><i>Pleasure Reconciled to Virtue</i> (Jan. 6, 1618; printed 1641) The masque was a failure; Jonson revised it by placing the anti-masque first, turning it into:<li><i>For the Honour of Wales</i> (Feb. 17, 1618; printed 1641)<li><i>News from the New World Discovered in the Moon</i> (Jan. 7, 1620: printed 1641)<li><i>The Entertainment at Blackfriars, or</i> The Newcastle Entertainment <i>(May 1620?; MS)</i><li><i>Pan's Anniversary, or The Shepherds' Holy-Day</i> (June 19, 1620?; printed 1641)<li><i>The Gypsies Metamorphosed</i> (Aug 3 and 5, 1621; printed 1640)<li><i>The Masque of Augurs</i> (Jan. 6, 1622; printed 1622)<li><i>Time Vindicated to Himself, and to his Honours</i> (Jan. 19, 1623; printed 1623)<li><i>Neptune's Triumph for the Return of Albion</i> (Jan. 26, 1624; printed 1624)<li><i>The Masque of Owls at Kenilworth</i> (Aug. 19, 1624; printed 1641)<li><i>The Fortunate Isles and their Union</i> (Jan. 9, 1625; printed 1625)<li><i>Love's Triumph Through Callipolis</i> (Jan. 9, 1631; printed 1631)<li><i>Chloridia: Rites to Chloris and Her Nymphs</i> (Feb. 22, 1631; printed 1631)<li><i>The King's Entertainment at Welbeck in Nottinghamshire</i> (May 21, 1633; printed 1641)<li><i>Love's Welcome at Balsover</i> ( July 30, 1634; printed 1641)</ul>
<p><a id="Other_Works" name="Other_Works"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other Works</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Epigrams (1612)<li>The Forest (1616), including <!--del_lnk--> To Penshurst<li><!--del_lnk--> A Discourse of Love (1618)<li><!--del_lnk--> Barclay's <!--del_lnk--> Argenis, translated by Jonson (1623)<li><!--del_lnk--> The Execration against Vulcan with Epigrams (1640)<li><!--del_lnk--> Horace's Art of Poetry, Englished by Jonson (1640)<li>Underwoods (1640)<li><!--del_lnk--> Timber, or Discoveries, a commonplace book.</ul>
<p>
<br /> As with other English Renaissance dramatists, a portion of Ben Jonson's literary output has not survived. In addition to <i>The Isle of Dogs</i> (1597), the records suggest these lost plays as wholly or partially Jonson's work: <i>Richard Crookback</i> (1602); <i>Hot Anger Soon Cold</i> (1598), with Porter and <!--del_lnk--> Henry Chettle; <i>Page of Plymouth</i> (1599), with Dekker; and <i>Robert II, King of Scots</i> (1599), with Chettle and Dekker. Several of Jonson's masques and entertainments also are not extant: <i>The Entertainment at Merchant Taylors</i> (1607); <i>The Entertainment at Salisbury House for James I</i> (1608); <i>The Entertainment at Britain's Burse for James I</i> (1609); and <i>The May Lord</i> (1613-19).<p>Finally, there are questionable or borderline attributions. Jonson may have had a hand in <i>Rollo, Duke of Normandy, or The Bloody Brother</i>, a play in the canon of <!--del_lnk--> John Fletcher and his collaborators.The comedy <i>The Widow</i> was printed in 1652 as the work of <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Middleton, Fletcher and Jonson, though scholars have been intensely skeptical about Jonson's presence in the play. A few attributions of anonymous plays, like <i><!--del_lnk--> The London Prodigal,</i> have been ventured by individual researchers, but have met with cool responses.<p><a id="Note" name="Note"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Note</span></h2>
<ol class="references">
<li id="_note-0"><b>^</b> Logan and Smith, pp. 82-92.</ol>
<p><a id="Biographies_of_Ben_Jonson" name="Biographies_of_Ben_Jonson"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biographies of Ben Jonson</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i>Ben Jonson: His Life and Work</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Rosalind Miles<li><i>Ben Jonson: His Craft and Art</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Rosalind Miles</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Jonson"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Ben Nevis</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<th bgcolor="#E7DCC3" colspan="2">Ben Nevis</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid #999966; text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/118/11804.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BenNevis2005.jpg" src="../../images/15/1514.jpg" width="300" /></a><br /> Ben Nevis from <!--del_lnk--> Banavie. The summit is beyond and to the left of the apparent highest point.</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px"><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px">1344 <!--del_lnk--> m (4409 <!--del_lnk--> ft)</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px">Location</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px"><!--del_lnk--> Lochaber, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a></td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px"><!--del_lnk--> Prominence</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px">1344 m</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px"><!--del_lnk--> Topo map</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px"><!--del_lnk--> OS <i>Landranger</i> 41</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px"><!--del_lnk--> First ascent</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px"><!--del_lnk--> 17 August <!--del_lnk--> 1771, by James Robertson</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px">Easiest <!--del_lnk--> route</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px"><!--del_lnk--> hike</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px"><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px"><!--del_lnk--> NN166713</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px"><!--del_lnk--> Listing</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px"><!--del_lnk--> Munro, <!--del_lnk--> Marilyn, <!--del_lnk--> Council top (<!--del_lnk--> Highland), <!--del_lnk--> County top (<!--del_lnk--> Inverness-shire)</td>
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<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; border-right: 1px solid #999966; background: #e7dcc3; width: 85px">Translation</td>
<td style="border-top: 1px solid #999966; width: 220px"><i>Venomous mountain?</i> (<a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Gaelic_language.htm" title="Scottish Gaelic language">Gaelic</a>)</td>
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<p><b>Ben Nevis</b> (<a href="../../wp/s/Scottish_Gaelic_language.htm" title="Scottish Gaelic language">Gaelic</a>: <i>Beinn Nibheis</i>) is the highest <!--del_lnk--> mountain in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. It is located at the western end of the <!--del_lnk--> Grampian Mountains in the <!--del_lnk--> Lochaber area of <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, close to the coastal town of <!--del_lnk--> Fort William.<p>The mountain attracts an estimated 100,000 visitors a year, around three-quarters of whom use the well-constructed tourist path. A large number of visitors are climbers attracted by the <!--del_lnk--> cliffs of the north face – among the highest in Great Britain – which harbour some classic <!--del_lnk--> rock climbs as well as being one of the principal locations in the UK for <!--del_lnk--> ice climbing. Ben Nevis's popularity, climate and complex <!--del_lnk--> topography contribute to a high number of <!--del_lnk--> mountain rescue incidents.<p>The name <i>Ben Nevis</i> is usually translated as "malicious" or "venomous mountain", although some people believe <i>Nevis</i> to be derived from the Gaelic for "cloud" or "Heaven". It is often known simply as <i>The Ben</i>.<p>
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</script><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>Ben Nevis forms a <!--del_lnk--> massif with its neighbour to the north-east, <!--del_lnk--> Carn Mòr Dearg, to which it is linked by the Carn Mòr Dearg <!--del_lnk--> Arête. Both mountains are among the eight in <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> over 4,000 <!--del_lnk--> feet (1,219 <!--del_lnk--> metres), as are <!--del_lnk--> Aonach Mòr and <!--del_lnk--> Aonach Beag immediately to the west; the other four are all in the <!--del_lnk--> Cairngorms.<p>The western and southern flanks of Ben Nevis rise steeply but relatively smoothly from <!--del_lnk--> Glen Nevis, with the result that the mountain presents an aspect of massive bulk on this side. To the north, in contrast, steep cliffs drop some 600 metres (2,000 feet) to Coire Leis. This <!--del_lnk--> corrie contains the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut (known as the CIC Hut), a private <!--del_lnk--> climbing hut located at 680 metres above sea level, owned by the <!--del_lnk--> Scottish Mountaineering Club and used as a base for the many <!--del_lnk--> climbing routes on the mountain's north face.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1515.jpg.htm" title="The steep south face of Ben Nevis from Sgurr a' Mhàim."><img alt="The steep south face of Ben Nevis from Sgurr a' Mhàim." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ben_Nevis_south_face.jpg" src="../../images/15/1515.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1515.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The steep south face of Ben Nevis from <!--del_lnk--> Sgurr a' Mhàim.</div>
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<p>In addition to the main 1,344-metre summit, Ben Nevis has two subsidiary "tops" listed in <!--del_lnk--> Munro's Tables, both of which are called Carn Dearg ("red hill"). The higher of these, at 1,221 metres, is situated to the north-west, and is often mistaken for Ben Nevis itself in views from the <!--del_lnk--> Fort William area. The other Carn Dearg (1,020 m) juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountain's south-western side. A lower hill, Meall an t-Suidhe (711 m), is located further west, forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small <a href="../../wp/l/Loch.htm" title="Loch">loch</a>, Lochan an t-Suidhe. The popular tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Nevis's broad western flank.<p><a id="Geology" name="Geology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Geology</span></h3>
<p>Ben Nevis consists mainly of <!--del_lnk--> igneous <a href="../../wp/g/Granite.htm" title="Granite">granite</a> from the <a href="../../wp/d/Devonian.htm" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> period (around 400 million years ago), <!--del_lnk--> intruded into the surrounding metamorphic <!--del_lnk--> schists; the intrusions take the form of a series of concentric ring <!--del_lnk--> dikes. The innermost of these, known as the Inner Granite, constitutes the bulk of the mountain above Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe and includes the cliffs of the north face; Meall an t-Suidhe forms part of the Outer Granite, which is redder in colour. The mountain has been extensively shaped by <!--del_lnk--> glaciation.<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>Ben Nevis's altitude and <!--del_lnk--> maritime location frequently leads to unusually poor weather conditions which can pose a danger to ill-equipped walkers. In an average year the summit is covered by cloud (for at least part of the day) on 355 days, sees 261 full <!--del_lnk--> gales, and receives 4,350 millimetres (171 inches) of rainfall, compared to only 2,050 mm in nearby Fort William and about 600 mm in <!--del_lnk--> Inverness and <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>. Rainfall on Ben Nevis is about twice as high in the winter as it is in the spring and summer. <a href="../../wp/s/Snow.htm" title="Snow">Snow</a> can be found on the mountain all year round, particularly in the gullies of the north face.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made on <!--del_lnk--> 17 August <!--del_lnk--> 1771 by James Robertson, an <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">botanist</a>, who was in the region to collect botanical specimens. Another early ascent was in 1774 by John Williams, who provided the first account of the mountain's geological structure.<p>A <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">meteorological</a> <!--del_lnk--> observatory on the summit was established in 1881 by <!--del_lnk--> Clement Lindley Wragge, who climbed the mountain daily to make readings, and permanently manned between October 1883 and October 1904. In September 1894, <!--del_lnk--> C.T.R. Wilson was employed for a couple of weeks as temporary relief for one of the permanent staff, during which time he witnessed a <!--del_lnk--> Brocken spectre. His subsequent experimental work aimed at understanding this phenomenon eventually led to his invention of the <!--del_lnk--> cloud chamber.<p><a id="Ascent_routes" name="Ascent_routes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ascent routes</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1516.jpg.htm" title="The lower part of the Ben Path, maintained at a high standard to accommodate 75,000 people a year."><img alt="The lower part of the Ben Path, maintained at a high standard to accommodate 75,000 people a year." height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ben_Nevis_Tourist_Route.jpg" src="../../images/15/1516.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1516.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The lower part of the Ben Path, maintained at a high standard to accommodate 75,000 people a year.</div>
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<p>The first <!--del_lnk--> path up the Ben was constructed in 1883 to service the newly constructed summit observatory. It was designed by local headmaster, Colin Livingston, cost £800, and was built to a suitable standard to allow <a href="../../wp/p/Pony.htm" title="Pony">ponies</a> to carry up supplies. It is now known as the Ben Path, the Pony Track, or the Tourist Route, and is the simplest route of ascent. The path begins at the Glen Nevis Visitor Centre about 2 km (1.5 miles) from Fort William town centre, at around 20 metres above <!--del_lnk--> sea level, and a short distance up the mountain is joined by a path from the <!--del_lnk--> youth hostel. It climbs steeply to the saddle by Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe at 570 m, then ascends the remaining 700 metres up the stony west flank of Ben Nevis in a series of zig-zags. The path is well made and maintained throughout its length, and, thanks to the zig-zags, not unusually steep apart from in the initial stages; however, the section above the loch especially is found tedious by many who attempt it, as there is little variety in scenery.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1517.jpg.htm" title="The CMD Arête from near the summit of Carn Mòr Dearg."><img alt="The CMD Arête from near the summit of Carn Mòr Dearg." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CMD_Arete.jpg" src="../../images/15/1517.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1517.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The CMD Arête from near the summit of <!--del_lnk--> Carn Mòr Dearg.</div>
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<p>A route popular with experienced <!--del_lnk--> hillwalkers starts from a few miles north-east of Fort William on the <!--del_lnk--> A82 road, and follows the path alongside the Allt a' Mhuilinn before ascending <!--del_lnk--> Carn Mòr Dearg. (It is also possible to take this route from Glen Nevis by following the tourist route as far as Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe, then descending slightly to the CIC Hut.) From Carn Mòr Dearg one continues along the Carn Mòr Dearg Arête (known as the "CMD Arête"), requiring modest <!--del_lnk--> scrambling ability and a head for heights, before climbing steeply to the summit of Ben Nevis; the route involves a total of 1,500 metres of ascent. This route has the advantage of giving an extensive view of the cliffs of the north face, which are not seen at all from the Tourist Route.<p>It is also possible to climb Ben Nevis from the Nevis Gorge car park at the head of the road up Glen Nevis, either by the south-east ridge or via the summit of Carn Dearg (south-west). These routes do not require scrambling, but are shorter and steeper, and tend to be used by experienced hill walkers.<p><a id="The_summit" name="The_summit"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The summit</span></h2>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1518.jpg.htm" title="The summit plateau. The ruined observatory is in the centre, with the summit cairn to the right."><img alt="The summit plateau. The ruined observatory is in the centre, with the summit cairn to the right." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ben_Nevis_summit.jpg" src="../../images/15/1518.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1518.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The summit plateau. The ruined observatory is in the centre, with the summit cairn to the right.</div>
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<p>The summit of Ben Nevis comprises a large stony <!--del_lnk--> plateau of around 40 hectares (100 acres). The highest point is marked with a large, solidly built <!--del_lnk--> cairn atop which sits an <!--del_lnk--> Ordnance Survey <!--del_lnk--> trig point.<p>The ruined walls of the observatory are a prominent feature on the summit. An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for the benefit of those caught out by bad weather; although the base of the tower is slightly lower than the true summit of the mountain, the roof of the shelter overtops the trig point by several feet, making it the highest man-made structure in Britain. A <!--del_lnk--> war memorial to the dead of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> is located next to the observatory.<p>
<br /> On <!--del_lnk--> 17 May <!--del_lnk--> 2006, a <a href="../../wp/p/Piano.htm" title="Piano">piano</a> that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the <!--del_lnk--> John Muir Trust, the which owns much of the mountain. The piano was believed to have been carried for charity by removal men from <a href="../../wp/d/Dundee.htm" title="Dundee">Dundee</a> over 20 years earlier.<p>The view from Britain's highest point is extensive. In ideal conditions it can extend up to 190 km (120 miles), including such mountains as the <!--del_lnk--> Torridon Hills, <!--del_lnk--> Morven in <!--del_lnk--> Caithness, <!--del_lnk--> Lochnagar, <!--del_lnk--> Ben Lomond and <!--del_lnk--> Barra Head.<p><a id="Navigation" name="Navigation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Navigation</span></h3>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1519.jpg.htm" title="View south-west from the summit in early April. When the cliff edges are corniced, accurate navigation is critical."><img alt="View south-west from the summit in early April. When the cliff edges are corniced, accurate navigation is critical." height="171" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ben_Nevis_cornice.jpg" src="../../images/15/1519.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1519.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View south-west from the summit in early April. When the cliff edges are <!--del_lnk--> corniced, accurate navigation is critical.</div>
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<p>In poor visibility <!--del_lnk--> navigating safely off the summit plateau is notoriously difficult and dangerous. The problem stems from the fact that the plateau is roughly <!--del_lnk--> kidney-shaped, and surrounded by cliffs on three sides; the danger is particularly accentuated when the main path is obscured by snow. Two precise <!--del_lnk--> compass <!--del_lnk--> bearings taken in succession are necessary to navigate from the summit cairn to the west flank, from where a descent can be made on the Pony Track in relative safety.<p>In the late 1990s Lochaber <!--del_lnk--> Mountain Rescue Team erected two posts on the summit plateau, in order to assist walkers attempting the descent in <!--del_lnk--> foggy conditions. These posts were subsequently cut down by climbers, sparking widespread controversy on the ethics of such additions. Supporters of navigational aids point to the high number of accidents that occur on the mountain (between 1990 and 1995 alone there were 13 fatalities, although eight of these were due to falls while rock climbing rather than navigational error), the long tradition of placing such aids on the summit, and the potentially life-saving role they could play. However, critics argue that cairns and posts are an unnecessary man-made intrusion into the natural landscape, which create a false sense of security and could lessen mountaineers' sense of responsibility for their own safety.<p><a id="Climbing_on_Ben_Nevis" name="Climbing_on_Ben_Nevis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Climbing on Ben Nevis</span></h2>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1520.jpg.htm" title="Carn Dearg and the north face in early April."><img alt="Carn Dearg and the north face in early April." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ben_Nevis.jpg" src="../../images/15/1520.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1520.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Carn Dearg and the north face in early April.</div>
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</div>
<p>The north face of Ben Nevis contains many classic <!--del_lnk--> scrambles and <!--del_lnk--> rock climbs, including Tower Ridge – a climb of 600 metres, not technically demanding (it is <!--del_lnk--> graded "Difficult") but committing and very exposed. The north face is also one of Scotland's foremost venues for winter <!--del_lnk--> mountaineering on snow and ice, and holds snow until quite late in the year; in a good year routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring. Famous winter routes range from the aforementioned Tower Ridge (grade III) to <i>Centurion</i> (grade VIII.8).<p><a id="Ben_Nevis_Race" name="Ben_Nevis_Race"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ben Nevis Race</span></h2>
<p>The first recorded <!--del_lnk--> run up Ben Nevis was on 2 August 1895. William Swan, a hairdresser and tobacconist from Fort William, ran from the old post office in 2 hours 41 minutes. In 1897, Spencer Acklom recorded a time of 2:55, and later William MacDonald from <!--del_lnk--> Leith improved the record to 2:27. Two months later Swan again took the record with a time of 2:20, and in 1896 MacDonald improved this to 2:18.<p>The first competitive race was held in 1899. Ten competitors set off from the Lochiel Arms Hotel in <!--del_lnk--> Banavie. The winner was Hugh Kennedy, a gamekeeper at Tor Castle.<p>The 1903 race was from Achintee and to the summit only. It was won in just over an hour by Ewen MacKenzie from Achintore, the observatory roadman. That year there was another race, from the new Fort William post office, and MacKenzie lowered the record to 2:10. Hugh Kennedy was in second place. MacKenzie's record held for 34 years.<p>The Ben Nevis Race has been run in its current form since 1937, and now takes place on the first Saturday in September every year, with up to 500 competitors taking part. It starts from the <!--del_lnk--> Claggan Park football ground on the outskirts of Fort William, and the route is about four miles shorter than in the early years. The current record for men is 1 hour and 25 minutes, and 1 hour 43 minutes for women.<p><a id="Environmental_issues" name="Environmental_issues"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental issues</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1521.jpg.htm" title="Path to the CIC Hut alongside the Allt a' Mhuilinn."><img alt="Path to the CIC Hut alongside the Allt a' Mhuilinn." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Allt_a%27_Mhuilinn.JPG" src="../../images/15/1521.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1521.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Path to the CIC Hut alongside the Allt a' Mhuilinn.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Ben Nevis's popularity and high profile have led to concerns in recent decades over the impact of humans on the fragile mountain environment. These concerns contributed to the purchase of the Ben Nevis Estate in 2000 by the <!--del_lnk--> John Muir Trust, a Scottish charity dedicated to the conservation of wild places. The Estate covers 1,700 hectares of land on the south side of Ben Nevis and the neighbouring mountains of Carn Mòr Dearg and Aonach Beag, including the summit of Ben Nevis.<p>The John Muir Trust is one of nine bodies represented on the main board of the Nevis Partnership. Founded in 2003, the Partnership, which also includes representatives from local government, Glen Nevis residents and mountaineering interests, works to "guide future policies and actions to safeguard, manage and where appropriate enhance the environmental qualities and opportunities for visitor enjoyment and appreciation of the Nevis area". Its projects include path repairs and improvement and the development of strategies for visitor management.<p>One of the Nevis Partnership's more controversial actions has concerned the large number of <!--del_lnk--> memorial <!--del_lnk--> plaques placed by individuals, especially around the summit war memorial. Many people believe that the proliferation of such plaques is inappropriate, and in August 2006 the Nevis Partnership declared an intention to eventually remove these plaques (after making efforts to return them to their owners) as part of a wider campaign to clean up the mountain.<p>In 2005 the amount of litter on the Pony Track was highlighted by national media, including <!--del_lnk--> BBC Radio 5 Live. <!--del_lnk--> Robin Kevan, a retired social worker from mid-Wales who is known as "Rob the Rubbish" for his efforts to clean up the countryside, then drove to Ben Nevis and cleaned the mountain himself, resulting in much media coverage and a concerted clean-up effort.<p><a id="Ben_Nevis_Distillery" name="Ben_Nevis_Distillery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ben Nevis Distillery</span></h2>
<p>The Ben Nevis Distillery is a <!--del_lnk--> single malt whisky distillery at the foot of the mountain, located by Victoria Bridge to the north of Fort William. Founded in 1825 by John McDonald (known as "Long John"), it is one of the oldest licensed distilleries in Scotland, and is a popular visitor attraction in Fort William. The water used to make the whisky comes from the Allt a' Mhuilinn, the stream that flows from Ben Nevis's northern <!--del_lnk--> corrie.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Nevis"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bench language</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Languages.htm">Languages</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox bordered" style="width:270px;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: yellow;">Bench<br /> Bentʂ4-non4</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;">Spoken in:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="top; padding-left: 0.5em;">Region:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Bench Maji Zone, <!--del_lnk--> SNNPR</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;">Total speakers:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;">173,586 (mother-tongue speakers as of <!--del_lnk--> 1998)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> Language family:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Afro-Asiatic<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><!--del_lnk--> Omotic<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><!--del_lnk--> Northern<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><!--del_lnk--> Gonga-Gimojan<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><!--del_lnk--> Gimojan<br /><span style="font-size:66%;"> </span><b>Bench</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="text-align: center; color: black; background-color: yellow;">Language codes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> ISO 639-1:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><i>none</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> ISO 639-2:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><tt>afa</tt></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><!--del_lnk--> ISO/FDIS 639-3:</td>
<td colspan="2" style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><tt><!--del_lnk--> bcq</tt> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="boilerplate metadata" colspan="3" style="padding: 0.5em;"><small><b>Note</b>: This page may contain <!--del_lnk--> IPA <!--del_lnk--> phonetic symbols in <!--del_lnk--> Unicode. See <!--del_lnk--> IPA chart for English for an <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>-<span class="Unicode">​</span>based pronunciation key.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bench</b> (also called <b>Gimira</b>, considered a derogatory term) is a Northern <!--del_lnk--> Omotic language of the "Gimojan" subgroup, spoken by about 174,000 people (as of <!--del_lnk--> 1998) in the <!--del_lnk--> Bench Maji Zone of the <!--del_lnk--> Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region, in southern <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, around the towns of <!--del_lnk--> Mizan Teferi and <!--del_lnk--> Shewa Gimira. It has three mutually intelligible dialects: Bench proper, She, and Mer. In unusual variance from the other languages in the region, it has six phonemic tones.<p>
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</script><a id="Sounds" name="Sounds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sounds</span></h2>
<p>The consonants are:<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>
</th>
<th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Bilabial</th>
<th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Coronal</th>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Palato-<br /> alveolar</th>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Retroflex</th>
<th colspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> Velar</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Glottal</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Plosives</th>
<td align="center">p</td>
<td align="center">b</td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">pʹ</span></td>
<td align="center">t</td>
<td align="center">d</td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">tʹ</span></td>
<td colspan="2">
</td>
<td colspan="2">
</td>
<td align="center">k</td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ɡ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">kʹ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʔ</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Affricates</th>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʦ</span></td>
<td>
</td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʦʹ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʧ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʧʹ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">tʂ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">tʂʹ</span></td>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Fricatives</th>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td align="center">s</td>
<td align="center">z</td>
<td>
</td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʃ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʒ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʂ</span></td>
<td align="center"><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ʐ</span></td>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td align="center">h</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Semivowels</th>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td align="center" colspan="2">j</td>
<td colspan="2">
</td>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Nasals</th>
<td align="center" colspan="3">m</td>
<td align="center" colspan="3">n</td>
<td colspan="2">
</td>
<td colspan="2">
</td>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Liquids</th>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td align="center" colspan="3">l, r</td>
<td colspan="2">
</td>
<td colspan="2">
</td>
<td colspan="3">
</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>All of these can occur <!--del_lnk--> palatalized, but only before a, suggesting an alternate analysis in which "ya" is seen as a sixth phonemic vowel. Labialized consonants (+w) are reported for p, b, s, g, and ʔ, but their phonemic status is unclear; they only occur after /i/.<p>/p/ has two unconditioned <!--del_lnk--> allophones, ph and f; /j/ has the allophone w before back vowels.<p>The phonemic <a href="../../wp/v/Vowel.htm" title="Vowel">vowels</a> of Gimira are a, e, i, o, u.<p>There are six phonemic tones, five <!--del_lnk--> level tones (numbered 1 to 5, beginning with the lowest) and one rising tone 2-3. Level 5 is sometimes realized as a rising 4-5.<p>The syllable structure is (C)V(C)(C)(C) + tone or (C) N (C), where C represents any consonant, V any vowel, N any nasal, and brackets an optional element. CC clusters consist of a <!--del_lnk--> continuant followed by a <!--del_lnk--> plosive, <!--del_lnk--> fricative, or <!--del_lnk--> affricate; in CCC clusters, the first consonant must be one of /r/, /y/, /m/, /p/, or /p'/, the second either /n/ or a voiceless fricative, and the third /t/ or /k/.<p><a id="Grammar" name="Grammar"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Grammar</span></h2>
<p><a id="Nouns" name="Nouns"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nouns</span></h3>
<p>Plurals may optionally be formed by adding the suffix <i>-nd3</i>; however, these are rarely used except with definite nouns. Eg: <i>wu5 in3gnd3</i> "her relatives"; <i>a3tsn3di3 ba4 kang5</i> "all the people".<p><a id="Pronouns" name="Pronouns"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pronouns</span></h3>
<p><a id="Personal_pronouns" name="Personal_pronouns"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Personal pronouns</span></h4>
<table>
<tr>
<th>English</th>
<th>oblique</th>
<th>subject</th>
<th>locative</th>
<th>vocative</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>I</td>
<td><i>ta4</i></td>
<td><i>tan3</i></td>
<td><i>ta1t'n3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>you (sg.)</td>
<td><i>ni4</i></td>
<td><i>nen3</i></td>
<td><i>ni1t'n3</i></td>
<td><i>wo1</i> (m.), <i>ha1</i> (f.)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>you (hon.)</td>
<td><i>yint2</i></td>
<td><i>yint2</i></td>
<td><i>yint2</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>he</td>
<td><i>yi5</i></td>
<td><i>yis3</i></td>
<td>_</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>he (hon.)</td>
<td><i>its5</i></td>
<td><i>its5</i></td>
<td><i>its5</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>she</td>
<td><i>wu5</i></td>
<td><i>wus3</i></td>
<td>_</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>she (hon.)</td>
<td><i>gen3</i></td>
<td><i>gen3</i></td>
<td><i>gen3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>himself/herself</td>
<td><i>ba4</i></td>
<td><i>ban3</i></td>
<td><i>ba1t'n3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>we (excl.)</td>
<td><i>nu4</i></td>
<td><i>nun3</i></td>
<td><i>nu1t'n3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>we (incl.)</td>
<td><i>ni5</i></td>
<td><i>nin3</i></td>
<td><i>ni1t'n3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>you (pl.)</td>
<td><i>yin2tay1k'n3</i></td>
<td><i>yin2tay1k'n3</i></td>
<td><i>yin2tay1k'n3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>they</td>
<td><i>i5tsay1k'n3</i></td>
<td><i>i5tsay1k'n3</i></td>
<td><i>i5tsay1k'n3</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i>ba4</i> goes slightly beyond being a <!--del_lnk--> reflexive pronoun; it can mark any third person that refers to the subject of the sentence, eg:<dl>
<dd><i>yi1si3 ba4 dor3 go1tu2e3</i> "he sold his (own) sheep" ("he-S. own sheep sell-he-Fin.")<dd><i>bo1dam4 han3k'a4 ba3yis4ta3gu2ʂn3 pan3ts'a2 ez2-3</i> "when he was going along the road, he saw a big leopard" ("road-Abl. go-self self-be-Stat.-Det.-when leopard-NPMk. big see-he-Fin.")</dl>
<p>The oblique form is basic, and serves as object, possessive, and adverbial. The subject form has three variants: normal (given above), emphatic - used when the subject is particularly prominent in the sentence, especially sentence-initially - and reduced, used as part of a verb phrase. The "locative" term means "to, at, or for one's own place or house", eg:<dl>
<dd><i>kar1ta4 ta1t'n3 ta3 han3k'u2e3</i> "I went home" ("return-I to-my-house I go-I-Fin.")</dl>
<p><a id="Determiners" name="Determiners"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Determiners</span></h4>
<p>The main determiners are "that, the" (masc. <i>uʂ2</i>, fem. <i>en2</i>, pl. <i>end2</i>) and "this" (masc. <i>haʂ2</i>, fem. <i>han2</i>, pl. <i>hand2</i>). As suffixes on a verb or an ablative or locative phrase, they indicate a relative clause. Eg:<dl>
<dd><i>a3tsn3da2 han2dis3 har2-3am4 bad3 a4tsn3da1?</i> "how can I separate these people?" ("person-Pl.-NPMk. these-O. what-Abl. separate make-Fut.-Intl.?")<dd><i>a4tsin4 ke4tn5 yis4ken2</i> "the woman who is in the house" ("woman house-Loc. be-that")</dl>
<p><a id="Demonstratives" name="Demonstratives"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Demonstratives</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> demonstratives include <i>hang4</i> "here", <i>ek3</i> "there (nearby)", <i>yink2</i> "there (far away)", <i>neg3</i> "down there", <i>nek2</i> "up there". Alone, or with the determiner suffixes <i>uʂ2</i> or <i>aʂ2</i> added, these function as demonstrative pronouns "this person", "that person", etc. With the noun phrase marker <i>-a2</i>, they become demonstrative adjectives. Eg:<dl>
<dd><i>hang2 nas4 dad1n3 a2ta3gu2ʂ2n3</i> "when he came near to the man..." ("here man near reach-Stat.-Det.-when")<dd><i>nya3ʔa2 ne3ga2 han2di3</i> "these boys down there" ("boy-NPMk. down-there-NPMk. Det.-S.")</dl>
<p><a id="Numbers" name="Numbers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Numbers</span></h3>
<p>The numbers are:<table>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td><i>mat'3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td><i>nam4</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3</td>
<td><i>kaz4</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>4</td>
<td><i>od4</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>5</td>
<td><i>utʂ2</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>6</td>
<td><i>sa2pm3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>7</td>
<td><i>na2pm3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>8</td>
<td><i>nyar2tn3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>9</td>
<td><i>irs2tn3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>10</td>
<td><i>tam5</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>100</td>
<td><i>bal2-3</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1000</td>
<td><i>wum2-3</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>20, 30, etc. are formed by adding <i>tam2</i> "ten" (with tone change) to the unit. In compound numbers, <i>-a4</i> is added to each 'figure, thus:<dl>
<dd>13 = <i>ta5ma4 ka4za4</i><dd>236 = <i>nam4 ba2-3la4 kaz3ta2ma4 sa2pm3a4</i></dl>
<p>When a <!--del_lnk--> cardinal number functions as an adjective, the suffix -as3 can be added (eg <i>nya3ʔa2 ka4zas3</i> "three children".) <a href="../../wp/o/Ordinal_number.htm" title="Ordinal number">Ordinal numbers</a> are formed by suffixing <i>-nas4</i> to the cardinal, eg: <i>od4nas4</i> "fourth".<p><a id="Adjectives" name="Adjectives"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Adjectives</span></h3>
<p>Adjectives are sometimes intensified by changing the tone to 5; eg <i>ez2-3</i> "big" > <i>ez5</i> "very big".<p><a id="Verbs" name="Verbs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Verbs</span></h3>
<p>Verbs with monosyllabic roots can have three different forms of their active stems: the singular imperative, which is just the root; the past stem, usually identical to the root but sometimes formed by adding <i>-k</i> (with changes to the preceding consonant); and the future stem, usually identical to the root but sometimes formed by changing the tone from 3 to 4 or from 1 to 5. Some have causative (formed by adding <i>-as3</i> or <i>-s1</i>, and changing tone 3 to 4) and passive (formed by adding <i>-n3</i>, <i>-t</i>, or <i>-k1</i> to the causative) forms. Verbal nouns are formed from the stem, sometimes with tone change or addition or <i>-t</i>.<p>Verbs with polysyllabic roots have at least two forms, one with an intransitive or passive meaning and one with a transitive or causative meaning; the former ends in <i>-n3</i>, the latter in <i>-as3</i>. A passive may be formed by ending in <i>-as3n3</i>. Verbal nouns are formed by taking the bare stem without <i>-n3</i> or <i>-as3</i>.<p>Compound verbs are formed with <i>mak2</i> "say" or <i>mas2</i> "cause to say", a formation common among Ethiopian languages.<p>The primary tenses are simple past (formed from the past stem), future (future stem plus <i>-ns3-</i>), present perfect (from present participle stem); negative (future stem plus <i>-arg4-</i>.) Eg: <i>ham3</i> > <i>han3k'u2e3</i> "he went"; <i>ham4sm3su2e3</i> "he will go"; <i>han3k'n4su2e3</i> "he has gone".<p>There are four corresponding participles: past (formed from the past stem), present perfect (formed from the past stem with the suffix <i>-ns4-</i>, <i>-ng4</i>, or <i>-ank'4-</i>), imperfect (formed from the future stem with the stative suffix <i>-ag3-</i>), and negative (formed from the future stem with the negative suffix <i>-arg4-</i> or <i>-u2-</i> or a person/number marker.)<p>The order of affixes is: root - (tense) - (negative) - (foc. pn.) - person/number - marker.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bench_language"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Benin</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.African_Geography.African_Countries.htm">African Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3><div class="soslink"> SOS Children works in Benin. For more information see <a href="../../wp/b/Benin_B.htm" title="SOS Children in Benin, Africa">SOS Children in Benin, Africa</a></div>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>République du Bémmin</b><br /><b>Republic of Benin</b></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/7/786.png.htm" title="Flag of Benin"><img alt="Flag of Benin" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Benin.svg" src="../../images/15/1522.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1523.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Benin"><img alt="Coat of arms of Benin" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Benin.png" src="../../images/15/1523.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<tr>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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</table>
</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>Fraternité, Justice, Travail</i> <small>(<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>)<br /> "Fellowship, Justice, Labour"</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> L'Aube Nouvelle</i> <small>(French)<br /> "The Dawn of a New Day"</small></td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1524.png.htm" title="Location of Benin"><img alt="Location of Benin" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBenin.png" src="../../images/15/1524.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Capital</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Porto Novo<sup>1</sup><br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 6°28′N 2°36′E</span></small></td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><a href="../../wp/d/Demographics_of_Benin.htm" title="Demographics of Benin">Largest city</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Cotonou</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a></td>
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<tr>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;">Multiparty democracy</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> President</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Yayi Boni</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Independence</th>
<td>from <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> </td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Date</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1960 </td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 112,622 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 101st)<br /> 43,483 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>1.8</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - July 2005 estimate</td>
<td>8,439,000<sup>2</sup> (<!--del_lnk--> 89th)</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - 2002 census</td>
<td>6,769,914</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>75/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 118th<sup>3</sup>)<br /> 194/sq mi</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$8.75 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 140th)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$1,176 (<!--del_lnk--> 165th)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2004)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1525.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Red_Arrow_Down.svg" src="../../images/15/1525.png" width="10" /></a> 0.428 (<font color="#E0584E">low</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 163rd)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CFA franc (<code><!--del_lnk--> XOF</code>)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> WAT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><i>not observed</i> (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+1)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bj</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+229</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> Cotonou is the seat of government.<br /><sup>2</sup> Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.<br /><sup>3</sup> Rank based on 2005 estimate.</small></td>
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<dl>
<dd><span class="dablink"><i>Not to be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Benin, now the Benin region of <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, or <!--del_lnk--> Benin City in that region.</i></span></dl>
<p><b>Benin</b>, officially the <b>Republic of Benin</b>, is a country in <!--del_lnk--> Western Africa, <!--del_lnk--> formerly known as <!--del_lnk--> Dahomey (until 1975) or Dahomania. It borders <a href="../../wp/t/Togo.htm" title="Togo">Togo</a> to the west, <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> to the east and <a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a> to the north; its short coastline to the south leads to the <!--del_lnk--> Bight of Benin. Its capital is <!--del_lnk--> Porto Novo, but the seat of government is <!--del_lnk--> Cotonou.<p>
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</script><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2>
<p>The name Benin has no proper connection to <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Benin (or <!--del_lnk--> Benin City). The name <!--del_lnk--> Dahomey was changed in 1975 to The Republic of Benin, named after the body of water on which the country lies, the <!--del_lnk--> Bight of Benin. This name was picked due to its neutrality, since the current political boundries of Benin encompass over 50 distinct linguistic groups and nearly as many individual ethnic groups. The name <!--del_lnk--> Dahomey was the name of the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Fon Kingdom, and was determined to be an inappropriate name for such a culturally diverse modern country.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1526.jpg.htm" title="Celebration at Abomey, 1908."><img alt="Celebration at Abomey, 1908." height="108" longdesc="/wiki/Image:La_F%C3%AAte_%C3%A0_Abomey%281908%29._-_Danse_de_f%C3%AAticheuses_de_Fon.jpg" src="../../images/15/1526.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1526.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Celebration at <!--del_lnk--> Abomey, 1908.</div>
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</div>
<p>The African kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Dahomey was formed by a mixture of various local ethnic groups on the Abomey plain. Historian IA Akinjogbin theorized that the insecurity caused by the slave trade may have contributed to mass migrations of different groups, including a segment of the royal family of the city of Allada, to Abomey. These groups coalesced around a strict military culture aimed at securing and eventually expanding the borders of the small kingdom.<p>Dahomey was known for its distinct culture and traditions. Boys were often apprenticed to older soldiers at a young age, and learned about the kingdom's military customs until they were old enough to join the army. Dahomey was also famous for instituing an elite female soldier corps, called "Ahosi" or "our mothers" in the Fongbe language, but better known as the Dahomean Amazons in English. This emphasis on military preparation and achievement earned Dahomey the nickname of "little black Sparta" from European observers and commentators like <!--del_lnk--> Sir Richard Burton. <!--del_lnk--> Human sacrifice was a common practice, according to contemporary sources; on holidays and special occasions, thousands of slaves and prisoners of war were beheaded in public. Some Dahomean religious beliefs maintained that decapitation enhanced the prestige and potency of the Dahomean throne and its warriors.<p>Though the founders of Dahomey appear to have initially been against it, the slave trade was active in the region of Dahomey for almost three hundred years, leading to the area being named "the Slave Coast". The demands of court procedures, which demanded that a portion of war captives from the kingdom's many battles be decapitated, led to a decrease in the amount of enslaved people exported from the area. The number went from 20,000 at the end of the seventeenth century to 12,000 in the beginning of the 1800's. The decline is partly due to many colonial countries declaring slave trade illegal. This decline continued until 1885, when the last <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> trade vessel with slaves departed from the coast of present day Benin.<p>Along with the powerful Dahomean kingdom, a range of other nations inhabited the area that would become the Republic of Benin. Of note were the <!--del_lnk--> Ketu, Icha, Dassa, Anago, and other sub-groups of the <!--del_lnk--> Yoruba-speaking people. These groups were in close contact with related sub-groups in present-day Nigeria, and were often enemies of the Dahomeans. However, some were also citizens of Dahomey and in regions like present-day <!--del_lnk--> Porto Novo, both groups were intermarried.<p>North of these people were the <!--del_lnk--> Borgu, <!--del_lnk--> Mahi, and several other ethnic groups that form the country's present population.<p>By the middle of the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, Dahomey started to lose its status as the regional power, enabling the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> to take over the area in <!--del_lnk--> 1892. In <!--del_lnk--> 1899, the land became part of the <!--del_lnk--> French West Africa colony, still as Dahomey. In <!--del_lnk--> 1958, it was granted autonomy as the Republic of Dahomey, and full independence started on <!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1960.<p>For the next 12 years, ethnic strife contributed to a period of turbulence. There were several coups and regime changes, with three main figures dominating - <!--del_lnk--> Sourou Apithy, <!--del_lnk--> Hubert Maga, and <!--del_lnk--> Justin Ahomadegbé - each of them representing a different area of the country. These three agreed to form a presidential council after violence had marred the <!--del_lnk--> 1970 elections. In <!--del_lnk--> 1972, a military coup led by <!--del_lnk--> Mathieu Kérékou overthrew the council. He established a <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxist</a> government under the control of <!--del_lnk--> Military Council of the Revolution (CNR), and the country was renamed to the People's Republic of Benin in <!--del_lnk--> 1975. In <!--del_lnk--> 1979, the CNR was dissolved and elections took place. By the late <!--del_lnk--> 1980s, Kérékou abandoned Marxism after an economic crisis and decided to re-establish a parliamentary <!--del_lnk--> capitalist system. He was defeated in <!--del_lnk--> 1991 elections by <!--del_lnk--> Nicéphore Soglo, becoming the first black African president to step down after an election. He returned to power after winning the <!--del_lnk--> 1996 vote. In <!--del_lnk--> 2001, a closely fought election resulted in Kérékou winning another term. His opponents claimed there were some election irregularities.<p>President Kérékou and former President Soglo did not run in the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 elections, both being barred by the constitution of Benin from running again due to their age and President Kérékou's two recent terms as president. President Kérékou is widely praised for making no effort to change the constitution so that he could remain in office or run again, unlike some African leaders. An election, considered free and fair, was held on <!--del_lnk--> March 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, and resulted in a <!--del_lnk--> runoff between <!--del_lnk--> Yayi Boni and <!--del_lnk--> Adrien Houngbédji. The runoff election was held on <!--del_lnk--> March 19 and was won by Yayi Boni, who assumed office on <!--del_lnk--> April 6. The success of the fair multiparty elections in Benin won high praise, and Benin is widely considered a model democracy in Africa.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p><b>Politics of Benin</b> takes place in a framework of a <!--del_lnk--> presidential <!--del_lnk--> representative democratic <!--del_lnk--> republic, whereby the <!--del_lnk--> President of Benin is both <!--del_lnk--> head of state and <!--del_lnk--> head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. <!--del_lnk--> Executive power is exercised by the government. <!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in both the <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> and the legislature. The <!--del_lnk--> Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The current political system is derived from the <!--del_lnk--> 1990 <!--del_lnk--> Constitution of Benin and the subsequent transition to democracy in <!--del_lnk--> 1991.<p><a id="Administrative_divisions" name="Administrative_divisions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Administrative divisions</span></h2>
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<dd>
</dl>
<p>For decades Benin was divided into six <!--del_lnk--> departments or provinces, each of which was split in two in 1999. The provinces are divided into 77 <!--del_lnk--> communes.<p>The twelve provinces of Benin are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Alibori (from north Borgou)<li><!--del_lnk--> Atakora<li><!--del_lnk--> Atlantique<li><!--del_lnk--> Borgou<li><!--del_lnk--> Collines (from north Zou)<li><!--del_lnk--> Donga (from south Atakora)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kouffo (from north Mono)<li><!--del_lnk--> Littoral (the region of Cotonou, split from Atlantique)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mono<li><!--del_lnk--> Ouémé<li><!--del_lnk--> Plateau (from north Ouémé)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zou</ul>
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1527.png.htm" title="Map of Benin"><img alt="Map of Benin" height="431" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benin_map.png" src="../../images/15/1527.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1527.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Benin</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1528.png.htm" title="Satellite image of Benin, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library"><img alt="Satellite image of Benin, generated from raster graphics data supplied by The Map Library" height="361" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benin_sat.png" src="../../images/15/1528.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1528.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image of Benin, generated from <!--del_lnk--> raster graphics data supplied by <!--del_lnk--> The Map Library</div>
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<p>Stretched between the <a href="../../wp/n/Niger_River.htm" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> in the north and the <!--del_lnk--> Bight of Benin in the south, Benin's elevation is about the same for the entire country. Most of the population lives in the southern coastal plains, where Benin's largest cities are also located, including <!--del_lnk--> Porto Novo and <!--del_lnk--> Cotonou. The north of the country consists mostly of <!--del_lnk--> savanna and semi-arid highlands.<p>The climate in Benin is hot and humid with relatively little rain compared to other West African countries, although there are two rainy seasons (April-July and September-November). In the winter the dust winds of the <!--del_lnk--> harmattan can make the nights rather cold.<p>The largest city and commercial capital is <!--del_lnk--> Cotonou. The name <i>Cotonou</i> is from the <!--del_lnk--> Fon phrase <i><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">ku tɔ nu</span></i> 'at the lake of the dead', from the adjacent lagoon. This is a reference to the belief that falling stars represent the souls of those who have just died falling to the underworld. It is said that when Cotonou was founded, the lights of the lacustrine village of <!--del_lnk--> Ganvié across the lagoon were reflected in the waters, suggesting fallen stars at the bottom. Ganvié is a fishing village sitting in the water on stilts at the western shore of the lagoon.<p>The town of <!--del_lnk--> Ouidah is the spiritual capital of vodun, and is known locally as <i>glexwe</i>. It was a major slaving port under <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> occupation. The town of <!--del_lnk--> Abomey is the old capital of the Fon kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Dahomey, and the Fon king continues to reside there.<p>In Atakora province, Betamaribe settlements straddling the Togolese border are called <!--del_lnk--> tata somba 'Somba houses'; they are famous for their fortifications, with livestock housed inside and the people sleeping in huts among the granaries on the roofs.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, <a href="../../wp/c/Cotton.htm" title="Cotton">cotton</a> production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a stable 5% in the past six years, but rapid population rise has offset much of this increase. <!--del_lnk--> Inflation has subsided over the past several years. In order to raise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreign investment, place more emphasis on <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a>, facilitate the development of new food processing systems and agricultural products, and encourage new information and <!--del_lnk--> communication technology. The 2001 privatization policy should continue in <!--del_lnk--> telecommunications, water, electricity, and agriculture in spite of initial government reluctance. The <!--del_lnk--> Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation, while pressing for speeded-up structural reforms.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<p>There are several dozen <b>ethnolinguistic groups</b> in Benin, representing three of Africa's language families: <!--del_lnk--> Niger-Congo, <!--del_lnk--> Nilo-Saharan, and <!--del_lnk--> Afroasiatic. The later is represented by <!--del_lnk--> Hausa living mostly as merchants in the north, while Nilo-Saharan is represented by the <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Dɛndi</span>, descending from the <!--del_lnk--> Songhai Empire. The <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Dɛndi</span> language predominates along the <a href="../../wp/n/Niger_River.htm" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> in the far north, and is used as a <!--del_lnk--> lingua franca in Muslim areas throughout the north, in Alibori, Borgou, and Donga provinces. Of the Niger-Congo family, five branches are represented:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mande by the <!--del_lnk--> Boko or Busa, now in the far eastern corner (southern Alibori-northern Borgou), but previously more widely spread before being largely absorbed by the Bariba<li><!--del_lnk--> West Atlantic by the nomadic <!--del_lnk--> Fulbe scattered across the northeast<li><!--del_lnk--> Benue-Congo by the <!--del_lnk--> Yoruba of Collines and Plateau provinces, such as the old kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Sakete, and the capital city of <a href="../../wp/p/Porto-Novo.htm" title="Porto-Novo">Porto-Novo</a>, having expanded west from <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Ɔyɔ</span> and <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Ifɛ</span> in the 12th to 19th centuries<li><!--del_lnk--> Gur (Voltaic) languages predominate in the four northern provinces, with the <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Batɔmbu</span> (Bariba) of the old <!--del_lnk--> Borgou (Bariba) Kingdom occupying most of the countryside in its successor provinces of Borgou and Alibori, as well as the provincial captital of <!--del_lnk--> Parakou; the <!--del_lnk--> Yom throughout much of Donga province and its capital <!--del_lnk--> Djougou; and several groups in the Atakora, including the <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Bɛtamaribɛ</span> of the Otammari country around the provincial capital of <!--del_lnk--> Natitingou, the <!--del_lnk--> Biali, the <!--del_lnk--> Waama of <!--del_lnk--> Tanguiéta, and the <!--del_lnk--> Gulmàceba.<li><!--del_lnk--> Kwa, especially the <!--del_lnk--> Gbe languages spoken by the <!--del_lnk--> Tado peoples in the southern and central provinces: the <!--del_lnk--> Aja who established themselves in Kouffo province from neighboring <a href="../../wp/t/Togo.htm" title="Togo">Togo</a> and gave rise to the other Tado peoples of Benin, except for the <!--del_lnk--> Mina of Mono province, who arrived separately from Togo or <a href="../../wp/g/Ghana.htm" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>: The <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Fɔn</span> culture centered in Zou province around the old <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Fɔn</span> capital of <!--del_lnk--> Abomey, but also dominant in <!--del_lnk--> Cotonou and southern Atlantique areas such as <!--del_lnk--> Ouidah; the <!--del_lnk--> Maxi in central Collines, especially around <!--del_lnk--> Savalou; the <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Ayizɔ</span> of central Atlantique (<!--del_lnk--> Allada); the <!--del_lnk--> Xwla and <!--del_lnk--> Xueda in the lagoons of the coast; the <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Tɔfin</span> of Ouémé; and the <!--del_lnk--> Gun of Porto-Novo. Other Kwa languages are spoken by the <!--del_lnk--> Anii in southern Donga in the region of <!--del_lnk--> Bassila, and the <!--del_lnk--> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">Fooɖo</span> in western Donga near the town of <!--del_lnk--> Ouaké.</ul>
<p>Numerically, the most important people are the Fon, with 1.7 million speakers of the Fon language (2001), followed by the various Yoruba groups (1.2 million), the Aja (600,000), the Bariba (460,000), the Ayizo (330,000), the Fulbe (310,000), and the Gun (240,000). Near the ports in the south can be found people of lighter skin who are descended from returned <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> slaves. There are also small numbers of Europeans, principly <!--del_lnk--> French, and Asians, principly <!--del_lnk--> Lebanon and <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">Indians</a>.<p><b>Indigenous religions</b> are followed by a majority of the people and include local <!--del_lnk--> animistic religions in the <!--del_lnk--> Atakora (Atakora and Donga provinces), and <!--del_lnk--> Vodun among the Yoruba and Tado peoples of the centre and south of the country. The town of <!--del_lnk--> Ouidah on the central coast is the spiritual centre of Beninese vodun.<p>The Yoruba and Tado pantheons correspond closely:<ul>
<li>The <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">supreme deity</a> <!--del_lnk--> Mawu (in the Fon language) or <!--del_lnk--> Olodumare (in Yoruba)<li>The god of the earth and smallpox, <!--del_lnk--> Sakpata or Cankpana<li>The god of thunder, <!--del_lnk--> Xevioso or <!--del_lnk--> Cango<li>The god of war and iron, Gu or <!--del_lnk--> Ogun</ul>
<p>The principal <b>introduced religions</b> are <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>, introduced by the <!--del_lnk--> Songhai Empire and Hausa merchants, and now followed throughout <!--del_lnk--> Alibori, <!--del_lnk--> Borgou, and <!--del_lnk--> Donga provinces, as well as among the Yoruba, by 10-15% of the population; and <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, followed nominally by another 10-15% throughout the south and centre of Benin and in <!--del_lnk--> Otammari country in the <!--del_lnk--> Atakora. Most Christians, however, continue to hold Vodun beliefs and have incorporated the Christian pantheon into the Vodun.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<p>It is believed that <!--del_lnk--> Vodun (or "Voodoo", as it is commonly known) originated in Benin and was introduced to <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean Islands, and parts of North America by <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slaves</a> taken from this particular area of the <!--del_lnk--> Slave Coast. The <!--del_lnk--> indigenous religion of Benin is practiced by about 60% of the population. Since 1992 Vodun has been recognized as one of Benin's official religions, and a National Vodun Holiday is celebrated on January 10.<p>Many Beninese in the south of the country have <!--del_lnk--> Akan-based names indicating the day of the week they were born on. Twins are important in south Beninese culture, and special names for twins are also used.<p>Local languages are used as the languages of instruction in elementary schools, with French only introduced after several years. Beninese languages are generally transcribed with a separate letter for each speech sound (<!--del_lnk--> phoneme), rather than using <!--del_lnk--> diacritics as in French or <!--del_lnk--> digraphs as in English. This includes Beninese <!--del_lnk--> Yoruba, which in <a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> is written with both diacritics and digraphs. For instance, the <!--del_lnk--> mid vowels written <i>é è, ô, o</i> in French are written <i><span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">e, ɛ, o, ɔ</span></i> in Beninese languages, whereas the <!--del_lnk--> consonants written <i>ng</i> and <i>sh</i> or <i>ch</i> in English are written <i>ŋ</i> and <i>c.</i> However, digraphs are used for <!--del_lnk--> nasal vowels and the <!--del_lnk--> labial-velar consonants <i>kp</i> and <i>gb,</i> as in the name of the Fon language <i>Fon gbe</i> <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/fõ ɡ͡be/</span>, and diacritics are used as <!--del_lnk--> tone marks. In French-language publications, a mixture of French and Beninese orthographies may be seen.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin"</div>
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<h2>SOS Children in Benin</h2>
<img src="../../wp/j/Jwp_map_benin_en1.gif" width="220" height="400" alt="Sponsorship Locations in Benin" class="left" /><p>Benin in north-west Africa has one of Africa's rare democratic systems and is relatively economically stable. However, infant and maternal mortality are high, as is female illiteracy. Poverty and illness are widespread. </p><p>The acute need for care facilities for orphaned and abandoned children led to the charity's construction of its first community in 1987 at Abomey-Calavi, about 17 km from the country's largest city, Cotonou. Six family houses were built, together with a nursery school and a primary school. The charity added five more family houses in 1990 and the village is now home to over 100 children. </p><p>Both the nursery school and the primary school provide children from the neighbourhood, as well as the village, with a sound education. Because of the lack of schools in Benin, a secondary school was built in 2002, which has capacity for over 400 pupils and specialist facilities for teaching arts and music. </p><p>Benin's second SOS Children's community came about as the result of a particular problem with children being abandoned because of traditional beliefs. SOS Children's Village Natitingou opened in 1999. Natitingou is the capital of the province Atacorta in the north-west of Benin. The village is on a hill on the edge of the town on the main road to Djougou, in a sparsely populated, predominantly poor area. It has ten family houses which are home to 100 children. There is a kindergarten for 50 children and also a primary school, both of which take in children from the local community as well as the SOS families. </p><p>A third village in the city of Dassa-Zoumé, about 125 miles from Cotonou in the centre of the country opened in 2006. There are twelve family houses for 120 children, a nursery school for 50 children in two classes, a primary school for 210 children in six classes and a social centre which will give support and help to prevent abandonment to 12,000 people each year in the local communities. The main focus of the social centre is a community AIDS awareness project, as AIDS infection rates in Dassa-Zoumé are among the highest in the country.</p><p>See also <a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Benin_Africa.htm">Aids Orphan Projects in Benin, Africa</a></p><h3>Local Contacts</h3>
<img src="../../wp/b/Benin_2.jpg" width="400" height="249" alt="SOS Children in Benin" class="left" /><p>SOS Children Charity in Benin Association des Villages d’Enfants SOS au Bénin, B.P. 82, Abomey-Calavi, Benin<br />Tel & Fax: +229/36/07/12<br />e-mail: [email protected]</p><p><strong><a href="../../wp/s/Sponsor_A_Child.htm">Benin Child Sponsorship</a></strong></p>
<p>Next Country: <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana_B.htm">Botswana</a></p>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a>; <a href="../index/subject.History.World_War_II.htm">World War II</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/10/1029.jpg.htm" title="Benito Mussolini"><img alt="Benito Mussolini" height="323" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benito_Mussolini_1.jpg" src="../../images/10/1029.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
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<div style="background:lavender; font-weight:bold"><!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister of Italy</div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> 31 October <!--del_lnk--> 1922 – <!--del_lnk--> 25 July <!--del_lnk--> 1943</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Luigi Facta</td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Pietro Badoglio <i>(Provisional Military Government)</i></td>
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<div style="background:lavender;"><!--del_lnk--> Head of the Italian Social Republic</div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> September 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1943 – <!--del_lnk--> 26 April <!--del_lnk--> 1945</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td>none</td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td>none</td>
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<td colspan="2">
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<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> July 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1883<br /><!--del_lnk--> Predappio, <!--del_lnk--> Forlì, <!--del_lnk--> Emilia-Romagna, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></td>
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<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 28 April <!--del_lnk--> 1945<br /><!--del_lnk--> Giulino di Mezzegra, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Fascist Party</td>
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<th>Spouse</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rachele Mussolini</td>
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<th>Profession</th>
<td>journalist</td>
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<th>Religion</th>
<td>Probably <a href="../../wp/a/Atheism.htm" title="Atheism">atheist</a>,<p>but nevertheless baptized <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic in <!--del_lnk--> 1927</td>
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<p><b>Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini</b> (<!--del_lnk--> July 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1883 – <!--del_lnk--> April 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1945) was the <!--del_lnk--> prime minister and dictator of Italy from 1922 until 1943, when he was overthrown from power. He established a repressive <!--del_lnk--> fascist regime that valued nationalism, militarism, and anti-communism combined with strict censorship and state propaganda. Mussolini became a close ally of <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> dictator <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, whom he influenced. Mussolini entered <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> in June, 1940 on the side of <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>. Three years later, the <!--del_lnk--> Allies invaded Italy. In April 1945 Mussolini attempted to escape to German-controlled Austria, only to be captured and executed near <!--del_lnk--> Lake Como by Communist Resistance units.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_years" name="Early_years"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early years</span></h2>
<p>Mussolini was born in the village of Dovia di <!--del_lnk--> Predappio in the province of <!--del_lnk--> Forlì, in <!--del_lnk--> Emilia-Romagna on July 29, 1883 to Rosa and Alessandro Mussolini. He was named <i>Benito</i> after Mexican reformist President <!--del_lnk--> Benito Juárez; the names <i>Andrea</i> and <i>Amilcare</i> were for Italian socialists <!--del_lnk--> Andrea Costa and <!--del_lnk--> Amilcare Cipriani. His mother, Rosa Maltoni, was a <!--del_lnk--> teacher. His father, Alessandro, was a <!--del_lnk--> blacksmith who often encouraged Benito to disobey authority (other than his own). He adored his father, but his love was never reciprocated. Like his father, who was a member of the first <!--del_lnk--> Socialist International, Benito became a <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialist</a>. He was not <!--del_lnk--> baptized as a child.<p>By age eight, he was banned from his mother's church for pinching people in the pews and throwing stones at them outside after church. He was sent to boarding school later that year and at age 11 was expelled for stabbing a fellow student in the hand, throwing an inkpot at a teacher, and using a stick to poke out his classmate's eyes. He did, however, receive good grades, and qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in 1901.<p>In 1902 he <!--del_lnk--> emigrated to <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> to escape military service. During a period when he was unable to find a permanent job there, he was arrested for <!--del_lnk--> vagrancy and jailed for one night. Later, after becoming involved in the socialist movement, he was <!--del_lnk--> deported and returned to Italy to do his military service. He returned to Switzerland immediately, and a second attempt to deport him was halted when Swiss socialist parliamentarians held an emergency debate to discuss his treatment.<p>Subsequently, a job was found for him in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Trento, which was ethnically Italian but then under the control of <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary, in February 1909. There, he did office work for the local socialist party and edited its newspaper <i>L'Avvenire del Lavoratore</i> ("The future of the worker"). It did not take him long to make contact with irredentist, socialist politician and journalist <!--del_lnk--> Cesare Battisti, and to agree to write for and edit the latter's newspaper <i>Il Popolo</i> ("The People") in addition to the work he did for the party. For Battisti's publication he wrote a novel, <i>Claudia Particella, l'amante del cardinale</i>, which was published serially in 1910. He was later to dismiss it as written merely to smear the religious authorities. The novel was subsequently translated into English as <i>The Cardinal's Mistress</i>. In <!--del_lnk--> 1915 he had a son from <!--del_lnk--> Ida Dalser, a woman born in Sopramonte, a village near Trento.<p>By the time his novel hit the pages of <i>Il Popolo</i>, Mussolini was already back in Italy. His polemic style and growing defiance of Royal authority and, as hinted, anti-clericalism put him in trouble with the authorities until he was finally deported at the end of September. After his return to Italy (prompted by his mother's illness and death) he joined the staff of the "Central Organ of the Socialist Party", <i><!--del_lnk--> Avanti!</i> ("Forward!"). Mussolini's brother, Arnaldo, would later become the <!--del_lnk--> editor of <i><!--del_lnk--> Il Popolo d'Italia</i>, the official newspaper of Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party (November 1922).<p><a id="Birth_of_Fascism" name="Birth_of_Fascism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Birth of Fascism</span></h2>
<p>The term <!--del_lnk--> Fascism derives from the word "<!--del_lnk--> Fascio" which had existed in Italian politics for some time. A section of revolutionary <!--del_lnk--> syndicalists broke with the Socialists over the issue of Italy's entry into the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">First World War</a>. The ambitious Mussolini quickly sided with them in 1914, when the war broke out. These syndicalists formed a group called <i>Fasci d'azione rivoluzionaria internazionalista</i> in October 1914. <!--del_lnk--> Massimo Rocca and <!--del_lnk--> Tulio Masotti asked Mussolini to settle the contradiction of his support for interventionism and still being the editor of <i><!--del_lnk--> Avanti!</i> and an official party functionary in the Socialist Party. Two weeks later, he joined the <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a> <i>fascio</i>. Mussolini claimed that it would help strengthen a relatively new nation (which had been united only in the 1860s in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Risorgimento</i>), although some would say that he wished for a collapse of society that would bring him to power. Italy was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Triple Alliance, thereby allied with Imperial Germany and <!--del_lnk--> Austria-Hungary. It did not join the war in 1914 but did in 1915 — as Mussolini wished — on the side of Britain and France.<p>Called up for military service, Mussolini served at the front between September 1915 and February 1917. During that period he kept a war diary in which he prefigured himself as a charismatic hero leader of a socially conservative national warrior community. In reality, however, he spent most of the war in quiet sectors and saw very little action . It has always been thought that he was seriously wounded in grenade practice in 1917 and that this accounts for his return to Milan to the editorship of his paper. But recent research has shown that he in fact used what were only very minor injuries to cover the more serious affliction of neurosyphilis . Fascism became an organized <!--del_lnk--> political movement following a meeting in <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a> on <!--del_lnk--> March 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1919 (Mussolini founded the <i>Fasci di Combattimento</i> on <!--del_lnk--> February 23, however). After failing in the 1919 elections, Mussolini at last entered parliament in 1921. The Fascisti formed armed squads of war veterans called <!--del_lnk--> <i>squadristi</i> to terrorize <a href="../../wp/a/Anarchism.htm" title="Anarchism">anarchists</a>, <!--del_lnk--> socialists and <!--del_lnk--> communists. The government rarely interfered. In return for the support of a group of industrialists and agrarians, Mussolini gave his approval (often active) to <!--del_lnk--> strikebreaking, and he abandoned revolutionary agitation. When the liberal governments of <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Giolitti, <!--del_lnk--> Ivanoe Bonomi, and <!--del_lnk--> Luigi Facta failed to stop the spread of chaos, and after Fascists had organized the demonstrative and threatening <i>Marcia su Roma</i> ("<!--del_lnk--> March on Rome") (<!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1922), Mussolini was invited by <!--del_lnk--> Vittorio Emanuele III to form a new government. At the age of 39, he became the youngest Premier in the history of <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> on <!--del_lnk--> October 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1922.<p>Contrary to a common misconception, Mussolini did not become prime minister because of the March on Rome. King <!--del_lnk--> Victor Emmanuel III knew that if he did not choose a government under either the Fascist or Socialist party, Italy would soon be involved in a civil war. Accordingly, he asked Mussolini to become Prime Minister, obviating the need for the March on Rome. However, because fascists were already arriving from all around Italy, he decided to continue. In effect, the threatened seizure of power became nothing more than a victory parade.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1030.jpg.htm" title="Mussolini and Gabriele D'Annunzio."><img alt="Mussolini and Gabriele D'Annunzio." height="227" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mussolini_and_D%27Annunzio.jpg" src="../../images/10/1030.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Mussolini's fascist state, established nearly a decade before <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>'s rise to power, would provide a model for Hitler's later economic and political policies. Both a movement and a historical phenomenon, Italian Fascism was, in many respects, an adverse reaction to both the perceived failure of <!--del_lnk--> laissez-faire economics and fear of international <!--del_lnk--> Bolshevism (a short-lived Soviet influence was established in Bavaria just about this time), although trends in <!--del_lnk--> intellectual history, such as the breakdown of <!--del_lnk--> positivism and the general fatalism of postwar Europe were also factors. Fascism was a product of a general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle-class of postwar Italy, arising out of a convergence of interrelated economic, political, and cultural pressures. Italy had no long-term tradition of parliamentary compromise, and public discourse took on an inflammatory tone on all sides.<p>Under the banner of this authoritarian and nationalist ideology, Mussolini was able to exploit fears in an era in which postwar depression, the rise of a more militant left, and a feeling of national shame and humiliation stemming from its 'mutilated victory' at the hands of the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> peace treaties seemed to converge. Italian influence in the Aegean and abroad seemed impotent and disregarded by the greater <!--del_lnk--> powers, and Italy lacked colonies. Such unfulfilled nationalistic aspirations tainted the reputation of liberalism and constitutionalism among many sectors of the Italian population. In addition, such democratic institutions had never grown to become firmly rooted in the young nation-state. And as the same postwar depression heightened the allure of <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> among an urban proletariat even more disenfranchised than their continental counterparts, fear regarding the growing strength of <a href="../../wp/t/Trade_union.htm" title="Trade union">trade unionism</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a>, and <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">socialism</a> proliferated among the elite and the middle class.<p>In this fluid situation, Mussolini took advantage of the opportunity and, rapidly abandoning his early socialist and republican program, put himself at the service of the antisocialist cause. The fascist militias, supported by the wealthy classes and by a large part of the state apparatus which saw in him the restorer of order, launched a violent offensive against the syndicalists and all political parties of a socialist or Catholic inspiration, particularly in the north of Italy (<!--del_lnk--> Emilia Romagna, <!--del_lnk--> Toscana, etc.), causing numerous victims though the substantial indifference of the forces of order. These acts of violence were, in large part, provoked by fascist <i><!--del_lnk--> squadristi</i> who were increasingly and openly supported by <!--del_lnk--> Dino Grandi, the only real competitor to Mussolini for the leadership of the fascist party until the Congress of Rome in 1921.<p>The violence increased considerably from 1920 to 1922 until the March on Rome. Confronted by these badly armed and badly organized fascist militias attacking the Capital, <!--del_lnk--> King <!--del_lnk--> Victor Emmanuel III, preferring to avoid any spilling of blood, decided to appoint Mussolini, who at that moment had the support of about 22 deputies in Parliament, <!--del_lnk--> President of the Council. Victor Emmanuel continued to maintain control of the armed forces: if he had wanted to, he would have had no difficulties in booting Mussolini and the completely inferior fascist forces out of Rome. Therefore, it is not appropriate to refer to Mussolini's rise as a "coup d'état" since he obtained his post legally with the blessing of the monarch.<p>As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's reign were characterized by a coalition government composed of nationalists, liberals and populists and did not assume dictatorial connotations until the assassination of <!--del_lnk--> Matteotti. With the silencing of political dissent as the result of Matteotti's assassination, the function of Mussolini's government became comparable to that of <!--del_lnk--> authoritarian dictatorships. In domestic politics, Mussolini favoured the complete restoration of State authority, with the integration of the <i>Fasci di Combattimento</i> into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the <i>Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale</i>) and the progressive identification of the Party with the State. In political and social economy, he produced legislation that favoured the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatizations, liberalizations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).<p>In June of 1923, a new majoritarian electoral law was approved which assigned two thirds of the seats in Parliament to the coalition which had obtained at least 25% of the votes. This law was punctually applied in the elections of <!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1924, in which the fascist "listone" obtained an extraordinary success, aided by the use of shenanigans, violence and intimidatory tactics against opponents.<p>The assassination of the socialist deputy <!--del_lnk--> Giacomo Matteotti, who had requested the annulment of the elections because of the irregularities committed, provoked a momentary crisis of the Mussolini government. The response of the opposition was weak and generally unresponsive (the <!--del_lnk--> secession of the Aventine), incapable of transforming their posturing into a mass antifascist action, was not sufficient to distance the ruling classes and the Monarchy from Mussolini who, on <!--del_lnk--> 3 January <!--del_lnk--> 1925, broke open the floodgates and, in a famous discourse in which he took upon himself all of the responsibility for the squadrist violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti), proclaimed a <i>de facto</i> dictatorship, suppressing every residual liberty and completing the identification of the Fascist Party with the State.<p>From 1925 until the middle of the 1930s, fascism experienced little and isolated opposition, although that which it experienced was memorable, consisting in large part of communists such as <!--del_lnk--> Antonio Gramsci, socialists such as <!--del_lnk--> Pietro Nenni and liberals such as <!--del_lnk--> Piero Gobetti and <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Amendola.<p>While failing to outline a coherent program, fascism evolved into a new political and economic system that combined totalitarianism, nationalism, anti-communism and anti-liberalism in a state designed to bind all classes together under a <!--del_lnk--> corporatist system (The "Third Way"). This was a new system in which the state seized control of the organization of vital industries. Under the banners of nationalism and state power, Fascism seemed to synthesize the glorious Roman past with a futuristic utopia.<p>Despite the themes of social and economic reform in the initial <!--del_lnk--> Fascist manifesto of June 1919, the movement came to be supported by sections of the middle class fearful of socialism and communism. Industrialists and landowners supported the movement as a defense against labour militancy. Under threat of a fascist <!--del_lnk--> March on Rome in October 1922, Mussolini assumed the premiership of a right-wing coalition <!--del_lnk--> Cabinet initially including members of the pro-church <i><!--del_lnk--> Partito Popolare</i> (People's Party).<p><a id="Fascist_dictatorship" name="Fascist_dictatorship"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fascist dictatorship</span></h2>
<p>In the beginning Mussolini was given support from all political spectrums in Italy, from liberals to conservatives. Unbeknownst to them, he was dismantling parliament democratically with legislation that they had approved. By 1926 he had complete control over the Italian government and people.<p><a id="Police_state" name="Police_state"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Police state</span></h3>
<p>Skillfully using his secret but absolute control over the press, he gradually built up the legend of <i><!--del_lnk--> Il Duce</i>. In 1925, he introduced the press laws which stated that all journalists must be registered fascists. However, not all newspapers were taken into public ownership and <i><!--del_lnk--> Corriere della Sera</i> sold on average 10 times as many copies as the leading fascist newspaper 'Il Popolo D'Italia'.<p>Nevertheless, Italy was soon a <a href="../../wp/p/Police_state.htm" title="Police state">police state</a>. The assassination of the prominent <a href="../../wp/s/Socialism.htm" title="Socialism">internationalist socialist</a> <!--del_lnk--> Giacomo Matteotti in <!--del_lnk--> 1924, began a prolonged political crisis in Italy, which did not end until the beginning of 1925 when Mussolini asserted his personal authority over both country and party to establish a personal dictatorship. Mussolini's skill in propaganda was such that he had surprisingly little opposition to suppress. Nonetheless, he was "slightly wounded in the nose" when he was shot on <!--del_lnk--> 7 April <!--del_lnk--> 1926 by <!--del_lnk--> Violet Gibson, an <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_people.htm" title="Irish people">Irish woman</a> and sister of <!--del_lnk--> Baron Ashbourne. He also survived a failed assassination attempt in Rome by <a href="../../wp/a/Anarchism.htm" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> Gino Lucetti, and a planned attempt by American anarchist Michael Schirru, which ended with his capture and execution.<p>At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, of foreign affairs, of the colonies, of the corporations, of the armed services, and of public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist Party (formed in 1921) and the armed local fascist militia, the <!--del_lnk--> MVSN, or "Blackshirts", that terrorized incipient resistances in the cities and provinces. He would later form an institutionalised militia that carried official state support, the <!--del_lnk--> OVRA. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival.<p><a id="Economic_projects" name="Economic_projects"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Economic projects</span></h3>
<p>During his 21-year rule, Mussolini launched several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout Italy to combat economic setbacks or unemployment levels. His earliest was Italy's equivalent of the Green Revolution, known as the "Battle of the Grain", which saw the foundation of 5,000 new farms and five new agricultural towns on land reclaimed by draining the Pontine Marshes. This plan effectively increased Italy's agricultural output by more than 50% and solved a national food shortage through a wide-scale cultivation of grain. Mussolini also initiated the "Battle for Land", a policy based on land reclamation outlined in 1928. The initiative experienced mixed success - while projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marsh in 1935 for agriculture were good for propaganda purposes, provided work for the unemployed and allowed for great land owners to control subsidies - other areas in the Battle for Land were not very successful. This program was inconsistent with the Battle for Grain (small plots of land were inappropriately allocated for large-scale wheat production) and the Pontine Marsh was even lost during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Fewer than 10,000 peasants resettled on the redistributed land and peasant poverty was still rife. In 1940, for instance, 90% of all Italian farmers owned 13% of farmland. The Battle for Land initiative was abandoned in 1940.<p>He also combated an economic recession by introducing the "Gold for the Fatherland" initiative, by encouraging the public to voluntarily donate gold jewellery such as necklaces and wedding rings to government officials in exchange for steel armbands bearing the words "Gold for the Fatherland". The collected gold was then melted down and turned into gold bars, which were then distributed to the national banks.<p>Efforts such as these gradually earned him the support and allegiance of people throughout Italy. Furthermore, he rebuilt the wealth and morale of the people, improved the national living standard, and gave Italy a highly-regarded diplomatic front in the courts of Europe.<p><a id="Government_by_propaganda" name="Government_by_propaganda"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Government by propaganda</span></h3>
<p>As dictator of Italy, Mussolini's foremost priority was the subjugation of the minds of the Italian people and using <a href="../../wp/p/Propaganda.htm" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> to do so; whether at home or abroad, and here his training as a journalist was invaluable. Press, radio, education, films — all were carefully supervised to manufacture the illusion that fascism was <i>the</i> doctrine of the 20th century, replacing liberalism and democracy. The principles of this doctrine were laid down in the article on fascism, written by <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Gentile and signed by Mussolini that appeared in 1932 in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Enciclopedia Italiana</i>. In 1929, a concordat with the <!--del_lnk--> Vatican was signed, the <!--del_lnk--> Lateran treaties, by which the Italian state was at last recognized by the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, and the independence of <a href="../../wp/v/Vatican_City.htm" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a> was recognized by the Italian state. In <!--del_lnk--> 1927 Mussolini had himself baptized by a Roman Catholic <!--del_lnk--> priest in order to take away certain opposition from the side of Italy's Catholics, who were then still very critical of the modern <!--del_lnk--> Italian State, which had taken away papal property and virtually blackmailed several popes inside the Vatican. However, Mussolini never became known to be a practicing Catholic. Nevertheless, since 1927, and more even after 1929, Mussolini, with his anti-Communist doctrines, convinced many Catholics to actively support him.<p>Under the dictatorship, the effectiveness of the <a href="../../wp/p/Parliamentary_system.htm" title="Parliamentary system">parliamentary system</a> was virtually abolished, though its forms were publicly preserved. The law codes were rewritten. All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the Fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini himself, and no one who did not possess a certificate of approval from the Fascist party could practice journalism. These certificates were issued in secret, so the public had no idea of this ever occurring, thus skillfully creating the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the <!--del_lnk--> "corporative" system. The aim (never completely achieved), inspired by medieval guilds, was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or "corporations", all of them under clandestine governmental control. Furthermore, that all schools, newspapers, etc. had to not write, for example, "the 13th of June 1933" but instead had to write "the 13th of June of the 11th year of Mussolini's power".<p>Mussolini played up to his financial backers at first by transferring a number of industries from public to private ownership. But by the 1930s he had begun moving back to the opposite extreme of rigid governmental control of industry. A great deal of money was spent on highly visible public works, and on international prestige projects such as the <i><!--del_lnk--> SS Rex</i> <!--del_lnk--> Blue Riband ocean liner and aeronautical achievements such as the world's fastest <!--del_lnk--> seaplane the <!--del_lnk--> Macchi M.C.72 and the transatlantic flying boat cruise of <!--del_lnk--> Italo Balbo, who was greeted with much fanfare in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> when he landed in Chicago. Those projects earned respect from some countries, but the economy suffered from Mussolini's strenuous efforts to make Italy <!--del_lnk--> self-sufficient. A concentration on heavy industry proved problematic, perhaps because Italy lacked the basic resources.<p><a id="Foreign_policy" name="Foreign_policy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign policy</span></h3>
<p>In foreign policy, Mussolini soon shifted from the pacifist anti-imperialism of his lead-up to power, to an extreme form of aggressive <a href="../../wp/n/Nationalism.htm" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. An early example of this was his bombardment of <!--del_lnk--> Corfu in 1923. Soon after this he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in <a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" title="Albania">Albania</a> and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a>, which was loosely a colony since 1912. It was his dream to make the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> <i>mare nostrum</i> ("our sea" in Latin), and established a large naval base on the Greek Island of <!--del_lnk--> Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1935, at the <!--del_lnk--> Stresa Conference, he helped create an anti-<a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> front in order to defend the independence of <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>. But his successful war against Abyssinia (<a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>) in 1935 and 1936 was opposed by the <a href="../../wp/l/League_of_Nations.htm" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and this eventually led to Hitler seeking an alliance with Fascist Italy.<p><a id="Conquest_of_Ethiopia" name="Conquest_of_Ethiopia"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Conquest of Ethiopia</span></h3>
<p>The invasion of Ethiopia was accomplished rapidly (the proclamation of Empire took place in May of 1936) and involved several atrocities such as the use of <!--del_lnk--> chemical weapons, (<!--del_lnk--> mustard gas and <!--del_lnk--> phosgene) and the indiscriminate slaughter of much of the local population to prevent opposition.<p>The armed forces disposed of a vast arsenal of grenades and bombs loaded with mustard gas which were dropped from airplanes. This substance was also sprayed directly from above like an "insecticide" on to enemy combatants and villages. It was Mussolini himself who authorized the use of the weapons: "Rome, <!--del_lnk--> 27 October '35. A.S.E. Graziani. The use of gas as an <i>ultima ratio</i> to overwhelm enemy resistance and in case of counterattack is authorized. Mussolini." "Rome, <!--del_lnk--> 28 December '35. A.S.E. Badoglio. Given the enemy system I have authorized V.E. the use even on a vast scale of any gas and flamethrowers. Mussolini." Mussolini and his generals sought to cloak the operations of chemical warfare in the utmost secrecy, but the crimes of the fascist army were revealed to the world through the denunciations of the International Red Cross and of many foreign observers. The Italian reaction to these revelations consisted in the "erroneous" bombardment (at least 19 times) of Red Cross tents posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance. The orders imparted by Mussolini, with respect to the Ethiopian population, were very clear: "Rome, <!--del_lnk--> 5 June <!--del_lnk--> 1936. A.S.E. Graziani. All rebels taken prisoner must be killed. Mussolini." "Rome, <!--del_lnk--> 8 July <!--del_lnk--> 1936. A.S.E. Graziani. I have authorized once again V.E. to begin and systematically conduct a politics of terror and extermination of the rebels and the complicit population. Without the <i>legge taglionis</i> one cannot cure the infection in time. Await confirmation. Mussolini." The predominant part of the work of repression was carried out by Italians who, besides the bombs laced with mustard gas, instituted forced labor camps, installed public gallows, killed hostages, and mutilated the corpses of their enemies.Graziani ordered the elimination of captured guerrillas by way of throwing them out of airplanes in mid-flight. Many Italian troops had themselves photographed next to cadavers hanging from the gallows or hanging around chests full of decapitated heads. One episode in the Italian occupation of Ethiopia was the slaughter of Addis Ababa of February, 1937 which followed upon an attempt to assassinate Graziani. In the course of an official ceremony a bomb exploded next to the general. The response was immediate and cruel. The thirty or so Ethiopians present at the ceremony were impaled, and immediately after, the black shirts of the fascist Militias poured out into the streets of Addis Ababa where they tortured and killed all of the men, women and children that they encountered on their path. They also set fire to homes in order to prevent the inhabitants from leaving and organized the mass executions of groups of 50-100 people.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1041.jpg.htm" title="Despite appearances, Hitler and Mussolini did not get along well personally"><img alt="Despite appearances, Hitler and Mussolini did not get along well personally" height="335" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benito_Mussolini_and_Adolf_Hitler.jpg" src="../../images/10/1041.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><a id="Spanish_Civil_War" name="Spanish_Civil_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Spanish Civil War</span></h3>
<p>His active intervention in 1936 - 1939 on the side of <!--del_lnk--> Franco in the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Civil War ended any possibility of reconciliation with <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> and <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a>. As a result, he had to accept the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia in 1939. At the <!--del_lnk--> Munich Conference in September 1938 he posed as a moderate working for European peace. But his "axis" with Germany was confirmed when he made the "<!--del_lnk--> Pact of Steel" with Hitler in May 1939. Members of <!--del_lnk--> TIGR, a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in <!--del_lnk--> Kobarid in 1938, but their attempt was unsuccessful.<p><a id="The_Axis_of_Blood_and_Steel" name="The_Axis_of_Blood_and_Steel"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Axis of Blood and Steel</span></h2>
<p>The term "<!--del_lnk--> Axis Powers" was coined by Mussolini, in November 1936, when he spoke of a Rome-Berlin axis in reference to the treaty of friendship signed between Italy and Germany on <!--del_lnk--> October 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1936. His "Axis" with Germany was confirmed when he made <!--del_lnk--> another treaty with Germany in <!--del_lnk--> May <!--del_lnk--> 1939. Mussolini described the relationship with Germany as a "Pact of Steel", something he had earlier referred to as a "Pact of Blood".<p>Clearly the subordinate partner, Mussolini followed the <a href="../../wp/n/Nazism.htm" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> and adopted racial policies that led to persecution of the Jews and the creation of apartheid in the Italian empire. Before this, Jews were not specifically persecuted by Mussolini's government, and were permitted to be high members of the fascist party.<p>Mussolini did not approve of all of Hitler's policies. In fact, most historians believe Mussolini's Race Laws, enacted in 1938 and often left unenforced, were more a move to appease Hitler than anything else. Like many Italians, who were known for their cosmopolitan culture, tolerance and "easy-goingness", Mussolini seemed mostly indifferent to race, believing that anyone could be a good Italian if they did what they were told. In fact, he once jokingly remarked that if Hitler's racial theories were to be taken seriously, then the "...<!--del_lnk--> eskimos should be considered the highest form of life on Earth....".<p>In April, 1938, Mussolini privately suggested that the Vatican consider <!--del_lnk--> excommunicating Adolf Hitler. To this day, it is unknown whether the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> considered excommunicating Hitler a plausible decision.<p><a id="World_War_II" name="World_War_II"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">World War II</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14827.jpg.htm" title="Mussolini and Hitler."><img alt="Mussolini and Hitler." height="277" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hitlermusso.jpg" src="../../images/10/1042.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14827.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mussolini and Hitler.</div>
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<p>As <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> (WWII) approached, Mussolini announced his intention of annexing <a href="../../wp/m/Malta.htm" title="Malta">Malta</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Corsica, and <a href="../../wp/t/Tunis.htm" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>. He spoke of creating a "<!--del_lnk--> New Roman Empire" that would stretch east to <!--del_lnk--> Palestine and south through <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> to <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>. In April 1939, after a brief war, he annexed <a href="../../wp/a/Albania.htm" title="Albania">Albania</a>. Mussolini decided to remain 'non-belligerent' in the larger conflict until he was quite certain which side would win.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> June 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1940 Mussolini finally declared war on Britain and France. On <!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1940, Mussolini attacked <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a>. But after initial success, the Italians were repelled by a relentless Greek counterattack which resulted in the loss of ¼ of Albania, until Hitler was forced to assist him by attacking Greece as well. In June 1941, Mussolini declared war on the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and in December also declared war on the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>.<p>In 1943, following the Axis defeat in North Africa, setbacks on the Eastern Front and the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-American landing in Sicily, most of Mussolini's colleagues (including Count <!--del_lnk--> Galeazzo Ciano, the foreign minister and Mussolini's son-in-law) turned against him at a meeting of the <!--del_lnk--> Fascist Grand Council on <!--del_lnk--> July 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1943. King <!--del_lnk--> Vittorio Emanuele III called Mussolini to his palace and stripped the dictator of his power. Upon leaving the palace, Mussolini was swiftly arrested. He was then sent to <!--del_lnk--> Gran Sasso, a mountain resort in central Italy (<!--del_lnk--> Abruzzo), in complete isolation.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1044.jpg.htm" title="Hitler and Mussolini parade through the streets of Vienna after the successful Anschluss of Austria."><img alt="Hitler and Mussolini parade through the streets of Vienna after the successful Anschluss of Austria." height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Hitler_in_wien_1939_gross.jpg" src="../../images/10/1044.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1044.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hitler and Mussolini parade through the streets of <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> after the successful <a href="../../wp/a/Anschluss.htm" title="Anschluss">Anschluss of Austria</a>.</div>
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<p>Mussolini was replaced by the <!--del_lnk--> Maresciallo d'Italia <!--del_lnk--> Pietro Badoglio, who immediately declared in a famous speech "<i>La guerra continua a fianco dell'alleato germanico</i>" ("The war continues at the side of our Germanic allies"), but was instead working to negotiate a surrender; 45 days later (<!--del_lnk--> September 8) Badoglio would sign an armistice with Allied troops. Badoglio and the King, fearing the German retaliation, fled from Rome, leaving the entire Italian Army without orders. Many units simply disbanded, some reached the Allied-controlled zone and surrendered, a few decided to start a partisan war against the Nazis, and a few rejected the switch of sides and remained allied with the Germans.<p>Rescued a few days later in a <!--del_lnk--> spectacular raid planned by General <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Student and carried out by <!--del_lnk--> Otto Skorzeny, Mussolini set up the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Social Republic, a fascist state (RSI, <i>Repubblica Sociale Italiana</i>) in northern Italy. He lived in Gargnano during this period, but was little more than a <!--del_lnk--> puppet under the protection of his liberators. In this "<!--del_lnk--> Republic of Salò", Mussolini returned to his earlier ideas of socialism and collectivization. He also executed some of the fascist leaders who had abandoned him, including his son-in-law, <!--del_lnk--> Galeazzo Ciano. During this period he wrote his memoirs, and along with his autobiographical writings of 1928, would be combined and published by Da Capo Press as <i>My Rise and Fall.</i><p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1945, in the afternoon, near the village of Dongo (<!--del_lnk--> Lake Como), just before the Allied armies reached <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a>, as they headed for <!--del_lnk--> Chiavenna to board a plane to escape to <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, Mussolini and his mistress <!--del_lnk--> Clara Petacci were caught by <!--del_lnk--> Italian communist partisans. After several unsuccessful attempts to take them to <!--del_lnk--> Como they were brought to Mezzegra. They spent their last night in the house of the De Maria family.<p>The day after, <!--del_lnk--> April 28, Mussolini and his mistress were both shot, along with their fifteen-man train, mostly ministers and officials of the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Social Republic. The executions took place in the small village of <!--del_lnk--> Giulino di Mezzegra, and, at least according to the official version of events, were conducted by "Colonnello Valerio" (Walter Audisio), the <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communist</a> partisan commander after being given the order to kill Mussolini, by the National Liberation Committee. However, a witness, Bruno Giovanni Lonati - another partisan in the Socialist-Communist Garibaldi brigades though not a Communist - abruptly confessed in the 1990s to have killed Mussolini and Claretta with an Italian-English officer from the British secret services, called 'John'. Lonati's version has never been confirmed, but neither has it been debunked; a <!--del_lnk--> polygraph test on Lonati proved inconclusive.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1046.jpg.htm" title="Cross marking the place in Mezzegra where Mussolini was shot."><img alt="Cross marking the place in Mezzegra where Mussolini was shot." height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cross_mezzegra.jpg" src="../../images/10/1046.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1046.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Cross marking the place in Mezzegra where Mussolini was shot.</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> April 29 the bodies of Mussolini and his mistress were found hung upside down on meat hooks in Piazzale Loreto (Milan), along with those of other fascists, to show the population the dictator was dead. This was both to discourage any <a href="../../wp/f/Fascism.htm" title="Fascism">fascists</a> to continue the fight and an act of revenge for the hanging of many partisans in the same place by <!--del_lnk--> Axis authorities. The corpse of the deposed leader became subject to ridicule and abuse by many who felt oppressed by the former dictator's policies.<p>Mussolini's body was eventually taken down and later buried in an unmarked grave in a Milan <!--del_lnk--> cemetery until the 1950s, when his body was moved back to Predappio. It was stolen briefly in the late 1950s by <!--del_lnk--> neo-fascists, then again returned to Predappio. Here he was buried in a <!--del_lnk--> crypt (the only posthumous honour granted to Mussolini; his tomb is flanked by <!--del_lnk--> marble <!--del_lnk--> fasces and a large idealized marble <!--del_lnk--> bust of himself sits above the <!--del_lnk--> tomb.)<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<p>Mussolini was survived by his wife, <!--del_lnk--> Donna Rachele Mussolini, by two sons, Vittorio and <!--del_lnk--> Romano Mussolini, and his daughters <!--del_lnk--> Edda, the widow of <!--del_lnk--> Count Ciano and Anna Maria. A third son, Bruno, had been killed in an air accident while flying a P108 bomber on a test mission, on <!--del_lnk--> 7 August <!--del_lnk--> 1941. Mussolini's granddaughter <!--del_lnk--> Alessandra Mussolini, daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Romano Mussolini, is currently a member of the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Parliament.htm" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> for the <!--del_lnk--> neo-fascist party <!--del_lnk--> Alternativa Sociale; other relatives of Edda (Castrianni) moved to England after the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">Second World War</a>.<p>The fascist ideology Mussolini espoused in his lifetime is still popular in some quarters in modern-day Italy.<p><a id="Mussolini_in_popular_culture" name="Mussolini_in_popular_culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mussolini in popular culture</span></h2>
<p>Mussolini was a major character in <i><!--del_lnk--> Inferno</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Larry Niven and <!--del_lnk--> Jerry Pournelle, where he acted as guide to the <!--del_lnk--> protagonist during his journey through <!--del_lnk--> Hell.<p>The last few days of Mussolini's life have been depicted in <!--del_lnk--> Carlo Lizzani's movie <!--del_lnk--> <i>Mussolini: Ultimo atto</i> (<i>Mussolini: The last act</i>, 1974).<p>On a popular animation website <!--del_lnk--> Newgrounds, a video included Mussolini as a villain in a flash animation entitled <!--del_lnk--> Ultimate Showdown which gained a massive cult following in late 2005.<p>Mussolini is spoofed in <a href="../../wp/c/Charlie_Chaplin.htm" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> The Great Dictator where he is named Benzino Napaloni, dictator of Bacteria and is portrayed by <!--del_lnk--> Jack Oakie.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Writings of Mussolini</span></h2>
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<li><i>Giovanni Hus (<!--del_lnk--> Jan Hus), il veridico</i> Rome (1913) Published in America under <i>John Hus</i> (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929) Republished by the Italian Book Co., NY (1939) under <i>John Hus, the Veracious</i>.<li><i>The Cardinal's Mistress</i> (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928)<li>There is an essay on "The Doctrine of Fascism" credited to Benito Mussolini but ghost written by <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Gentile that appeared in the 1932 edition of the <!--del_lnk--> Enciclopedia Italiana, and excerpts can be read at <!--del_lnk--> Doctrine of Fascism. There are also links to the complete text.<li><i>La Mia Vita</i> ("My Life"), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Arnaldo Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian Politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925).</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini"</div>
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Benjamin_Britten | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Benjamin Britten</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Poetry_and_Opera.htm">Poetry & Opera</a></h3>
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<p><b>Edward Benjamin Britten, Baron Britten of Aldeburgh</b>, <!--del_lnk--> OM <!--del_lnk--> CH (<!--del_lnk--> 22 November <!--del_lnk--> 1913 – <!--del_lnk--> 4 December <!--del_lnk--> 1976) was a British <!--del_lnk--> composer, <!--del_lnk--> conductor, and <!--del_lnk--> pianist.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Life" name="Life"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Life</span></h2>
<p>Britten was born in <!--del_lnk--> Lowestoft in <!--del_lnk--> Suffolk, the son of a dentist and a talented amateur musician. His birthday, <!--del_lnk--> 22 November, is the feast-day of <!--del_lnk--> Saint Cecilia, the patron saint of music, and he showed musical gifts very early in life. He began composing prolifically as a child, and was educated at <!--del_lnk--> Gresham's School. In 1927, he began private lessons with <!--del_lnk--> Frank Bridge. He also studied, less happily, at the <!--del_lnk--> Royal College of Music under <!--del_lnk--> John Ireland and with some input from <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Vaughan Williams. Although ultimately held back by his parents (at the suggestion of College staff), Britten had also intended to study with <!--del_lnk--> Alban Berg in Vienna. His first compositions to attract wide attention were the <i>Sinfonietta</i> (Op.1) and a set of choral variations <i>A Boy was Born</i>, written in 1934 for the <!--del_lnk--> BBC Singers. The following year he met <!--del_lnk--> W. H. Auden with whom he collaborated on the song-cycle <i>Our Hunting Fathers</i>, radical both in politics and musical treatment, and other works. Of more lasting importance was his meeting in 1936 with the <!--del_lnk--> tenor <!--del_lnk--> Peter Pears, who was to become his musical collaborator and inspiration as well as his life partner.<p>In early 1939, the two of them followed Auden to America. There Britten composed <i><!--del_lnk--> Paul Bunyan</i>, his first <a href="../../wp/o/Opera.htm" title="Opera">opera</a> (to a libretto by Auden), as well as the first of many <!--del_lnk--> song cycles for Pears; the period was otherwise remarkable for a number of orchestral works, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge</i> (written in 1937 for string orchestra), the <i>Violin Concerto</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Sinfonia da Requiem</i> (for full orchestra).<p>Britten and Pears returned to England in 1942, Britten completing the choral works <i><!--del_lnk--> Hymn to Saint Cecilia</i> (his last collaboration with Auden) and <i><!--del_lnk--> A Ceremony of Carols</i> during the long sea voyage. He had already begun work on his opera <i><a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Grimes.htm" title="Peter Grimes">Peter Grimes</a></i>, and its premiere at <!--del_lnk--> Sadler's Wells in 1945 was his greatest success so far. However, Britten was encountering opposition from sectors of the English musical establishment and gradually withdrew from the London scene, founding the <!--del_lnk--> English Opera Group in 1947 and the <!--del_lnk--> Aldeburgh Festival the following year, partly (though not solely) to perform his own works.<p><i>Grimes</i> marked the start of a series of English operas, of which <!--del_lnk--> Billy Budd (1951) and <i>The Turn of the Screw</i> (1954) were particularly admired. These operas share common themes, with that of the 'outsider' particularly prevalent. Most feature such a character, excluded or misunderstood by society; often this is the protagonist, such as Peter Grimes and <!--del_lnk--> Owen Wingrave in their eponymous operas. An increasingly important influence was the music of the East, an interest fostered by a tour with Pears in 1957, when Britten was much struck by the music of the <!--del_lnk--> Balinese <!--del_lnk--> gamelan and by Japanese <!--del_lnk--> Noh plays. The fruits of this tour include the ballet <i>The Prince of the Pagodas</i> (1957) and the series of semi-operatic "Parables for Church Performance": <i><!--del_lnk--> Curlew River</i> (1964), <i>The Burning Fiery Furnace</i> (1966) and <i>The Prodigal Son</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1968). The greatest success of Britten's career was, however, the musically more conventional <i><!--del_lnk--> War Requiem</i>, written for the 1962 <!--del_lnk--> consecration of <!--del_lnk--> Coventry Cathedral.<p>Britten developed close friendships with <!--del_lnk--> Dmitri Shostakovich and <!--del_lnk--> Mstislav Rostropovich in the 1960s, composing his <i><!--del_lnk--> Cello Suites</i> for the latter and conducting the first Western performance of the former's <!--del_lnk--> Fourteenth Symphony; Shostakovich dedicated the score to Britten and often spoke very highly of his music. Britten himself had previously dedicated 'The Prodigal Son' (the third and last of the 'Church Parables') to Shostakovich.<p>In the last decade or so of his life, Britten suffered from increasing ill-health and his late works became progressively more sparse in texture. They include the opera <i><!--del_lnk--> Death in Venice</i> (1973), the <i>Suite on English Folk Tunes "A Time There Was"</i> (1974) and Third String Quartet (1975), which drew on material from <i>Death in Venice</i>, as well as the dramatic cantata <i><!--del_lnk--> Phaedra</i> (1976), written for <!--del_lnk--> Janet Baker.<p>Having previously declined a <!--del_lnk--> knighthood, Britten accepted a <!--del_lnk--> life peerage on <!--del_lnk--> 2 July <!--del_lnk--> 1976 as <b>Baron Britten</b>, of Aldeburgh in the County of Suffolk. A few months later he died of <!--del_lnk--> heart failure at his house in <!--del_lnk--> Aldeburgh. He is buried in the <!--del_lnk--> churchyard of St Peter and St Paul's Church there. His grave lies next to that of his partner, <!--del_lnk--> Peter Pears. The grave of <!--del_lnk--> Imogen Holst, a close friend of Britten, can be found directly behind.<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h2>
<p>One of Britten's best known works is <i><!--del_lnk--> The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1946), which was composed to accompany <i>Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, an educational <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a> produced by the British government, narrated and conducted by <!--del_lnk--> Malcolm Sargent. It has the subtitle <i>Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Purcell</i>, and takes a <!--del_lnk--> melody from <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Purcell.htm" title="Henry Purcell">Henry Purcell</a>'s <i>Abdelazar</i> as its central theme. Britten gives individual variations to each of the sections of the orchestra, starting with the <!--del_lnk--> woodwind, then the <!--del_lnk--> string instruments, the <a href="../../wp/b/Brass_instrument.htm" title="Brass instrument">brass instruments</a> and finally the <!--del_lnk--> percussion. Britten then brings the whole orchestra together again in a <!--del_lnk--> fugue before restating the theme to close the work. The original film's spoken commentary is often omitted in concert performances and recordings.<p>Britten was an exceptionally accomplished pianist, and frequently performed in <!--del_lnk--> chamber music or accompanying <!--del_lnk--> lieder. However, apart from the <i><!--del_lnk--> Piano Concerto</i> (1938) and the <i>Diversions</i> for piano and orchestra (written for <!--del_lnk--> Paul Wittgenstein in 1940), he wrote very little music for the instrument, and in a 1963 interview for the BBC said that he thought of it as "a background instrument".<p>His work as a conductor included not only his own music but also that of many other composers, notably <a href="../../wp/w/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart.htm" title="Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart">Mozart</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Elgar, and <!--del_lnk--> Percy Grainger.<p>One of Britten's solo works that has an indisputably central place in the repertoire of its instrument is his <i>Nocturnal after <!--del_lnk--> John Dowland</i> for <a href="../../wp/g/Guitar.htm" title="Guitar">guitar</a> (1963). This work is typically spare in his late style, and shows the depth of his life-long admiration for Elizabethan <!--del_lnk--> lute songs. The theme of the work, John Dowland's <i>Come, Heavy Sleep</i>, emerges in complete form at the close of eight variations, each variation based on some feature, frequently transient or ornamental, of the song or its <!--del_lnk--> lute accompaniment.<p><a id="Awards" name="Awards"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Awards</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards 1963 - Classical Album Of The Year (for <!--del_lnk--> War Requiem)<li><!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards 1963 - Best Classical Performance - Choral (Other Than Opera) (for <!--del_lnk--> War Requiem)<li><!--del_lnk--> Grammy Awards 1963 - Best Classical Composition By A Contemporary Composer (for <!--del_lnk--> War Requiem)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sonning Award 1967 (<a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>)<li><!--del_lnk--> BRIT Awards 1977 - Best Orchestral Album (of the past 25 years) (for <!--del_lnk--> War Requiem)</ul>
<p><a id="Reputation" name="Reputation"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Reputation</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/211/21160.jpg.htm" title="The Scallop by Maggi Hambling is a sculpture dedicated to Benjamin Britten on the beach at Aldeburgh. The edge of the shell is pierced with the words "I hear those voices that will not be drowned" from Peter Grimes."><img alt="The Scallop by Maggi Hambling is a sculpture dedicated to Benjamin Britten on the beach at Aldeburgh. The edge of the shell is pierced with the words "I hear those voices that will not be drowned" from Peter Grimes." class="thumbimage" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_Scallop%2C_Maggi_Hambling%2C_Aldeburgh.jpg" src="../../images/182/18217.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/211/21160.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>The Scallop</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Maggi Hambling is a sculpture dedicated to Benjamin Britten on the beach at <!--del_lnk--> Aldeburgh. The edge of the shell is pierced with the words "I hear those voices that will not be drowned" from <i><a href="../../wp/p/Peter_Grimes.htm" title="Peter Grimes">Peter Grimes</a></i>.</div>
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<p>Britten's status as one of the greatest English composers of the 20th century is now secure among professional critics. In the 1930s he made a conscious effort to set himself apart from the English musical mainstream, which he regarded as complacent, insular and amateurish. Many critics of the time, in return, distrusted his facility, cosmopolitanism and admiration for composers, such as <!--del_lnk--> Mahler, <!--del_lnk--> Berg, and <a href="../../wp/i/Igor_Stravinsky.htm" title="Igor Stravinsky">Stravinsky</a>, not considered appropriate models for a young English musician.<p>Even today, criticism of his music is apt to become entangled with consideration of his personality, politics (especially his pacifism in World War II) and his sexuality. The publication of <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey Carpenter's biography in 1992, with its revelations of Britten's often fraught social, professional and sexual relationships, has ensured that he will remain a controversial figure. In <!--del_lnk--> 2003, a selection of Britten's writings, edited by Paul Kildea, revealed other ways that he addressed such issues as his pacifism. A further study along the lines begun by Carpenter is John Bridcut's <i><!--del_lnk--> Britten's Children</i>, 2006, which describes Britten’s infatuation with a series of pre-adolescent <!--del_lnk--> boys throughout his life.<p>For many musicians, however, Britten's technique, broad musical and human sympathies and ability to treat the most traditional of musical forms with freshness and originality place him at the head of composers of his generation. A notable tribute is a piece by the <!--del_lnk--> Estonian composer <!--del_lnk--> Arvo Pärt titled <i><!--del_lnk--> Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten</i>.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Britten"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.British_History.British_History_17501900.htm">British History 1750-1900</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>The <!--del_lnk--> Rt Hon Benjamin Disraeli</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/81/8143.jpg.htm" title="Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield"><img alt="Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield" height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield.jpg" src="../../images/529/52967.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
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<div style="background:lavender; font-weight:bold"><a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of the United Kingdom</a></div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1868 – <!--del_lnk--> December 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1868</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> The Earl of Derby</td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> February 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1874 – <!--del_lnk--> April 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1880</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></td>
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<div style="background:lavender;"><!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer</div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> February 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1852 – <!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1852</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charles Wood</td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> February 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1858 – <!--del_lnk--> June 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1859</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> George Cornewall Lewis</td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> July 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1866 – <!--del_lnk--> February 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1868</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> George Ward Hunt</td>
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<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1804<br /><a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1881 (age 76)<br /><a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a></td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Conservative</td>
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<p><b>Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</b>, <a href="../../wp/o/Order_of_the_Garter.htm" title="Order of the Garter">KG</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Privy Council of the United Kingdom">PC</a>, <!--del_lnk--> FRS (<!--del_lnk--> December 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1804 – <!--del_lnk--> April 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1881), born <b>Benjamin D'Israeli</b> was a <!--del_lnk--> British <!--del_lnk--> Conservative statesman and literary figure. He served in government for three decades, twice as <a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister of the United Kingdom</a> – the first and thus far only person of <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> parentage to do so (although Disraeli was <!--del_lnk--> baptised in the <a href="../../wp/a/Anglican_Communion.htm" title="Anglican Communion">Anglican Church</a> at an early age). Disraeli's most lasting achievement was the creation of the modern <!--del_lnk--> Conservative Party after the <!--del_lnk--> Corn Laws schism of 1846.<p>Although a major figure in the <!--del_lnk--> protectionist wing of the Conservative Party after 1844, Disraeli's relations with the other leading figures in the party, particularly <!--del_lnk--> Lord Derby, the overall leader, were often strained. Not until the <!--del_lnk--> 1860s would Derby and Disraeli be on easy terms, and the latter's succession of the former assured. From 1852 onwards, Disraeli's career would also be marked by his often intense rivalry with <a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a>, who eventually rose to become leader of the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Party. In this duel, Disraeli was aided by his warm friendship with <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>, who came to detest Gladstone during the latter's first premiership in the 1870s. In 1876 Disraeli was raised to the <!--del_lnk--> peerage as the Earl of Beaconsfield, capping nearly four decades in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a>.<p>Before and during his political career, Disraeli was well-known as a literary and social figure, although his novels are not generally regarded as belonging to the first rank of Victorian literature. He mainly wrote romances, of which <i><!--del_lnk--> Sybil</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Vivian Grey</i> are perhaps the best-known today. He was and is unusual among British Prime Ministers for having gained equal social and political renown.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52968.jpg.htm" title="Isaac D'IsraeliFather of Benjamin Disraeli"><img alt="Isaac D'IsraeliFather of Benjamin Disraeli" class="thumbimage" height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Isaac_disraeli.jpg" src="../../images/529/52968.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52968.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Isaac D'Israeli</b><br /><small>Father of Benjamin Disraeli</small></div>
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<p>Disraeli was descended from <!--del_lnk--> Italian <!--del_lnk--> Sephardic Jews on both sides of his family, although he claimed <!--del_lnk--> Spanish ancestry. With this he may have just been referring to the fact that all Sephardim ultimately originate in <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>. His father was the literary critic and historian <!--del_lnk--> Isaac D'Israeli who, though <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a>, in 1817 had Benjamin <!--del_lnk--> baptised in the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>, following a dispute with their <!--del_lnk--> synagogue. The elder D'Israeli (Benjamin changed the spelling in the 1820s by dropping the foreign-looking apostrophe) himself was content to remain outside organized religion. Benjamin at first attended a small school, the Reverend John Potticary's school at <!--del_lnk--> Blackheath (later to evolve into <!--del_lnk--> St Piran's School). Beginning in 1817, Benjamin attended <!--del_lnk--> Higham Hall, in <!--del_lnk--> Walthamstow. His younger brothers, in contrast, attended the superior <!--del_lnk--> Winchester College, a fact which apparently grated on Disraeli and may explain his dislike of his mother, <!--del_lnk--> Maria D'Israeli.<p>His father groomed him for a career in law, and Disraeli was articled to a solicitor in 1821. Law was, however, uncongenial, and by 1825 he had given it up. Disraeli, determined to obtain independent means, speculated on the stock exchange as early as 1824 on various South American mining companies. The recognition of the new South American republics on the recommendation of <!--del_lnk--> George Canning had led to a considerable boom, encouraged by various promoters. In this connexion, Disraeli became involved with the financier <!--del_lnk--> J. D. Powles, one such booster. In the course of 1825, Disraeli wrote three anonymous pamphlets for Powles, promoting the companies. <p>That same year Disraeli's financial activities brought him into contact with the publisher <!--del_lnk--> John Murray who, like Powles and Disraeli, was involved in the South American mines. Accordingly, they attempted to bring out a newspaper, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Representative</i>, to promote both the cause of the mines and those politicians who supported the mines, specifically Canning. The paper was a failure, in part because the mining "bubble" burst in late 1825, financially ruining Powles and Disraeli. Also, according to Disraeli's biographer, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Blake, the paper was "atrociously edited", and would have failed regardless. Disraeli's debts incurred from this debacle would haunt him for the rest of his life.<p><a id="Literary_career" name="Literary_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Literary career</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:158px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52970.jpg.htm" title="a Young Disraeli by Sir Francis Grant, 1852"><img alt="a Young Disraeli by Sir Francis Grant, 1852" class="thumbimage" height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Young_disraeli.jpg" src="../../images/529/52970.jpg" width="156" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52970.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>a Young Disraeli</b><br /><small>by Sir Francis Grant, 1852</small></div>
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<p>Disraeli now turned towards literature, and brought out his first novel, <i><!--del_lnk--> Vivian Grey</i>, in 1826. Disraeli's biographers agree that <i>Vivian Grey</i> was a thinly-veiled re-telling of the affair of the <!--del_lnk--> <i>Representative</i>, and it proved very popular on its release, although it also caused much offence within the Tory literary world when Disraeli's authorship was discovered. The book, which was initially published anonymously, was purportedly written by a "man of fashion" – someone who moved in high society. Disraeli, then just twenty-three, did not move in high society, and the numerous solecisms present in <i>Vivian Grey</i> made this painfully obvious. Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book. Furthermore, Murray believed that Disraeli had caricatured him and abused his confidence–an accusation denied at the time, and by the official biography, although subsequent biographers (notably Blake) have sided with Murray.<p>After producing a <i><!--del_lnk--> Vindication of the English Constitution</i>, and some political pamphlets, Disraeli followed up <i>Vivian Grey</i> by a series of novels, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Young Duke</i> (1831), <i><!--del_lnk--> Contarini Fleming</i> (1832), <i><!--del_lnk--> Alroy</i> (1833), <i><!--del_lnk--> Venetia</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Henrietta Temple</i> (1837). During the same period he had also written <i><!--del_lnk--> The Revolutionary Epick</i> and three burlesques, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ixion</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Infernal Marriage</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Popanilla</i>. Of these only <i>Henrietta Temple</i> (based on his affair with <!--del_lnk--> Lady Henrietta Sykes) was a true success.<p>During the 1840s Disraeli wrote three political novels collectively known as "the Trilogy"–<i>Sybil</i>, <i>Coningsby</i>, and <i>Tancred</i>.<p>Disraeli's relationships with other writers of his period (most of whom were male), were strained or non-existent. After the disaster of the <i>Representative</i> <!--del_lnk--> John Gibson Lockhart was a bitter enemy and the two never reconciled. Disraeli's preference for female company prevented the development of contact with those who were not alienated by his opinions, comportment, or background. One contemporary who tried to bridge the gap, <!--del_lnk--> William Makepeace Thackeray, established a tentative cordial relationship in the late 1840s only to see everything collapse when Disraeli took offence at a burlesque of him which Thackeray had penned for <i>Punch</i>. Disraeli took revenge in <i>Endymion</i> (published in 1880), when he caricatured Thackeray as "St. Barbe".<p><a id="Parliament" name="Parliament"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Parliament</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52948.jpg.htm" title="Sir Robert Peel, Bt.Prime Minister 1834-35, 1841-46"><img alt="Sir Robert Peel, Bt.Prime Minister 1834-35, 1841-46" class="thumbimage" height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Robert_Peel.jpg" src="../../images/81/8114.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52948.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Sir Robert Peel, Bt.</b><br /><small>Prime Minister 1834-35, 1841-46</small></div>
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<p>Disraeli had been considering a political career as early as 1830, before he departed England for the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>. His first real efforts, however, did not come until 1832, during the great crisis over the <!--del_lnk--> Reform Bill, when he contributed to an anti-<!--del_lnk--> Whig pamphlet edited by <!--del_lnk--> John Wilson Croker and published by Murray entitled <i>England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania</i>. The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as odd by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a <!--del_lnk--> Radical. Indeed, Disraeli had objected to Murray about Croker inserting "high Tory" sentiment, writing that "it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen." Further, at the time <i>Gallomania</i> was published, Disraeli was in fact electioneering in <!--del_lnk--> High Wycombe in the Radical interest. Disraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark. In the early 1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause. The other great party, the Whigs, was anathema to Disraeli: "Toryism is worn out & I cannot condescend to be a Whig." <p>Though he initially stood for election, unsuccessfully, as a Radical, Disraeli was a <!--del_lnk--> Tory by the time he won a seat in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a> in 1837 representing the constituency of <!--del_lnk--> Maidstone. The next year he settled his private life by marrying <!--del_lnk--> Mary Anne Lewis, the widow of Wyndham Lewis, Disraeli's erstwhile colleague at Maidstone.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52971.jpg.htm" title="Lord John MannersFriend of Disraeli, and leading figure in the Young England movement"><img alt="Lord John MannersFriend of Disraeli, and leading figure in the Young England movement" class="thumbimage" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lord_John_Manners.jpg" src="../../images/529/52971.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52971.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Lord John Manners</b><br /><small>Friend of Disraeli, and leading figure in the <!--del_lnk--> Young England movement</small></div>
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<p>Although a Conservative, Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the demands of the <!--del_lnk--> Chartists and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the merchants and new industrialists in the middle class, helping to found the <!--del_lnk--> Young England group in 1842 to promote the view that the landed interests should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by middle-class businessman. During the twenty years between the <!--del_lnk--> Corn Laws and the Second Reform Bill Disraeli would seek a Tory-Radical alliances, to little avail. Prior to the 1867 Reform Bill the working class did not possess the vote and therefore had little tangible political power. Although Disraeli forged a personal friendship with <!--del_lnk--> John Bright, a Lancashire manufacturer and leading Radical, Disraeli was unable to convince Bright to sacrifice principle for political gain. After one such attempt, Bright noted in his diary that Disraeli "seems unable to comprehend the morality of our political course."<p><a id="Protection" name="Protection"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Protection</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/p/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">Prime Minister</a> <a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Peel.htm" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a> passed over Disraeli when putting together his <!--del_lnk--> government in 1841 and Disraeli, hurt, gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government, often deliberately adopting positions contrary to those of his nominal chief. The best known of these cases was the <!--del_lnk--> Maynooth grant in <!--del_lnk--> 1845 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in <!--del_lnk--> 1846. The end of 1845 and the first months of 1846 were dominated by a battle in parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws, with the latter rallying around Disraeli and <!--del_lnk--> Lord George Bentinck. An alliance of pro free-trade Conservatives (the "Peelites"), Radicals, and <!--del_lnk--> Whigs carried repeal, and the Conservative Party split: the <!--del_lnk--> Peelites moved towards the Whigs, while a "new" Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Bentinck, and <!--del_lnk--> Lord Stanley (later <b>Lord Derby</b>).<p>This split had profound implications for Disraeli's political career: almost every Conservative politician with official experience followed Peel, leaving the rump bereft of leadership. As one biographer wrote, "[Disraeli] found himself almost the only figure on his side capable of putting up the oratorical display essential for a parliamentary leader." Looking on from the House of Lords, the <!--del_lnk--> Duke of Argyll wrote that Disraeli "was like a <!--del_lnk--> subaltern in a great battle where every superior officer was killed or wounded." If the remainder of the Conservative Party could muster the electoral support necessary to form a government, then Disraeli was now guaranteed high office. However, he would take office with a group of men who possessed little or no official experience, who had rarely felt moved to speak in the House of Commons before, and who, as a group, remained hostile to Disraeli on a personal level, his assault on the Corn Laws notwithstanding.<p>Disraeli's friendship with the Bentinck family was cemented in <!--del_lnk--> 1848 when <!--del_lnk--> Lord Henry Bentinck and <!--del_lnk--> Lord Titchfield loaned him <!--del_lnk--> £25,000 (equivalent to almost £1,500,000 today) so that he could purchase <!--del_lnk--> Hughenden Manor, in <!--del_lnk--> Buckingham county. This purchase allowed him to stand for the county, which was "essential" if one was to lead the Conservative Party at the time. He and <!--del_lnk--> Mary Anne alternated between Hughenden and several homes in London for the remainder of their marriage.<p><a id="Office" name="Office"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Office</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_first_Derby_government" name="The_first_Derby_government"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The first Derby government</span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/81/8140.jpg.htm" title="The Earl of DerbyPrime Minister 1852, 1858-59, 1866-68"><img alt="The Earl of DerbyPrime Minister 1852, 1858-59, 1866-68" class="thumbimage" height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:14th_Earl_of_Derby.jpg" src="../../images/529/52973.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/81/8140.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>The Earl of Derby</b><br /><small>Prime Minister 1852, 1858-59, 1866-68</small></div>
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<p>The first opportunity for the protectionist Tories under Disraeli and Stanley to take office came in 1851, when <!--del_lnk--> Lord John Russell's <!--del_lnk--> government was defeated in the House of Commons over the <!--del_lnk--> Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851. Disraeli was to have been <!--del_lnk--> Home Secretary, with Stanley (becoming the <i>Earl of Derby</i> later that year) as Prime Minister. The <!--del_lnk--> Peelites, however, refused to serve under Stanley or with Disraeli, and attempts to create a purely protectionist government failed. <p>Russell resumed office, but resigned again in early 1852 when a combination of the protectionists and <!--del_lnk--> Lord Palmerston defeated him on a Militia Bill. This time <!--del_lnk--> Lord Derby (as he had become) took office, and appointed Disraeli <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer and <!--del_lnk--> Leader of the House of Commons. Disraeli's first and primary responsibility was to produce a Budget for the coming fiscal year. He proposed to reduce taxes on <!--del_lnk--> malt and tea (<!--del_lnk--> indirect taxation); additional revenue would come from an increase in the <!--del_lnk--> House tax. More controversially, Disraeli also proposed to alter the workings of the <!--del_lnk--> Income Tax (<!--del_lnk--> direct taxation) by "differentiating"–i.e., different rates would be levied on different types of income. The establishment of the income tax on a permanent basis had been the subject of much inter-party discussion since the fall of Peel's ministry, but no conclusions had been reached, and Disraeli was criticised for mixing up details over the different "schedules" of income. He was also hampered by an unexpected increase in defence expenditure, which was forced on him by Derby and <!--del_lnk--> Sir John Pakington (leading to his celebrated remark to <!--del_lnk--> John Bright about the "damned defences"). This, combined with bad timing and perceived inexperience led to the failure of the Budget and consequently the fall of the government in December of that year.<p><a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a>'s final speech on the failed Budget marked the beginning of over twenty years of mutual parliamentary hostility, as well as the end of Gladstone's formal association with the Conservative Party.<p><a id="Opposition" name="Opposition"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Opposition</span></h4>
<p>With the fall of the government Disraeli and the Conservatives returned to the opposition benches. Derby's successor as Prime Minister was the Peelite <!--del_lnk--> Lord Aberdeen, whose ministry was composed of both Peelites and Whigs. Disraeli himself was succeeded as chancellor by Gladstone.<p><a id="The_second_Derby_government" name="The_second_Derby_government"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The second Derby government</span></h4>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Lord Palmerston's <!--del_lnk--> government collapsed in <!--del_lnk--> 1858 amid public fallout over the <!--del_lnk--> Orsini affair and Derby took office at the head of a purely 'Conservative' administration. He again offered a place to Gladstone, who declined. Disraeli remained leader of the House of Commons and returned to the Exchequer. As in <!--del_lnk--> 1852 Derby's was a <!--del_lnk--> minority government, dependent on the division of its opponents for survival. The principal measure of the 1858 session would be a bill to re-organise governance of India, the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Mutiny having exposed the inadequacy of dual control. The first attempt at legislation was drafted by the <!--del_lnk--> President of the Board of Control, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Ellenborough, who had previously served as <!--del_lnk--> Governor-General of India (1841-44). The bill, however, was riddled with complexities and had to be withdrawn. Soon after, Ellenborough was forced to resign over an entirely separate matter involving the current Governor-General, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Canning.<p>Faced with a vacancy, Disraeli and Derby tried yet again to bring Gladstone into the government. Disraeli wrote a personal letter to Gladstone, asking him to place the good of the party above personal animosity: "Every man performs his office, and there is a Power, greater than ourselves, that disposes of all this..." In responding to Disraeli Gladstone denied that personal feelings played any role in his decision then and previously to accept office, while acknowledging that there were differences between him and Derby "broader than you may have supposed." Gladstone also hinted at the strength of his own faith, and the role it played in his public life, when he addressed Disraeli's most personal and private appeal:<table align="center" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;">
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<td style="padding:4px 10px;" valign="top">I state these points fearlessly and without reserve, for you have yourself well reminded me that there is a Power beyond us that disposes of what we are and do, and I find the limits of choice in public life to be very narrow.—W. E. Gladstone to Disraeli, 1858</td>
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<p>With Gladstone's refusal Derby and Disraeli looked elsewhere and settled on Disraeli's old friend <!--del_lnk--> Edward Bulwer-Lytton, who became <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State for the Colonies; Derby's son <!--del_lnk--> Lord Stanley, succeeded Ellenborough at the Board of Control. Stanley, with Disraeli's assistance, proposed and guided through the house the India Act, under which the subcontinent would be governed for sixty years. The East India Company and its Governor-General were replaced by a <!--del_lnk--> viceroy and the Indian Council, while at Westminster the <!--del_lnk--> Board of Control was abolished and its functions assumed by the newly-created India Office, under the <!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State for India. <p><a id="The_1867_Reform_Bill" name="The_1867_Reform_Bill"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The 1867 Reform Bill</span></h4>
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<p>After engineering the defeat of a Liberal Reform Bill introduced by Gladstone in 1866, Disraeli and Derby introduced their own measure in 1867.<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:181px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/438/43812.jpg.htm" title="William Ewart GladstoneFour-time Prime Minister"><img alt="William Ewart GladstoneFour-time Prime Minister" class="thumbimage" height="243" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gladstone.jpg" src="../../images/438/43812.jpg" width="179" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/438/43812.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>William Ewart Gladstone</b><br /><small>Four-time Prime Minister</small></div>
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<p>This was primarily a political strategy designed to give the Conservative party control of the reform process and the subsequent long-term benefits in the Commons, similar to those derived by the Whigs after their 1832 Reform Act. The <!--del_lnk--> Reform Act of 1867 extended the franchise by 938,427 — an increase of 88% — by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least 10 pounds for rooms and eliminating <!--del_lnk--> rotten boroughs with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, and granting constituencies to fifteen unrepresented towns, and extra representation in parliament to larger towns such as Liverpool and Manchester, which had previously been under-represented in <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a>.. This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably <a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil%252C_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury.htm" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">Lord Cranborne</a> (later the <b>Marquess of Salisbury</b>), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill, accusing Disraeli of "a political betrayal which has no parallel in our Parliamentary annals." Cranborne, however, was unable to lead a rebellion similar to that which Disraeli had led against Peel twenty years earlier. <a id="Prime_Minister" name="Prime_Minister"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prime Minister</span></h2>
<p><a id="First_government" name="First_government"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">First government</span></h4>
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<p>Derby's health had been declining for some time and he finally resigned as Prime Minister in late February of 1868; he would live for twenty months. Disraeli's efforts over the past two years had dispelled, for the time being, any doubts about him succeeding Derby as leader of the Conservative Party and therefore Prime Minister. As Disraeli remarked, "I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole." <div class="thumb tleft">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14836.jpg.htm" title="The Marquess of SalisburyThree-time Prime Minister"><img alt="The Marquess of SalisburyThree-time Prime Minister" class="thumbimage" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury.jpg" src="../../images/529/52974.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/148/14836.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>The Marquess of Salisbury</b><br /><small>Three-time Prime Minister</small></div>
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<p>However, the Conservatives were still a minority in the House of Commons, and the enaction of the Reform Bill required the calling of new election once the new voting register had been compiled. Disraeli's term as Prime Minister would therefore be fairly short, unless the Conservatives won the general election. He made only two major changes in the cabinet: he replaced <!--del_lnk--> Lord Chelmsford as <!--del_lnk--> Lord Chancellor with <!--del_lnk--> Lord Cairns, and brought in <!--del_lnk--> George Ward Hunt as <!--del_lnk--> Chancellor of the Exchequer. Disraeli and Chelmsford had never got along particularly well, and Cairns, in Disraeli's view, was a far stronger minister. <p>Disraeli's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the <!--del_lnk--> established <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_Ireland.htm" title="Church of Ireland">Church of Ireland</a>. Although <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> was (and remains) overwhelmingly <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic, the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Church remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation. An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with <!--del_lnk--> Cardinal Manning the establishment of a Roman Catholic university in <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> foundered in March when <a href="../../wp/w/William_Ewart_Gladstone.htm" title="William Ewart Gladstone">Gladstone</a> moved resolutions to dis-establish the Irish Church altogether. The proposal divided the Conservative Party while reuniting the <!--del_lnk--> Liberals under Gladstone's leadership. While Disraeli's government survived until the <!--del_lnk--> December general election, the initiative had passed to the Liberals, who were returned to power with a majority of 170.<p><a id="Second_government" name="Second_government"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Second government</span></h4>
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<p>After six years in opposition, Disraeli and the Conservative Party won the <!--del_lnk--> election of 1874, giving the party its first absolute <!--del_lnk--> majority in the House of Commons since the 1840s. Under the leadership of <!--del_lnk--> R. A. Cross, the <!--del_lnk--> Home Secretary, Disraeli's government introduced various reforms, including the Artisans Dwellings Act (1875), the <!--del_lnk--> Public Health Act (1875), the Pure Food and Drugs Act (1875), the Climbing Boys Act (1875), and the Education Act (1876). His government also introduced a new <!--del_lnk--> Factory Act meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act (1875) to allow peaceful picketing, and the Employers and Workmen Act (1878) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts.<p><a id="Imperialism" name="Imperialism"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Imperialism</span></h4>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2218.jpg.htm" title="Disraeli and Queen Victoria, during the latter's visit to Hughenden at the height of the Eastern crisis."><img alt="Disraeli and Queen Victoria, during the latter's visit to Hughenden at the height of the Eastern crisis." class="thumbimage" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Old_disraeli.jpg" src="../../images/529/52975.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/22/2218.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Disraeli and <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>, during the latter's visit to <!--del_lnk--> Hughenden at the height of the Eastern crisis.</div>
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<p>Disraeli was a stauch supporter of the expansion and preservation of the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. He introduced the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Titles Act, which created Queen Victoria <!--del_lnk--> Empress of India, putting her at the same level as the Russian Tsar. He also, over the objections of his own cabinet, purchased 44% of the shares of the Suez Canal Company.<p>Difficulties in South Africa (epitomised by the defeat of the British Army at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Isandlwana), as well as Afghanistan, weakened his government and led to his party's defeat in the 1880 election.<p><a id="The_Eastern_Question" name="The_Eastern_Question"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">The Eastern Question</span></h4>
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<p>Disraeli and Gladstone clashed over Britain's Balkan policy. Disraeli saw the situation as a matter of British imperial and strategic interests, keeping to <!--del_lnk--> Palmerston's policy of supporting the Ottoman Empire against Russian expansion. Gladstone, however, saw the issue in moral terms, for Bulgarian Christians had been massacred by the Turks and Gladstone therefore believed it was immoral to support the Ottoman Empire. Disraeli achieved a diplomatic success at the <!--del_lnk--> Congress of Berlin in 1878, in limiting the growing influence of <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> Balkans and breaking up the <!--del_lnk--> League of the Three Emperors.<p>He was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876 when <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a> (who liked Disraeli both personally and politically) made him <b>Earl of Beaconsfield</b> and <b>Viscount Hughenden</b>.<p><a id="Death" name="Death"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Death</span></h4>
<p>In the <!--del_lnk--> general election of 1880 Disraeli's Conservatives were defeated by Gladstone's Liberals. Disraeli became ill soon after and died in April 1881. His <!--del_lnk--> literary executor, and for all intents and purposes his heir, was his private secretary, <!--del_lnk--> Lord Rowton.<p><a id="Personal_life_and_family" name="Personal_life_and_family"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Personal life and family</span></h2>
<p>Benjamin was the second child and eldest son of <!--del_lnk--> Isaac D'Israeli and <!--del_lnk--> Maria Basevi. His siblings included Sarah (1802–1859), Naphtali (1807), Ralph (1809–1898), and James (1813–1868). <p>Before his entrance into parliament Disraeli was involved with several different women, most notably Lady Henrietta Sykes (the wife of Sir Francis Sykes, Bt), who served as the model for <i>Henrietta Temple</i>. His relationship with Henrietta would eventually cause him serious trouble beyond the usual problems associated with a torrid affair. It was Henrietta who introduced Disraeli to <!--del_lnk--> Lord Lyndhurst, with whom she later became romantically involved. As Lord Blake observed: "The true relationship between the three cannot be determined with certainty...there can be no doubt that the affair [figurative usage] damaged Disraeli and that it made its contribution, along with many other episodes, to the understandable aura of distrust which hung around his name for so many years." <p><a id="Disraeli.27s_Judaism" name="Disraeli.27s_Judaism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Disraeli's Judaism</span></h3>
<p>Although born of Jewish parents, Disraeli was baptised in the Christian faith at the age of thirteen, and remained an observant Anglican for the rest of his life. At the same time, he considered himself ethnically Jewish and did not view the two positions as incompatible.<p><a id="Disraeli.27s_governments" name="Disraeli.27s_governments"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Disraeli's governments</span></h2>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> First Disraeli Ministry (February–December 1868)<li><!--del_lnk--> Second Disraeli Ministry (February 1874–April 1880)</ul>
<p><a id="Works_by_Disraeli" name="Works_by_Disraeli"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works by Disraeli</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52976.jpg.htm" title="Line drawing of Disraeli"><img alt="Line drawing of Disraeli" class="thumbimage" height="251" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Disraeli%2C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13619.jpg" src="../../images/529/52976.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52976.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Line drawing of Disraeli</div>
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<p><a id="Fiction" name="Fiction"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Fiction</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Vivian Grey</i> (1826; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>Vivian Grey</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Popanilla</i> (1828; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>Popanilla</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Young Duke</i> (1831)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Contarini Fleming</i> (1832)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Alroy</i> (1833)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Infernal Marriage</i> (1834)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Ixion in Heaven</i> (1834)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Revolutionary Epick</i> (1834)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Rise of Iskander</i> (1834; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>The Rise of Iskander</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Henrietta Temple</i> (1837)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Venetia</i> (1837; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>Venetia</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Tragedy of Count Alarcos</i> (1839); <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>The Tragedy of Count Alarcos</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Coningsby, or the New Generation</i> (1844; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>Coningsby</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Sybil, or The Two Nations</i> (1845; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>Sybil or, The Two Nations</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Tancred, or the New Crusade</i> (1847)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Lothair</i> (1870; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>Lothair</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Endymion</i> (1880; <cite class="gutenberg" style="font-style:normal"><i><!--del_lnk--> <i>Endymion</i></i>, available at <!--del_lnk--> Project Gutenberg.</cite>)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Falconet (book)</i> (unfinished 1881)</ul>
<p><a id="Non-fiction" name="Non-fiction"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Non-fiction</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> An Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies</i> (1825)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Lawyers and Legislators: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies</i> (1825)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The present state of Mexico</i> (1825)<li><i>England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial <!--del_lnk--> Gallomania</i> (1832)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> What Is He?</i> (1833)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Letters of Runnymede</i> (1836)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Lord George Bentinck</i> (1852)</ul>
<p>
<br />
<p><a id="Films_featuring_Disraeli" name="Films_featuring_Disraeli"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Films featuring Disraeli</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52978.jpg.htm" title="Statue in Parliament Square, London"><img alt="Statue in Parliament Square, London" class="thumbimage" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Disraeli_statue.jpg" src="../../images/529/52978.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/529/52978.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue in <!--del_lnk--> Parliament Square, London</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Disraeli</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1929) <!--del_lnk--> George Arliss (<!--del_lnk--> Best Actor Oscar), <!--del_lnk--> Joan Bennett<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Prime Minister</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1941) <!--del_lnk--> John Gielgud<li><i><!--del_lnk--> The Mudlark</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1950) <!--del_lnk--> Alec Guinness<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Disraeli</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1978) <!--del_lnk--> Ian McShane, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Peach<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mrs. Brown</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1997) <!--del_lnk--> Sir Antony Sher</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli%2C_1st_Earl_of_Beaconsfield"</div>
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Benjamin_Franklin | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Benjamin Franklin</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Astronomers_and_physicists.htm">Astronomers and physicists</a>; <a href="../index/subject.People.Historical_figures.htm">Historical figures</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: larger;"><b>Benjamin Franklin</b></td>
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<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/89/8945.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Franklin_by_Jean-Baptiste_Greuze.jpg" src="../../images/237/23749.jpg" width="180" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste Greuze, <!--del_lnk--> 1777</td>
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<td colspan="2">
<center><b>6th <!--del_lnk--> President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania</b></center>
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<td colspan="2">
<center><b>Term of office:</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> 1785 – <!--del_lnk--> 1788</center>
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<th>Predecessor:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> John Dickinson</td>
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<th>Successor:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thomas Mifflin</td>
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<th>Born:</th>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1706</span><br /><a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts</td>
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<th>Died:</th>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> April 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1790</span><br /><a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania</td>
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<th>Political party:</th>
<td>None</td>
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<th>Profession:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Scientist, <!--del_lnk--> writer, <!--del_lnk--> politician</td>
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<th>Spouse:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Deborah Read</td>
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<th>Religion:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Deism</td>
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<p><b>Benjamin Franklin</b> (<!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1706 <small>[<!--del_lnk--> O.S. <!--del_lnk--> January 6]</small> – <!--del_lnk--> April 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1790) was one of the best known <!--del_lnk--> Founding Fathers of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. He was a leading <!--del_lnk--> author, <!--del_lnk--> politician, <!--del_lnk--> printer, <!--del_lnk--> scientist, <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Publishing.htm" title="Publishing">publisher</a>, <!--del_lnk--> inventor, civic <!--del_lnk--> activist, and <!--del_lnk--> diplomat. As a scientist he was a major figure in the <!--del_lnk--> history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. As a political writer and activist he, more than anyone, invented the idea of an American nation, and as a diplomat during the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution, he secured the <!--del_lnk--> French alliance that made independence possible.<p>Franklin was noted for his curiosity, his writings (popular, political and scientific), and his diversity of interests. His wise and scintillating writings are proverbial to this day. As a leader of the <a href="../../wp/a/Age_of_Enlightenment.htm" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, he gained the recognition of scientists and intellectuals across Europe. An agent in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> before the Revolution, and Minister to <!--del_lnk--> France during it, he more than anyone defined the new nation in the minds of Europe. His success in securing French military and financial aid was the turning point for American victory over <!--del_lnk--> Britain. He invented the <a href="../../wp/l/Lightning_rod.htm" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>; he was an early proponent of <!--del_lnk--> colonial unity; historians hail him as the "First American". The city of <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania marked Franklin's 300th birthday in <!--del_lnk--> January 2006 with a wide array of exhibitions, and events citing Franklin's extraordinary accomplishments throughout his illustrious career.<p>Born in <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a>, Massachusetts to a devout Anglican tallow-maker, he was baptized at <!--del_lnk--> Old South Meeting House. Franklin learned printing from his older brother and became a newspaper editor, printer, and merchant in Philadelphia, becoming very wealthy. He spent many years in England and published the famous <i><!--del_lnk--> Poor Richard's Almanac</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania Gazette</i>. He formed both the first <!--del_lnk--> public lending library and <!--del_lnk--> fire department in America as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Junto, a political discussion club.<p>He became a <!--del_lnk--> national hero in America when he spearheaded the effort to have <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> repeal the unpopular <!--del_lnk--> Stamp Act. A diplomatic genius, Franklin was almost universally admired among the French as American minister to Paris, and was a major figure in the development of positive <!--del_lnk--> Franco-American relations. From 1775 to 1776, Franklin was <!--del_lnk--> Postmaster General under the <!--del_lnk--> Continental Congress and from 1785 to his death in 1790 was <!--del_lnk--> President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. Towards the end of his life, he became one of the most prominent <!--del_lnk--> abolitionists.<p>Franklin was interested in science and technology, carrying out his famous <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> experiments and inventing, in addition to his very important <a href="../../wp/l/Lightning_rod.htm" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> Franklin stove, <!--del_lnk--> catheter, <!--del_lnk--> swimfins, <!--del_lnk--> glass harmonica, and <!--del_lnk--> bifocals. He also played a major role in establishing the <!--del_lnk--> University of Pennsylvania and <!--del_lnk--> Franklin and Marshall College. He was elected the first president of the <!--del_lnk--> American Philosophical Society Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, the oldest <!--del_lnk--> learned society in the United States, in <!--del_lnk--> 1769. In addition, Franklin was a noted linguist, fluent in five languages. He is typically recognized as a <!--del_lnk--> polymath.<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Ancestry" name="Ancestry"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Ancestry</span></h3>
<p>Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was born at <!--del_lnk--> Ecton, <!--del_lnk--> Northamptonshire, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> on <!--del_lnk--> December 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a <!--del_lnk--> blacksmith and <!--del_lnk--> farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in <!--del_lnk--> Nantucket, <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts on <!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher and his wife <!--del_lnk--> Mary Morrill, a former <!--del_lnk--> indentured servant. Both of his parents were devout <!--del_lnk--> Christians. A descendent of the Folgers, <!--del_lnk--> J. A. Folger, would go on to found <!--del_lnk--> Folgers Coffee in the 19th century.<p>Around 1677, Josiah married Anne Child at Ecton, and over the next few years had three children. These half-siblings of Benjamin Franklin included Elizabeth (<!--del_lnk--> March 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1678), Samuel (<!--del_lnk--> May 16, <!--del_lnk--> 1681), and Hannah (<!--del_lnk--> May 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1683).<p>Sometime during the second half of 1683, the Franklins left <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> for <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. They had several more children in Boston, including Josiah Jr. (<!--del_lnk--> August 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1685), Ann (<!--del_lnk--> January 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1687), Joseph (<!--del_lnk--> February 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1688), and Joseph (<!--del_lnk--> June 30, <!--del_lnk--> 1689) (the first Joseph having died soon after birth).<p>Josiah's first wife, Anne, died in Boston on <!--del_lnk--> July 9, 1689. He was married to Abiah Folger on <!--del_lnk--> November 25, 1689 in the <!--del_lnk--> Old South Church of Boston by <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Willard.<p>Josiah and Abiah had the following children: John (<!--del_lnk--> December 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1690), Peter (<!--del_lnk--> November 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1692), Mary (<!--del_lnk--> September 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1694), James (<!--del_lnk--> February 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1697), Sarah (<!--del_lnk--> July 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1699), Ebenezer (<!--del_lnk--> September 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1701), Thomas (<!--del_lnk--> December 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1703), <b>Benjamin</b> (<!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1706), Lydia (<!--del_lnk--> August 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1708), and Jane (<!--del_lnk--> March 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1712).<p><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23750.png.htm" title="Autograph of Benjamin Franklin"><img alt="Autograph of Benjamin Franklin" height="149" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Autograph_of_Benjamin_Franklin_%28from_Nordisk_familjebok%29.png" src="../../images/237/23750.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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</div>
<p>Benjamin Franklin was born on Milk Street in Boston on <!--del_lnk--> January 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1706 <!--del_lnk--> and baptized at <!--del_lnk--> Old South Meeting House. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a <!--del_lnk--> tallow chandler, a maker of candles and soap, whose second wife, Abiah Folger, was Benjamin's mother. Josiah's marriages produced 20 children; Benjamin was the fifteenth child and youngest son. Josiah wanted Ben to attend school with the clergy, but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended <!--del_lnk--> Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although "his parents talked of the church as a career" for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He then worked for his father for a time and at 12 he became an <!--del_lnk--> apprentice to his brother James, a printer. When Ben was 15, James created the '<b>New England Courant'</b>, <!--del_lnk--> the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies. When denied the option to write to the paper, Franklin invented the pseudonym of '<b>Mrs. Silence Dogood'</b> who was ostensibly a middle-aged widow. The letters were published in the paper and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse and James was unhappy with Ben when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin left his apprenticeship without permission and in so doing became a fugitive.<p>At the age of 17, Franklin ran away to <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived he worked in several printer shops around town. However, he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Franklin was induced by Pennsylvania Governor <!--del_lnk--> Sir William Keith to go to <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Finding Keith's promises of backing a newspaper to be empty, Franklin worked as a <!--del_lnk--> compositor in a printer's shop in what is now the <!--del_lnk--> Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the <!--del_lnk--> Smithfield area of London. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of a merchant named Thomas Denham, who gave Franklin a position as clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in Denham's merchant business.<p>Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade. By 1730, Franklin had set up a printing house of his own and had contrived to become the <!--del_lnk--> publisher of a newspaper called "The Pennsylvania Gazette". The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, together with a great deal of savvy about cultivating a positive image of an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. Even after Franklin had achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he would habitually sign his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer'.<p>Franklin was initiated into the local <!--del_lnk--> Freemason lodge in 1731 (new style), and became grand master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Philadelphia.<!--del_lnk--> He edited and published the first Masonic book in America, a reprint of <!--del_lnk--> James Anderson's <!--del_lnk--> The Constitutions of the Free-Masons that same year. He remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.<p><a id="Deborah_Read" name="Deborah_Read"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Deborah Read</span></h3>
<p>In 1724, while a boarder in the Read home, Franklin had courted <!--del_lnk--> Deborah Read before going to London at Governor Keith's request. At that time, Miss Read's mother was wary of allowing her daughter to wed a seventeen-year old who was on his way to London. Her own husband having recently died, Mrs. Read declined Franklin's offer of marriage.<p>While Franklin was finding himself in London, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to <a href="../../wp/b/Barbados.htm" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>, leaving Deborah behind. With Rodgers' fate unknown, and bigamy illegal, Deborah was not free to remarry formally.<p>Franklin himself had his own actions to ponder. In 1730, Franklin acknowledged an illegitimate son named <!--del_lnk--> William, who eventually became the last Loyalist governor of <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey. While the identity of William's mother remains unknown, perhaps the responsibility of an infant child gave Franklin a reason to take up residence with Deborah Read. William was raised in the Franklin household but eventually broke with his father over the treatment of the colonies at the hands of the crown. However, he was not above using his father's notoriety to enhance his own standing.<p>Franklin established a common law marriage with Deborah Read on <!--del_lnk--> September 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1730. Benjamin and Deborah Franklin had two children (in addition to raising William). The first was Francis Folger Franklin, born October 1732; he died of smallpox in 1736. <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Franklin, nicknamed Sally, was born in 1743. She eventually married <!--del_lnk--> Richard Bache, had seven children, and cared for her father in his old age.<p>Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe, despite his repeated requests.<p><a id="Success_as_author" name="Success_as_author"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Success as author</span></h3>
<p>In 1733, Franklin began to issue the famous <i><!--del_lnk--> Poor Richard's Almanac</i> (with content both original and borrowed) on which much of his popular reputation is based. Adages from this almanac such as "A penny saved is twopence clear" (often misquoted as "A penny saved is a penny earned") and "Fish and visitors stink in three days" remain common quotations in the modern world. He sold about ten thousand copies a year.<p>In 1758, the year in which he ceased writing for the Almanac, he printed <i>Father Abraham's Sermon</i>, one of the most famous pieces of literature produced in <!--del_lnk--> Colonial America.<p>Franklin was well-known as a <!--del_lnk--> humorist and a collection of his humorous writings can be found in the book: <i>Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School</i>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Franklin's autobiography, published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre.<p><a id="Inventions_and_scientific_inquiries" name="Inventions_and_scientific_inquiries"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Inventions and scientific inquiries</span></h3>
<p>Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the <a href="../../wp/l/Lightning_rod.htm" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> glass harmonica, the <!--del_lnk--> Franklin stove, <!--del_lnk--> bifocal glasses, and the flexible urinary <!--del_lnk--> catheter. Although Franklin never patented any of his own inventions, he was a supporter of the rights of inventors and authors and was responsible for inserting into the United States Constitution the provision for limited-term patents and copyrights.<p>In 1743, Franklin founded the <!--del_lnk--> American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life (in between bouts of politics and moneymaking).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23751.jpg.htm" title="An illustration from Franklin's paper on "Water-spouts and Whirlwinds.""><img alt="An illustration from Franklin's paper on "Water-spouts and Whirlwinds."" height="280" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg" src="../../images/237/23751.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23751.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An illustration from Franklin's paper on "<!--del_lnk--> Water-spouts and Whirlwinds."</div>
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<p>In 1748, he retired from printing and went into other businesses. He created a partnership with his foreman, David Hall, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made discoveries that gave him a reputation with the educated throughout Europe and especially in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<p>These include his investigations of <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. Franklin proposed that "vitreous" and "resinous" electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same electrical fluid under different pressures (See <!--del_lnk--> electrical charge). He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively,<!--del_lnk--> and the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.<!--del_lnk--> In 1750, he published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a <!--del_lnk--> kite in a <!--del_lnk--> storm that appeared capable of becoming a <!--del_lnk--> lightning storm. On <!--del_lnk--> May 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1752, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas-François Dalibard of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> conducted Franklin's experiment (using a 40-foot-tall iron rod instead of a kite) and extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On <!--del_lnk--> June 15, Franklin conducted his famous kite experiment <!--del_lnk--> in Philadelphia and also successfully extracted sparks from a cloud (unaware that <!--del_lnk--> Dalibard had already done so, 36 days earlier). Franklin's experiment was not written up until <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Priestley's 1767 <i>History and Present Status of Electricity</i>; the evidence shows that Franklin was insulated (not in a conducting path, as he would have been in danger of <!--del_lnk--> electrocution in the event of a lightning strike). (Others, such as Prof. <!--del_lnk--> Georg Wilhelm Richmann of <!--del_lnk--> St. Petersburg, Russia, were spectacularly electrocuted during the months following Franklin's experiment.) In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of <!--del_lnk--> electrical ground. If Franklin did perform this experiment, he did not do it in the way that is often described, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, (as it would have been <!--del_lnk--> dramatic but fatal). Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, which implied that <!--del_lnk--> lightning was electrical.<p>Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the <a href="../../wp/l/Lightning_rod.htm" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>. He noted that conductors with a sharp rather than a smooth point were capable of discharging silently, and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this knowledge could be of use in protecting buildings from lightning, by attaching <i>"upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground;...Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!"</i> Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the <!--del_lnk--> University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later <!--del_lnk--> Independence Hall) in 1752.<!--del_lnk--> <p>In recognition of his work with electricity, Franklin received the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Society's <!--del_lnk--> Copley Medal in 1753, and in 1756 he became one of the few eighteenth century Americans to be elected as a Fellow of the Society. The <!--del_lnk--> cgs unit of <a href="../../wp/e/Electric_charge.htm" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> has been named after him: one <i>franklin</i> (Fr) is equal to one <!--del_lnk--> statcoulomb.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> October 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1743, a storm blowing from the north-east denied Franklin the opportunity of a witnessing a <a href="../../wp/l/Lunar_eclipse.htm" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipse</a>. In correspondence with his brother, Franklin learned that the same storm had not reached <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a> until <i>after</i> the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the north-east of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept which would have great influence in <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>.<!--del_lnk--> <p>Franklin noted a principle of <!--del_lnk--> refrigeration by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly Franklin conducted experiments. On one warm day in <a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge.htm" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England in 1758, Franklin and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury <!--del_lnk--> thermometer with <!--del_lnk--> ether and using <!--del_lnk--> bellows to evaporate the ether. With each subsequent <!--del_lnk--> evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (-14 °C). Another thermometer showed the room <!--del_lnk--> temperature to be constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter “<!--del_lnk--> Cooling by Evaporation,” Franklin noted that “one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer’s day." Each year the frozen food industry gives a Franklin Award in honour of his observing this phenomenon.<p><a id="Musical_endeavors" name="Musical_endeavors"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Musical endeavors</span></h3>
<p>Franklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar. He also composed music, notably a <!--del_lnk--> string quartet in <!--del_lnk--> early classical style, and invented (a much improved version of) the <!--del_lnk--> glass armonica (not to be confused with the <!--del_lnk--> harmonica which wasn't invented until long after Franklin) which soon found its way to Europe. <p><a id="Public_life" name="Public_life"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Public life</span></h3>
<p>Franklin and several other members of a <!--del_lnk--> philosophical association joined their resources in 1731 and began the first <!--del_lnk--> public library in Philadelphia. The newly founded <!--del_lnk--> Library Company ordered its first books in 1732, mostly theological and educational titles, but by 1741 the library also included works on history, geography, poetry, exploration, and <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a>. The success of this library encouraged the opening of libraries in other American cities, and Franklin felt that this device contributed to the American colonies' struggle to maintain their privileges.<p>In 1736 Franklin created the <!--del_lnk--> Union Fire Company, the first volunteer <!--del_lnk--> firefighting company in America. In the same year he printed a new currency for <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey based on innovative anti-<!--del_lnk--> counterfeiting techniques which he had devised.<p>As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he set forth a scheme for <!--del_lnk--> The Academy and College of Philadelphia. He was appointed President of the Academy in <!--del_lnk--> November 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1749, and it opened on <!--del_lnk--> August 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1751. At its first <!--del_lnk--> commencement, on <!--del_lnk--> May 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1757, seven men graduated; six with a <!--del_lnk--> Bachelor of Arts and one as <!--del_lnk--> Master of Arts. It was later merged with the <b>University of the State of Pennsylvania</b>, to become the <!--del_lnk--> University of Pennsylvania.<p>In 1753, both <!--del_lnk--> Harvard and <!--del_lnk--> Yale awarded him honorary degrees <!--del_lnk--> .<p>In 1751, Franklin and <!--del_lnk--> Dr. Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania legislature to establish a <!--del_lnk--> hospital. <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania Hospital was the first <!--del_lnk--> hospital in what was to become the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States of America</a>.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:318px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23752.png.htm" title="This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War)."><img alt="This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War)." height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Joinordie.png" src="../../images/237/23752.png" width="316" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the <!--del_lnk--> French and Indian War (<!--del_lnk--> Seven Years' War).</div>
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<p>Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics, and progressed rapidly. In October 1748 he was selected as a councilman, in June 1749 he became a <!--del_lnk--> Justice of the Peace for Philadelphia, and in 1751 he was elected to the <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania Assembly. On <!--del_lnk--> August 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1753 Franklin was appointed joint deputy postmaster-general of North America. His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, but his fame as a statesman rests chiefly on his subsequent diplomatic services in connection with the relations of the colonies with Great Britain, and later with <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<p>In 1754 he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the <!--del_lnk--> Albany Congress. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the <!--del_lnk--> Board of Trade in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a>. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the <!--del_lnk--> Articles of Confederation and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a>.<p>In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. For five years he remained there, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly, and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in <!--del_lnk--> Whitehall led to the failure of this mission. In 1759, the <!--del_lnk--> University of St Andrews awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Laws degree. In 1762, <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University awarded Franklin an honorary doctorate for his scientific accomplishments and from then on he went by "Doctor Franklin." He also managed to secure a post for his illegitimate son, <!--del_lnk--> William Franklin, as <!--del_lnk--> Colonial Governor of New Jersey.<p>During his stay in London, Franklin became involved in radical politics. He was a member of the Club of Honest Whigs, alongside thinkers such as <!--del_lnk--> Richard Price.<p>In 1756, Franklin became a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (now <!--del_lnk--> Royal Society of Arts or RSA, which had been founded in 1754), whose early meetings took place in coffee shops in London's <!--del_lnk--> Covent Garden district, close to Franklin's main residence in Craven Street (the only one of his residences to survive and which opened to the public as the <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Franklin House museum on 17th January 2006). After his return to America, Franklin became the Society's Corresponding Member and remained closely connected with the Society. The RSA instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Franklin's birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA.<p>During his stays at Craven Street in London between 1757 and 1775, Franklin developed a close friendship with his landlady Margaret Stevenson and her circle of friends and relations, in particular her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly.<p>In 1759, he was to visit <a href="../../wp/e/Edinburgh.htm" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> with his son, and he recalled his conversations there as "the <i>densest</i> happiness of my life." <div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23753.jpg.htm" title="Benjamin Franklin by Benjamin Wilson, 1759."><img alt="Benjamin Franklin by Benjamin Wilson, 1759." height="204" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Franklin_by_Benjamin_Wilson%2C_1759.jpg" src="../../images/237/23753.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23753.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Benjamin Franklin by <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Wilson, 1759.</div>
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<p><a id="Coming_of_Revolution" name="Coming_of_Revolution"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Coming of Revolution</span></h3>
<p>On his return to America (1762), Franklin became involved in the <!--del_lnk--> Paxton Boys' affair, writing a scathing attack on their massacre of Christian American Indians, and eventually persuading them to disperse.<!--del_lnk--> . Many of the Paxton Boys' supporters were Scotch-Irish Presbyterians and German Reformed or Lutherans from the rural west of Pennsylvania, leading to claims that Franklin was biased in favour of the urban <!--del_lnk--> Quaker elite of the East. Because of these accusations, and other attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the 1764 Assembly elections. This defeat, however, allowed him the opportunity to return to London, where he would seal his reputation as a pro-American radical.<p>In 1764, Franklin was dispatched to England as an agent for the colony, this time to petition <a href="../../wp/g/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="George III of the United Kingdom">the King</a> to resume the government from the hands of the proprietors. During this visit he would also become colonial agent for <!--del_lnk--> Georgia, <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey and <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts. In <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, he actively opposed the proposed <!--del_lnk--> Stamp Act, despite accusations by opponents in America that he had been complicit in its creation. His principled opposition to the Stamp Act, and later to the <!--del_lnk--> Townshend Acts of 1767, would lead to the end of his dream of a career in the British Government, and his alliance with proponents of <!--del_lnk--> colonial independence. It also led to an irreconcilable break with his son William, who remained loyal to the British.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23754.jpg.htm" title="Franklin, an engraving from a painting by Joseph Duplessis."><img alt="Franklin, an engraving from a painting by Joseph Duplessis." height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg" src="../../images/237/23754.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23754.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Franklin, an engraving from a painting by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Duplessis.</div>
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<p>In September 1767, Franklin visited <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> with his usual traveling partner, Sir <!--del_lnk--> John Pringle. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King <!--del_lnk--> Louis XV.<p>While living in London in 1768, he developed a <!--del_lnk--> phonetic alphabet in <i>A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling</i>. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters Franklin regarded as redundant, and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own; however, his new alphabet never caught on and he eventually lost interest. <!--del_lnk--> <p>In 1771 Franklin traveled extensively around the British Isles staying with, among others, <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Priestley and <a href="../../wp/d/David_Hume.htm" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>. In <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Parliament rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to be given this honour.<!--del_lnk--> <p>1773 saw the publication of two of Franklin's most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: <!--del_lnk--> <i>Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One</i>, and <i>An Edict by the King of Prussia</i>.<!--del_lnk--> He also published an <i>Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer</i>, anonymously with <!--del_lnk--> Francis Dashwood. Among the unusual features of this work is a funeral service reduced to six minutes in length, "to preserve the health and lives of the living".<p><a id="Hutchinson_Letters" name="Hutchinson_Letters"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Hutchinson Letters</span></h3>
<p>Franklin obtained some private letters from Massachusetts governor <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Hutchinson and lieutenant governor <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Oliver which proved they were encouraging London to crack down in the rights of the Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America where they escalated the tensions. Franklin now appeared to the British as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by the Privy Council. He left London in March 1775.<p><a id="Declaration_of_Independence" name="Declaration_of_Independence"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Declaration of Independence</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/75/7542.jpg.htm" title="John Trumbull depicts the five-man drafting committee presenting their work to the Congress. "><img alt="John Trumbull depicts the five-man drafting committee presenting their work to the Congress. " height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Declaration_independence.jpg" src="../../images/75/7542.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/75/7542.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> John Trumbull depicts the five-man drafting committee presenting their work to the Congress. </div>
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<p>By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on <!--del_lnk--> May 5, the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution had begun with fighting at Lexington and Concord. The New England militia had trapped the main British army in Boston. The Revolutionary War had begun. The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the <!--del_lnk--> Second Continental Congress. In 1776 he was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Committee of Five that drafted the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence.htm" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, and made several small changes to <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson's</a> draft.<p><a id="Ambassador_to_France:_1776-1785" name="Ambassador_to_France:_1776-1785"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Ambassador to France: 1776-1785</span></h3>
<p>In December of 1776, he was dispatched to France as <!--del_lnk--> commissioner for the United States. He lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of <!--del_lnk--> Passy, donated by <!--del_lnk--> Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont who helped the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785, and was such a favorite of French society that it became fashionable for wealthy French families to decorate their parlors with a painting of him. He was highly flirtatious in the French manner (but did not have any actual affairs.) He conducted the affairs of his country towards the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance and negotiating the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Paris (1783). When he finally returned home in 1785, he received a place only second to that of <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> as the champion of American independence. Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Duplessis that now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the <!--del_lnk--> Smithsonian Institution in <!--del_lnk--> Washington, DC.<p>After his return from France, Franklin became an <!--del_lnk--> abolitionist, freeing both of his slaves. He eventually became president of <!--del_lnk--> The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage. <!--del_lnk--> <p>In 1787 he served as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. He played an honorific role, but seldom engaged in debate. He is the only <!--del_lnk--> Founding Father who is a signatory of all four of the major documents of the founding of the United States: <!--del_lnk--> the Declaration of Independence, the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Paris, the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Alliance with <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>.<p>In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in <!--del_lnk--> Lancaster, Pennsylvania proposed the foundation of a new college to be named in Franklin's honour. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College; which is now called <!--del_lnk--> Franklin and Marshall College.<p>Between 1771 and 1788, he finished his <!--del_lnk--> autobiography. While it was at first addressed to his son, it was later completed for the benefit of mankind at the request of a friend.<p>In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that attempted to convince his readers of the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of Africans into American society. These writings included:<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> An Address to the Public from the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery</i>, (1789)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks</i> (1789), and<li><i>Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade</i> <!--del_lnk--> (1790).</ul>
<p>In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society and its president, Benjamin Franklin.<p><a id="Virtue.2C_religion_and_personal_beliefs" name="Virtue.2C_religion_and_personal_beliefs"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Virtue, religion and personal beliefs</span></h3>
<p>Although Franklin's parents had intended for him to have a career in the church, Franklin said that he became disillusioned with organized religion, after learning about <!--del_lnk--> Deism. <i>"I soon became a thorough Deist."</i><!--del_lnk--> He also attacked Christian principles of free will and morality in a <!--del_lnk--> 1725 pamphlet, <i><!--del_lnk--> A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain.</i> <!--del_lnk--> He consistently attacked religious dogma, arguing that morality was more dependent upon virtue and benevolent actions rather than on strict obedience to religious orthodoxy: <i>"I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me."</i><!--del_lnk--> Franklin later stated that the fundamental arguments he espoused in that dissertation were "not so clever a performance as [he] once thought." <!--del_lnk--> <p>Like the other advocates of <!--del_lnk--> republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous. Indeed all his life he had been exploring the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard's <!--del_lnk--> aphorisms.<p>Like most <!--del_lnk--> Enlightenment intellectuals, Franklin separated virtue, morality, and faith from organized religion, although he felt that if religion in general grew weaker, morality, virtue, and society in general would also decline. Thus he wrote Thomas Paine, <i>"If men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it."</i> As Morgan shows, Franklin was a proponent of all religions. He prayed to <i>"Powerful Goodness"</i> and referred to God as the <i>"INFINITE."</i> As John Adams noted, Franklin was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic. The Church of England claimed him as one of them. The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker." Whatever else Benjamin Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." <p>Soon after his 1725 pamphlet, in 1728, he outlined his personal beliefs in "<!--del_lnk--> Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion" <!--del_lnk--> . Here Franklin explains that God is worthy of continual praise since <i>"it is all I can return for his many Favours and great Goodness to me."</i><p>On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a committee that included Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams to design a the <!--del_lnk--> Great Seal of the United States. This committee created and approved the first proposed design for the seal (which ultimately was not adopted). That preliminary design featured the motto: "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God." This design was to portray a scene from the Book of Exodus, complete with Moses, the Israelites, the pillar of fire, and George III depicted as Pharaoh <!--del_lnk--> .<p>Franklin's beliefs later came to involve a God more involved in human affairs than that found among strict <!--del_lnk--> deists. At the Constitutional Convention in <!--del_lnk--> 1787, the elderly Franklin requested that each day's session begin with prayers. Franklin rhetorically asked, <i>"And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? Or do we imagine that we no longer need his assistance?"</i> Franklin proceeds, <i>"the longer I live, the more convincing proof I see of this truth that God Governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid?" "I also believe,"</i> Franklin continued, <i>"that without his [God's] concurring Aid, we shall succeed in this political Building no better than the Builders of Babel."</i> <!--del_lnk--> . It is noteworthy that although Franklin's motion was seconded, the discussion seems to have been minimal, and it centered on the facts that (1) a minister would charge a fee for praying and the Convention had no funds for that, and (2) it would look bad if the town learned that the Convention was having to resort to prayer. In the end, the motion did not come to a vote, and Franklin annotated in his personal copy that "The Convention, except three or four Persons, thought Prayers unnecessary". There is no evidence that group or public prayers were said thereafter.<p>Although Franklin may have financially supported one particular Presbyterian group in Philadelphia <!--del_lnk--> , it nevertheless appears that he never formally joined any particular Christian denomination or any other religion.<p><a id="Virtue" name="Virtue"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Virtue</span></h3>
<p>Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of thirteen virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and continued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His autobiography (see references below) lists his thirteen virtues as:<ol>
<li>"TEMPERANCE. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevation."<li>"SILENCE. Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself; avoid trifling conversation."<li>"ORDER. Let all your things have their places; let each part of your business have its time."<li>"RESOLUTION. Resolve to perform what you ought; perform without fail what you resolve."<li>"FRUGALITY. Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e., waste nothing."<li>"INDUSTRY. Lose no time; be always employ'd in something useful; cut off all unnecessary actions."<li>"SINCERITY. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and justly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly."<li>"JUSTICE. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting the benefits that are your duty."<li>"MODERATION. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve."<li>"CLEANLINESS. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, cloaths, or habitation."<li>"TRANQUILLITY. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable."<li>"CHASTITY. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another's peace or reputation."<li>"HUMILITY. Imitate Jesus and Socrates."</ol>
<p><a id="Death_and_afterwards" name="Death_and_afterwards"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Death and afterwards</span></h3>
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<div style="width:167px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23755.jpg.htm" title="Memorial marble statue of Ben Franklin"><img alt="Memorial marble statue of Ben Franklin" height="248" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Franklin_Memorial.jpg" src="../../images/237/23755.jpg" width="165" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23755.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Memorial marble statue of Ben Franklin</div>
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<p>Benjamin Franklin died on <!--del_lnk--> April 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1790 at the advanced age of 84. His funeral was attended by about 20,000 people. He was interred in <!--del_lnk--> Christ Church Burial Ground in <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Christ Church Burial Ground is also the home of <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Rush. One of the houses he lived in Craven Street was previously marked with a <!--del_lnk--> blue plaque, and has since been opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House <!--del_lnk--> . In 1728, as a young man, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph: "<i>The Body of B. Franklin Printer; Like the Cover of an old Book, Its Contents torn out, And stript of its Lettering and Gilding, Lies here, Food for Worms. But the Work shall not be wholly lost: For it will, as he believ'd, appear once more, In a new & more perfect Edition, Corrected and Amended By the Author. He was born on January 17, 1706. Died 17.</i>"<!--del_lnk--> Franklin's actual grave, however, as he specified in his final will<!--del_lnk--> , simply reads "<i>Benjamin and Deborah Franklin.</i>"<p>In the book <i>The Life of Benjamin Franklin</i> as written by himself, a passage (obviously not written by himself) reads thus about Franklin's death: "<i>...when his pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves wit the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthumations, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a great quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had strength to do it; but, as that failed, the organ of inspiration became gradually oppressed; a calm lethargic state succeeded, and on the 17t of April, 1790, abd eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months</i>"<p>At his death, Franklin <!--del_lnk--> bequeathed £1000 (about $4400 at the time) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust for 200 years. The origin of the trust began in 1785 when a French <!--del_lnk--> mathematician named Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour wrote a <!--del_lnk--> parody of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack called Fortunate Richard. In it he mocked the unbearable spirit of American optimism represented by Franklin. The Frenchman wrote a piece about Fortunate Richard leaving a small sum of money in his will to be used only after it had collected interest for 500 years. Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote back to the Frenchman, thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia, on the condition that it be placed in a fund that would gather interest over a period of 200 years. As of 1990, over $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust since his death. During the lifetime of the trust, Philadelphia used it for a variety of loan programs to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time, and eventually was used to establish a trade school that, over time, became the <!--del_lnk--> Franklin Institute of Boston. <!--del_lnk--> (Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon)<p>The lasting legacy of Benjamin Franklin has resulted in the appearance of his image in various places. Franklin's likeness adorns the American <!--del_lnk--> $100 bill. As a result, $100 bills are sometimes referred to in slang as "Benjamins" or "Franklins." From 1948 to 1964, Franklin's portrait was also on the <!--del_lnk--> half dollar. He has also appeared on a $50 bill in the past, as well as several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918, and every $100 bill from 1928 to the present. Franklin also appears on the $1,000 Series EE <!--del_lnk--> Savings bond. As a tribute to Franklin's legacy, the city of Philadelphia contains around 5,000 likenesses of Benjamin Franklin, about half of which are located on the <!--del_lnk--> University of Pennsylvania campus. Additionally, Philadelphia's <!--del_lnk--> Ben Franklin Parkway (a major thoroughfare) and <!--del_lnk--> Ben Franklin Bridge (the first major bridge to connect Philadelphia with <!--del_lnk--> New Jersey) are named in his honour.<p>In 1976, as part of a <!--del_lnk--> bicentennial celebration, Congress dedicated a 20-foot high marble statue in <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia's <!--del_lnk--> Franklin Institute as the <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Franklin National Memorial. Many of Franklin's personal possessions are also on display at the Institute. It is one of the few National Memorials located on <!--del_lnk--> private property.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23756.jpg.htm" title="The grave of Benjamin Franklin in Christ Church Burial Ground, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania."><img alt="The grave of Benjamin Franklin in Christ Church Burial Ground, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BenjaminFranklinGrave.2005.JPG" src="../../images/237/23756.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23756.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The grave of Benjamin Franklin in Christ Church Burial Ground, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.</div>
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<p>In 1998, workmen restoring Franklin's London home (<!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Franklin House) dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. <i><!--del_lnk--> The Times</i> reported on <!--del_lnk--> February 11, <!--del_lnk--> 1998:<p><i>Initial estimates are that the bones are about 200 years old and were buried at the time Franklin was living in the house, which was his home from 1757 to 1762 and from 1764 to 1775. Most of the bones show signs of having been dissected, sawn or cut. One skull has been drilled with several holes. Paul Knapman, the Westminster Coroner, said yesterday: "I cannot totally discount the possibility of a crime. There is still a possibility that I may have to hold an inquest."</i><p>The Friends of <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration of Franklin's house at 36 Craven Street in London) note that the bones were likely placed there by <!--del_lnk--> William Hewson, who lived in the house for 2 years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Exhibitions" name="Exhibitions"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Exhibitions</span></h2>
<p>"The Princess and the Patriot: Ekaterina Dashkova, Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment" exhibition opened in <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> in February 2006 and is scheduled to run through December 2006. Benjamin Franklin and Dashkova met only once, in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1781. Franklin was 75 and Dashkova was 37. Franklin and Dashkova were both evidently impressed with each other. Franklin invited Dashkova to become the first woman to join the <!--del_lnk--> American Philosophical Society, and the only one to be so honored for another 80 years. Later, Dashkova reciprocated by making him the first American member of the Russian Academy. The correspondence between Franklin and Dashkova is the highlight of the exhibition.<p><a id="Franklin_in_popular_culture" name="Franklin_in_popular_culture"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Franklin in popular culture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/140/14026.jpg.htm" title="Franklin portrait in the U.S. hundred dollar bill."><img alt="Franklin portrait in the U.S. hundred dollar bill." height="104" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Usdollar100front.jpg" src="../../images/237/23757.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/140/14026.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Franklin portrait in the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. hundred dollar bill.</div>
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<p>Franklin, in his "Poor Richard" persona, helped create popular culture in America. In turn he has been included in many different popular culture media, of which this is a small, recent sample.<ul>
<li>Day-light saving time came from his essay "An Economical Project".<li>When Franklin was minister to France in the 1770s, Paris was awash in miniatures, painting, statues and representations of Ben, usually dressed as a frontiersman.<li>The city of Philadelphia contains around 5,000 likenesses of Franklin—half of which are located on the <!--del_lnk--> University of Pennsylvania campus. Additionally, a local actor portrays Franklin in full costume, charging $1,776 for each appearance.<li>A fictionalized but largely accurate version of Franklin appears as a main character in the stage musical <i><!--del_lnk--> 1776</i>. The film version of <i>1776</i> features <!--del_lnk--> Howard da Silva, who originated the role of Franklin on Broadway.<li>The popular television show <i><!--del_lnk--> MythBusters</i> (Discovery channel) tested Franklin's famous kite experiment with electricity.<li>A young Franklin appears in Neal Stephenson's novel of 17th century science and alchemy, <i><!--del_lnk--> Quicksilver</i>.<li><a href="../../wp/w/Walt_Disney.htm" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney's</a> cartoon <i><!--del_lnk--> Ben and Me</i> (1953), based on the book by <!--del_lnk--> Robert Lawson, counterfactually explains to children that Franklin's achievements were actually the ideas of a mouse named Amos.<li>Franklin surprisingly appears as a character in <i><!--del_lnk--> Tony Hawk's Underground 2</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> skateboarding <!--del_lnk--> video game. Players encounter Franklin in his hometown of Boston and are able to play as him there after.<li><i>Proud Destiny</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Lion Feuchtwanger, a novel mainly about <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Beaumarchais and Franklin beginning in 1776's Paris.<li>Franklin appears in the <!--del_lnk--> LucasArts Entertainment Company Game <i><!--del_lnk--> Day of the Tentacle</i>.<li>Franklin is portrayed in a central role in the <!--del_lnk--> PBS cartoon <i><!--del_lnk--> Liberty's Kids</i> voiced by <!--del_lnk--> Walter Cronkite.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> 2004 <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Movie">movie</a>, <i><!--del_lnk--> National Treasure</i>, has the main characters trying to collect clues left by Franklin to discover a treasure that he supposedly hid. The character played by <!--del_lnk--> Nicolas Cage was named "Benjamin Franklin Gates", in following with the Gates family tradition to name sons after Franklin and his contemporaries.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Franklin Templeton Investments firm (originally Franklin Distributors, Inc.) was named in honour of Franklin and uses his <!--del_lnk--> portrait in their <!--del_lnk--> logo.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> children's novel, <i><!--del_lnk--> Qwerty Stevens: Stuck in Time with Benjamin Franklin</i>, has the main characters using their <!--del_lnk--> time machine to bring Franklin into modern times and then to travel back with him to 1776.<li>Franklin is one of the main inventors of <!--del_lnk--> Gregory Keyes' <i><!--del_lnk--> The Age of Unreason</i> <!--del_lnk--> tetralogy.<li>A <!--del_lnk--> 1992 <i><!--del_lnk--> Saturday Night Live</i> <!--del_lnk--> spoof of <i><!--del_lnk--> Quantum Leap</i>, "Founding Fathers", had Franklin traveling through time with <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> to help modern day Americans with <!--del_lnk--> deficit reduction, only to find twentieth century <!--del_lnk--> reporters are only interested in <!--del_lnk--> scandal and <!--del_lnk--> sensationalism.<li>Franklin appears in several episodes of <i><!--del_lnk--> Histeria</i>, voiced by actor <!--del_lnk--> Billy West similarly to <!--del_lnk--> Jay Leno. He is frequently shown flying his kite in a lightning storm and being electrocuted as a <!--del_lnk--> running gag.<li>The science-fiction TV show <i><!--del_lnk--> Voyagers!</i> had the main characters helping Franklin fly his <!--del_lnk--> kite in one episode and save his mother from a fictionalized <!--del_lnk--> Salem Witch Trial in the next episode.<li>"Julian McGrath," played by <!--del_lnk--> Cole Sprouse and <!--del_lnk--> Dylan Sprouse, appears as Franklin in a school play in the <!--del_lnk--> Adam Sandler comedy <i><!--del_lnk--> Big Daddy</i>.<li>The time-travel card game <!--del_lnk--> Early American Chrononauts includes a card called Franklin's Kite which players can symbolically acquire from the year 1752.<li><!--del_lnk--> Stan Freberg's comedic audio recording, <i>Stan Freberg Presents the United States of America: The Early Years</i>, depicts all of Franklin's accomplishments as having been made by his young apprentice, Myron.<li><!--del_lnk--> Beavis and Butthead once got into trouble after attempting to fly a kite in a thunderstorm, copying what they saw on an educational show about Franklin. The joke of the show was that the adults were blaming the evils of TV, not realizing the kids were emulating Franklin.<li>Franklin appears in <!--del_lnk--> Fred Saberhagen's "The Frankenstein Papers", and part of the novel is written as letters to Franklin.<li>In <i><!--del_lnk--> The Adventures of Dr. McNinja</i>, McNinja's mentor in medical school was the clone of Franklin. In the story, the clone asks McNinja if he will assist him in a project to grant eternal life.<li>In <i><!--del_lnk--> Bewitched</i> season 3 when Aunt Clara accidentally brings him forward in time to repair a broken electrical lamp.<li>Benjamin Franklin has been portrayed in several works of fiction, such as <!--del_lnk--> The Fairly Oddparents and <!--del_lnk--> Ask a Ninja, as having lightning-and-kite-based superpowers akin to those of <!--del_lnk--> Storm from <!--del_lnk--> X-Men.<li><!--del_lnk--> M*A*S*H protagonist, Hawkeye Pierce is named after Benjamin Franklin. His whole name is Benjamin Franklin Pierce.<li>In Giacomo Puccini's Italian opera of 1904, <!--del_lnk--> Madam Butterfly, the archetypical American who betrays Madam Butterfly is Benjamin Franklin Pinkerton, Lieutenant in the United States Navy. The libretto was based on a short story by an American author <!--del_lnk--> John Luther Long, whose sister was a missionary in Japan.<li>In the 1993 movie <!--del_lnk--> The Sandlot, actor <!--del_lnk--> Mike Vitar's character is named Benjamin Franklin Rodriguez.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Benjamin Harrison</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.USA_Presidents.htm">USA Presidents</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>Benjamin Harrison</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/108/10884.jpg.htm" title="Benjamin Harrison"><img alt="Benjamin Harrison" height="203" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Harrison%2C_head_and_shoulders_bw_photo%2C_1896.jpg" src="../../images/152/15280.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
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<div style="background:lavender;">23rd <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1889 – <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1893</td>
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<th>Vice President(s) </th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Levi P. Morton</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a></td>
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<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1833<br /><!--del_lnk--> North Bend, <!--del_lnk--> Ohio</td>
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<th>Died</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1901<br /><!--del_lnk--> Indianapolis, <!--del_lnk--> Indiana</td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Republican</td>
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<th>Spouse</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Caroline Scott Harrison (1st wife)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Mary Scott Lord Dimmick (2nd wife)</td>
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<th>Religion</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian</td>
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<th>Signature</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15281.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="28" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Harrison_signature.gif" src="../../images/152/15281.gif" width="128" /></a></td>
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<p><b>Benjamin Harrison</b> (<!--del_lnk--> August 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1833 – <!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1901) was the 23rd <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>, serving one term from 1889 to 1893. He had previously served as a <!--del_lnk--> senator from <!--del_lnk--> Indiana. Nicknames such as "Kid Gloves" and "Little Ben" were mocking titles given by his political rivals.<p>
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<div style="width:173px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15282.gif.htm" title="Official White House portrait of Benjamin Harrison "><img alt="Official White House portrait of Benjamin Harrison " height="270" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bharrison.gif" src="../../images/152/15282.gif" width="171" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>A grandson of President <a href="../../wp/w/William_Henry_Harrison.htm" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> and great-grandson of <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Harrison V, Benjamin was born on <!--del_lnk--> August 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1833, in <!--del_lnk--> North Bend, <!--del_lnk--> Hamilton County, Ohio as the second of eight children of <!--del_lnk--> John Scott Harrison (later a U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Congressman from <!--del_lnk--> Ohio) and Elizabeth Ramsey Irwin. He attended <!--del_lnk--> Miami University, <!--del_lnk--> Oxford, Ohio, where he was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> fraternity <!--del_lnk--> Phi Delta Theta, (later in life, he joined <!--del_lnk--> Delta Chi) and graduated in 1852. He studied law in <!--del_lnk--> Cincinnati, Ohio, then moved to <!--del_lnk--> Indianapolis, Indiana in 1854. He was admitted to the <!--del_lnk--> bar and became reporter of the decisions of the <!--del_lnk--> Indiana Supreme Court.<p>Harrison served in the <!--del_lnk--> Union Army during the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Civil_War.htm" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, and was appointed Commander of the 70th Indiana Volunteer Infantry <!--del_lnk--> Regiment in August 1862. The unit performed reconnaissance duty and guarded railroads in Kentucky and Tennessee until <!--del_lnk--> Sherman's <!--del_lnk--> Atlanta Campaign in 1864. Harrison was <!--del_lnk--> brevetted as a <!--del_lnk--> brigadier general, and commanded a <!--del_lnk--> Brigade at <!--del_lnk--> Resaca, <!--del_lnk--> Cassville, New Hope Church, Lost Mountain, <!--del_lnk--> Kennesaw Mountain, <!--del_lnk--> Marietta, Peach Tree Creek, and the Siege of Atlanta. Harrison was later transferred to the <!--del_lnk--> Army of the Cumberland and participated in the Siege of Nashville and the Grand Review in Washington D.C. before mustering out in 1865.<p>While in the field in October 1864, he was re-elected reporter of the Ohio State Supreme Court and served four years. He was an unsuccessful <!--del_lnk--> Republican candidate for <!--del_lnk--> governor of Indiana in 1876. He was appointed a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Mississippi River Commission, in 1879, and elected as a Republican to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a>, where he served from <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1881, to <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1887. He was chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard (<!--del_lnk--> 47th Congress) and U.S. Senate Committee on Territories (<!--del_lnk--> 48th and <!--del_lnk--> 49th Congresses).<p>Harrison was married twice. On <!--del_lnk--> October 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1853, he married <!--del_lnk--> Caroline Lavina Scott (1832-1892). They had two children who lived to adulthood, Russell Benjamin Harrison (1854-1936) and <!--del_lnk--> Mary Harrison McKee (1858-1930), as well as a daughter who died very shortly after birth in 1861. After Caroline Harrison's death of <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> in 1892 while Harrison was in office, he married his wife's widowed niece and former secretary <!--del_lnk--> Mary Scott Lord Dimmick (1858-1948) on <!--del_lnk--> April 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1896. They had one daughter, <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Harrison (1897-1955).<p><a id="Presidency_1889-1893" name="Presidency_1889-1893"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Presidency 1889-1893</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15283.jpg.htm" title="Benjamin Harrison"><img alt="Benjamin Harrison" height="284" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Harrison.jpg" src="../../images/152/15283.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><a id="Policies" name="Policies"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Policies</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15284.jpg.htm" title=""What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?""><img alt=""What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?"" height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Harrison_Football_Political_Cartoon.jpg" src="../../images/152/15284.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15284.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?"</div>
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<p>After beating <!--del_lnk--> John Sherman for the Republican presidential nomination, Harrison was elected President of the United States in 1888. In the <!--del_lnk--> Presidential election, Harrison received 100,000 fewer popular votes than incumbent President <a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> but carried the <!--del_lnk--> Electoral College 233 to 168. Although Harrison had made no political bargains, his supporters had given innumerable pledges upon his behalf. When Boss <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Quay of <!--del_lnk--> Pennsylvania heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence, Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know "how close a number of men were compelled to approach...the penitentiary to make him President." He was inaugurated on <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1889, and served through <!--del_lnk--> March 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1893. Harrison was also known as the "centennial president" because his inauguration was the 100th anniversary of the inauguration of <a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>.<p>For Harrison, <!--del_lnk--> Civil Service reform was a no-win situation. Congress was split so far apart on the issue that agreeing to any measure for one side would alienate the other. The issue became a popular <!--del_lnk--> political football of the time and was immortalized in a cartoon captioned "What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?"<p>Harrison was proud of the vigorous foreign policy which he helped shape. The first <!--del_lnk--> Pan-American Congress met in <a href="../../wp/w/Washington%252C_D.C..htm" title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> in 1889, establishing an information centre which later became the <!--del_lnk--> Pan American Union. At the end of his administration, Harrison submitted to the Senate a treaty to annex <!--del_lnk--> Hawaii; to his disappointment, President Cleveland later withdrew it.<p>The most perplexing domestic problem Harrison faced was the <!--del_lnk--> tariff issue. The high tariff rates in effect had created a surplus of money in the Treasury. Low-tariff advocates argued that the surplus was hurting business. Republican leaders in Congress successfully met the challenge. Representative <a href="../../wp/w/William_McKinley.htm" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> and Senator <!--del_lnk--> Nelson W. Aldrich framed a still higher tariff bill; some rates were intentionally prohibitive.<p>Harrison tried to make the tariff more acceptable by writing in reciprocity provisions. To cope with the Treasury surplus, the tariff was removed from imported raw <a href="../../wp/s/Sugar.htm" title="Sugar">sugar</a>; sugar growers within the United States were given two cents per pound bounty on their production.<p>Long before the end of the Harrison Administration, the Treasury surplus had evaporated and prosperity seemed about to disappear. Congressional elections in 1890 went against the Republicans, and party leaders decided to abandon President Harrison, although he had cooperated with Congress on party legislation. Nevertheless, his party renominated him in 1892, but he was defeated by Cleveland. Just 2 weeks earlier, on <!--del_lnk--> October 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1892, Harrison's wife, Caroline died after a long battle with <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<p><a id="Significant_events" name="Significant_events"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Significant events</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)<li><!--del_lnk--> McKinley Tariff (1890)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ocala Demands (1890)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)</ul>
<p><a id="Administration_and_Cabinet" name="Administration_and_Cabinet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Administration and Cabinet</span></h3>
<table align="left" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;">
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<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
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<td align="left"><b>OFFICE</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>NAME</b></td>
<td align="left"><b>TERM</b></td>
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<td align="left"><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President</a></td>
<td align="left"><b>Benjamin Harrison</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1893</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Vice President</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Levi P. Morton</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1893</td>
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<tr>
<th bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3">
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of State</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> James G. Blaine</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1892</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John W. Foster</b></td>
<td align="left">1892–1893</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Treasury</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William Windom</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1891</td>
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<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Charles Foster</b></td>
<td align="left">1891–1893</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of War</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Redfield Proctor</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1891</td>
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<td align="left"> </td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Stephen B. Elkins</b></td>
<td align="left">1891–1893</td>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Attorney General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> William H. H. Miller</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1893</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Postmaster General</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John Wanamaker</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1893</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Navy</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> Benjamin F. Tracy</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1893</td>
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<tr>
<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of the Interior</td>
<td align="left"><b><!--del_lnk--> John W. Noble</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1893</td>
</tr>
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<td align="left"><!--del_lnk--> Secretary of Agriculture</td>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Jeremiah M. Rusk</b></td>
<td align="left">1889–1893</td>
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<p><a id="Supreme_Court_appointments" name="Supreme_Court_appointments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Supreme Court appointments</span></h3>
<p>Harrison appointed the following Justices to the <a href="../../wp/s/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States.htm" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> David Josiah Brewer - 1890<li><!--del_lnk--> Henry Billings Brown - 1891<li><!--del_lnk--> George Shiras, Jr. - 1892<li><!--del_lnk--> Howell Edmunds Jackson - 1893</ul>
<p><a id="States_admitted_to_the_Union" name="States_admitted_to_the_Union"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">States admitted to the Union</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> North Dakota – November 2, 1889<li><!--del_lnk--> South Dakota – November 2, 1889<li><!--del_lnk--> Montana – November 8, 1889<li><!--del_lnk--> Washington – November 11, 1889<li><!--del_lnk--> Idaho – July 3, 1890<li><!--del_lnk--> Wyoming – July 10, 1890</ul>
<p>When North and South Dakota were admitted to the Union, Harrison covered the tops of the bills and shuffled them so that he could only see the bottom. Thus, it is impossible to tell which was signed first, and which was the 39th and the 40th.<p><a id="Post-presidency" name="Post-presidency"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Post-presidency</span></h2>
<p>After he left office, Harrison returned to Indianapolis and remarried.<p>He went to the <!--del_lnk--> First Peace Conference at <a href="../../wp/t/The_Hague.htm" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>.<p>He served as an attorney for the Republic of <a href="../../wp/v/Venezuela.htm" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> in the boundary dispute between Venezuela and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in 1900.<p>Harrison developed the flu and a bad cold in February 1901. Despite treatment by steam vapor inhalation, Harrison's condition only worsened. Benjamin Harrison eventually died from <!--del_lnk--> influenza and <a href="../../wp/p/Pneumonia.htm" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a> on Wednesday, <!--del_lnk--> March 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1901 and is interred in <!--del_lnk--> Crown Hill Cemetery.<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/152/15285.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="265" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BenjaminHarrisonUSpostageStamp12cents.jpg" src="../../images/152/15285.jpg" width="217" /></a></span></div>
<p>The Benjamin Harrison Law School in Indianapolis was named in his honour. In 1944, <!--del_lnk--> Indiana University acquired the school and renamed it <!--del_lnk--> Indiana University School of Law Indianapolis.<p>At Miami University, Harrison Hall houses the political science department and the Harrison Scholarship is school's most prestigious academic award. <!--del_lnk--> <p>In 1942, a United States <!--del_lnk--> Liberty ship named the <!--del_lnk--> SS <i>Benjamin Harrison</i> was launched. She was torpedoed and scuttled in 1943.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Army base, <!--del_lnk--> Fort Benjamin Harrison, was established after Harrison's death in Indianapolis, but it was closed in the 1990s.<p>Harrison Hall, a co-educational dormitory at <!--del_lnk--> Purdue University, is named after President Harrison, who served on the Board of Trustees of Purdue University from July 1895 to March 1901.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Benjamin Harrison is the only President with the distinction of being a grandson of a past President.<li>Benjamin Harrison might be the first President whose voice was recorded. This recording, which was originally made on a <a href="../../wp/p/Phonograph_cylinder.htm" title="Phonograph cylinder">phonograph cylinder</a>, can be accessed <!--del_lnk--> here.<li>Harrison was the last President to wear a beard while in office but not the last to sport facial hair. <a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Theodore_Roosevelt.htm" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> and <a href="../../wp/w/William_Howard_Taft.htm" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> all had <!--del_lnk--> moustaches.<li>Harrison had <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> installed in the White House for the first time, but he and his wife reportedly would not touch the light switches for fear of <!--del_lnk--> electrocution.<li>In April 1891, Harrison became the first President to travel across the United States entirely by train.<li>On <!--del_lnk--> June 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1892, Harrison became the first President to ever attend a <a href="../../wp/b/Baseball.htm" title="Baseball">baseball</a> game.<li>Harrison's roommate at <!--del_lnk--> Miami University, <!--del_lnk--> John Alexander Anderson, became a six-term U.S. Congressman from Kansas and the second President of <!--del_lnk--> Kansas State University. Harrison appointed him general consul to <!--del_lnk--> Cairo, Egypt.<li>In 1892, Harrison and <!--del_lnk--> Whitelaw Reid formed the only <!--del_lnk--> U.S. presidential ticket composed of candidates that were also alumni of the same university, Miami University. Like Harrison, Reid also has a building on Miami's campus named for him. Reid Hall is a <!--del_lnk--> dormitory.<li>Benjamin Harrison was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Architecture.htm">Architecture</a></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15286.png.htm" title="Benjamin Mountfort around 1875."><img alt="Benjamin Mountfort around 1875." height="298" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benjamin_Mountfort.png" src="../../images/152/15286.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Benjamin Woolfield Mountfort</b> (<!--del_lnk--> 13 March <!--del_lnk--> 1825–<!--del_lnk--> 15 March <!--del_lnk--> 1898) was an <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> emigrant to <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, where he became one of that country's most prominent 19th century <!--del_lnk--> architects. He was instrumental in shaping the city of <!--del_lnk--> Christchurch. He was appointed the first official Provincial Architect of the developing province of <!--del_lnk--> Canterbury. Heavily influenced by the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Catholic philosophy behind early Victorian architecture he is credited with importing the <!--del_lnk--> Gothic revival style to New Zealand. His Gothic designs constructed in both wood and stone in the province are considered unique to New Zealand. Today he is considered the founding architect of the province of Canterbury.<p>
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<p>Mountfort was born in <a href="../../wp/b/Birmingham.htm" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a>, an industrial city in the <!--del_lnk--> Midlands of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, the son of perfume manufacturer Thomas Mountfort and his wife Susanna (née Woolfield). As a young <!--del_lnk--> adult he moved to <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, where he studied architecture under the <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Catholic architect <!--del_lnk--> Richard Cromwell Carpenter, whose <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> <!--del_lnk--> Gothic style of design was to have a lifelong influence on Mountfort. After completion of his training, Mountfort practised architecture in London. Following his 1849 marriage to Emily Elizabeth Newman, the couple emigrated in 1850 as some of the first settlers to the province of Canterbury, arriving on one of the famed "first four ships", the <i><!--del_lnk--> Charlotte-Jane</i>. These first settlers, known as "The Pilgrims", have their names engraved on marble plaques in <!--del_lnk--> Cathedral Square, Christchurch, in front of the cathedral that Mountfort helped to design.<p><a id="New_Zealand" name="New_Zealand"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">New Zealand</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15287.jpg.htm" title="Canterbury College, designed by Benjamin Mountfort in 1877, is dominated by a central clock tower, with a medieval style great hall to the right."><img alt="Canterbury College, designed by Benjamin Mountfort in 1877, is dominated by a central clock tower, with a medieval style great hall to the right." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CanterburyCollege2.jpg" src="../../images/152/15287.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15288.jpg.htm" title="Canterbury College, The Great Hall, pictured to the right of illustration above."><img alt="Canterbury College, The Great Hall, pictured to the right of illustration above." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CanterburyCollegeGreatHall_gobeirne.jpg" src="../../images/152/15288.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>In 1850 New Zealand was a new country. The British government actively encouraged emigration to the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">colonies</a>, and Mountfort arrived in Canterbury full of ambition and drive to begin designing in the new colony. With him and his wife from England came also his brother Charles, his sister Susannah, and Charles' wife, all five of them aged between 21 and 26. Life in New Zealand at first was hard and disappointing: Mountfort found that there was little call for architects. Christchurch was little more than a large village of basic wooden huts on a windswept <!--del_lnk--> plain. The new <!--del_lnk--> emigré's architectural life in New Zealand had a disastrous beginning. His first commission in New Zealand was the Church of the Most Holy Trinity in <!--del_lnk--> Lyttelton, which collapsed in high winds shortly after completion. This calamity was attributed to the use of unseasoned wood and his lack of knowledge of the local building materials. Whatever the cause, the result was a crushing blow to his reputation. A local newspaper called him:<p><i>… a half-educated architect whose buildings… have given anything but satisfaction, he being evidently deficient in all knowledge of the principles of construction, though a clever draughtsman and a man of some taste.</i><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup><p>Consequently, Mountfort left architecture and ran a <!--del_lnk--> bookshop while giving drawing lessons until 1857. It was during this period in the architectural wilderness that he developed a lifelong interest in <a href="../../wp/p/Photography.htm" title="Photography">photography</a> and supplemented his meagre income by taking photographic portraits of his neighbours. Mountfort was a <!--del_lnk--> Freemason and an early member of the <!--del_lnk--> Lodge of Unanimity, and the only building he designed during this period of his life, in 1851, was its <!--del_lnk--> lodge. This was the first Masonic lodge in the <!--del_lnk--> South Island.<p><a id="Return_to_architecture" name="Return_to_architecture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Return to architecture</span></h2>
<p>In 1857 he returned to architecture and entered into a business partnership with his sister Susannah's new husband, <!--del_lnk--> Isaac Luck. Christchurch, which was given city status in July 1856 and was the administrative capital of the province of Canterbury, was heavily developed during this period. The rapid development in the new city created a large scope for Mountfort and his new partner. In 1858 they received the commission to design the new Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings, a stone building today regarded as one of Mountfort's most important works. The building's planning stage began in 1861, when the Provincial Council had grown to include 35 members and consequently the former wooden chamber was felt to be too small.<p>The new grandiose plans for the stone building included not only the necessary offices for the execution of council business but also dining rooms and recreational facilities. From the exterior, the building appears austere, as was much of Mountfort's early work: a central tower dominates two flanking gabled wings in the Gothic revival style. However the interior was a riot of colour and medievalism as perceived through Victorian eyes; it included stained glass windows, and a large double-faced clock, thought to be one of only five around the globe. The chamber is decorated in a rich, almost <!--del_lnk--> Ruskinesque style, with carvings by a local sculptor <!--del_lnk--> William Brassington. Included in the carvings are representations of indigenous New Zealand species.<p>This high-profile commission may seem surprising, bearing in mind Mountfort's history of design in New Zealand. However, the smaller buildings he and Luck had erected the previous year had impressed the city administrators and there was a dearth of available architects. The resultant acclaim of the building's architecture marked the beginning of Mountfort's successful career.<p><a id="Mountfort.27s_Gothic_architecture" name="Mountfort.27s_Gothic_architecture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mountfort's Gothic architecture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15289.jpg.htm" title="St Augustine's Church in Waimate. Mountfort's Gothic in wood, designed in 1872, has the campanile of a medieval cathedral in miniature, neighboured by the roof of a chateau, entered by the lych gate of an English parish church, all successfully harmonised into a New Zealand landscape."><img alt="St Augustine's Church in Waimate. Mountfort's Gothic in wood, designed in 1872, has the campanile of a medieval cathedral in miniature, neighboured by the roof of a chateau, entered by the lych gate of an English parish church, all successfully harmonised into a New Zealand landscape." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:St_Augustine%27s._Waimate._NZ.jpg" src="../../images/152/15289.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15289.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> St Augustine's Church in <!--del_lnk--> Waimate. Mountfort's Gothic in wood, designed in 1872, has the <!--del_lnk--> campanile of a <!--del_lnk--> medieval <!--del_lnk--> cathedral in miniature, neighboured by the roof of a <!--del_lnk--> chateau, entered by the <!--del_lnk--> lych gate of an English <!--del_lnk--> parish church, all successfully harmonised into a New Zealand landscape.</div>
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<p>The Gothic revival style of architecture began to gain in popularity from the late 18th century as a <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">romantic</a> backlash against the more <!--del_lnk--> classical and formal styles which had predominated the previous two centuries. At the age of 16, Mountfort acquired two books written by the Gothic revivalist <!--del_lnk--> Augustus Pugin: <i>The True Principles of Christian or Pointed Architecture</i> and <i>An Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture.</i> From this time onwards, Mountfort was a disciple of Pugin's strong <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Catholic architectural values. These values were further cemented in 1846, at the age of 21, Mountfort became a pupil of Richard Cromwell Carpenter.<p>Carpenter was, like Mountfort, a devout Anglo-Catholic and subscribed to the theories of Tractarianism, and thus to the <!--del_lnk--> Oxford and <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge Movements. These conservative theological movements taught that true spirituality and concentration in prayer was influenced by the physical surroundings, and that the <!--del_lnk--> medieval church had been more spiritual than that of the early 19th century. As a result of this theology, medieval architecture was declared to be of greater spiritual value than the classical <a href="../../wp/p/Palladian_architecture.htm" title="Palladian architecture">Palladian</a>-based styles of the 18<sup>th</sup> and early 19<sup>th</sup> centuries. Augustus Pugin even pronounced that medieval architecture was the only form suitable for a church and that Palladianism was almost heretical. Such theory was not confined to architects, and continued well into the 20th century. This school of thought led intellectuals such as the <a href="../../wp/e/English_poetry.htm" title="English poetry">English poet</a> <a href="../../wp/e/Ezra_Pound.htm" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>, author of <i><a href="../../wp/t/The_Cantos.htm" title="The Cantos">The Cantos</a></i>, to prefer <!--del_lnk--> Romanesque buildings to <a href="../../wp/b/Baroque.htm" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> on the grounds that the latter represented an abandonment of the world of intellectual clarity and light for a set of values that centred around hell and the increasing dominance of society by <!--del_lnk--> bankers, a breed to be despised.<p>Whatever the philosophy behind the Gothic revival, in London the 19th-century rulers of the British Empire felt that Gothic architecture was suitable for the colonies because of its then strong Anglican connotations, representing hard work, morality and conversion of native peoples. The irony of this was that many of Mountfort's churches were for <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholics</a>, as so many of the new immigrants were of <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_people.htm" title="Irish people">Irish</a> origin. To the many <!--del_lnk--> middle-class English empire builders, Gothic represented a nostalgic reminder of the <!--del_lnk--> parishes left behind in Britain with their true medieval architecture; these were the patrons who chose the architects and designs.<p>Mountfort's early Gothic work in New Zealand was of the more severe Anglican variety as practised by Carpenter, with tall <!--del_lnk--> lancet windows and many <!--del_lnk--> gables. As his career progressed, and he had proved himself to the employing authorities, his designs developed into a more <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> form, with towers, turrets and high ornamental roof lines in the French manner, a style which was in no way peculiar to Mountfort but was endorsed by such architects as <!--del_lnk--> Alfred Waterhouse in Britain. On the other hand, the French <!--del_lnk--> chateaux style was always more popular in the colonies than in Britain, where such monumental buildings as the <!--del_lnk--> Natural History Museum and <!--del_lnk--> St Pancras Station were subject to popular criticism. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, however, it was adopted with huge enthusiasm, with families such as the <!--del_lnk--> Vanderbilts lining <!--del_lnk--> 5th Avenue in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> with many Gothic chateaux and palaces.<p>Mountfort's skill as an architect lay in adapting these flamboyant styles to suit the limited materials available in New Zealand. While wooden churches are plentiful in certain parts of the USA, they are generally of a simple classic design, whereas Mountfort's wooden churches in New Zealand are as much ornate Gothic fantasies as those he designed in stone. Perhaps the flamboyance of his work can be explained in a statement of principles he and his partner Luck wrote when bidding to win the commission to design Government House, Auckland in 1857:<p><i>...Accordingly, we see in Nature's buildings, the mountains and hills; not regularity of outline but diversity; buttresses, walls and turrets as unlike each other as possible, yet producing a graduation of effect not to be approached by any work, moulded to regularity of outline. The simple study of an oak or an elm tree would suffice to confute the regularity theory</i>.<sup><!--del_lnk--> 2</sup><p>This seems to be the principle of design that Mountfort practised throughout his life.<p><a id="Provincial_Architect" name="Provincial_Architect"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Provincial Architect</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15290.jpg.htm" title="The construction of Christchurch Cathedral, designed by George Gilbert Scott, was supervised by Benjamin Mountfort who designed the spire."><img alt="The construction of Christchurch Cathedral, designed by George Gilbert Scott, was supervised by Benjamin Mountfort who designed the spire." height="130" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Christchurch_Cathedral.jpg" src="../../images/152/15290.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15290.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The construction of <!--del_lnk--> Christchurch Cathedral, designed by <!--del_lnk--> George Gilbert Scott, was supervised by Benjamin Mountfort who designed the spire.</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15291.jpg.htm" title="The Christ Church was completed in 1904. The building remains almost unaltered."><img alt="The Christ Church was completed in 1904. The building remains almost unaltered." height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ChristChurchCathedral1_gobeirne.jpg" src="../../images/152/15291.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15291.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Christ Church was completed in 1904. The building remains almost unaltered.</div>
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<p>As the "Provincial Architect" — a newly created position to which Mountfort was appointed in 1864 — Mountfort designed a wooden church for the Roman Catholic community of the city of Christchurch. This wooden erection was subsequently enlarged several times until it was renamed a <!--del_lnk--> cathedral. It was eventually replaced in 1901 by the <!--del_lnk--> Cathedral of the Blessed Sacrament, a more permanent stone building by the architect <a href="../../wp/f/Francis_Petre.htm" title="Francis Petre">Frank Petre</a>. Mountfort often worked in wood, a material he in no way regarded as an impediment to the Gothic style. It is in this way that many of his buildings have given New Zealand its unique Gothic style. Between 1869 and 1882 he designed the <!--del_lnk--> Canterbury Museum and subsequently <!--del_lnk--> Canterbury College and its clock tower in 1877.<p>Construction on the buildings for the Canterbury College, which later became the <!--del_lnk--> University of Canterbury, began with the construction of the clock tower block. This edifice, which opened in 1877, was the first purpose built university in New Zealand. The College was completed in two subsequent stages in Mountfort's usual Gothic style. The completed complex was very much, as intended, an architectural rival to the expansions of the <!--del_lnk--> Oxbridge Colleges simultaneously being built in England. Built around stone courtyards, the high Victorian collegiate design is apparent. Gothic motifs are evident in every <!--del_lnk--> facade, including the diagonally rising great staircase window inspired by the medieval chateau at <!--del_lnk--> Blois. The completed composition of Canterbury College is very reminiscent of Pugin's <!--del_lnk--> convent of "<i>Our Lady of Mercy</i>" in Mountfort's home town of Birmingham, completed circa 1843, a design that Mountfort would probably have been familiar with as a boy. It is through the College buildings, and Mountfort's other works, that Canterbury is unique in New Zealand for its many civic and public buildings in the Gothic style.<p><!--del_lnk--> George Gilbert Scott, the architect of <!--del_lnk--> Christchurch Cathedral, and an empathiser of Mountfort's teacher and mentor Carpenter, wished Mountfort to be the <!--del_lnk--> clerk of works and supervising architect of the new cathedral project. This proposal was originally vetoed by the Cathedral Commission. Nevertheless, following delays in the building work attributed to financial problems, the position of supervising architect was finally given to Mountfort in 1873. Mountfort was responsible for several alterations to the absentee main architect's design, most obviously the tower and the west <!--del_lnk--> porch. He also designed the <!--del_lnk--> font, the Harper Memorial, and the north porch. The cathedral was however not finally completed until 1904, six years after Mountfort's death. The cathedral is very much in the European decorated Gothic style with an attached <!--del_lnk--> campanile tower beside the body of the cathedral, rather than towering directly above it in the more English tradition. In 1872 Mountfort became a founding member of the Canterbury Association of Architects, a body which was responsible for all subsequent development of the new city. Mountfort was now at the pinnacle of his career.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15292.jpg.htm" title="Canterbury Museum, designed by Benjamin Mountfort. Completed in 1882, in the style of a French chateau"><img alt="Canterbury Museum, designed by Benjamin Mountfort. Completed in 1882, in the style of a French chateau" height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Canterbury_Museum.jpg" src="../../images/152/15292.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15292.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Canterbury Museum, designed by Benjamin Mountfort. Completed in 1882, in the style of a French <!--del_lnk--> chateau</div>
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<p>By the 1880s, Mountfort was hailed as New Zealand's premier <!--del_lnk--> ecclesiastical architect, with over forty churches to his credit. In 1888, he designed St John's Cathedral in <!--del_lnk--> Napier. This brick construction was demolished in the disastrous 1931 <a href="../../wp/e/Earthquake.htm" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> that destroyed much of Napier. Between 1886 and 1897, Mountfort worked on one of his largest churches, the wooden St Mary's, the cathedral church of <a href="../../wp/a/Auckland.htm" title="Auckland">Auckland</a>. Covering 9000 square feet (800 m²), St Mary's is the largest wooden Gothic church in the world. The custodians of this white-painted <!--del_lnk--> many-gabled church today claim it to be one of the most beautiful buildings in New Zealand. In 1982 the entire church, complete with its stained glass windows, was transported to a new site, across the road from its former position where a new cathedral was to be built. St Mary's church was consecrated in 1898, one of Mountfort's final grand works.<p>Outside of his career, Mountfort was keenly interested in the arts and a talented artist, although his artistic work appears to have been confined to art pertaining to architecture, his first love. He was a devout member of the <a href="../../wp/c/Church_of_England.htm" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> and a member of many Anglican church councils and <!--del_lnk--> diocese committees. Mountfort's later years were blighted by professional jealousies, as his position as the province's first architect was assailed by new and younger men influenced by new orders of architecture. Benjamin Mountfort died in 1898, aged 73. He was buried in the <!--del_lnk--> cemetery of Holy Trinity, <!--del_lnk--> Avonside, the church which he had extended in 1876.<p><a id="Evaluation_of_Mountfort.27s_work" name="Evaluation_of_Mountfort.27s_work"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Evaluation of Mountfort's work</span></h2>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15293.jpg.htm" title="Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings. One of Mountfort's earliest New Zealand Gothic buildings, in the style he made his trademark"><img alt="Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings. One of Mountfort's earliest New Zealand Gothic buildings, in the style he made his trademark" height="263" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CanterburyProvincialCouncilBuildings1_gobeirne.jpg" src="../../images/152/15293.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/152/15293.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings. One of Mountfort's earliest New Zealand Gothic buildings, in the style he made his <!--del_lnk--> trademark</div>
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<p>Evaluating Mountfort's works today, one has to avoid judging them against a background of similar designs in Europe. In the 1860s, New Zealand was a developing country, where materials and resources freely available in Europe were conspicuous by their absence. When available they were often of inferior quality, as Mountfort discovered with the unseasoned wood in his first disastrous project. His first buildings in his new homeland were often too tall, or steeply pitched, failing to take account of the non-European climate and landscape. However, he soon adapted, and developed his skill in working with crude and unrefined materials.<p>Christchurch and its surrounding areas are unique in New Zealand for their particular style of Gothic architecture, something that can be directly attributed to Benjamin Mountfort. While Mountfort did accept small private domestic commissions, he is today better known for the designs executed for public, civic bodies, and the church. His monumental Gothic stone civic buildings in Christchurch, which would not be out of place in Oxford or Cambridge, are an amazing achievement over adversity of materials. His hallmark wooden Gothic churches today epitomise the 19th-century province of Canterbury. They are accepted, and indeed appear as part of the landscape. In this way, Benjamin Mountfort's achievement was to make his favoured style of architecture synonymous with the identity of the province of Canterbury. Following his death, one of his seven children, <!--del_lnk--> Cyril, continued to work in his father's Gothic style well into the 20th century. Cyril Mountfort was responsible for the church of "St. Luke's in the City" which was an unexecuted design of his father's. In this way, and through the daily public use of his many buildings, Mountfort's legacy lives on. He ranks today with his contemporary <!--del_lnk--> R A Lawson as one of New Zealand's greatest 19th century architects.<p><a id="Buildings_by_Benjamin_Mountfort" name="Buildings_by_Benjamin_Mountfort"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Buildings by Benjamin Mountfort</span></h2>
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<li>Most Holy Trinity in Lyttelton, 1851 (demolished)<li>Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings, 1858-1865: <!--del_lnk--> <li>Christchurch Cathedral, begun 1863: <!--del_lnk--> <li>Canterbury Museum, 1869-1882: <!--del_lnk--> <li>St. Augustine's Church, Waimate 1872: <!--del_lnk--> <li>Avonside Church Chancel, 1876: <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <li>St Paul's Church, <!--del_lnk--> Papanui, 1877<li>Canterbury College, Christchurch, 1882: <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <li>Church of the Good Shepherd, <!--del_lnk--> Phillipstown,1884<li>St Mary's Church, Auckland, begun 1886: <!--del_lnk--> .<li>St John's Cathedral, <!--del_lnk--> Napier, 1888</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Mountfort"</div>
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<p><b>Benjamin of Tudela</b> (flourished <a href="../../wp/1/12th_century.htm" title="12th century">12th century</a>) was a <!--del_lnk--> medieval <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> Rabbi, traveler and explorer. In his journey he passed through large swathes of <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, Asia, and <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>. His vivid descriptions of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> preceded those of <a href="../../wp/m/Marco_Polo.htm" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> by one hundred years. With his broad education and vast knowledge of languages, Benjamin of Tudela was a major figure in the history of <a href="../../wp/g/Geography.htm" title="Geography">geography</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Jewish history.<p>Benjamin set out on his 13-year journey in <!--del_lnk--> 1160, in what began as a pilgrimage to the <!--del_lnk--> Holy Land. He may have hoped to settle there, but there is controversy about the reasons for his travels; for example, it has been suggested he may have had a commercial motive as well as a religious one. He took the "long road" stopping frequently, meeting people, visiting places, describing occupations and giving a demographic count of Jews in every town and country.<p>Little is known of the facts of Benjamin's life. In some sense the journey must have begun in the Spanish town of <!--del_lnk--> Tudela, where today a street in the <!--del_lnk--> aljama is named after him. However, the published version begins in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Saragossa, further down the valley of the <!--del_lnk--> Ebro, whence he proceeded north to <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, and then set sail from the port of <a href="../../wp/m/Marseille.htm" title="Marseilles">Marseilles</a>. After visiting <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople, he set off across Asia, visiting <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Palestine before reaching <a href="../../wp/b/Baghdad.htm" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. From there he went to <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Empire.htm" title="Persian Empire">Persia</a>, then cut back across the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Peninsula to <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, returning to Spain in <!--del_lnk--> 1173. In all he visited over 300 cities including Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Damascus, Baghdad and beyond.<p>He described his thirteen years abroad in a book, <i>The Voyages of Benjamin</i> (מסעות בנימין, or <i>Masa'ot Binyamin</i>, also known as ספר המסעות, <i>Sefer ha-Masa'ot</i>, <i>The Book of Travels</i>). This book describes the countries he visited, with an emphasis on the Jewish communities, including their total populations and the names of notable community leaders. He also described the customs of the local population, both Jewish and non-Jewish, with an emphasis on urban life there. There are also detailed descriptions of sites and landmarks he passed along the way, as well as important buildings and marketplaces. Benjamin is noted for not only telling facts, but citing his sources; historians regard him as highly trustworthy.<p><i>The Voyages of Benjamin</i> is an important work not only as a description of the Jewish communities, but also as a reliable source about the geography and <!--del_lnk--> ethnography of the Middle Ages. As well some modern historians credit Benjamin as giving very accurate descriptions of every-day life in the Middle Ages. Originally written in Hebrew, it was translated in to Latin and later translated into most major European languages, receiving considerable attention in the sixteenth century.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_of_Tudela"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Benzene</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_compounds.htm">Chemical compounds</a></h3>
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<div class="dablink"><i>You may be looking for <!--del_lnk--> benzine or <!--del_lnk--> Benzin, which are pronounced the same as benzene.</i></div>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Benzene</th>
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<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17009.png.htm" title="Benzene"><img alt="Benzene" height="82" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benzene_structure.png" src="../../images/170/17009.png" width="250" /></a></td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">General</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Systematic name</td>
<td>Benzene</td>
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<td>Other names</td>
<td>Benzol<br /> 1,3,5-cyclohexatriene</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Molecular formula</td>
<td>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub></td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> SMILES</td>
<td>c1ccccc1<br /> C1=CC=CC=C1</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> InChI</td>
<td>InChI=1/C6H6<br /> /c1-2-4-6-5-3-1/h1-6H</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Molar mass</td>
<td>78.1121 g/mol</td>
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<tr>
<td>Appearance</td>
<td>Colorless liquid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS number</td>
<td>[71-43-2]</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Properties</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density and <a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">phase</a></td>
<td>0.8786 g/cm³, liquid</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Solubility in <!--del_lnk--> water</td>
<td>1.79 g/L (25 °C)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>5.5 °C (278.6 K)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>80.1 °C (353.2 K)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Viscosity</td>
<td>0.652 <!--del_lnk--> cP at 20 °C</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Structure</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Molecular shape</td>
<td>Planar</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Symmetry group</td>
<td>D<sub>6h</sub></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Dipole moment</td>
<td>0 <!--del_lnk--> D</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Hazards</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> MSDS</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> External MSDS</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> EU classification</td>
<td>Flammable (<b>F</b>)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Carc. Cat. 1<br /><!--del_lnk--> Muta. Cat. 2<br /> Toxic (<b>T</b>)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> NFPA 704</td>
<td>
<div style="position: relative; height: 85px; width: 75px;">
<div style="position: absolute; height: 75px; width: 75px;">
<p><a class="image" href="../../images/0/27.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NFPA_704.svg" src="../../images/0/27.png" width="75" /></a></div>
<div style="background: transparent; width: 75px; height: 2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; position: absolute; top: 15px; font-size: large;" title="Flammability">3</div>
<div style="background: transparent; width: 37.5px; height: 2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; position: absolute; top: 33px; font-size: large;" title="Health">2</div>
<div style="background: transparent; width: 37.5px; height: 2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; position: absolute; top: 33px; left: 37.5px; font-size: large;" title="Reactivity">0</div>
<div style="background: transparent; width: 75px; height: 2em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; position: absolute; top: 52px; font-size: small;" title="Other hazards"> </div>
</div>
</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> R-phrases</td>
<td><span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="May cause cancer">R45</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="May cause heritable genetic damage">R46</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Highly flammable">R11</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Irritating to eyes and skin">R36/38</span>,<br /><span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure through inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed">R48/23/24/25</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Harmful: may cause lung damage if swallowed">R65</span></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> S-phrases</td>
<td><span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="Avoid exposure - obtain special instructions before use">S53</span>, <span class="abbr" style="color: blue; border-bottom: 1px dotted blue" title="In case of accident or if you feel unwell seek medical advice immediately (show the label where possible)">S45</span></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Flash point</td>
<td>−11 °C</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Autoignition temperature</td>
<td>561 °C</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> RTECS number</td>
<td>CY1400000</td>
</tr>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;">Related compounds</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Related<br /><!--del_lnk--> hydrocarbons</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> cyclohexane<br /><!--del_lnk--> naphthalene</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Related compounds</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Toluene.htm" title="Toluene">toluene</a><br /><!--del_lnk--> borazine</td>
</tr>
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<td align="center" colspan="2" style="border: 1px solid #C0C090; background-color: #F8EABA; margin-bottom: 3px;"><small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br /> materials in their <!--del_lnk--> standard state (at 25°C, 100 kPa)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Infobox disclaimer and references</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Benzene</b>, also known as <b>benzol</b>, is an <!--del_lnk--> organic <!--del_lnk--> chemical compound with the formula <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">C</a><sub>6</sub><a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">H</a><sub>6</sub>. It is sometimes abbreviated <!--del_lnk--> PhH. Benzene is a <a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">colorless</a> and <!--del_lnk--> flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a relatively high melting point. It is <!--del_lnk--> carcinogenic and its use as additive in <!--del_lnk--> gasoline is now limited, but it is an important industrial <!--del_lnk--> solvent and precursor in the production of <!--del_lnk--> drugs, <!--del_lnk--> plastics, synthetic <!--del_lnk--> rubber, and <!--del_lnk--> dyes. Benzene is a natural constituent of <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">crude oil</a>, but it is usually synthesized from other compounds present in petroleum. Benzene is an <!--del_lnk--> aromatic hydrocarbon and the second [<i>n</i>]-<!--del_lnk--> annulene (-annulene).<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Benzene has been the subject of many studies by many famous scientists ranging from <a href="../../wp/m/Michael_Faraday.htm" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> to <a href="../../wp/l/Linus_Pauling.htm" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>. In 1825 Faraday reported its isolation from oil gas and gave it the name <i>bicarburet of hydrogen</i>. In 1833, <!--del_lnk--> Eilhard Mitscherlich produced it via the <!--del_lnk--> distillation of <!--del_lnk--> benzoic acid (from <!--del_lnk--> gum benzoin) and <!--del_lnk--> lime. Mitscherlich gave the compound the name <i>benzin</i>. In 1845, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Mansfield, working under <!--del_lnk--> August Wilhelm von Hofmann, isolated benzene from <!--del_lnk--> coal tar. Four years later, Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, based on the coal-tar method.<p><a id="Structure" name="Structure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Structure</span></h2>
<p>The formula of benzene (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>) mystified scientists who could not figure out its structure. <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz was the first to deduce the ring structure of benzene. An often-repeated story claims that after years of studying carbon bonding, benzene and related molecules, he dreamt one night of the <!--del_lnk--> Ouroboros, a <!--del_lnk--> snake eating its own tail, and that upon waking he was inspired to deduce the ring structure of benzene. Other common tale is he obtained the inspiration from the figure of an hexagon in a tabern sign in Germany. However, the story first appeared in the <i>Berichte der Durstigen Chemischen Gesellschaft</i> (Journal of the Thirsty Chemical Society), a <!--del_lnk--> parody of the <i>Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft</i>, which appeared annually in the late-19th century on the occasion of the congress of German chemists; accordingly, it is probably to be treated with circumspection.<p>While his (more formal) claims were well-publicized and accepted, by the early-1920s Kekulé's biographer came to the conclusion that Kekulé's understanding of the tetravalent nature of carbon bonding depended on the previous research of <!--del_lnk--> Archibald Scott Couper (1831-1892); furthermore, <!--del_lnk--> Josef Loschmidt (1821-1895) had earlier posited a cyclic structure for benzene as early as 1861. The cyclic nature of benzene was finally confirmed by the eminent crystallographer <!--del_lnk--> Kathleen Lonsdale.<p>Benzene presents a special problem in that, to account for all the bonds, there must be alternating <!--del_lnk--> double carbon bonds:<p><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17010.png.htm" title="Benzene with alternating double bonds"><img alt="Benzene with alternating double bonds" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benz1.png" src="../../images/170/17010.png" width="105" /></a><p>Using <!--del_lnk--> X-ray diffraction, researchers discovered that all of the carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are of the same length of 140 <!--del_lnk--> picometres (pm). The C-C <!--del_lnk--> bond lengths are greater than a double bond (134pm) but shorter than a single bond (147pm). This intermediate distance is explained by electron <!--del_lnk--> delocalization: the electrons for C-C bonding are distributed equally between each of the six carbon atoms. One representation is that the structure exists as a superposition of so-called <!--del_lnk--> resonance structures, rather than either form individually. This delocalisation of electrons is known as <!--del_lnk--> aromaticity, and gives benzene great stability. This enhanced stability is the fundamental property of aromatic molecules that differentiates them from molecules that are non-aromatic. To reflect the delocalised nature of the bonding, benzene is often depicted with a circle inside a hexagonal arrangement of carbon atoms:<p><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17011.png.htm" title="Benzene structure with a circle inside the hexagon"><img alt="Benzene structure with a circle inside the hexagon" height="119" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Benz4.png" src="../../images/170/17011.png" width="105" /></a><p>As is common in organic chemistry, the carbon atoms in the diagram above have been left unlabeled.<p>Benzene occurs sufficiently often as a component of organic molecules that there is a <!--del_lnk--> Unicode symbol with the code 232C to represent it:<p>
<br /><font size="9"><span class="Unicode">⌬</span></font><p>
<br /> Many fonts do not have this Unicode character, so a browser may not be able to display it correctly.<p><a id="Substituted_benzene_derivatives" name="Substituted_benzene_derivatives"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Substituted benzene derivatives</span></h2>
<p>Many important chemicals are derived from benzene, wherein with one or more of the hydrogen atoms is replaced with another <!--del_lnk--> functional group. Examples of simple benzene derivatives are <!--del_lnk--> phenol, <a href="../../wp/t/Toluene.htm" title="Toluene">toluene</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> aniline, abbreviated PhOH,PhMe, and PhNH<sub>2</sub>, respectively. Linking benzene rings gives <!--del_lnk--> biphenyl, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>-C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>. Further loss of hydrogen gives "fused" aromatic hydrocarbons, such <!--del_lnk--> naphthalene and <!--del_lnk--> anthracene. The limit of the fusion process is the hydrogen-free material <!--del_lnk--> graphite.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> heterocycles, carbon atoms in the benzene ring are replaced with other elements. The most important derivatives are the rings containing <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>. Replacing one CH with N gives the compound <!--del_lnk--> pyridine, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N. Although benzene and pyridine are <i>structurally</i> related, benzene cannot be converted into pyridine. Replacement of a second CH bond with N gives, depending on the location of the second N, <!--del_lnk--> pyridazine, <!--del_lnk--> pyrimidine, and <!--del_lnk--> pyrazine.<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2>
<p>Trace amounts of benzene may result whenever <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a>-rich materials undergo incomplete <!--del_lnk--> combustion. It is produced in <a href="../../wp/v/Volcano.htm" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> and <!--del_lnk--> forest fires, and is also a component of <!--del_lnk--> cigarette smoke.<p>Up until <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, most benzene was produced as a byproduct of <!--del_lnk--> coke production in the <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> industry. However, in the 1950s, increased demand for benzene, especially from the growing <!--del_lnk--> plastics industry, necessitated the production of benzene from petroleum. Today, most benzene comes from the <!--del_lnk--> petrochemical industry, with only a small fraction being produced from coal.<p>Three chemical processes contribute equally to industrial benzene production: <!--del_lnk--> catalytic reforming, <a href="../../wp/t/Toluene.htm" title="Toluene">toluene</a> hydrodealkylation, and <!--del_lnk--> steam cracking.<p><a id="Catalytic_reforming" name="Catalytic_reforming"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Catalytic reforming</span></h3>
<p>In catalytic reforming, a mixture of <!--del_lnk--> hydrocarbons with boiling points between 60-200 °C is blended with <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> gas and then exposed to a <!--del_lnk--> bifunctional <a href="../../wp/p/Platinum.htm" title="Platinum">platinum</a> chloride or <a href="../../wp/r/Rhenium.htm" title="Rhenium">rhenium</a> chloride <!--del_lnk--> catalyst at 500-525 °C and pressures ranging from 8-50 atm. Under these conditions, <!--del_lnk--> aliphatic hydrocarbons form rings and lose hydrogen to become aromatic hydrocarbons. The aromatic products of the reaction are then separated from the reaction mixture by <!--del_lnk--> extraction with any one of a number of <!--del_lnk--> solvents, including <!--del_lnk--> diethylene glycol or <!--del_lnk--> sulfolane, and benzene is then separated from the other aromatics by distillation.<p><a id="Toluene_hydrodealkylation" name="Toluene_hydrodealkylation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Toluene hydrodealkylation</span></h3>
<p>Toluene hydrodealkylation converts <a href="../../wp/t/Toluene.htm" title="Toluene">toluene</a> to benzene. In this process, toluene is mixed with hydrogen, then passed over a <a href="../../wp/c/Chromium.htm" title="Chromium">chromium</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Molybdenum.htm" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, or <a href="../../wp/p/Platinum.htm" title="Platinum">platinum</a> <!--del_lnk--> oxide catalyst at 500-600 °C and 40-60 atm pressure. Sometimes, higher temperatures are used instead of a catalyst. Under these conditions, toluene undergoes dealkylation according to the <!--del_lnk--> chemical equation:<dl>
<dd><a href="../../wp/t/Toluene.htm" title="Toluene">C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>CH<sub>3</sub></a> + <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">H<sub>2</sub></a> → C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub> + <!--del_lnk--> CH<sub>4</sub></dl>
<p>
<br />
<p>This irreversible reaction is accompanied by an equilibrium side reaction that produces biphenyl (aka diphenyl): 2C6H6 ↔ H2 + C12H10<p>Typical reaction yields exceed 95%. Sometimes, <!--del_lnk--> xylene and heavier aromatics are used in place of toluene, with similar efficiency.<p><a id="Toluene_disproportionation" name="Toluene_disproportionation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Toluene disproportionation</span></h3>
<p>Where a chemical complex has similar demands for both benzene and <!--del_lnk--> xylene, then toluene <!--del_lnk--> disproportionation (<b>TDP</b>) may be an attractive alternative. Broadly speaking 2 toluene molecules are reacted and the methyl groups rearranged from one toluene molecule to the other, yielding one benzene molecule and one xylene molecule.<p>Given that demand for <i>para</i>-xylene (<!--del_lnk--> p-xylene) substantially exceeds demand for other xylene isomers, a refinement of the TDP process called <b>Selective TDP</b> (STDP) may be used. In this process, the xylene stream exiting the TDP unit is approximately 90% paraxylene.<p><a id="Steam_cracking" name="Steam_cracking"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Steam cracking</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Steam cracking is the process for producing <!--del_lnk--> ethylene and other <!--del_lnk--> olefins from aliphatic hydrocarbons. Depending on the feedstock used to produce the olefins, steam cracking can produce a benzene-rich liquid byproduct called <i><!--del_lnk--> pyrolysis gasoline</i>. Pyrolysis gasoline can be blended with other hydrocarbons as a gasoline additive, or distilled to separate it into its components, including benzene.<p><a id="Uses" name="Uses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses</span></h2>
<p><a id="Early_uses" name="Early_uses"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early uses</span></h3>
<p>In the 19th and early-20th centuries, benzene was used as an after-shave lotion and for <!--del_lnk--> douches because of its pleasant smell. Prior to the 1920s, benzene was frequently used as an industrial solvent, especially for degreasing metal. As its toxicity became obvious, benzene has been supplanted by other solvents.<p>In 1903, Lugwig Roselius popularized the use of benzene to decaffeinate coffee. This discovery lead to the production of Sanka, -ka for kaffein. This process was later discontinued.<p>As a petrol additive, benzene increases the <!--del_lnk--> octane rating and reduces <!--del_lnk--> knocking. Consequently, petrol often contained several percent benzene before the 1950s, when <!--del_lnk--> tetraethyl lead replaced it as the most widely-used antiknock additive. However, with the global phaseout of leaded petrol, benzene has made a comeback as a gasoline additive in some nations. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, concern over its negative health effects and the possibility of benzene entering the <!--del_lnk--> groundwater have led to stringent regulation of petrol's benzene content, with values around 1% typical. European petrol specifications now contain the same 1% limit on benzene content.<p><a id="Current_uses_of_benzene" name="Current_uses_of_benzene"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Current uses of benzene</span></h3>
<p>Today benzene is mainly used as an intermediate to make other chemicals. Its most widely-produced derivatives include <!--del_lnk--> styrene, which is used to make polymers and plastics, <!--del_lnk--> phenol for resins and adhesives (via <!--del_lnk--> cumene), and <!--del_lnk--> cyclohexane, which is used in the manufacture of Nylon. Smaller amounts of benzene are used to make some types of <!--del_lnk--> rubbers, <!--del_lnk--> lubricants, <!--del_lnk--> dyes, <!--del_lnk--> detergents, <!--del_lnk--> drugs, <!--del_lnk--> explosives and <!--del_lnk--> pesticides.<p>In laboratory research, <a href="../../wp/t/Toluene.htm" title="Toluene">toluene</a> is now often used as a substitute for benzene. The solvent-properties of the two are similar but toluene is less toxic and has a wider liquid range.<p>Benzene has been used as a basic research tool in a variety of experiments including analysis of a <!--del_lnk--> two-dimensional gas.<p><a id="Reactions_of_benzene" name="Reactions_of_benzene"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reactions of benzene</span></h2>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17012.png.htm" title="Electrophilic aromatic substitution of benzene"><img alt="Electrophilic aromatic substitution of benzene" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:OChem-Mech-ElectrophilicAromaticSubstitution-General.png" src="../../images/170/17012.png" width="450" /></a></span></div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Electrophilic aromatic substitution is a general method of derivatizing benzene. Benzene is sufficiently <!--del_lnk--> nucleophilic that it undergoes substitution by <!--del_lnk--> acylium ions or alkyl <!--del_lnk--> carbocations to afford give substituted derivatives.</ul>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17013.png.htm" title="Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene by acetyl chloride"><img alt="Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene by acetyl chloride" height="89" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Friedel-Crafts_acylation_of_benzene_by_ethanol_chloride.png" src="../../images/170/17013.png" width="300" /></a></span></div>
<ul>
<li>
<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Friedel-Crafts acylation is a specific example of <!--del_lnk--> electrophilic aromatic substitution. The reaction involves the <!--del_lnk--> acylation of benzene (or many other aromatic rings) with an <!--del_lnk--> acyl chloride using a strong <!--del_lnk--> Lewis acid <!--del_lnk--> catalyst such as <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium_chloride.htm" title="Aluminium chloride">aluminium chloride</a>..</ul>
</ul>
<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/170/17014.png.htm" title="Friedel-Crafts alkylation of benzene with methyl chloride"><img alt="Friedel-Crafts alkylation of benzene with methyl chloride" height="73" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Friedel-craft-alk.png" src="../../images/170/17014.png" width="400" /></a></span></div>
<ul>
<li>
<ul>
<li>Like the Friedel-Crafts acylation, the <!--del_lnk--> Friedel-Crafts alkylation involves the <!--del_lnk--> alkylation of benzene (and many other aromatic rings) usng an <!--del_lnk--> alkyl halide in the presence of a strong Lewis acid catalyst.</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> sulfonation.<li><!--del_lnk--> Nitration: Benzene undergoes nitration with nitronioum ions (NO<sub>2</sub><sup>+</sup>) as the electrophile. Thus, warming benzene with a combination of concentrated sulphuric and nitric acid gives nitrobenzene.</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Hydrogenation: Benzene and derivatives convert to cyclohexane and derivatives when treated with hydrogen at high hydrogen pressures.<li>Benzene is an excellent ligand in the <!--del_lnk--> organometallic chemistry of low-valent metals. Important examples include the sandwich and half-sandwich complexes respectively <!--del_lnk--> Cr(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)<sub>2</sub> and [RuCl<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)]<sub>2</sub>.</ul>
<p><a id="Health_effects" name="Health_effects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Health effects</span></h2>
<p>Benzene exposure has serious <!--del_lnk--> health effects. Breathing high levels of benzene can result in <!--del_lnk--> death, while low levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, <!--del_lnk--> headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the <!--del_lnk--> stomach, dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and death.<p>The major effect of benzene from <!--del_lnk--> chronic (long-term) exposure is to the <!--del_lnk--> blood. Benzene damages the <!--del_lnk--> bone marrow and can cause a decrease in red blood cells, leading to <a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" title="Anemia">anaemia</a>. It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress the <!--del_lnk--> immune system, increasing the chance of <!--del_lnk--> infection.<p>Some women who breathed high levels of benzene for many months had irregular <!--del_lnk--> menstrual periods and a decrease in the size of their <!--del_lnk--> ovaries. It is not known whether benzene exposure affects the developing <!--del_lnk--> fetus in pregnant women or fertility in men.<p>Animal studies have shown low birth weights, delayed bone formation, and bone marrow damage when pregnant animals breathed benzene.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) classifies benzene as a human <!--del_lnk--> carcinogen. Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene in the air can cause <!--del_lnk--> leukemia, a potentially fatal <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a> of the blood-forming organs. In particular, <!--del_lnk--> Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) may be caused by benzene.<p>Several tests can show if you have been exposed to benzene. There is a test for measuring benzene in the breath; this test must be done shortly after exposure. Benzene can also be measured in the blood; however, because benzene disappears rapidly from the blood, measurements are accurate only for recent exposures.<p>In the body, benzene is <!--del_lnk--> metabolized. Certain metabolites can be measured in the urine. However, this test must be done shortly after exposure and is not a reliable indicator of how much benzene you have been exposed to, since the same metabolites may be present in urine from other sources.<p>The US <!--del_lnk--> Environmental Protection Agency has set the maximum permissible level of benzene in drinking water at 0.005 milligrams per liter (0.005 mg/L). The EPA requires that spills or accidental releases into the environment of 10 pounds (4.5 kg) or more of benzene be reported to the EPA.<p>The US <!--del_lnk--> Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permissible exposure limit of 1 part of benzene per million parts of air (1 ppm) in the workplace during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. The short term exposure limit for airborne benzene is 5 ppm for 15 minutes.<p>In March 2006, the official <!--del_lnk--> Food Standards Agency in <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a> conducted a survey of 150 brands of soft drinks. It found that four contained benzene levels above <a href="../../wp/w/World_Health_Organization.htm" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> limits. The affected batches were removed from sale.<p>In recent history there have been many examples of the harmful health effects of benzene and its derivatives. <!--del_lnk--> Toxic Oil Syndrome caused localised immune-suppression in <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> in 1981 from people ingesting benzene-contaminated olive-oil. <!--del_lnk--> Chronic Fatigue Syndrome has also been highly correlated with people who eat "denatured" food that use solvents to remove fat or contain <!--del_lnk--> benzoic acid.<p>Workers in various industries that make or use benzene may be at risk for being exposed to high levels of this carcinogenic chemical. Industries that involve the use of benzene include the <!--del_lnk--> rubber industry, oil refineries, chemical plants, shoe manufacturers, and <!--del_lnk--> gasoline related industries. In 1987, <!--del_lnk--> OSHA estimated that about 237,000 workers in the United States were potentially exposed to benzene, and it is not known if this number has substantially changed since then.<p>Water and <!--del_lnk--> soil contamination are important pathways of concern for transmission of benzene contact. In the U.S. alone there are approximately 100,000 different sites which have benzene soil or groundwater contamination. In 2005, the water supply to the city of <!--del_lnk--> Harbin in China with a population of almost nine million people, was cut off because of a <!--del_lnk--> major benzene exposure. Benzene leaked into the <!--del_lnk--> Songhua River, which supplies drinking water to the city, after an explosion at a China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) factory in the city of Jilin on <!--del_lnk--> 13 November.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Berber languages</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Language_and_literature.Languages.htm">Languages</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox bordered" style="width: 300px; text-align: left;">
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 110%; text-align: center; background-color: yellow;">Berber <div style="font-size: smaller;">
</div>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: normal;">Geographic<br /> distribution:</th>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em;"><a href="../../wp/n/North_Africa.htm" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> (mainly Morocco and Algeria; small communities in populations in Libya and Egypt)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: normal;"><!--del_lnk--> Genetic<br /> classification:</th>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left;"><!--del_lnk--> Afro-Asiatic<b><br /> Berber</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="padding-left: 0.5em; font-weight: normal;">Subdivisions:</th>
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left;">
<div>—</div>
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<p>The <b>Berber languages</b> (or <i>Tamazight</i>) are a group of closely related <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">languages</a> mainly spoken in <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>. A very sparse population extends into the whole <a href="../../wp/s/Sahara.htm" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> and the northern part of the <!--del_lnk--> Sahel. They belong to the <!--del_lnk--> Afro-Asiatic languages phylum. There is a strong movement among <!--del_lnk--> Berbers to unify the closely related northern Berber languages into a single standard, Tamazight.<p>Among the Berber languages are <!--del_lnk--> Tarifit or <i>Riffi</i> (northern Morocco), <!--del_lnk--> Kabyle (Algeria) and <!--del_lnk--> Tachelhit (central Morocco). Tamazight has been a written language, on and off, for almost 3000 years; however, this tradition has been frequently disrupted by various invasions. It was first written in the <!--del_lnk--> Tifinagh alphabet, still used by the <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg; the oldest dated inscription is from about 200 BC. Later between about 1000 AD and 1500 AD, it was written in the <!--del_lnk--> Arabic alphabet (particularly by the <!--del_lnk--> Shilha of <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>); since the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, it is often written in the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, especially among the <!--del_lnk--> Kabyle. A variant of the <!--del_lnk--> Tifinagh alphabet was recently made official in <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, while the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_alphabet.htm" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> is official in <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a>, and <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a>; however, both Tifinagh and Arabic are still widely used in Mali and Niger, while Latin and Arabic are still widely used in Morocco.<p>After independence, all the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> countries to varying degrees pursued a policy of "Arabization", aimed primarily at displacing <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> from its colonial position as the dominant language of education and literacy, but under which teaching, and use in certain highly public spheres, of both Berber languages and <!--del_lnk--> Maghrebi Arabic dialect have been suppressed as well. This state of affairs was protested by Berbers in <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> - especially <!--del_lnk--> Kabylie - and is now being addressed in both countries by introducing Berber language education and by recognizing Berber as a "national language", though not necessarily an official one. No such measures have been taken in the other Maghreb countries, whose Berber populations are much smaller. In <a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a>, there are a few schools that teach partially in <!--del_lnk--> Tamasheq.<p>
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</script><a id="Nomenclature" name="Nomenclature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nomenclature</span></h2>
<p>The term "Berber" is thought to come from the <!--del_lnk--> ancient Greek <i>barbaros</i>, (see "<!--del_lnk--> barbarian" ). The word "Barbarian" comes into English from <!--del_lnk--> Medieval Latin <i>barbarinus</i>, from Latin barbaria, from <!--del_lnk--> Latin <i>barbarus</i>, from the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Greek word βάρβαρος (<i>barbaros</i>) which meant a non-Greek, someone whose (first) language was not Greek.<p>Nonetheless, it is used in Western languages by many Berber writers, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Kabyle Professor <!--del_lnk--> Salem Chaker of <!--del_lnk--> INALCO in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Werner Vycichl, and Maarten Kossmann and Harry Stroomer of <!--del_lnk--> Leiden University.<p>The term <b>Tamazight</b> is often substituted, particularly to refer to <!--del_lnk--> Northern Berber languages; in Western languages, this term can also (somewhat misleadingly) be used specifically to refer to the language of the Middle <!--del_lnk--> Atlas mountains in <a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, closely related to <!--del_lnk--> Tashelhiyt. Etymologically, it means "language of the free" or "of the noblemen." Traditionally, the term "tamazight" (in various forms: "thamazighth", "tamasheq", "tamajeq", "tamahaq") was used by many Berber groups to refer to the language they spoke, including the Middle Atlas, the <!--del_lnk--> Rif, <!--del_lnk--> Sened in <a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg. However, other terms were used by other groups; for instance, many parts of western Algeria called their language "taznatit" or <!--del_lnk--> Zenati, while the <!--del_lnk--> Kabyles called theirs "thaqvaylith", the inhabitants of <!--del_lnk--> Siwa "tasiwit", and the <!--del_lnk--> Zenaga "Tuddhungiya"<!--del_lnk--> . Around the turn of the century, it was reported that the Zenata of the Rif called their language "Zenatia" specifically to distinguish it from the "Tamazight" spoken by the rest of the Rif.<p>One group, the <!--del_lnk--> Linguasphere Observatory, has attempted to introduce the <!--del_lnk--> neologism "Tamazic languages" to refer to the Berber languages.<p><a id="Origin" name="Origin"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin</span></h2>
<p>Tamazight is a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Afro-Asiatic language family (formerly called Hamito-Semitic). Traditional genealogists of tribes claiming Arab origin often claimed that Berbers were <!--del_lnk--> Arabs that immigrated from <a href="../../wp/y/Yemen.htm" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. Some of them considered Tamazight to derive from <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>. This view, however, is rejected by linguists, who regard Semitic and Berber as two separate branches of <!--del_lnk--> Afro-Asiatic.<p><a id="Population" name="Population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population</span></h2>
<p>The exact population of Berber speakers is hard to ascertain, since most <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> countries do not record language data in their censuses. The <!--del_lnk--> Ethnologue provides a useful academic starting point; however, its bibliographic references are inadequate, and it rates its own accuracy at only B-C for the area. Early colonial censuses may provide better documented figures for some countries; however, these are also very much out of date.<dl>
<dd>"Few census figures are available; all countries (Algeria and Morocco included) do not count Berber languages. The 1972 Niger census reported Tuareg, with other languages, at 127,000 speakers. Population shifts in location and number, effects of urbanization and education in other languages, etc., make estimates difficult. In 1952 A. Basset (LLB.4) estimated the number of Berberophones at 5,500,000. Between 1968 and 1978 estimates ranged from eight to thirteen million (as reported by Galand, LELB 56, pp. 107, 123-25); Voegelin and Voegelin (1977, p. 297) call eight million a conservative estimate. In 1980, S. Chaker estimated that the Berberophone populations of Kabylie and the three Moroccan groups numbered more than one million each; and that in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9)."<!--del_lnk--> </dl>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/m/Morocco.htm" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></b>: In 1952, André Basset ("La langue berbère", <i>Handbook of African Languages</i>, Part I, Oxford) estimated that a "small majority" of Morocco's population spoke Berber. The 1960 census estimated that 34% of Moroccans spoke Berber, including bi-, tri-, and quadrilinguals. In <!--del_lnk--> 2000, <!--del_lnk--> Karl Prasse cited "more than half" in an interview conducted by Brahim Karada at Tawalt.com. According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its Moroccan Arabic figures), the Berber-speaking population is estimated at 35% (1991 and 1995). However, the figures it gives for individual languages only add up to 7.5 million, or about 28%. Most of these are accounted for by three dialects: <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tarifit: 1.5 million (1991)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tachelhit: 3 million (1998)<li><!--del_lnk--> Atlas Tamazight: 3 million (1998)</ul>
</ul>
<dl>
<dd>This nomenclature is common in linguistic publications, but is significantly complicated by local usage: thus Tachelhit is sub-divided into Tachelhit of the Dra valley, Tasusit (the language of the Souss) and several other (mountain)-dialects. Moreover, linguistic boundaries are blurred, such that certain dialects cannot accurately be described as either Atlas Tamazight (spoken in the Central and eastern Atlas area) or Tachelhit.</dl>
<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Mohammad Chafik claims 80% of Moroccans are Berbers.<!--del_lnk--> It is not clear, however, whether he means "speakers of Berber languages" or "people of Berber descent".</dl>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/a/Algeria.htm" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></b>: In <!--del_lnk--> 1906, the total population speaking Berber languages in Algeria (excluding the thinly populated Sahara) was estimated at 1,305,730 out of 4,447,149, ie 29%. (Doutté & Gautier, <i>Enquête sur la dispersion de la langue berbère en Algérie, faite par l'ordre de M. le Governor Général</i>, Alger 1913.) The <!--del_lnk--> 1911 census, however, found 1,084,702 speakers out of 4,740,526, ie 23%; Doutté & Gautier suggest that this was the result of a serious undercounting of <!--del_lnk--> Chaouia in areas of widespread <!--del_lnk--> bilingualism. A trend was noted for Berber groups surrounded by Arabic (as in <!--del_lnk--> Blida) to adopt Arabic, while Arabic speakers surrounded by Berber (as in Sikh ou Meddour near <!--del_lnk--> Tizi-Ouzou) tended to adopt Berber. In 1952, André Basset estimated that about a third of Algeria's population spoke Berber. The Algerian census of 1966 found 2,297,997 out of 12,096,347 Algerians, or 19%, to speak "Berber." In 1980, <!--del_lnk--> Salem Chaker estimated that "in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language" (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9). According to the Ethnologue, more recent estimates include (by deduction from its Algerian Arabic figures) 17% (1991) and 29% (Hunter 1996). The actual figures it gives for Berber languages, however, only add up to about 4 million, under 15%. Most of these are accounted for by two dialects: <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Kabyle: 2.5 million (1995), or 8% of the population - or "up to" 6 million (1998), which would be more like 20%.<li><!--del_lnk--> Chaouia: 1.4 million (1993), thus 5% of the population.</ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/t/Tunisia.htm" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></b>: Basset (1952) estimated about 1%, as did Penchoen (1968). According to the Ethnologue, there are only 26,000 speakers (1998) of a Berber language it calls "Djerbi" in Tunisia, all in the south around <!--del_lnk--> Djerba and <!--del_lnk--> Matmata. The more northerly enclave of <!--del_lnk--> Sened apparently no longer speaks Berber. This would make 0.3% of the population.<li><b><a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libya</a></b>: According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its combined Libyan Arabic and Egyptian Arabic figures) the non-Arabic-speaking population, most of which would be Berber, is estimated at 4% (1991, 1996). However, the individual language figures it gives add up to 162,000, ie about 3%. This is mostly accounted for by languages: <ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nafusi in Zuwarah and Jabal Nafusa: 141,000 (1998).<li><!--del_lnk--> Tahaggart Tamahaq of <!--del_lnk--> Ghat: 17,000 (Johnstone 1993).</ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></b>: The oasis of <!--del_lnk--> Siwa near the Libyan border speaks a Berber language; according to the Ethnologue, there are 5,000 speakers there (1995). Its population in <!--del_lnk--> 1907 was 3884 (according to the <!--del_lnk--> 1911 <a href="../../wp/e/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica.htm" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>); the claimed lack of increase seems surprising.<li><b><a href="../../wp/m/Mauritania.htm" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></b>: According to the Ethnologue, only 200-300 speakers of <!--del_lnk--> Zenaga remain (1998). It also mentions <!--del_lnk--> Tamasheq, but does not provide a population figure for it. Most non-Arabic speakers in Mauritania speak <!--del_lnk--> Niger-Congo languages.<li><b><a href="../../wp/m/Mali.htm" title="Mali">Mali</a></b>: The Ethnologue counts 440,000 <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg (1991) speaking:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Tamasheq: 250,000<dd><!--del_lnk--> Tamajaq: 190,000</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/n/Niger.htm" title="Niger">Niger</a></b>: The Ethnologue counts 720,000 <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg (1998) speaking:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Tawallamat Tamajaq: 450,000<dd><!--del_lnk--> Tayart Tamajeq: 250,000<dd><!--del_lnk--> Tahaggart Tamahaq: 20,000</dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/b/Burkina_Faso.htm" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></b>: The Ethnologue counts 20,000 - 30,000 <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg (<!--del_lnk--> SIL 1991), speaking <!--del_lnk--> Kidal Tamasheq.<li><b><a href="../../wp/n/Nigeria.htm" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></b>: The Ethnologue notes the presence of "few" <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg, speaking <!--del_lnk--> Tawallamat Tamajaq.<li><b><a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></b>: The Ethnologue lists 537,000 speakers for <!--del_lnk--> Kabyle, 150,000 for <!--del_lnk--> Middle Atlas Tamazight, and no figures for <!--del_lnk--> Tachelhit and <!--del_lnk--> Tarifit. For the rest of Europe, it has no figures.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Ceuta</b> and <b><!--del_lnk--> Melilla</b>: A majority of <!--del_lnk--> Melilla's 80,000 inhabitants, and a minority of <!--del_lnk--> Ceuta's inhabitants, speak Berber<!--del_lnk--> .<li><b><a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a></b>: A few thousand elderly <!--del_lnk--> Moroccan-born Israelis use <!--del_lnk--> Judeo-Berber dialects.</ul>
<p>Thus, judging by the not necessarily reliable Ethnologue, the total number of speakers of Berber languages in the <a href="../../wp/m/Maghreb.htm" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> proper appears to lie anywhere between 14 and 20 million, depending on which estimate is accepted; if we take Basset's estimate, it could be as high as 25 million. The vast majority are concentrated in Morocco and Algeria. The <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg of the <!--del_lnk--> Sahel add another million or so.<p><a id="Grammar" name="Grammar"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Grammar</span></h2>
<p>The Berber languages have two <!--del_lnk--> cases of the <!--del_lnk--> noun, organized <!--del_lnk--> ergatively: one is unmarked, while the other serves for the subject of a transitive verb and the object of a preposition, among other contexts. The former is often called <i>état libre</i>, the latter <i>état d'annexion</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> état construit</i>. Berber nouns also have two <a href="../../wp/g/Gender.htm" title="Gender">genders</a>, masculine (unmarked) and feminine (marked with reflexes of the prefix <i>t-</i>). These are illustrated (in Latin transcription) for the noun <i>amghar</i> "old man, sheikh":<table>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td colspan="2">masculine</td>
<td colspan="2">feminine</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>default</td>
<td>agent</td>
<td>default</td>
<td>agent</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>singular</td>
<td><i>amghar</i></td>
<td><i>umghar</i></td>
<td><i>tamghart</i></td>
<td><i>temghart</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>plural</td>
<td><i>imgharen</i></td>
<td><i>imgharen</i></td>
<td><i>timgharin</i></td>
<td><i>temgharin</i></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Subclassification" name="Subclassification"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Subclassification</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:452px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17015.png.htm" title="Modern Berber Languages"><img alt="Modern Berber Languages" height="221" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berber-map.png" src="../../images/170/17015.png" width="450" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17015.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Modern Berber Languages</div>
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</div>
<p>Subclassification of the Berber languages is made difficult by their mutual closeness; <!--del_lnk--> Maarten Kossmann (1999) describes it as two <!--del_lnk--> dialect continua, <!--del_lnk--> Northern Berber and <!--del_lnk--> Tuareg, and a few peripheral languages, spoken in isolated pockets largely surrounded by <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, that fall outside these continua, namely <!--del_lnk--> Zenaga and the <a href="../../wp/l/Libya.htm" title="Libya">Libyan</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> varieties. Within Northern Berber, however, he recognizes a break in the continuum between <!--del_lnk--> Zenati languages and their non-Zenati neighbors; and in the east, he recognizes a division between <!--del_lnk--> Ghadames and <!--del_lnk--> Awjila on the one hand and <!--del_lnk--> El-Foqaha, <!--del_lnk--> Siwa, and Djebel <!--del_lnk--> Nefusa on the other. The implied tree is:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nefusa-Siwa languages<li><!--del_lnk--> Ghadames-Awjila languages<li><!--del_lnk--> Northern Berber languages<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Zenati languages (including <!--del_lnk--> Tarifit)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kabyle language<li><!--del_lnk--> Moroccan Atlas languages (including <!--del_lnk--> Tashelhiyt and <!--del_lnk--> Tamazight)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tuareg languages<li><!--del_lnk--> Zenaga language</ul>
<p>There is so little data available on <!--del_lnk--> Guanche that any classification is necessarily uncertain; however, it is almost universally acknowledged as Berber on the basis of the surviving glosses. Much the same can be said of the language, sometimes called "<!--del_lnk--> Numidian", used in the Libyan or Libyco-Berber inscriptions around the turn of the Common Era, whose alphabet is the ancestor of <!--del_lnk--> Tifinagh.<p>The Ethnologue, mostly following Aikhenvald and Militarev (1991), subdivides it somewhat differently:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Guanche<li><!--del_lnk--> Eastern Berber languages<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Siwa<li><!--del_lnk--> Awjila-Sokna languages</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Northern Berber languages<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Zenati languages<li><!--del_lnk--> Kabyle language<li><!--del_lnk--> Chenoua language<li><!--del_lnk--> Moroccan Atlas languages</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Tamasheq languages<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Northern Tamasheq languages<li><!--del_lnk--> Southern Tamasheq languages</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Zenaga language</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_languages"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3>
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<p><b>Beriberi</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> nervous system ailment caused by a deficiency of Vitamin B<sub>1</sub> (<a href="../../wp/t/Thiamine.htm" title="Thiamine">thiamine</a>), the <!--del_lnk--> symptoms of which may include weight loss, <a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" title="Emotion">emotional</a> disturbances, impaired <!--del_lnk--> sensory <!--del_lnk--> perception (<!--del_lnk--> Wernicke's encephalopathy), <!--del_lnk--> weakness and <!--del_lnk--> pain in the limbs, and periods of irregular <!--del_lnk--> heartbeat. Swelling of <!--del_lnk--> bodily tissues (<a href="../../wp/e/Edema.htm" title="Edema">edema</a>) is common. In advanced cases, the <!--del_lnk--> disease may cause <!--del_lnk--> heart failure and <!--del_lnk--> death. The origin of the word is from the <!--del_lnk--> Sinhalese (<a href="../../wp/s/Sri_Lanka.htm" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lankan</a>) language meaning "I cannot, I cannot".<p>
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</script><a id="Causes" name="Causes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Causes</span></h2>
<p>Beriberi is caused by a lack of thiamine. It is common in people whose <!--del_lnk--> diet consists mainly of polished <!--del_lnk--> white rice, which contains little or no thiamine, in chronic <!--del_lnk--> alcoholics with impaired <!--del_lnk--> liver function, and is a known (though rare) potential side-effect of <!--del_lnk--> gastric bypass surgery. If a baby is fed the <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a> of a mother who suffers from a deficiency in thiamine, the child may develop beriberi.<p>The disease has been seen traditionally in people in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asian</a> countries (especially in the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> and before), due to those countries' reliance on <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> as a staple food.<p><a id="Symptoms_and_effects" name="Symptoms_and_effects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Symptoms and effects</span></h2>
<p>There are two forms of the disease: <b>wet beriberi</b> and <b>dry beriberi</b>.<p>Wet beriberi affects the <!--del_lnk--> heart; it is sometimes fatal, as it causes a combination of <!--del_lnk--> heart failure and weakening of the <!--del_lnk--> capillary walls, which causes the peripheral tissues to become waterlogged. Dry beriberi causes wasting and partial <!--del_lnk--> paralysis resulting from damaged peripheral <!--del_lnk--> nerves. It is also referred to as <i>endemic neuritis</i>.<p><a id="Treatment" name="Treatment"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Treatment</span></h2>
<p>Treatment is with thiamine hydrochloride, either in tablet form or injection. A rapid and dramatic recovery can be made when this is administered to patients with beriberi, and their health can be transformed within an hour of administration of the treatment. Thiamine occurs naturally in fresh foods and <a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" title="Cereal">cereals</a>, particularly fresh <a href="../../wp/m/Meat.htm" title="Meat">meat</a>, <!--del_lnk--> legumes, green <a href="../../wp/v/Vegetable.htm" title="Vegetable">vegetables</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a>, and milk.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The discovery of the cause of beriberi started in <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>, where the disease was a national <!--del_lnk--> epidemic. The poor often mixed rice with <a href="../../wp/b/Barley.htm" title="Barley">barley</a>, while the upper class ate only white rice. Therefore, during the <!--del_lnk--> feudal period, beriberi was commonly found among the upper class of Japan. However, the introduction of mechanical polishing of rice, and increased standards of living, allowed the poor to eat the more highly regarded diet of white rice without barley. This shift made beriberi widespread in <!--del_lnk--> urban Japan.<p>The problem of beriberi was particularly acute in the Japanese military, where conscripts' diet often consisted of white rice and little else. <!--del_lnk--> Kanehiro Takaki, a Japanese naval <!--del_lnk--> physician, who was originally a doctor in Chinese medicine and who was later educated as a doctor in Britain, came to believe that diet was the cause of beriberi, which conflicted with the prevailing idea among medical scientists that beriberi was an <!--del_lnk--> infectious disease. Takaki knew that beriberi was not common among <!--del_lnk--> Western navies. He also noticed that Japanese naval officers, whose diet consisted of various types of vegetables and meat, rarely suffered from beriberi. On the other hand, for ordinary crewmen rice was free, while other foods had to be purchased. Those from poor families, who had to send money back home, often tried to save money by eating nothing but rice.<p>Takaki, while serving on a <!--del_lnk--> battleship, experimented by providing a western style diet to his crew. In 1882, Takaki made a petition to <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Meiji to fund an experiment. In 1884, two battleships were chosen, the crew of one being fed with a mix of meat, <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>, barley, rice, and <a href="../../wp/b/Bean.htm" title="Bean">beans</a>, the other being fed with only white rice, with both ships traveling the exact same course. The latter soon reported that half of the crew was suffering from beriberi, while the former reported no cases of beriberi. This experiment convinced the Japanese Navy that poor diet is the cause of beriberi. They soon started to experiment with different combinations of diet. They eventually discovered the traditional combination of barley and rice to be an effective remedy, and the disease was soon eliminated from the Navy.<p>However the Army, which was dominated by doctors from the <!--del_lnk--> University of Tokyo, persisted in their belief that beriberi was an infectious disease, and for decades refused to implement the effective remedy. In the <!--del_lnk--> Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), 211,600 soldiers suffered from beriberi — 27,000 fatally, compared to 47,000 deaths from <!--del_lnk--> combat. <!--del_lnk--> Mori Ogai, the chief army physician and a proponent of the infectious disease <!--del_lnk--> theory, was later described as the man who caused more deaths than any <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russian</a> general. The Japanese medical establishment at that time was dominated by doctors from Tokyo University, many of them educated in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, who tended to regard <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a> as <!--del_lnk--> scientific research. They thought that the dietary theory lacked a <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">scientific</a> explanation and were sceptical of the idea that disease can be cured by a simple change in diet. Those who practiced traditional medicine and those educated in Britain, on the other hand supported the view that the cause was in diet. In 1905, Kanehiro Takaki was made a Baron for his contribution of eliminating beriberi from Japanese Navy. He was later affectionately nicknamed "Barley Baron".<p>In 1910, <!--del_lnk--> Umetaro Suzuki discovered and later received patent rights to <i>aberic acid</i>, which later became known as Vitamin B<sub>1</sub>. His research was the beginning of modern <a href="../../wp/v/Vitamin.htm" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a> categorization. However, his discovery was not well known outside of Japan.<p>In 1912, <!--del_lnk--> Casimir Funk isolated the anti-beriberi factor from rice and called it <i>vitamine</i> — an <!--del_lnk--> amine essential for life. In the 1930s, the chemical formula of this Vitamin B<sub>1</sub> was published by <!--del_lnk--> Robert R. Williams, and it was named <i>thiamine</i>.<p>In the 1890s, a <!--del_lnk--> Dutch doctor, <!--del_lnk--> Christiaan Eijkman, found that <!--del_lnk--> fowl fed only on polished rice developed similar symptoms to his patients who had beriberi, and that they could be cured if they were also fed some of the husks from the rice grains. Together with <!--del_lnk--> Frederick Gowland Hopkins, he was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929.<p>Beriberi was widespread among <!--del_lnk--> Allied <!--del_lnk--> prisoners of war captured by the <!--del_lnk--> Japanese during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. They were fed a diet of rice only, which did not contain adequate quantities of most vitamins. Other common diseases included <a href="../../wp/m/Malaria.htm" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <!--del_lnk--> dysentery and <a href="../../wp/o/Osteomalacia.htm" title="Osteomalacia">rickets</a>.<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:217881-0!1!0!default!!en!2 and timestamp 20061113150518 -->
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2">
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<tr>
<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">97</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/c/Curium.htm" title="Curium">curium</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">berkelium</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/c/Californium.htm" title="Californium">californium</a></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/t/Terbium.htm" title="Terbium">Tb</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Bk</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%">(Uqs)</span></td>
<td>
<table>
<tr>
<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1559.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bk-TableImage.png" src="../../images/15/1559.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
</div>
<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ff99cc; color:black">General</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>berkelium, Bk, 97</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> actinides</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> n/a, <!--del_lnk--> 7, <!--del_lnk--> f</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>unknown, probably silvery<br /> white or metallic gray</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> (247) g/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/r/Radon.htm" title="Radon">Rn</a>] 5f<sup>9</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 32, 27, 8, 2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ff99cc; color:black">Physical properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>(alpha) 14.78 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>(beta) 13.25 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>(beta) 1259 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (986 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 1807 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ff99cc; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>1.3 (Pauling scale)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies</td>
<td>1st: 601 <!--del_lnk--> kJ/mol</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ff99cc; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>hexagonal close-packed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td>no data</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 10 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-40-6</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ff99cc; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of berkelium</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>245</sup>Bk</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> 4.94 d</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>0.810</td>
<td><sup>245</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Curium.htm" title="Curium">Cm</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> α</td>
<td>6.455</td>
<td><sup>241</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">Am</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>246</sup>Bk</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2">1.8 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td>α</td>
<td>6.070</td>
<td><sup>242</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">Am</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ε</td>
<td>1.350</td>
<td><sup>246</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Curium.htm" title="Curium">Cm</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>247</sup>Bk</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1380 y</td>
<td>α</td>
<td>5.889</td>
<td><sup>243</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">Am</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>248</sup>Bk</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> >9 y</td>
<td>α</td>
<td>5.803</td>
<td><sup>244</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">Am</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3"><sup>249</sup>Bk</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> 320 d</td>
<td>α</td>
<td>5.526</td>
<td><sup>245</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">Am</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> SF</td>
<td>-</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.125</td>
<td><sup>249</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Californium.htm" title="Californium">Cf</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#ff99cc; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Berkelium</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/bəˈkiːliəm/</span>) is a <!--del_lnk--> synthetic element in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Bk</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 97. A <!--del_lnk--> radioactive <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metallic</a> element in the <!--del_lnk--> actinide series, berkelium was first synthesized by bombarding <a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">americium</a> with <!--del_lnk--> alpha particles (<a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a> <!--del_lnk--> ions) and was named after <!--del_lnk--> Berkeley, California and the <!--del_lnk--> University of California, Berkeley. Berkelium was the fifth <!--del_lnk--> transuranic element to be synthesized.<p>
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</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Weighable amounts of <sup>249</sup>Bk (half-life 314 days) make it possible to determine some of its properties using macroscopic quantities. <!--del_lnk--> As of 2004 it had not been isolated in its elemental form, but it is predicted to be a silvery metal that would easily <!--del_lnk--> oxidize in air at elevated temperatures and would be <!--del_lnk--> soluble in dilute <!--del_lnk--> mineral acids.<p><!--del_lnk--> X-ray diffraction techniques have been used to identify various berkelium <!--del_lnk--> compounds such as berkelium dioxide (BkO<sub>2</sub>), berkelium fluoride (BkF<sub>3</sub>), berkelium oxychloride (BkOCl), and berkelium trioxide (BkO<sub>3</sub>). In <!--del_lnk--> 1962 visible amounts of berkelium <!--del_lnk--> chloride were isolated that weighed 3 billionths of a <!--del_lnk--> gram. This was the first time visible amounts of a pure berkelium compound were produced.<p>Like other actinides, berkelium <!--del_lnk--> bio-accumulates in <!--del_lnk--> skeletal tissue. This element has no known uses outside of basic research and plays no biological role.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Berkelium was <!--del_lnk--> first synthesized by <!--del_lnk--> Glenn T. Seaborg, <!--del_lnk--> Albert Ghiorso, Stanley G. Thompson, and Kenneth Street, Jr at the <!--del_lnk--> University of California, Berkeley in December <!--del_lnk--> 1949. The team used a <!--del_lnk--> cyclotron to bombard a <!--del_lnk--> milligram-sized target of <sup>241</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">Am</a> with <!--del_lnk--> alpha particles to produce <sup>243</sup>Bk (<!--del_lnk--> half-life 4.5 hours) and two <!--del_lnk--> free neutrons. One of the longest lived <!--del_lnk--> isotopes of the element, <sup>249</sup>Bk (half-life 320 days), was later synthesized by subjecting a <sup>244</sup><a href="../../wp/c/Curium.htm" title="Curium">Cm</a> target with an intense beam of <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a>.<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<p>19 <!--del_lnk--> radioisotopes of berkelium have been characterized, with the most stable being <sup>247</sup>Bk with a <!--del_lnk--> half-life of 1380 years, <sup>248</sup>Bk with a half-life of >9 years, and <sup>249</sup>Bk with a half-life of 320 days. All of the remaining <!--del_lnk--> radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 5 days, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 5 hours. This element also has 2 <!--del_lnk--> meta states, with the most stable being <sup>248m</sup>Bk (t<sub>½</sub> 23.7 hours). The isotopes of berkelium range in <!--del_lnk--> atomic weight from 235.057 <!--del_lnk--> amu (<sup>235</sup>Bk) to 254.091 amu (<sup>254</sup>Bk).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkelium"</div>
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<th align="center"><small>Coordinates :<br /><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> <span style="white-space:nowrap">52°31′07″N,</span> <span style="white-space:nowrap">13°24′30″E</span></span></small></th>
<th><small>Time zone :<br /><!--del_lnk--> UTC+1/Summer<!--del_lnk--> UTC+2</small></th>
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<th bgcolor="#CEF2E0" colspan="2">Basic information</th>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b></td>
<td>891.82 km² <small>City</small></td>
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<td>5,370 km² <small>Metro Area</small></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b></td>
<td>3,399,511 <small>(06/2006)</small></td>
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<td>3,675,000 <small>Urban Area</small></td>
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<td>4,262,480 <small>Metro Area</small></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Density</b></td>
<td>3,810/km²</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Elevation</b></td>
<td>34 - 115 m</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> NUTS-Code</b></td>
<td>DE3 <a class="image" href="../../images/187/18787.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="17" longdesc="/wiki/Image:European_flag.svg" src="../../images/15/1565.png" width="25" /></a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> State</b></td>
<td>Berlin</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> 12 Bezirke</td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Governing Mayor</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Klaus Wowereit <small>since 2001</small></td>
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</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Berlin</b> is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> city and one of the sixteen <!--del_lnk--> states of the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a>. It is the heart of the Berlin-<!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg metropolitan region, located in northeastern Germany. With a population of 3.4 million, Berlin is the country's largest city, and the second <!--del_lnk--> most populous city in the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<p>Berlin is one of the most influential centers in European politics, culture and science. The city serves as an important hub of continental transportation and is home to some of the most prominent universities, sport events, orchestras, and museums. Its economy is based on the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of media and life science corporations, convention venues, research institutes, and creative industries.<p>The rapidly evolving metropolis enjoys an international reputation for its festivals, contemporary architecture, nightlife, and avant-garde arts. Being a major tourist centre and home to people from over 180 nations, Berlin is a focal point for individuals who are attracted by its liberal lifestyle, urban eclecticism, and artistic freedom.<p>First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became successively the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Prussia (from 1701), the <!--del_lnk--> German Empire (1871-1918), the <a href="../../wp/w/Weimar_Republic.htm" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> (1919-1932) and the <!--del_lnk--> Third Reich (1933-1945). After <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the city was divided. <!--del_lnk--> East Berlin became the capital of the <!--del_lnk--> GDR (East Germany), while <!--del_lnk--> West Berlin remained a <!--del_lnk--> West German <!--del_lnk--> enclave surrounded by the <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin_Wall.htm" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> from 1961-1989. Following the <a href="../../wp/g/German_reunification.htm" title="German reunification">reunification</a> in 1990, the city regained its status as the capital of all Germany.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p>The name <i>Berlin</i>, which is <!--del_lnk--> pronounced <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/bə(r)ˈlɪn/</span> in <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> and <span class="IPA audiolink nounderlines" style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> /bɛɐˈliːn/</span> in <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>, is of uncertain origin, but may be related to the Old <!--del_lnk--> Polabian stem <i>berl-</i>/<i>birl-</i> "swamp".<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:132px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/104/10496.jpg.htm" title=" Frederick the Great was the enlightened Prussian King."><img alt=" Frederick the Great was the enlightened Prussian King." height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fryderyk_2.jpg" src="../../images/15/1567.jpg" width="130" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/104/10496.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/f/Frederick_II_of_Prussia.htm" title="Frederick II of Prussia">Frederick the Great</a> was the <!--del_lnk--> enlightened Prussian King.</div>
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<p>The first written mention of towns in the area of present-day Berlin dates from the late 12th and early 14th century. <!--del_lnk--> Spandau is first mentioned in 1197, and <!--del_lnk--> Köpenick in 1209, though these areas did not join Berlin until 1920. The central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns: Cölln (on the <!--del_lnk--> Fisher Island) is first mentioned in a 1237 document, and Berlin (across the Spree in what is now called the <!--del_lnk--> Nikolaiviertel) in one from 1244. From the beginning, the two cities formed an economic and social unit. In 1307, the two cities were united politically. Over time, the twin cities came to be known simply as Berlin, the larger of the pair.<p>In 1415 <!--del_lnk--> Frederick I became the <!--del_lnk--> elector of the Margraviate of <!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. Subsequent members of the <!--del_lnk--> Hohenzollern family ruled until 1918 in Berlin, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of <!--del_lnk--> Prussia, and finally as German emperors. In 1448 citizens rebelled in the “Berlin Indignation” against the construction of a new royal palace by Elector <!--del_lnk--> Frederick II Irontooth. This protest was not successful, however, and the citizenry lost many of its political and economic privileges. In 1451 Berlin became the royal residence of the Brandenburg electors, and Berlin had to give up its status as a free <!--del_lnk--> Hanseatic city. In 1539 the electors and the city officially became <!--del_lnk--> Lutheran.<br clear="all" />
<p><a name="17.E2.80.9319th_century"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">17–19th century</span></h3>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1568.jpg.htm" title="Napoleon conquering Berlin in 1806, marching through the Brandenburg Gate."><img alt="Napoleon conquering Berlin in 1806, marching through the Brandenburg Gate." height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cruikshank_Napoleon%27s_Entrance_into_Berlin.jpg" src="../../images/15/1568.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1568.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Napoleon conquering Berlin in 1806, marching through the <!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg Gate.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648 had devastating consequences for Berlin. A third of the houses were damaged, and the city lost half of its population. <!--del_lnk--> Frederick William, known as the “Great Elector”, who had succeeded his father <!--del_lnk--> George William as ruler in 1640, initiated a policy of promoting <!--del_lnk--> immigration and <!--del_lnk--> religious toleration. With the <!--del_lnk--> Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Frederick William invited the French <!--del_lnk--> Huguenots to Brandenburg. More than 15,000 Huguenots came, of whom 6,000 settled in Berlin. Around 1700, approximately twenty percent of Berlin's residents were French, and their cultural influence was great. Many other immigrants came from <!--del_lnk--> Bohemia, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Salzburg.<p>With the coronation of <!--del_lnk--> Frederick I in 1701 as king, Berlin became the capital of the kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Prussia. In 1740 Friedrich II, known as <!--del_lnk--> Frederick the Great (1740-1786) came to power. Berlin became, under the rule of the philosophically-oriented Frederick II, centre of <!--del_lnk--> the Enlightenment. The <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> transformed Berlin during the 19th century; the city's economy and population expanded dramatically, and it became the main rail hub and economic centre of Germany. Additional suburbs soon developed and increased the area and population of Berlin. In 1861, outlying suburbs including <!--del_lnk--> Wedding, <!--del_lnk--> Moabit, and several others were incorporated into Berlin. In 1871, Berlin became capital of the newly founded <!--del_lnk--> German Empire.<p><a name="20th_century"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">20th century</span></h3>
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<div style="width:213px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/33/3313.jpg.htm" title="In this Soviet photograph from May 2, 1945, Red Army soldiers are raising the Soviet flag on the roof of the Reichstag."><img alt="In this Soviet photograph from May 2, 1945, Red Army soldiers are raising the Soviet flag on the roof of the Reichstag." height="152" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reichstag_flag.jpg" src="../../images/15/1569.jpg" width="211" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/33/3313.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In this Soviet photograph from <!--del_lnk--> May 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1945, <!--del_lnk--> Red Army soldiers are raising the Soviet flag on the roof of the <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag.</div>
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<p>At the end of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a> in 1918, the <a href="../../wp/w/Weimar_Republic.htm" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a> was proclaimed in Berlin. In <!--del_lnk--> 1920, the <!--del_lnk--> Greater Berlin Act united dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into a greatly expanded city and established Berlin as a separate administrative region. After this expansion, Berlin had a population of around 4 million. <!--del_lnk--> 1920s Berlin was an exciting city known for its liberal subcultures, including homosexuals and prostitution, and well known for its fierce political street fights.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and started <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> in 1939. Nazi rule destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which numbered 170,000 before the Nazis came to power. After the pogrom of <!--del_lnk--> Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's German Jews were imprisoned in the nearby <!--del_lnk--> Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, in early 1943, were shipped to death camps such as <!--del_lnk--> Auschwitz. During the war, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in <!--del_lnk--> the 1943–45 air raids and during the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Berlin. After the <!--del_lnk--> end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the <!--del_lnk--> occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>) formed <!--del_lnk--> West Berlin, while the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet sector</a> formed <!--del_lnk--> East Berlin.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1571.jpg.htm" title="The Cold War border sign at Checkpoint Charlie "><img alt="The Cold War border sign at Checkpoint Charlie " height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:62411752_8021f8180a.jpg" src="../../images/15/1571.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1571.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> border sign at <!--del_lnk--> Checkpoint Charlie</div>
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<p>All four allies retained shared responsibility for Berlin. However, the growing political differences between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union led the latter, which controlled the territory surrounding Berlin, to impose the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Blockade, an economic blockade of West Berlin. The allies successfully overcame the Blockade by airlifting food and other supplies into the city from <!--del_lnk--> 24 June <!--del_lnk--> 1948 to <!--del_lnk--> 11 May <!--del_lnk--> 1949. In 1949 the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in <!--del_lnk--> West Germany, while the <!--del_lnk--> Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in <!--del_lnk--> East Germany.<p>The founding of the two German states increased <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory. East Germany, however, proclaimed East Berlin (which it described only as "Berlin") as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. Although half the size and population of West Berlin, it included most of the historic centre. The tensions between east and west culminated in the construction of <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin_Wall.htm" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a> between East and West Berlin and other barriers around West Berlin by the East Germany on <!--del_lnk--> 13 August <!--del_lnk--> 1961 and were exacerbated by a tank standoff at <!--del_lnk--> Checkpoint Charlie on <!--del_lnk--> 27 October <!--del_lnk--> 1961. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1572.jpg.htm" title="The Bundeskanzleramt is the seat of the German chancellor since 2001"><img alt="The Bundeskanzleramt is the seat of the German chancellor since 2001" height="111" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kanzler21a.jpg" src="../../images/15/1572.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1572.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Bundeskanzleramt is the seat of the German chancellor since 2001</div>
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<p>Berlin was completely separated. It was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other only through strictly controlled checkpoints. For most Easterners, travel to West Berlin or West Germany was no longer possible. In 1971, a <!--del_lnk--> Four-Power agreement guaranteed access across East Germany to West Berlin and ended the potential for harassment or closure of the routes.<p>In 1989 pressure from the East German population brought a transition to democracy in East Germany, and its citizens gained free access across the Berlin Wall, which was subsequently mostly demolished. Not much is left of it today; the <!--del_lnk--> East Side Gallery in <!--del_lnk--> Friedrichshain near the <i>Oberbaumbrücke</i> over the <!--del_lnk--> Spree preserves a portion of the Wall. In 1990 the two parts of Germany were <a href="../../wp/g/German_reunification.htm" title="German reunification">reunified</a> as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin became the German capital according to the unification treaty. In 1999 the German parliament and government began their work in Berlin.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1573.jpg.htm" title="The urban pool "Badeschiff" at River Spree in summer"><img alt="The urban pool "Badeschiff" at River Spree in summer" height="141" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Spreebad_kl.jpg" src="../../images/15/1573.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1573.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The urban pool "Badeschiff" at River <!--del_lnk--> Spree in summer</div>
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<p>Berlin is located in eastern Germany, about 110 kilometers (65 miles) west of the border with <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>. Berlin's landscape was shaped by <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_sheet.htm" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> during the last <a href="../../wp/i/Ice_age.htm" title="Ice age">ice age</a>. The city centre lies along the river <!--del_lnk--> Spree in the Berlin-Warsaw <i>Urstromtal</i> (ancient river valley), formed by water flowing from melting ice sheets at the end of the last Ice Age. The <i>Urstromtal</i> lies between the low Barnim plateau to the north, and the Teltow plateau to the south. In <!--del_lnk--> Spandau, Berlin's westernmost borough, the Spree meets the river <!--del_lnk--> Havel, which flows from north to south through western Berlin. The course of the Havel is more like a chain of lakes, the largest being the Tegeler See and <!--del_lnk--> Großer Wannsee. A series of lakes also feeds into the upper Spree, which flows through the <!--del_lnk--> Großer Müggelsee in eastern Berlin.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:150px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1574.png.htm" title="Map of natural and built environment in the city"><img alt="Map of natural and built environment in the city" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin.svg" src="../../images/15/1574.png" width="148" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1574.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of natural and built environment in the city</div>
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<p>Substantial parts of present-day Berlin extend onto the low plateaus on both sides of the Spree Valley. Large parts of the boroughs <!--del_lnk--> Reinickendorf and <!--del_lnk--> Pankow lie on the Barnim plateau, while most of the boroughs <!--del_lnk--> Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, <!--del_lnk--> Steglitz-Zehlendorf, <!--del_lnk--> Tempelhof-Schöneberg, and <!--del_lnk--> Neukölln lie on the Teltow plateau. The borough of Spandau lies partly within the Berlin <i>Urstromtal</i> and partly on the Nauen Plain, which stretches to the west of Berlin. The highest elevations in Berlin are the <!--del_lnk--> Teufelsberg in the borough of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf and the Müggelberge in the borough of <!--del_lnk--> Treptow-Köpenick. Both hills have an elevation of about 115 meters (377 feet). The Teufelsberg is in fact an artificial pile of rubble from the ruins of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>Berlin has a <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a>/mesothermal climate (Cfb) according to the <!--del_lnk--> Köppen climate classification system. The mean annual temperature for Berlin-Dahlem (a location within <!--del_lnk--> Steglitz-Zehlendorf) is 9.4<!--del_lnk--> °C (48.9<!--del_lnk--> °F) and its mean annual precipitation totals 578 mm (22.8 inches). The warmest months are June, July, and August, with mean temperatures of 16.7 to 17.9°C (62.1 to 64.2°F). The coldest are December, January, and February, with mean temperatures of −0.4 to 1.2°C (31.3 to 34.2°F). Berlin's built-up area creates a <!--del_lnk--> microclimate, with heat stored by the city's buildings. Temperatures can be 4°C higher in the city than in the surrounding areas.<table class="wikitable">
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<th height="17" style="background: #cef2e0; color: #000080">
</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Jan.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Feb.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Mar.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Apr.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">May</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">June</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">July</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Aug.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Sep.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Oct.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Nov.</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Dec.</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Mean daily maximum temperature (°C)</b></td>
<td align="right">2.9</td>
<td align="right">4.2</td>
<td align="right">8.5</td>
<td align="right">13.2</td>
<td align="right">18.9</td>
<td align="right">21.6</td>
<td align="right">23.7</td>
<td align="right">23.6</td>
<td align="right">18.8</td>
<td align="right">13.4</td>
<td align="right">7.1</td>
<td align="right">4.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Mean daily minimum temperature (°C)</b></td>
<td align="right">−1.9</td>
<td align="right">−1.5</td>
<td align="right">−1.3</td>
<td align="right">4.2</td>
<td align="right">9.0</td>
<td align="right">12.3</td>
<td align="right">14.3</td>
<td align="right">14.1</td>
<td align="right">10.6</td>
<td align="right">6.4</td>
<td align="right">2.2</td>
<td align="right">−0.4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Mean total rainfall (mm)</b></td>
<td align="right">42.3</td>
<td align="right">33.3</td>
<td align="right">40.5</td>
<td align="right">37.1</td>
<td align="right">53.8</td>
<td align="right">68.7</td>
<td align="right">55.5</td>
<td align="right">58.2</td>
<td align="right">45.1</td>
<td align="right">37.3</td>
<td align="right">43.6</td>
<td align="right">55.3</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Mean number of rain days</b></td>
<td align="right">10.0</td>
<td align="right">8.0</td>
<td align="right">9.1</td>
<td align="right">7.8</td>
<td align="right">8.9</td>
<td align="right">9.8</td>
<td align="right">8.4</td>
<td align="right">7.9</td>
<td align="right">7.8</td>
<td align="right">7.6</td>
<td align="right">9.6</td>
<td align="right">11.4</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Cityscape" name="Cityscape"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cityscape</span></h3>
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<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1575.jpg.htm" title="The city has seen major investments and rebuilding efforts since 1990"><img alt="The city has seen major investments and rebuilding efforts since 1990" height="213" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Potsdamer_Platz_-_Kollhoff-Tower%2C_20060603.jpg" src="../../images/15/1575.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1575.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The city has seen major investments and rebuilding efforts since 1990</div>
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<p>The city's appearance today is predominantly shaped by the key role it played in Germany's history in the <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>. Each of the national governments based in Berlin—the 1871 <!--del_lnk--> German Empire, the <a href="../../wp/w/Weimar_Republic.htm" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Nazi_Germany.htm" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, <!--del_lnk--> East Germany, and now the reunified <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>—initiated ambitious construction programs, each with its own distinctive character. Berlin was devastated by bombing raids during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and many of the old buildings that escaped the bombs were eradicated in the 1950s and 1960s in both West and East. Much of this destruction was initiated by municipal architecture programs, to build new residential or business quarters and main roads. Berlin's unique recent history has left the city with an eclectic array of architecture and sights.<p>Neighborhoods still reveal whether one is in the former eastern or western part of the city. In the eastern part, many <!--del_lnk--> Plattenbauten can be found, reminders of <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Bloc ambitions to create complete residential areas with fixed ratios of shops, kindergartens and schools. Another difference between former east and west is in the design of little red and green men on pedestrian crossing lights (<!--del_lnk--> Ampelmännchen in German); the eastern versions received an opt-out during the standardization of road traffic signs after re-unification, and have survived to become a popular icon in tourist products. However, they are by now common in western Berlin too and so can no longer be considered a uniquely East Berlin phenomenon.<p>
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<p><a id="Urban_centers" name="Urban_centers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Urban centers</span></h3>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1576.jpg.htm" title="The Brandenburg Gate is a symbol of Berlin and Germany"><img alt="The Brandenburg Gate is a symbol of Berlin and Germany" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrandenburgGate_FrontatNight_June_2004.jpg" src="../../images/15/1576.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1576.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg Gate is a symbol of Berlin and Germany</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg Gate is a world-wide known symbol of Berlin, and nowadays of <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>. It also appears on German <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">euro</a> coins. The <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag building is the traditional seat of the German <!--del_lnk--> Parliament, renovated in the 1950s after severe World War II damage. The building was again remodeled by <!--del_lnk--> Norman Foster in the 1990s and features a glass dome over the session area, which is open to the public and allows parliamentarians to be viewed from above.<p><!--del_lnk--> Gendarmenmarkt, a <!--del_lnk--> neoclassical square in Berlin whose name dates back to the Napoleonic occupation of Berlin, is bordered by two similarly designed cathedrals, the <!--del_lnk--> French Cathedral with its observation platform and the German Cathedral. The Konzerthaus (Concert Hall), home of the Berlin Symphony Orchestra, stands between the two cathedrals.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:132px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1577.jpg.htm" title="Weltzeituhr at Alexanderplatz"><img alt="Weltzeituhr at Alexanderplatz" height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_-_Weltzeituhr.jpg" src="../../images/15/1577.jpg" width="130" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1577.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Weltzeituhr at <!--del_lnk--> Alexanderplatz</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Dom, a Protestant cathedral and the third church on this site, is located on the <!--del_lnk--> Spree Island across from the site of the <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Stadtschloss and adjacent to the <!--del_lnk--> Lustgarten. A large crypt houses the remains of some of the earlier <!--del_lnk--> Prussian royal family. The <!--del_lnk--> Cathedral of St. Hedwig is Berlin's <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic cathedral.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Nikolaiviertel is the historical core of Berlin. Its church dates from the 13th century. This area was much remodeled during the East German period and although not authentic, has become a busy tourist site. Adjacent to this area is the <!--del_lnk--> Rotes Rathaus (Red City Hall) with its distinctive red-brick architecture. The previously built-up part in front of it, is the <!--del_lnk--> Neptunbrunnen, a fountain featuring a mythological scene.<p>West of the centre, <!--del_lnk--> Schloss Bellevue is the residence of the German President. <!--del_lnk--> Schloss Charlottenburg, which was burnt out in the Second World War and largely destroyed, has been rebuilt and is the largest surviving historical palace in Berlin.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1578.jpg.htm" title="Aerial view of central Berlin, showing Unter den Linden"><img alt="Aerial view of central Berlin, showing Unter den Linden" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:City_Ost.jpg" src="../../images/15/1578.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1578.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Aerial view of central Berlin, showing <!--del_lnk--> Unter den Linden</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Fernsehturm (TV tower) at <!--del_lnk--> Alexanderplatz in <!--del_lnk--> Mitte is the highest building in the city at 368 m. Built in 1969 it is visible throughout most of the central districts of Berlin. The city can be viewed from its 204-m high observation platform. Starting here the <!--del_lnk--> Karl-Marx-Allee is heading east, a boulevard lined by monumental resident buildings, designed in the Socialist Classicism Style of the <!--del_lnk--> Stalin era.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> East Side Gallery is an open-air exhibition of art painted directly on the last parts of the <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin_Wall.htm" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a>. It is the largest still existing evidence of the city's historical division.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:132px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1579.jpg.htm" title="The New Synagogue was built in 1866"><img alt="The New Synagogue was built in 1866" height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_Neue_Synagoge_2005.jpg" src="../../images/15/1579.jpg" width="130" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1579.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> New Synagogue was built in 1866</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Unter den Linden is a tree lined east-west avenue from the Brandenburg Gate to the site of the former <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Stadtschloss, it was Berlin's premier promenade. Many Classical buildings line the street and a part of <!--del_lnk--> Humboldt University is located there. Berlin's legendary street of the <!--del_lnk--> Roaring Twenties is the <!--del_lnk--> Friedrichstraße, it combines twentieth Century tradition with the modern architecture of today's Berlin.<p><!--del_lnk--> Potsdamer Platz is an entire quarter built from scratch after 1995 and was not rebuilt as it was divided by the Wall. To the West of Potsdamer Platz is the Kulturforum, which houses the <!--del_lnk--> Gemäldegalerie, and is flanked by the <!--del_lnk--> Neue Nationalgalerie and the <!--del_lnk--> Philharmonie. The <!--del_lnk--> Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe a <a href="../../wp/t/The_Holocaust.htm" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> memorial is situated to the north.<p>The area around Hackescher Markt is home to the fashionable culture, with countless clothing outlets, clubs, bars, and galleries. This includes the Hackesche Höfe, a conglomeration of buildings around several courtyards, reconstructed around 1996. Oranienburger Straße and the nearby <!--del_lnk--> New Synagogue were the centre of <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> culture before 1933, and regains being it today.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1580.jpg.htm" title="People walking inside the Reichstag glass dome"><img alt="People walking inside the Reichstag glass dome" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Inside_the_reichstag.jpg" src="../../images/15/1580.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1580.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> People walking inside the <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag glass dome</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Rathaus Schöneberg, where <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> made his famous "<!--del_lnk--> Ich bin ein Berliner!" speech is situated in <!--del_lnk--> Tempelhof-Schöneberg.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Kurfürstendamm is the home of Berlin's luxury stores with the <!--del_lnk--> Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche at its eastern end on <!--del_lnk--> Breitscheidplatz.The church was destroyed in World War II and left in ruins as a reminder of the horrors of war. Near by on Tauentzienstraße is <!--del_lnk--> KaDeWe, claimed to be continental Europe's largest department store.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:132px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1581.jpg.htm" title="Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church"><img alt="Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ged%C3%A4chtniskirche1.JPG" src="../../images/15/1581.jpg" width="130" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1581.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Straße des 17. Juni, another East-West avenue connecting the Brandenburg Gate and <!--del_lnk--> Ernst-Reuter-Platz, was extensively widened during the Nazi period as part of the East-West-Axis. Its current name commemorates the uprisings in <!--del_lnk--> East Berlin of <!--del_lnk--> 17 June <!--del_lnk--> 1953. Approximately half-way from the Brandenburg Gate is the Großer Stern, a circular traffic island on which the <!--del_lnk--> Siegessäule (Victory Column) is situated. The monument was built to Prussia's victories and was relocated in 1938–39 from its previous position in front of the <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag. The site is annually used to be the centre stage for the <!--del_lnk--> Love Parade.<p><!--del_lnk--> Weißensee Cemetery is the largest <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> cemetery in Europe. The writers <!--del_lnk--> Micha Josef Berdyczewski and <!--del_lnk--> Stefan Heym as well as the philosopher <!--del_lnk--> Hermann Cohen are buried there. <!--del_lnk--> Städtischer Friedhof III in <!--del_lnk--> Friedenau is the final resting place of <!--del_lnk--> Marlene Dietrich as well as composer <!--del_lnk--> Ferruccio Busoni and photographer <!--del_lnk--> Helmut Newton.<p>
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<p><a id="Government" name="Government"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Government</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1582.jpg.htm" title="The Reichstag is the old and new site of the German parliament."><img alt="The Reichstag is the old and new site of the German parliament." height="121" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_reichstag_2005_2.jpg" src="../../images/15/1582.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1582.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Reichstag is the old and new site of the German parliament.</div>
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<p>Berlin is the national capital of the Federal Republic of Germany and is the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> President of Germany, whose official residence is <!--del_lnk--> Schloss Bellevue. Since German reunification on <!--del_lnk--> 3 October <!--del_lnk--> 1990 it has been one of the three <!--del_lnk--> city states, together with <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Bremen, among the present sixteen <!--del_lnk--> states of Germany. The <!--del_lnk--> Bundesrat ("federal council") is the representation of the Federal States (<i>Bundesländer</i>) of Germany and has its seat at the former Prussian <!--del_lnk--> Herrenhaus (House of Lords). Though most of the ministries are seated in Berlin, some of them, as well as some minor departments, are seated in <!--del_lnk--> Bonn, the former capital of West Germany.<p><a id="City_state" name="City_state"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">City state</span></h3>
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<div style="width:137px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1583.jpg.htm" title="Mayor Klaus Wowereit (right) at the 2001 Christopher Street Day."><img alt="Mayor Klaus Wowereit (right) at the 2001 Christopher Street Day." height="215" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wowereit.JPG" src="../../images/15/1583.jpg" width="135" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1583.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mayor <!--del_lnk--> Klaus Wowereit (right) at the 2001 <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Street Day.</div>
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<p>The city and state <!--del_lnk--> parliament is the House of Representatives (<i>Abgeordnetenhaus</i>), which currently has 141 seats. Berlin's executive body is the <!--del_lnk--> Senate of Berlin (<i>Senat von Berlin</i>). The Senate of Berlin consists of the <!--del_lnk--> Governing Mayor (<i>Regierender Bürgermeister</i>) and up to eight senators holding ministerial positions, one of them holding the official title "Mayor" (<i>Bürgermeister</i>) as deputy to the Governing Mayor. The <!--del_lnk--> Social Democratic Party (SPD) and <!--del_lnk--> Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) took control of the city government after the <!--del_lnk--> 2001 state election and won another term in the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 state election.<p>The Governing Mayor is simultaneously lord mayor of the city (<i>Oberbürgermeister der Stadt</i>) and prime minister of the federal state (<i>Ministerpräsident des Bundeslandes</i>). The office of Berlin's governing mayor is in the <!--del_lnk--> Rotes Rathaus (Red City Hall). Presently (April 2006), this office is held by <!--del_lnk--> Klaus Wowereit of the SPD. The city's government is based on a coalition between the SPD and Die Linke. PDS, a party formed by a merger of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) (the successor to <!--del_lnk--> the former East German communist party), which renamed itself in 2005 for cooperation with the <!--del_lnk--> Labor and Social Justice Party.<p>Mainly due to reunification-related expenditures, Berlin as a German state has accumulated more debt than any other city in Germany, with the most current estimate being <a href="../../wp/e/Euro.htm" title="Euro">€</a>61.2 billion.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Subdivisions" name="Subdivisions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Subdivisions</span></h3>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1584.png.htm" title="Map of Berlin's twelve boroughs and their localities"><img alt="Map of Berlin's twelve boroughs and their localities" height="175" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BerlinDistricts.png" src="../../images/15/1584.png" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1584.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Berlin's twelve boroughs and their localities</div>
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<p>Berlin is subdivided into twelve <!--del_lnk--> boroughs (<i>Bezirke</i>), but before <!--del_lnk--> Berlin's 2001 administrative reform there were 23. Each borough is subdivided into a number of localities (<i>Stadtteile</i>), which represent the traditional <!--del_lnk--> urbanized areas that inhabitants identify with. Some of these have been rearranged several times over the years. At present the city of Berlin consists of 96 such localities. The localities often consist of a number of city neighborhoods (usually called <i><!--del_lnk--> Kiez</i> in colloquial German) representing small residential areas.<p>Each borough is governed by a borough council (<i>Bezirksamt</i>) consisting of five councilors (<i>Bezirksstadträte</i>) and a borough mayor (<i>Bezirksbürgermeister</i>). The borough council is elected by the borough assembly (<i>Bezirksverordnetenversammlung</i>). The boroughs of Berlin are not independent municipalities. The power of borough governments is limited and subordinate to the Senate of Berlin. The borough mayors form the Council of Mayors (<i>Rat der Bürgermeister</i>), led by the city's Governing Mayor, which advises the Senate.<p>The localities have no government bodies of their own, even though most of the localities have historic roots in older municipalities that predate the formation of Greater Berlin on <!--del_lnk--> 1 October <!--del_lnk--> 1920. The subsequent position of locality representative (<i>Ortsvorsteher</i>) was discontinued in favour of borough mayors.<p><a id="Sister_cities" name="Sister_cities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sister cities</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Town twinning between Berlin and other cities began in 1987, excluding that with Los Angeles which began in 1967. East Berlin's partnerships were canceled at the time of German reunification and later partially reestablished. West Berlin's partnerships had previously been restricted to the borough level. During the Cold War era, the partnerships had reflected the different powers blocs, with West Berlin partnering with capitals in the West, and East Berlin mostly partnering with cities from the <!--del_lnk--> Warsaw Pact and its allies.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="" style="background-color: transparent; width: 100%">
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<td align="left" valign="top" width="33.33%">
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles</b>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> (1967)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (1987)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/539.png.htm" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg" src="../../images/5/539.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> (1988)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/512.png.htm" title="Turkey"><img alt="Turkey" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Turkey.svg" src="../../images/5/512.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/i/Istanbul.htm" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (1989)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/592.png.htm" title="Russia"><img alt="Russia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Russia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/592.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> (1990)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/744.png.htm" title="Poland"><img alt="Poland" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Poland_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/7/744.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/w/Warsaw.htm" title="Warsaw">Warsaw</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> (1991)</ul>
</td>
<td align="left" valign="top" width="33.33%">
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/8/845.png.htm" title="Hungary"><img alt="Hungary" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Hungary.svg" src="../../images/8/845.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/b/Budapest.htm" title="Budapest">Budapest</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> (1991)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/784.png.htm" title="Belgium"><img alt="Belgium" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg" src="../../images/7/784.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/b/Brussels.htm" title="Brussels">Brussels</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> (1992)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/595.png.htm" title="Indonesia"><img alt="Indonesia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Indonesia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/595.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/j/Jakarta.htm" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> (1993)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/583.png.htm" title="Uzbekistan"><img alt="Uzbekistan" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg" src="../../images/5/583.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/t/Tashkent.htm" title="Tashkent">Tashkent</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/u/Uzbekistan.htm" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> (1993)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/553.png.htm" title="Mexico"><img alt="Mexico" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Mexico.svg" src="../../images/5/553.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/m/Mexico_City.htm" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> (1993)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/584.png.htm" title="People's Republic of China"><img alt="People's Republic of China" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" src="../../images/5/584.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a></b>, the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">PR China</a> (1994)</ul>
</td>
<td align="left" valign="top" width="33.33%">
<ul>
<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/586.png.htm" title="Japan"><img alt="Japan" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Japan_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/586.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> (1994)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Argentina"><img alt="Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/b/Buenos_Aires.htm" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/a/Argentina.htm" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> (1994)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/542.png.htm" title="Czech Republic"><img alt="Czech Republic" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/5/542.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/p/Prague.htm" title="Prague">Prague</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> (1995)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1552.png.htm" title="Namibia"><img alt="Namibia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Namibia.svg" src="../../images/15/1552.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><!--del_lnk--> Windhoek</b>, <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> (2000)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/7/789.png.htm" title="United Kingdom"><img alt="United Kingdom" height="11" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg" src="../../images/7/789.png" width="22" /></a> - <b><a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a></b>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (2000)</ul>
</td>
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</table>
<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>Berlin is the seventh-largest <!--del_lnk--> urban area in the European Union, and approximately the 80th-largest urban area in the world. As of June 2006, Berlin has 3,399,511 inhabitants in an area of 891.82 square kilometers (344.31 <!--del_lnk--> mi²). Thus, the population density of the region amounts to 3,812 inhabitants per square kilometer (9,857/square mile). Berlin residents' average age is 41.9 years (as of 2004) compared to Germany's 42.1 years (as of 2005).<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1586.png.htm" title="Berlin's population fluctuations, 1880 to 2005"><img alt="Berlin's population fluctuations, 1880 to 2005" height="97" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Einwohnerentwicklung_Berlin_1880_bis_2005.png" src="../../images/15/1586.png" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1586.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Berlin's population fluctuations, 1880 to 2005</div>
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<p>As of September <!--del_lnk--> 2006, almost 464,000 (13.7%) residents are of foreign nationality, coming from 183 different countries. The largest groups by nationality are citizens from <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (117,736), <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> (40,787), <!--del_lnk--> Serbia & Montenegro (24,757), <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> (14,005), <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> (13,804), <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> (12,556), <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> (11,517), <a href="../../wp/c/Croatia.htm" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> (11,517), <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> (11,298), <a href="../../wp/g/Greece.htm" title="Greece">Greece</a> (10,134).<p>As of 2005, the largest religious groupings are <!--del_lnk--> No religion 60%, <!--del_lnk--> Evangelical 23% (757,000), <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> 9% (312,000), <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Muslim</a> 6% (213,000), <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Jewish</a> 0.4% (12,000) .<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Before the reunification of Germany and the two Berlin parts in 1990, the city of West Berlin received substantial subsidies from the West German state to compensate for its geographic isolation from West Germany. Many of those subsidies were phased out after 1990. The reduced financial support for the city and its gradual economic decline have produced fiscal difficulties for Berlin's city government and forced it to cut funding for various programs. The current unemployment rate remains therefore above the German average at 16.5% as of October 2006.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1588.jpg.htm" title="Unemployment and poverty figures are higher than the national average"><img alt="Unemployment and poverty figures are higher than the national average" height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Streetartcharacter.jpg" src="../../images/15/1588.jpg" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1588.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Unemployment and poverty figures are higher than the national average</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> gross state product of Berlin totaled €79.6 ($95.5) billion in 2005 and compares with €77.4 billion in 1995. Among the 20 largest employers are the railway company Deutsche Bahn AG, the hospital company Charité, Siemens, the local public transport company BVG, the service provider Dussmann and the Piepenbrock Group. DaimlerChrysler manufactures cars and BMW motorcycles in Berlin. BayerSchering Pharma and Berlin Chemie are major pharmaceutical companies headquartered in the city. The Science and Business Park of Berlin-Adlershof is is among the 15 biggest scientific and technological parks world-wide and expanding model in modern city planning.<p>Core and fast-growing sectors are communications, life sciences, mobility and services with information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology and environmental services, transportation and medical engineering. The city of Berlin is among the top five congress cities in the world and is home to Europe's biggest convention centre in the form of the Internationales Congress Centrum (ICC). It contributes to the rapidly increasing tourism sector which numbered 14.6 million overnight guests and more than 120 million one-day visitors in 2005, making the city the third most visited city in the European Union.<br clear="all" />
<table class="wikitable">
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<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">
</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Area in km²</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Population in million</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">GDP total in billion € / $</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">GDP per capita in € / $</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1612.png.htm" title="Flag of Berlin"><img alt="Flag of Berlin" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Berlin.svg" src="../../images/15/1589.png" width="30" /></a> Berlin</td>
<td align="right">892</td>
<td align="right">3.39</td>
<td align="right">€ 79 / $ 94</td>
<td align="right">€ 23 205 / $ 27 846</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/15/1590.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Brandenburg.svg" src="../../images/15/1590.png" width="30" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg</td>
<td align="right">29 478</td>
<td align="right">2.57</td>
<td align="right">€ 47 / $ 57</td>
<td align="right">€ 18 334 / $ 22 001</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="18" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/15/1591.png" width="30" /></a> <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a></td>
<td align="right">357 050</td>
<td align="right">82.69</td>
<td align="right">€ 2 164 / $ 2 597</td>
<td align="right">€ 26 217 / $ 31 460</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/187/18787.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="20" longdesc="/wiki/Image:European_flag.svg" src="../../images/7/754.png" width="30" /></a> <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">EU25</a></td>
<td align="right">3 976 372</td>
<td align="right">457.51</td>
<td align="right">€ 9 953 / $ 11 944</td>
<td align="right">€ 21 741 / $ 26 089</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The Euro / Dollar currency relation is estimated at (€:$ , 1:1.2)<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1593.jpg.htm" title="Statue of Alexander von Humboldt outside Humboldt University"><img alt="Statue of Alexander von Humboldt outside Humboldt University" height="252" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Humboldtstatue.jpg" src="../../images/15/1593.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1593.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Statue of <!--del_lnk--> Alexander von Humboldt outside <!--del_lnk--> Humboldt University</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Berlin capital region is one of Europe's most prolific centers of higher education and research. With four universities, numerous private, professional and technical colleges (<!--del_lnk--> Fachhochschulen), offering students a wide range of disciplines.<p>Around 140,000 students attend the universities and professional or technical colleges. The three largest universities alone account for around 110,000 students. These are the <!--del_lnk--> Freie Universität Berlin (Free University of Berlin) with 40,840 students, the <!--del_lnk--> Humboldt Universität zu Berlin with 36,423 students, and the <!--del_lnk--> Technische Universität Berlin with 31,547 students. The <!--del_lnk--> Universität der Künste has about 4,300 students.<p>The city has a high concentration of research institutions, such as <!--del_lnk--> Fraunhofer-, and <!--del_lnk--> Max Planck Society, which are independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities. A total number of 62,000 scientists are working in <!--del_lnk--> research and development.<p>In addition to the libraries affiliated with the various universities, the <!--del_lnk--> Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin is a major research library. It has two main locations, one near <!--del_lnk--> Potsdamer Platz on Potsdamer Straße and one on <!--del_lnk--> Unter den Linden. There are 108 public libraries to be found in the city.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1594.jpg.htm" title="The Französisches Gymnasium Berlin has a long existing tradition"><img alt="The Französisches Gymnasium Berlin has a long existing tradition" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:FranzGymnasium2.jpg" src="../../images/15/1594.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1594.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Französisches Gymnasium Berlin has a long existing tradition</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Berlin has 878 schools teaching 340,658 children in 13,727 classes (for 2004/2005) and 56,787 trainees in businesses and elsewhere. The city has a six-year primary education program. After completing primary school, students progress to one of four types of secondary school for six further years: <!--del_lnk--> Hauptschule, <!--del_lnk--> Realschule, <!--del_lnk--> Gymnasium, or Gesamtschule.<p>Berlin has a unique bilingual school program embedded in the 'Europaschule'. Children get taught the curriculum in German and a foreign language starting in grammar school and later in secondary school. Throughout nearly all cityboroughs a range of 9 major European languages in 29 schools can be chosen. One of them the <!--del_lnk--> Französisches Gymnasium Berlin, which was founded in 1689 for the benefit of <!--del_lnk--> Huguenot refugees, offers (German/<a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a>) instruction. Among its former students is <a href="../../wp/w/Wernher_von_Braun.htm" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a>.<p>
<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1595.jpg.htm" title="Alte Nationalgalerie houses works from Classicism and Romanticism"><img alt="Alte Nationalgalerie houses works from Classicism and Romanticism" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:AlteNationalgalerie_1a.jpg" src="../../images/15/1595.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1595.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Alte Nationalgalerie houses works from <!--del_lnk--> Classicism and <a href="../../wp/r/Romanticism.htm" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Berlin is noted for its numerous cultural institutions, many of which enjoy international reputation. The cultural diversity and tolerance remain from the time when West Berlin took pride in its role as a "free city" with the motto "something for everyone."<p>Berlin has a rich art scene, and it is home to hundreds of art galleries. The city is host to the Art Forum annual international art fair. Young Germans and international artists continue to settle in the city, and Berlin has established itself as a centre of <!--del_lnk--> youth and <a href="../../wp/p/Popular_culture.htm" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a> in Europe. Signs of this expanding role were the 2003 announcement that the annual Popkomm, Europe's largest <!--del_lnk--> music industry <!--del_lnk--> convention, would move to Berlin after 15 years in <a href="../../wp/c/Cologne.htm" title="Cologne">Cologne</a>. Shortly thereafter, the <!--del_lnk--> Universal Music Group and <!--del_lnk--> MTV also decided to move its European headquarters and main studios to the banks of the River <!--del_lnk--> Spree in <!--del_lnk--> Friedrichshain. Since 2005, Berlin has been listed as a <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO City of Design.<p><a id="Nightlife.2C_festivals" name="Nightlife.2C_festivals"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nightlife, festivals</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1596.jpg.htm" title="The city is a center for nightlife and DJ-culture in Europe"><img alt="The city is a center for nightlife and DJ-culture in Europe" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Nightclubbing.jpg" src="../../images/15/1596.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1596.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The city is a centre for nightlife and DJ-culture in Europe</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Berlin has one of the most diverse and vibrant nightlife scenes in Europe. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 many buildings in <!--del_lnk--> Mitte, the former city centre of East Berlin were renovated. Many had not been rebuilt since World War II. Illegally occupied by young people, they became a fertile ground for all sorts of <!--del_lnk--> underground and <!--del_lnk--> counter-culture gatherings. It is also home to many nightclubs, including <!--del_lnk--> Kunst Haus Tacheles, <!--del_lnk--> techno clubs <!--del_lnk--> Tresor, WMF, Ufo, <!--del_lnk--> E-Werk, the infamous <!--del_lnk--> Kitkatclub and <!--del_lnk--> Berghain.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1597.jpg.htm" title="The annual "Karneval der Kulturen" celebrations"><img alt="The annual "Karneval der Kulturen" celebrations" height="103" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kar_Kult_2006_1.jpg" src="../../images/15/1597.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1597.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The annual "Karneval der Kulturen" celebrations</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Former West Berlin was also home to several well-known nightclubs. SO36 in Kreuzberg originally focused largely on <!--del_lnk--> punk music but today has become a popular venue for dances and parties of all kinds. SOUND, located from 1971 to 1988 in Tiergarten and today in Charlottenburg, gained notoriety in the late 1970s for its popularity with heroin users and other <!--del_lnk--> drug addicts as described in <!--del_lnk--> Christiane F.'s book <i>Wir Kinder vom Bahnhof Zoo</i>. The Linientreu, near the <!--del_lnk--> Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church, has been well known since the 1990s for <!--del_lnk--> techno music. The LaBelle discotheque in <!--del_lnk--> Friedenau became famous as the location of the <!--del_lnk--> 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing.<br clear="all" /> Berlin's annual Karneval der Kulturen, a multi-ethnic street parade, and <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Street Day celebrations, Central Europe's largest gay-lesbian pride event, are openly supported by the city's government. Berlin is also well known for the <!--del_lnk--> techno carnival <!--del_lnk--> Love Parade and the cultural festival <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Festspiele, which include the jazz festival <!--del_lnk--> JazzFest Berlin.<p><a id="Museums.2C_galleries" name="Museums.2C_galleries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums, galleries</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1598.jpg.htm" title="The Ishtar Gate of Babylon at Pergamon Museum"><img alt="The Ishtar Gate of Babylon at Pergamon Museum" height="210" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pergamonmuseum_Babylon_Ischtar-Tor.jpg" src="../../images/15/1598.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1598.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Ishtar Gate of <!--del_lnk--> Babylon at <!--del_lnk--> Pergamon Museum</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Berlin is home to 153 museums. The ensemble on the <!--del_lnk--> Museum Island is a <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO <a href="../../wp/w/World_Heritage_Site.htm" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> and is situated in the northern part of the Spree Island between the Spree and the Kupfergraben. As early as 1841 it was designated a “district dedicated to art and antiquities” by a royal decree. Subsequently, the <!--del_lnk--> Altes Museum (Old Museum) in the Lustgarten displaying the bust of <!--del_lnk--> Queen Nefertiti, and the <!--del_lnk--> Neues Museum (New Museum), <!--del_lnk--> Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery), <!--del_lnk--> Pergamon Museum, and <!--del_lnk--> Bode Museum were built there. While these buildings once housed distinct collections, the names of the buildings no longer necessarily correspond to the names of the collections they house.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:132px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1599.jpg.htm" title="The Jewish Museum designed by Daniel Libeskind"><img alt="The Jewish Museum designed by Daniel Libeskind" height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:JuedischesMuseum_2a.jpg" src="../../images/15/1599.jpg" width="130" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/15/1599.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Jewish Museum designed by <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Libeskind</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Apart from the Museum Island, there is a wide variety of museums. The <!--del_lnk--> Gemäldegalerie (Painting Gallery) focuses on the paintings of the "old masters" from the 13th to the 18th centuries, while the <!--del_lnk--> Neue Nationalgalerie (New National Gallery, built by <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) specializes in 20th-century European painting. In spring 2006, the expanded <!--del_lnk--> Deutsches Historisches Museum re-opened in the Zeughaus with an overview of German history through the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. The <!--del_lnk--> Bauhaus Archiv is an architecture museum. The <!--del_lnk--> Jewish Museum has a standing exhibition on 2,000 years of German-Jewish history. The <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian Museum of Berlin, across the street from <!--del_lnk--> Charlottenburg Palace, is home to one of the world's most important collections of <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egyptian</a> artifacts. The <!--del_lnk--> German Museum of Technology in <!--del_lnk--> Kreuzberg has a large collection of historical technical artifacts. The <!--del_lnk--> Humboldt Museum of Natural History near <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Hauptbahnhof has the largest mounted dinosaur in the world, and the best preserved specimen of an <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeopteryx.htm" title="Archaeopteryx">archaeopteryx</a>.<br clear="all" /> In <!--del_lnk--> Dahlem, there are several museums of world art and culture, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of Indian Art, the Museum of East Asian Art, the Ethnological Museum, the Museum of European Cultures, as well as the Allied Museum (a museum of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>), the Brücke Museum (an art museum). In <!--del_lnk--> Lichtenberg, on the grounds of the former East German Ministry for State Security <i>(<!--del_lnk--> Stasi)</i>, is the Stasi Museum.<!--del_lnk--> Checkpoint Charlie, remains the site and a <!--del_lnk--> museum about one of the crossing points in the <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin_Wall.htm" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a>. The museum, which is a private venture, exhibits a comprehensive array of material about people who devised ingenious plans to flee the East. The <!--del_lnk--> Beate Uhse Erotic Museum near <!--del_lnk--> Zoo Station claims to be the world's largest <!--del_lnk--> erotic museum.<p><a id="Performing_arts" name="Performing_arts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Performing arts</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1600.jpg.htm" title="Berliner Philharmonie is home to the renowned orchestra"><img alt="Berliner Philharmonie is home to the renowned orchestra" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Philharmonie_1a.jpg" src="../../images/16/1600.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1600.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Berliner Philharmonie is home to the renowned <!--del_lnk--> orchestra</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Berlin is home to more than 50 theaters. The <!--del_lnk--> Deutsches Theatre in Mitte was built in 1849–50 and has operated continuously since then except for a one-year break (1944–45) due to World War II. The <!--del_lnk--> Volksbühne on Rosa Luxemburg Platz was built in 1913–14, though the company had been founded already in 1890. The <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Ensemble, famous for performing the works of <!--del_lnk--> Bertolt Brecht, was established in 1949 not far from the Deutsches Theatre. The <!--del_lnk--> Schaubühne was founded in 1962 in a building in Kreuzberg, but moved in 1981 to the building of the former Universum Cinema on <!--del_lnk--> Kurfürstendamm.<p>Berlin has three major opera houses: the <!--del_lnk--> Deutsche Oper, the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin State Opera, and the <!--del_lnk--> Komische Oper. The Berlin State Opera on <!--del_lnk--> Unter den Linden is the oldest; it opened in 1742. Its current musical director is <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Barenboim. The Komische Oper, which has traditionally specialized in <!--del_lnk--> operettas, is located not far from the State Opera just off Unter den Linden. It originally opened in 1892 as a theatre and has been operating under its current name since 1947. The Deutsche Oper opened in 1912 in Charlottenburg. During the division of the city from 1961 to 1989 it was the only major opera house in West Berlin.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1601.jpg.htm" title="Haus der Kulturen der Welt in Tiergarten"><img alt="Haus der Kulturen der Welt in Tiergarten" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Haus_der_Kulturen_der_Welt_Nachtaufnahme.jpg" src="../../images/16/1601.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1601.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Haus der Kulturen der Welt in <!--del_lnk--> Tiergarten</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>There are seven symphony orchestras in Berlin. The <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the preeminent orchestras in the world; it is housed in the <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Philharmonie near <!--del_lnk--> Potsdamer Platz on a street named for the orchestra's longest-serving conductor, <!--del_lnk--> Herbert von Karajan. The current principal conductor is <!--del_lnk--> Simon Rattle, who took over in 2002 from Karajan's successor, <!--del_lnk--> Claudio Abbado. The <!--del_lnk--> Konzerthausorchester Berlin was founded in 1952 as the orchestra for East Berlin, since the Philharmonic was based in West Berlin. Its current principal conductor is <!--del_lnk--> Lothar Zagrosek.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Haus der Kulturen der Welt is presenting various exhibitions dealing with intercultural issues and stages world music and conferences.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Recreation" name="Recreation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recreation</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1602.jpg.htm" title="Berlin´s central park Tiergarten, encompassing Siegessäule and Schloss Bellevue"><img alt="Berlin´s central park Tiergarten, encompassing Siegessäule and Schloss Bellevue" height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gro%C3%9Fer_Stern%2C_Schloss_Bellevue.jpg" src="../../images/16/1602.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1602.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Berlin´s central park <!--del_lnk--> Tiergarten, encompassing <!--del_lnk--> Siegessäule and <!--del_lnk--> Schloss Bellevue</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Zoologischer Garten Berlin, the older of the two zoos in the city, was founded in 1844, and presents the most diverse range of species in the world. Tierpark Friedrichsfelde, founded in 1955 in the grounds of Schloss Friedrichsfelde in the Borough of <!--del_lnk--> Lichtenberg, is Europe's largest zoo in terms of square meters.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1603.jpg.htm" title="Prenzlauer Berg is known for its bohemian lifestyle"><img alt="Prenzlauer Berg is known for its bohemian lifestyle" height="100" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gl%C3%BCcklich.jpg" src="../../images/16/1603.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1603.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Prenzlauer Berg is known for its bohemian lifestyle</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Berlin's <!--del_lnk--> botanical gardens include the Botanic Museum Berlin, the largest botanical garden in Europe. <!--del_lnk--> Tiergarten is Berlin's largest <a href="../../wp/p/Park.htm" title="Park">park</a> and was designed by <!--del_lnk--> Peter Joseph Lenné. In <!--del_lnk--> Kreuzberg the <!--del_lnk--> Viktoriapark provides a good viewing point over the southern part of inner city Berlin. <!--del_lnk--> Treptower Park beside the Spree in <!--del_lnk--> Treptow has a <!--del_lnk--> monument honoring the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> soldiers killed in the 1945 <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Berlin. The Volkspark in <!--del_lnk--> Friedrichshain, which opened in 1848, is the oldest park in the city. Its summit is man-made and covers a <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> <!--del_lnk--> bunker and rubble from the ruins of the city; at its foot is Germany's main <!--del_lnk--> memorial to <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Polish</a> soldiers.<br clear="all" />
<p><a id="Sports" name="Sports"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sports</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1604.jpg.htm" title="The renovated Olympiastadion"><img alt="The renovated Olympiastadion" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_Olympiastadion_nach_Umbau.jpg" src="../../images/16/1604.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1604.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The renovated <!--del_lnk--> Olympiastadion</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Berlin hosted the <!--del_lnk--> 1936 Olympics and was the host city for the <!--del_lnk--> 2006 FIFA World Cup Final. The annual <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Marathon and the annual <!--del_lnk--> Golden League event <!--del_lnk--> ISTAF for athletics are also held here. The <!--del_lnk--> WTA Tour holds the <!--del_lnk--> Qatar Total German Open annually in the city. Founded in 1896, it is one of the oldest tennis tournaments for women. The <!--del_lnk--> FIVB World Tour has chosen an inner-city site near <!--del_lnk--> Alexanderplatz to present a <!--del_lnk--> beach volleyball Grand Slam every year.<p>Berlin is home to <!--del_lnk--> Hertha BSC Berlin, a football team in the <!--del_lnk--> Bundesliga, and the basketball team <!--del_lnk--> ALBA Berlin (known as the "Berlin Albatrosses"), which won the national championships every year from 1997 to 2003. Berlin is also home to the <a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" title="American football">American football</a> team <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Thunder of <!--del_lnk--> NFL Europe as well as the <!--del_lnk--> Eisbären Berlin of the <!--del_lnk--> German Ice Hockey League, an ice hockey team which was founded in the <!--del_lnk--> East German era.<p>
<br />
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Club</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Sport</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Founded</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">League</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Venue</th>
<th style="background: #cef2e0; color:#000080;">Head Coach</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hertha BSC Berlin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Soccer</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1892</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bundesliga</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Olympiastadion</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Falko Götz</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1. FC Union Berlin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Soccer</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1966</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Regionalliga Nord</td>
<td>Alte Försterei</td>
<td>Christian Schreier</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ALBA Berlin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">Basketball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1991</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BBL</td>
<td>Max-Schmeling-Halle</td>
<td>Henrik Rödl</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eisbären Berlin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Ice_hockey.htm" title="Ice hockey">Ice hockey</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1954</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> DEL</td>
<td>Wellblechpalast</td>
<td>Pierre Pagé</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Berlin Thunder</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" title="American football">American football</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1999</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> NFL Europe</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Olympiastadion</td>
<td>Rick Lantz</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>SCC Berlin</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/v/Volleyball.htm" title="Volleyball">Volleyball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1911</td>
<td>DVB</td>
<td>Sporthalle Charlottenburg</td>
<td>Michael Warm</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Infrastructure" name="Infrastructure"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Infrastructure</span></h2>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1605.jpg.htm" title="Berlin Hauptbahnhof is the city's central rail, opened in 2006"><img alt="Berlin Hauptbahnhof is the city's central rail, opened in 2006" height="158" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlnHauptbahnhof28.jpg" src="../../images/16/1605.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1605.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Berlin Hauptbahnhof is the city's central rail, opened in 2006</div>
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<p>Berlin developed a complex transportation and energy-supply infrastructure before World War II. After the war, West Berlin was cut off from the surrounding territory and had to develop independent infrastructures. Meanwhile, the government of East Germany purposely constructed rail lines and highways that allowed traffic to bypass West Berlin. The political reunification of East and West Berlin has led to the reintegration of Berlin's transportation and energy-supply with the infrastructures of the surrounding region. Crossing 979 bridges, 5334 kilometers of roads run through Berlin, of which 66 kilometers are motorways. In 2004, 1.428 million motor vehicles, including 6800 taxis, were registered in the city.Long-distance rail lines connect Berlin with all of the major cities of Germany and with many cities in neighboring European countries. Regional rail lines provide access to the surrounding region of Brandenburg and eastern Germany.<p><a id="Transportation" name="Transportation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Transportation</span></h3>
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<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1606.gif.htm" title="The U-Bahn passes the Oberbaumbrücke"><img alt="The U-Bahn passes the Oberbaumbrücke" height="214" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ubahn_oberbaum.gif" src="../../images/16/1606.gif" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1606.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> U-Bahn passes the <!--del_lnk--> Oberbaumbrücke</div>
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<p>Public transport within Berlin is provided by the <!--del_lnk--> S-Bahn (331.5 km net length/ 356.8 million passengers in 2005) —operated by S-Bahn Berlin GmbH—and by the <!--del_lnk--> U-Bahn (144.2 km/ 456.8 million), <!--del_lnk--> Straßenbahn (187.7 km/ 171.3 million), <!--del_lnk--> Bus (1626 km/ 407.1 million), and ferries—operated by the <!--del_lnk--> Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe, or BVG. The S-Bahn is a mostly overground urban railway system. The U-Bahn is the city's mainly underground rail, metro or subway system. The Straßenbahn or tram (trolley) system that operates almost exclusively in the eastern part of the city. Buses provide extensive service linking outlying districts with the city centre and to the U-Bahn and S-Bahn. Almost all means of public transport—U- & S- Bahn, trams, buses and most ferries—can be accessed with the same ticket. There is usually no need to show or scan one's ticket, except on buses; however, plainclothes transit authorities officials frequently conduct random checks in which they board a vehicle and demand that everyone on board show their ticket. Anyone who does not produce a valid ticket is given a 40-euro fine.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1607.jpg.htm" title="The S-Bahn is the second urban railway system"><img alt="The S-Bahn is the second urban railway system" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:S-Bahn_Berlin_Baureihe_481.jpg" src="../../images/16/1607.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1607.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> S-Bahn is the second urban railway system</div>
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<p>The inner city is crossed from west to east by the elevated main line (<i>Stadtbahn</i>), which carries S-Bahn trains as well as regional and long-distance trains. This main line passes through most of the city's long-distance and regional train stations, including <!--del_lnk--> Berlin-Charlottenburg, <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Zoologischer Garten, <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Hauptbahnhof, <!--del_lnk--> Friedrichstraße, <!--del_lnk--> Alexanderplatz, and <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Ostbahnhof.<p>The second component of Berlin's rail network is the S-Bahn ring (<i>Ringbahn</i>) that forms a circle around the inner city and crosses the main line at <!--del_lnk--> Westkreuz (“west crossing”) and <!--del_lnk--> Ostkreuz (“east crossing”). A number of regional and regional express lines connect Berlin with the surrounding region. The city is also served by the freight rail yard at Seddin, south of Potsdam.There are useful online resources for getting around Berlin using public transport, such as the route planner or a map of the current public transport network.<br clear="all" />
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1608.jpg.htm" title="Tegel International Airport is Berlin's busiest airport"><img alt="Tegel International Airport is Berlin's busiest airport" height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Airport_Berlin_Tegel01.JPG" src="../../images/16/1608.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1608.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Tegel International Airport is Berlin's busiest airport</div>
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<p>Berlin has three commercial airports—<!--del_lnk--> Tegel International Airport (TXL), <!--del_lnk--> Tempelhof International Airport (THF), and <!--del_lnk--> Schönefeld International Airport (SXF) serving 155 destinations (07/2006)- 118 of them in Europe. Schönefeld lies just outside Berlin's south-eastern border in the state of Brandenburg, while the other two airports lie within the city. Tempelhof handles only short-distance and commuter flights, and there are plans to close the airport and transfer its traffic to Berlin's other two airports. There are longer-term plans to close Tegel as well. Schönefeld is currently undergoing expansion. Berlin's airport authority aims to transfer all of Berlin's air traffic in 2011 to a greatly expanded airport at Schönefeld, to be renamed <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Brandenburg International Airport.<p>
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<p><a id="Utilities" name="Utilities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Utilities</span></h3>
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<div style="width:122px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1609.jpg.htm" title="Heizkraftwerk Mitte"><img alt="Heizkraftwerk Mitte" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_HKW_Mitte.jpg" src="../../images/16/1609.jpg" width="120" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1609.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Heizkraftwerk <!--del_lnk--> Mitte</div>
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<p>During the division of Berlin, the power grid of West Berlin was cut off from the power grid of the surrounding area in <!--del_lnk--> East Germany. West Berlin's <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> supply was provided by thermal <!--del_lnk--> power stations. To facilitate buffering during load peaks, accumulators were installed during the 1980s at some of these power stations. These were connected by static inverters to the power grid and were loaded during times of low <!--del_lnk--> power consumption and unloaded during times of high consumption. In 1993 the power connections to the surrounding areas (previously in East Germany) which had been capped in 1951 were restored. In the western districts of Berlin nearly all power lines are underground cables—only a 380 kV and a 110 kV line, which run from Reuter substation to the urban <!--del_lnk--> Autobahn, use overhead lines. The <!--del_lnk--> Berlin 380 kV electric line was constructed when West Berlin's electrical system was a totally independent system and not connected to those of East or West Germany. This has now become the backbone of the whole city's power system.<p>Berlin's power supply is mainly, although not exclusively, provided by the Swedish firm <!--del_lnk--> Vattenfall. The company has come under criticism for relying more heavily than other electricity producers in Germany on <!--del_lnk--> lignite as an energy source, because burning lignite produces harmful emissions. However, Vattenfall has announced a commitment to shift towards reliance on cleaner, renewable energy sources.<p><a id="Berlin_quotations" name="Berlin_quotations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Berlin quotations</span></h2>
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<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1610.jpg.htm" title="Marlene Dietrich, born in Berlin-Schöneberg"><img alt="Marlene Dietrich, born in Berlin-Schöneberg" height="231" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Marlene_Dietrich_1967.jpg" src="../../images/16/1610.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1610.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Marlene Dietrich, born in Berlin-<!--del_lnk--> Schöneberg</div>
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<p><i>"<!--del_lnk--> Ich bin ein Berliner." ("I am a citizen of Berlin")</i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, President of the USA, 1963 while visiting Berlin)</small><br />
<p><i>"Berlin ist arm, aber sexy." ("Berlin is poor, but sexy.")</i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Klaus Wowereit, Governing Mayor, in a press interview, 2003)</small><br />
<p><i>"Ihr Völker der Welt ... schaut auf diese Stadt!" ("Peoples of the world ... look at this city!")</i><br /><small>(Ernst Reuter, Governing Mayor, in a speech during the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin blockade, 1948)</small><p><i>"Ich hab noch einen Koffer in Berlin" ("I keep another suitcase in Berlin")</i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Marlene Dietrich, song by the actress and singer born in Berlin-<!--del_lnk--> Schöneberg)</small><p><i>"“Berlin ist eine Stadt, verdammt dazu, ewig zu werden, niemals zu sein” ("Berlin is a city condemned forever to becoming and never being.")</i><br /><small>(Karl Scheffler, author of <i>Berlin: Ein Stadtschicksal, 1910</i>)</small><p><i>“Berlin combines the culture of New York, the traffic system of Tokyo, the nature of Seattle, and the historical treasures of, well, Berlin.”</i><br /><small>(Hiroshi Motomura, US Law professor, 2004)</small><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Berlin Wall</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.Recent_History.htm">Recent History</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17016.jpg.htm" title="East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961."><img alt="East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961." height="176" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_Wall_1961-11-20.jpg" src="../../images/170/17016.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17016.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, <!--del_lnk--> 20 November <!--del_lnk--> 1961.</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17018.jpg.htm" title="Remnant of the Berlin Wall near Potsdamer Platz, June 2003."><img alt="Remnant of the Berlin Wall near Potsdamer Platz, June 2003." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_Wall_2003.jpg" src="../../images/170/17018.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17018.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Remnant of the Berlin Wall near <!--del_lnk--> Potsdamer Platz, June 2003.</div>
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<p>The <b>Berlin Wall</b> (<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>: <span lang="de" xml:lang="de"><i>Berliner Mauer</i></span> or <i>Antifaschistischer Schutzwall</i> in the former <!--del_lnk--> German Democratic Republic), an iconic symbol of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, was initially constructed starting on <!--del_lnk--> August 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1961 and dismantled in the weeks following <!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1989. Part of the <!--del_lnk--> Iron Curtain, the <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> Wall was the most prominent part of the <!--del_lnk--> GDR border system. Conceived by the <!--del_lnk--> East German administration of <!--del_lnk--> Walter Ulbricht and approved by <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> leader <!--del_lnk--> Nikita Khrushchev the wall was a long <!--del_lnk--> separation barrier between <!--del_lnk--> West Berlin and East Germany (the <!--del_lnk--> German Democratic Republic), which closed the border between <!--del_lnk--> East and West Berlin for a period of 28 years. It was built during the post-<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> period of <!--del_lnk--> divided Germany, in an effort to stop the drain of labour and economic output associated with the daily migration of huge numbers of professionals and skilled workers from East to West Berlin, and the attendant <!--del_lnk--> defections, which had political and economic consequences for the <!--del_lnk--> Communist bloc. It effectively decreased emigration (escapes - <i>"Republikflucht"</i> in German) from 2.5 million between 1949 and 1962 to 5,000 between 1962 and 1989.<p>However, the creation of the Wall was a propaganda disaster for East Germany and for the communist bloc as a whole. It became a key symbol of what Western powers regarded as Communist tyranny, particularly after the high-profile shootings of would-be defectors. Political liberalization in the late 1980s, associated with the decline of the Soviet Union, led to relaxed border restrictions in East Germany, culminating in mass demonstrations and the fall of the East German government. When a government statement that crossing of the border would be permitted was broadcast on <!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1989, masses of East Germans approached and then crossed the wall, and were joined by crowds of West Germans in a celebratory atmosphere. The Wall was subsequently destroyed by a euphoric public over a period of several weeks, and its fall was the first step toward <a href="../../wp/g/German_reunification.htm" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>, which was formally concluded on <!--del_lnk--> October 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1990.<p>
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</script><a id="Background" name="Background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/56/5670.png.htm" title="Occupied Germany in 1945"><img alt="Occupied Germany in 1945" height="388" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Deutschland_Besatzungszonen_1945_1946.png" src="../../images/170/17019.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/56/5670.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Occupied Germany in 1945</div>
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<p>After the <!--del_lnk--> end of World War II in Europe, what territorially remained of pre-1945 Germany had been divided into four occupation zones(thanks to the <!--del_lnk--> Yalta Conference), each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">Americans</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviets</a>. The old capital of <a href="../../wp/b/Berlin.htm" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, as the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> Allied Control Council, was itself similarly subdivided into four zones. Although the intent was for the occupying powers to govern Germany together inside the 1947 borders, the advent of <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> tension caused the French, British and American zones to be formed into the <!--del_lnk--> Federal Republic of Germany (and <!--del_lnk--> West Berlin) in 1949, excluding the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> zone which then formed the <!--del_lnk--> German Democratic Republic (including <!--del_lnk--> East Berlin) the same year.<p><a id="Divergence_of_German_states" name="Divergence_of_German_states"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Divergence of German states</span></h3>
<p>From 1948 onwards, West Germany developed into a western capitalist country with a <!--del_lnk--> social market economy (<i>"Soziale Marktwirtschaft"</i> in German) and a <a href="../../wp/d/Democracy.htm" title="Democracy">democratic</a> parliamentary government. Prolonged economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 30-year "<!--del_lnk--> economic miracle". Across the inner-German border, East Germany established an authoritarian government with a Soviet-style <!--del_lnk--> command economy. While East Germany became one of the richest, most advanced countries in the Eastern bloc, many of its citizens still looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. The flight of growing numbers of East Germans to non-communist countries via West Berlin led to Germany erecting the <!--del_lnk--> GDR border system (of which the Berlin Wall was a part) in 1961 to prevent any further exodus.<p><a id="Massive_emigration" name="Massive_emigration"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Massive emigration</span></h3>
<p>From 1949 to 1961, huge numbers of professionals and skilled workers migrated daily from East to West Berlin – earning the name <i>"Grenzgänger"</i> – frequently because of lucrative opportunities connected with rebuilding Western Europe funded by the <a href="../../wp/m/Marshall_Plan.htm" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a> (one day the entire <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> Department of the <!--del_lnk--> University of Leipzig defected ). Furthermore, many West Berliners travelled into East Berlin to do their shopping at state-<!--del_lnk--> subsidized stores, where prices were much lower than in West Berlin. This drain of labour and economic output threatened East Germany with economic collapse. This had ramifications for the whole <!--del_lnk--> Communist bloc and particularly the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, because East Germany's economy was being subsidised by the Soviet government, and simultaneously, the now-threatened East German production was responsible for all war reparations to <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> and the Soviet Union.<p><a id="Proposed_barrier" name="Proposed_barrier"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Proposed barrier</span></h3>
<p>The impetus for the creation of the Berlin Wall came from East German leader <!--del_lnk--> Walter Ulbricht, approved by Soviet leader <!--del_lnk--> Nikita Khrushchev, but with conditions imposed. Ulbricht's proposal for a second air blockade was refused and the construction of a barrier was permitted provided that it was composed at first of <!--del_lnk--> barbed wire. If the Allies challenged the barrier, the East Germans were to fall back and were not to fire first under any circumstances.<p><a id="Construction_begins.2C_1961" name="Construction_begins.2C_1961"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Construction begins, 1961</span></h2>
<p>On 15 June 1961 - two months before the construction of the Berlin Wall started - <!--del_lnk--> Walter Ulbricht pretended in an international press meeting: <i>"Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!" (No one intends to set up a wall)</i>. It was the first time the colloquial term <i>Mauer</i> (Wall) was used.<p>Construction of 45 km (28 miles) around the three western sectors began early on Sunday <!--del_lnk--> 13 August <!--del_lnk--> 1961 in East Berlin. That morning the zonal boundary had been sealed by East German troops. The barrier was built by East German troops and workers, not directly involving the Soviets. It was built slightly inside East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point; if one stood next to the West Berlin side of the barrier (and later the Wall), one was actually standing on East Berlin soil. Some streets running alongside the barrier were torn up to make them impassable to most vehicles, and a barbed-wire fence was erected, which was later built up into the full-scale Wall. It physically divided the city and completely surrounded West Berlin. During the construction of the Wall, <!--del_lnk--> NVA and <!--del_lnk--> KdA soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect. Additionally, the whole length of the border between East and West Germany was closed with chain-fences, walls, minefields, and other installations (see <!--del_lnk--> GDR border system).<h3> <span class="mw-headline">Secondary response</span></h3>
<p>It was clear both that West German morale needed more and that there was a serious potential threat to the viability of West Berlin. If West Berlin fell after all the efforts of the <!--del_lnk--> Berlin Airlift, how could any of America's allies rely on her? On the other hand, in the face of any serious Soviet threat, an enclave like West Berlin could not be defended except with nuclear weapons . As such, it was vitally important for the Americans to show the Soviets that they could push their luck no further.<p>Accordingly, General <!--del_lnk--> Lucius D. Clay, who was deeply respected by Berliners after commanding the American effort during the Berlin Airlift (1948–49), and was known to have a firm attitude towards the Soviets, was sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank as Kennedy's special advisor. He and Vice President <a href="../../wp/l/Lyndon_B._Johnson.htm" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> arrived at <!--del_lnk--> Tempelhof Airport on the afternoon of Saturday <!--del_lnk--> 19 August.<p>They arrived in a city defended by what would soon be known as the "<!--del_lnk--> Berlin Brigade", which then consisted of the 2nd and 3rd Battle Groups of the 6th Infantry, with Company F, 40th Armor. The battle groups were pentatomic, with 1362 officers and men each. On <!--del_lnk--> 16 August, Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Early on <!--del_lnk--> 19 August, the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Col. Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted.<p>On Sunday morning, lead elements in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1500 men divided into five march units and left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34. At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to <!--del_lnk--> Helmstedt on the West German/East German border, U.S. personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 km (~100 miles) long, and covered 177 km (~110 miles) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear, with VoPos (East German police) watching from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along. The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin to an adoring crowd. At 0400 on Monday, <!--del_lnk--> 21 August, Lyndon Johnson left a visibly reassured West Berlin in the hands of Gen. Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade, now of 4224 officers and men. Every three months for the next three and a half years, a new American battalion was rotated into West Berlin by <!--del_lnk--> autobahn to demonstrate Allied rights.<p>The creation of the Wall had important implications for both Germanies. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country. However, the Wall was a propaganda disaster for East Germany and for the communist bloc as a whole. It became a key symbol of what Western powers regarded as Communist tyranny, particularly after the high-profile shootings of would-be defectors (which were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany). In 1987, <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> gave a famous speech at the <!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg Gate, at which he challenged <a href="../../wp/m/Mikhail_Gorbachev.htm" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> to "<!--del_lnk--> tear down this wall". In West Germany, dismay that the Western powers had done nothing to prevent the Wall's creation led directly to the policy of <!--del_lnk--> Ostpolitik or rapprochement with the east, in an effort to stabilize the relationship of the two Germanys.<p><a id="Layout_and_modifications" name="Layout_and_modifications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Layout and modifications</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17021.jpg.htm" title="Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989)"><img alt="Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989)" height="241" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg" src="../../images/170/17021.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17021.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989)</div>
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<p>The Wall was over 155 km (96 miles) long. In June <!--del_lnk--> 1962, work started on a second parallel fence up to 91 meters (100 yards) further in, with houses in between the fences torn down and their inhabitants relocated. A <!--del_lnk--> no man's land was created between the two barriers, which became widely known as the "death strip". It was paved with raked gravel, making it easy to spot footprints left by escapees; it offered no cover; it was mined and booby-trapped with tripwires; and, most importantly, it offered a clear field of fire to the watching guards.<p>Over the years, the Wall went through four distinct phases:<ol>
<li>Basic wire fence (1961)<li>Improved wire fence (1962-1965)<li>Concrete wall (1965-1975)<li><i>Grenzmauer 75</i> (Border Wall 75) (1975-1989)</ol>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17022.jpg.htm" title="Satellite image of Berlin, with the wall's location marked in yellow."><img alt="Satellite image of Berlin, with the wall's location marked in yellow." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_satellite_image_with_Berlin_wall.jpg" src="../../images/170/17022.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17022.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite image of Berlin, with the wall's location marked in yellow.</div>
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<p>The "fourth generation wall", known officially as "Stützwandelement UL 12.11"(Retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in 1975 and completed about 1980, it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3.6 m (12 ft) high and 1.2 m (4 ft) wide, and cost 16,155,000 <!--del_lnk--> East German Marks. The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult for escapers to scale it. It was reinforced by mesh <!--del_lnk--> fencing, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, <!--del_lnk--> barbed wire, over 116 <!--del_lnk--> watchtowers, and twenty <!--del_lnk--> bunkers. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall.<p><a id="Official_crossings_and_usage" name="Official_crossings_and_usage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Official crossings and usage</span></h2>
<p>There were eight border crossings between East and West Berlin, allowing visits by West Berliners, West Germans, western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin, as well as visits of East German citizens into West Berlin, provided they held the necessary permit. Those crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it (East Germans, West Germans, West Berliners, other countries). The most famous was <!--del_lnk--> Friedrichstraße (<!--del_lnk--> Checkpoint Charlie), which was restricted to Allied personnel and non-German citizens.<p>Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany. These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin, for visits by West Berliners into East Germany, for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany (<a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia, <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>), and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit. After the 1972 agreements, new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste be transported into East German dumps, as well as some crossings for access to West Berlin's <!--del_lnk--> exclaves (see <i><!--del_lnk--> Steinstücken</i>).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17023.jpg.htm" title="The famous you are leaving and..."><img alt="The famous you are leaving and..." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_leaving.jpg" src="../../images/170/17023.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17023.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The famous you are leaving and...</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17024.jpg.htm" title="...you are entering at Glienicker Brücke 1985"><img alt="...you are entering at Glienicker Brücke 1985" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_entering.jpg" src="../../images/170/17024.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17024.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> ...you are entering at Glienicker Brücke 1985</div>
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<p>During most of the history of the Wall, Allied military personnel, officials, and diplomats were able to pass into East Berlin without passport check; likewise Soviet patrols could pass into West Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war <!--del_lnk--> Four Powers Agreements. West Berliners were initially subject to very severe restrictions; all crossing points were closed to West Berliners between <!--del_lnk--> August 26, <!--del_lnk--> 1961 and <!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1963, and it was not until September 1971 that travel restrictions were eased following a Four Powers Agreement on transit issues. Passage in and out of West Berlin was limited to twelve crossing points on the Wall, though all but two of these were reserved for Germans.<p>Four motorways usable by West Germans connected West Berlin to West Germany, the most famous being <!--del_lnk--> Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn, which entered East German territory at the town of <!--del_lnk--> Helmstedt (Checkpoint Alpha) and connected to Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo) in south-western Berlin. Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway (four routes) and by boat using canals and rivers.<p>Foreigners frequently and legally crossed the Wall, and the East Germans welcomed their hard currency. They were of course always subject to careful checks both entering and leaving. When exiting, the police would typically run a mirror under each vehicle to look for persons clinging to the undercarriage. East Germans were occasionally given permission to cross, particularly when they were too old to work. At the border section in <!--del_lnk--> Potsdam where the captured U-2 pilot <!--del_lnk--> Gary Powers was traded for Russian spy <!--del_lnk--> Rudolf Abel.<p>One location where Westerners could cross the border was Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin. When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the <!--del_lnk--> S-Bahn and <!--del_lnk--> U-Bahn, were divided with it. Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three Western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called <i>Geisterbahnhöfe,</i> or <!--del_lnk--> ghost stations) without stopping.<p>Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstrasse, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross. <a id="Escape_attempts" name="Escape_attempts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Escape attempts</span></h3>
<p>During the Wall's existence there were around 5,000 successful escapes (a form of <!--del_lnk--> illegal emigration) into West Berlin. Varying reports claim either 192 or 239 people were killed trying to cross and many more injured.<p>Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line but these ended as the wall improved. On <!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1961, <!--del_lnk--> Conrad Schumann was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin. Later successful escape attempts included long tunnels, sliding along aerial wires, flying <!--del_lnk--> ultralights, and even one man who drove a very low sports car underneath a barricade at <!--del_lnk--> Checkpoint Charlie.<p>Another airborne escape was by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Kruger, who landed a Zlin Z-42M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an <!--del_lnk--> East German youth military training organization, at <!--del_lnk--> RAF Gatow. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on by <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Air_Force.htm" title="Royal Air Force">RAF</a> Airmen such as "Wish you were here" and "Come back soon". DDR-WOH is still flying today, but under the registration <!--del_lnk--> D-EWOH.<p>The most notorious failed attempt was that of <!--del_lnk--> Peter Fechter who was shot and left to bleed to death in full view of the western media, on <!--del_lnk--> August 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1962. The last person to be shot dead while trying to cross the border was <!--del_lnk--> Chris Gueffroy on <!--del_lnk--> February 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1989.<p><a id="The_fall.2C_1989" name="The_fall.2C_1989"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The fall, 1989</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/112/11220.jpg.htm" title="Germans dancing at the Brandenburg Gate after the fall of the Berlin Wall."><img alt="Germans dancing at the Brandenburg Gate after the fall of the Berlin Wall." height="162" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin-wall-dancing.jpg" src="../../images/56/5654.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/112/11220.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Germans dancing at the Brandenburg Gate after the fall of the Berlin Wall.</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1989, communist <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> removed its border restrictions with <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a>, and in September more than 13,000 East German tourists in Hungary escaped to Austria. Mass demonstrations against the government in East Germany began in the autumn of 1989. The long-time leader of East Germany, <!--del_lnk--> Erich Honecker, resigned on <!--del_lnk--> October 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1989 and was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Egon Krenz a few days later. Honecker had predicted in January of that year that the wall would stand for a "hundred more years" if the conditions which had caused its construction did not change.<p>Meanwhile the wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West had increased and had found its way through <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia, tolerated by the new Krenz government and in agreement with the still communist Czech government. In order to ease the complications, the politbureau lead by Krenz decided on <!--del_lnk--> November 9 1989 to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including West Berlin. On the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private travel. The new regulations were to take effect on <!--del_lnk--> November 10. <!--del_lnk--> Günter Schabowski, the East German Minister of Propaganda, had the task of announcing this; however he had been on vacation prior to this decision and had not been fully updated. Shortly before a press conference on <!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1989, he was handed a note that said that East Berliners would be allowed to cross the border with proper permission, but gave no further instructions on how to handle the information. These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier, and were to take effect the following day, so as to allow time to inform the border guards. However, nobody had informed Schabowski. He read the note out loud at the end of the conference and when asked when the regulations would come into effect, he assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied "As far as I know effective immediately, right now".<p>Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard Schabowski's statement live on East German television and flooded the checkpoints in the Wall demanding entry into West Berlin. The surprised and overwhelmed border guards made many hectic telephone calls with their superiors, but it became clear that there was no-one within the East German authorities who would dare to take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so there was no way for the vastly outnumbered soldiers to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. In face of the escalating crowd the guards finally yielded, opening the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checks. The ecstatic East Berliners were soon greeted by West Berliners on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. <!--del_lnk--> November 9 is thus considered the date the Wall fell. In the days and weeks that followed people came to the wall with sledgehammers in order to chip off souvenirs, demolishing lengthy parts of it in the process. These people were nicknamed "Mauerspechte" (wall woodpeckers).<p>The East German regime announced the opening of ten new <!--del_lnk--> border crossings the following weekend, including some in symbolic locations (<!--del_lnk--> Potsdamer Platz, <!--del_lnk--> Glienicker Brücke, <!--del_lnk--> Bernauer Straße). Crowds on both sides waited there for hours, cheering at the bulldozers who took parts of the Wall away to reinstate old roads. Photos and television footage of these events is sometimes mislabelled "dismantling of the Wall", even though it was "merely" the construction of new crossings. New border crossings continued to be opened through summer 1990, including the most famous one at the <!--del_lnk--> Brandenburg Gate on <!--del_lnk--> December 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1989.<p>West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa free travel starting <!--del_lnk--> December 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1989. Until then they could visit East Germany and East Berlin under the restrictive conditions prevalent before, which involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance, and obligatory exchange of at least 25 <!--del_lnk--> DM per day of their planned stay, all of which hindered spontaneous visits. Thus, in the weeks between <!--del_lnk--> November 9 and <!--del_lnk--> December 23, East Germans could travel "more freely" than Westerners.<p>Technically the Wall remained guarded for some time after <!--del_lnk--> November 9, even though at an ever decreasing intensity. In the first months, the East German military even tried to repair some of the damages done by the "wall peckers". Gradually these attempts ceased, and guards became more and more lax, tolerating the increasing demolitions and "unauthorised" border crossing through the holes. On <!--del_lnk--> June 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1990, the official dismantling of the Wall by the East German military began in <!--del_lnk--> Bernauer Straße. On <!--del_lnk--> July 1, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all border controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that. The dismantling continued to be carried out by military units (after unification under the <!--del_lnk--> Bundeswehr) and took until November 1991. Only a few short sections and watchtowers were left standing as memorials.<p>The fall of the Wall was the first step toward <a href="../../wp/g/German_reunification.htm" title="German reunification">German reunification</a>, which was formally concluded on <!--del_lnk--> October 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1990.<p><a id="Celebrations" name="Celebrations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Celebrations</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17026.jpg.htm" title=""Irgendwann fällt jede Mauer" - "Eventually every wall falls""><img alt=""Irgendwann fällt jede Mauer" - "Eventually every wall falls"" height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlinwall.jpg" src="../../images/170/17026.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17026.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "Irgendwann fällt jede Mauer"<br /> - "Eventually every wall falls"</div>
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<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1989 <!--del_lnk--> Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_van_Beethoven.htm" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven's</a> <!--del_lnk--> 9th symphony (<i><!--del_lnk--> Ode to Joy</i>) with the chorus' word "Joy" <i>(Freude)</i> changed to "Freedom" <i>(Freiheit)</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Roger Waters <!--del_lnk--> performed the <!--del_lnk--> Pink Floyd album <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wall</i> in <!--del_lnk--> Potsdamer Platz on <!--del_lnk--> 21 July <!--del_lnk--> 1990, with guests including the <!--del_lnk--> Scorpions, <!--del_lnk--> Bryan Adams, and <!--del_lnk--> Van Morrison. <!--del_lnk--> David Hasselhoff performed his song "Looking for Freedom", which was very popular in Germany at that time, standing on the Berlin wall.<p>Some believe <!--del_lnk--> November 9 would have made a suitable German National Holiday, since it both marks the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution and is also the date of the declaration of the first German republic, the <a href="../../wp/w/Weimar_Republic.htm" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>, in 1918. However, <!--del_lnk--> November 9 is also the anniversary of the <!--del_lnk--> Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous <i><!--del_lnk--> Kristallnacht</i> <!--del_lnk--> pogroms of 1938 and, therefore, <!--del_lnk--> October 3 was chosen instead. Part of this decision was that the East German government wanted to conclude reunification before East Germany could celebrate a 41st anniversary on <!--del_lnk--> October 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1990.<p><a id="Aftermath_and_implications" name="Aftermath_and_implications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Aftermath and implications</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17027.jpg.htm" title="Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December 1990."><img alt="Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December 1990." height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Berlin_wall_1990.jpg" src="../../images/170/17027.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17027.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December 1990.</div>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17028.jpg.htm" title="A temporary memorial of over 1,000 crosses and a segment of the wall for those who died attempting to cross."><img alt="A temporary memorial of over 1,000 crosses and a segment of the wall for those who died attempting to cross." height="151" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Checkpoint_Charlie_Memorial.JPG" src="../../images/170/17028.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17028.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A temporary memorial of over 1,000 crosses and a segment of the wall for those who died attempting to cross.</div>
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<p>The fall of the Wall considerably changed traffic patterns in the city and the <!--del_lnk--> M-Bahn. An experimental <a href="../../wp/m/Maglev_train.htm" title="Maglev train">magnetic levitation train</a> system around 1.6 km (1 mile) in length was demolished just months after its official opening in July 1991 as it used part of the track bed of an underground line previously severed by the wall.<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<p>Little is left of the Wall in Berlin, which was destroyed almost everywhere, except for three locations: an 80 meter (300 ft) section near <!--del_lnk--> Potsdamer Platz, a longer section along the <!--del_lnk--> Spree River near the <!--del_lnk--> Oberbaumbrücke nicknamed <!--del_lnk--> East Side Gallery, and a third section in the north at <!--del_lnk--> Bernauer Straße, which was turned into a memorial in 1999. Even the parts that are left standing no longer accurately represent the Wall's original appearance: they are badly damaged (since so many people attempted to pick up "original Berlin Wall" pieces), and today <!--del_lnk--> graffiti is prevalent on the eastern side of the Wall, which obviously would not have been possible while the Wall was actually guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti was exclusively on the western side. Fragments of the Wall both with and without <!--del_lnk--> certificates of authenticity are a staple on the online auction service <!--del_lnk--> eBay as well as German souvenir shops and are found on mantlepieces and desktops throughout the world. Even people in the US and China wanted a fragment of this time period.<p><a id="Museum" name="Museum"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museum</span></h3>
<p>Fifteen years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a private museum rebuilt a 200 metre (656 ft) section close to <!--del_lnk--> Checkpoint Charlie, although not in the location of the original wall. They also erected over 1,000 crosses in memory of those who had died attempting to flee to the West. The memorial was installed in October 2004 and demolished in July 2005.<p><a id="Cultural_differences" name="Cultural_differences"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cultural differences</span></h3>
<p>Even now, some years after reunification, there is still talk in Germany of continuing cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially <i><!--del_lnk--> Ossis</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Wessis</i>), sometimes described as "Mauer im Kopf" ("The wall in the head"). A September 2004 poll found that 25% of West Germans and 12% of East Germans wished that East Germany and West Germany were again cut off by the Berlin Wall. Many German public figures have called these numbers "alarming".<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Wall"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bermuda</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Central_and_South_American_Geography.Central_and_South_American_Countries.htm">Central & South American Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b>Bermuda</b></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
<table style="margin:0 auto; background:none; text-align:center;" width="100%">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/81/8172.png.htm" title="Flag of Bermuda"><img alt="Flag of Bermuda" height="63" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bermuda.svg" src="../../images/237/23758.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Coat of arms of Bermuda" height="103" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bermuda_coa_large.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="85" /></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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</table>
</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: <i>Quo Fata Ferunt</i> <small>(<a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a>)<br /> "Whither the Fates Carry [Us]"</small></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <i><!--del_lnk--> God Save the Queen</i> (official)<br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Hail to Bermuda</i> (unofficial)</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/237/23760.png.htm" title="Location of Bermuda"><img alt="Location of Bermuda" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBermuda.png" src="../../images/237/23760.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hamilton<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 32°18′N 64°47′W</span></small></td>
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<tr>
<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><!--del_lnk--> UK overseas territory</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <a href="../../wp/b/British_monarchy.htm" title="British monarchy">Queen</a></td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">HM Queen Elizabeth II</a></td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Governor</td>
<td>Sir <!--del_lnk--> John Vereker</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Premier</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ewart Brown</td>
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<th>Independence</th>
<td>none (<!--del_lnk--> overseas territory) </td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 53.3 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 224th)<br /> 20.6 sq mi </td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>none</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
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<td> - 2006 estimate</td>
<td>65,773 (<!--del_lnk--> 205th<sup>1</sup>)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>1,234/km² (<!--del_lnk--> 8th)<br /> 3,196/sq mi</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2004 estimate</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$4.5 billion (<!--del_lnk--> 165th)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$69,900 (<!--del_lnk--> 1st)</td>
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<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2003)</th>
<td>n/a (unranked) (<!--del_lnk--> n/a)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bermuda dollar<sup>2</sup> (<code><!--del_lnk--> BMD</code>)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Atlantic (<!--del_lnk--> UTC-4)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bm</td>
</tr>
<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+<!--del_lnk--> 1-441</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2"><small><sup>1</sup> Rank based on 2005 figures.<br /><sup>2</sup> On par with <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US dollar</a>.</small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bermuda</b> (also known as <b>The Bermuda Islands</b> and formerly as <b>The Somers Isles</b>) is an <!--del_lnk--> overseas territory of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> North Atlantic Ocean, situated around 640 <!--del_lnk--> miles (1030 km) northeast of <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and is actually about 667 miles (1073 km) east-southeast of Cape Hatteras, <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina (see Geography section below)—off the <!--del_lnk--> east coast of the United States. It is the oldest remaining British overseas territory, settled by <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> a century before the <a href="../../wp/a/Acts_of_Union_1707.htm" title="Acts of Union 1707">Acts of Union</a> and two centuries before the creation of the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom.<p>Although commonly referred to in the singular, the territory consists of approximately 138 <!--del_lnk--> islands, with a total area of 27.7 sq. mi.(71.7 square kilometers). Compiling a list of these islands is often complicated, as many have more than one name (as does the entire archipelago, which, in addition to its two official names, has historically been known as "<i>La Garza</i>", "<i>Virgineola</i>", and the "Isle of Devils"). Despite the limited land mass, there has also been a tendency for place names to be repeated; there are, for instance, two islands named "Long Island", two bays known as "Long Bay" and the town of St. George is located within the parish of St. George on the island of St. George. Meanwhile, Bermuda's <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> City of Hamilton, lies in <!--del_lnk--> Pembroke Parish, not <!--del_lnk--> Hamilton Parish, on the largest island, "Main Island", which itself is sometimes called "Bermuda" (or "Great Bermuda").<p>Bermuda has a thriving economy, with a large <a href="../../wp/f/Finance.htm" title="Finance">financial</a> sector and <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> industry. It is blessed with a warm, tropical climate and beautiful beaches. Bermuda is one of the few islands in the world to boast pink sand and turquoise oceans.<ul>
<li><i><b><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wikimedia-logo.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="15" />Wikimedia <!--del_lnk--> Atlas of Bermuda</b> <a class="image" href="../../images/99/9955.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gnome-globe.svg" src="../../images/0/90.png" width="15" /></a>.</i></ul>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23761.jpg.htm" title=""The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles", by Capt. John Smith."><img alt=""The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles", by Capt. John Smith." height="457" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Generall_Historie_of_Virginia.jpg" src="../../images/237/23761.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23761.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles", by <!--del_lnk--> Capt. John Smith.</div>
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<p>Bermuda was discovered by the early <!--del_lnk--> 1500s, probably in <!--del_lnk--> 1503, according to some sources. It was certainly known by <!--del_lnk--> 1511, when <!--del_lnk--> Peter Martyr d'Anghiera published his <i><!--del_lnk--> Legatio Babylonica</i>, which mentioned Bermuda, and the island was also included on Spanish charts of this year. The discovery is attributed to a <!--del_lnk--> Spanish explorer, <!--del_lnk--> Juan de Bermudez. Both <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spanish</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> ships used the islands as a replenishment spot for fresh meat and water, but legends of <!--del_lnk--> spirits and <!--del_lnk--> devils, now thought to have stemmed only from the callings of raucous birds (most likely the <!--del_lnk--> Bermuda Petrel), and of perpetual, storm-wracked conditions (most early visitors arrived under such conditions), kept them from attempting any permanent settlement on the <b>Isle of Devils</b>.<p>Bermudez and Gonzales Ferdinando d'Oviedo ventured to Bermuda in 1514 or 1515 with the intention to drop off a breeding stock of hogs on the island as a future stock of fresh meat for passing ships. The inclement weather prevented them landing however.<p>Some years later, a <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> ship on the way home from San Domingo wedged itself between two rocks on the reef. The crew tried to salvage as much as they could and spent the next four months building a new hull from <!--del_lnk--> Bermuda cedar to return to their initial departure point. One of these stranded sailors is most likely the person who carved the initials "R" and "P", "1543" into Spanish Rock. The initials probably stood for "Rex Portugaline" and later were incorrectly attributed to the Spanish, leading to the misnaming of this rocky outcrop of Bermuda.<p>For the next century the island was probably visited frequently but not settled. The first two British colonies in <!--del_lnk--> Virginia had failed, and a more determined effort was initiated by <!--del_lnk--> King James I of England and VI of Scotland, who granted a Royal Charter to The <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Company. In 1609, a flotilla of ships left England under the Company's Admiral, <!--del_lnk--> Sir George Somers, to relieve the colony of <!--del_lnk--> Jamestown, settled two years before. Somers had previous experience sailing with both <!--del_lnk--> Sir Francis Drake and <!--del_lnk--> Sir Walter Raleigh. The flotilla was broken up by a storm, and the flagship, the <i><!--del_lnk--> Sea Venture</i>, was wrecked off Bermuda (as depicted on the territory's <!--del_lnk--> Coat of Arms), leaving the survivors in possession of a new territory. (William Shakespeare's play <i><!--del_lnk--> The Tempest</i> may have been influenced by <!--del_lnk--> William Strachey's account of this shipwreck.) The island was claimed for the English Crown, and the charter of the Virginia Company was extended to include it. In 1615, the island was passed to a new company, the <!--del_lnk--> Somers Isles Company (<i>The Somers Isles</i> remains an official name for the Colony), formed by the same shareholders. The first British <a href="../../wp/c/Coin.htm" title="Coins">coins</a> in America were struck here.<p>Most of the survivors of the Sea Venture had carried on to Jamestown in 1610 aboard two Bermuda-built ships. Among these was <!--del_lnk--> John Rolfe, who left a wife and child buried in Bermuda, but in Jamestown would marry <!--del_lnk--> Pocahontas, a daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Powhatan. Rolfe was also single-handedly responsible for beginning Virginia's tobacco industry (the economic basis of the Colony had been intended to be lumber). Deliberate settlement of Bermuda began with the arrival of the <i>Plough</i>, in 1612.<p>With its limited land area, Bermuda has had difficulty ever since with population growth. In the first two centuries of settlement, it relied on steady emigration to keep the population manageable. Before the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution, more than ten thousand Bermudans emigrated, primarily to the American South, where England (later, Britain) was displacing Spain as the dominant European imperial power. A steady trickle of outward migration continued as, by the end of the eighteenth century, with seafaring being the only real industry, at least a third of the island's manpower was at sea at any one time.<p>In the seventeenth century, however, the Somers Isles Company suppressed shipbuilding as it needed Bermudians to farm if it was to generate any income from the land. Bermuda was not a great success as an agricultural colony. The Bermuda cedar boxes it shipped tobacco to England in were reportedly worth more than their contents. The colony of <!--del_lnk--> Virginia far surpassed Bermuda in both quality and quantity of <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a> produced. After the dissolution of the Somers Isle Company, Bermudians rapidly abandoned agriculture for ship-building, replanting farmland with the native juniper (<i><!--del_lnk--> Juniperus bermudiana</i>, also called <i>Bermuda cedar</i>) trees that grew thickly over the whole island. Establishing effective control over the Turks Islands, Bermudians deforested their landscape to begin the salt trade that would become the world's largest, and remained the cornerstone of Bermuda's economy for the next century.<p>Bermudian sailors would turn their hands to far more trades than supplying salt, however. Whaling, privateering, and the merchant trade were all pursued vigorously. The <!--del_lnk--> Bermuda sloop became highly regarded for its speed and maneuverability. Indeed, at the end of the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Trafalgar, the Bermuda sloop <!--del_lnk--> HMS Pickle, one of the fastest vessels in the Royal Navy, raced back to England with news of the victory and the death of Admiral Lord Nelson.<p>After the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution, the British Royal Navy began improving the harbours and built a <!--del_lnk--> large dockyard on <!--del_lnk--> Ireland Island, in the west of the chain. Thereafter the navy used the bases as a strategic asset which later benefited the USA as well (see below). Bermuda was a point where <!--del_lnk--> Confederate States <!--del_lnk--> blockade runners could touch before heading to the South, and a small museum in Hamilton preserves the office of the CSA agent who coordinated their activities.<p>In the early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">twentieth century</a>, as modern transport and communication systems developed, Bermuda became a popular destination for wealthy US, Canadian and British tourists. In addition, the <!--del_lnk--> Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act enacted by the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> against its trading partners in 1930 cut off Bermuda's once-thriving agricultural export trade – primarily fresh vegetables to the US – spurring the overseas territory to develop its tourist industry, which is second behind international business in terms of economic importance to the island.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
<p>Executive authority in Bermuda is invested in <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">The Queen</a> and is exercised on her behalf by the <!--del_lnk--> Governor. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the <!--del_lnk--> British Government. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom, which also retains responsibility to ensure good government. It must approve any changes to the <!--del_lnk--> Constitution of Bermuda.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Constitution of Bermuda came into force on <!--del_lnk--> June 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1967 and has been amended in <!--del_lnk--> 1989 and <!--del_lnk--> 2003. The Head of Government is the <!--del_lnk--> Premier. A cabinet is nominated by the Premier and appointed officially by the Governor. The legislative branch consists of a <!--del_lnk--> bicameral parliament. The Senate is the Upper House and consists of eleven members appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Premier and the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly is the Lower House and the thirty-six members are elected democratically to serve a five-year term.<p>The current Governor is <!--del_lnk--> Sir John Vereker, appointed on <!--del_lnk--> April 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2002. Following his victory over former Premier <!--del_lnk--> Alex Scot at the <!--del_lnk--> Progressive Labour Party delegates' conference in October 2006, the current Premier is <!--del_lnk--> Ewart Brown. The <!--del_lnk--> United Bermuda Party serves in <!--del_lnk--> opposition.<p>The Progressive Labour Party leadership supports independence from the United Kingdom, although polls continue to indicate that this is not supported by the population. A referendum in <!--del_lnk--> 1995 on independence, held by the United Bermuda Party, was defeated.<p><a id="Military" name="Military"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Military</span></h2>
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<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23762.jpg.htm" title="Remembrance Day Parade, Hamilton, Bermuda."><img alt="Remembrance Day Parade, Hamilton, Bermuda." height="193" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Rembrance_Day_Parade_Bermuda.jpg" src="../../images/237/23762.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23762.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Remembrance Day Parade, Hamilton, Bermuda.</div>
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<p>The defence of Bermuda remains the responsibility of the British Government. Until the <a href="../../wp/a/American_Revolutionary_War.htm" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, during which time Bermuda became the <a href="../../wp/r/Royal_Navy.htm" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>'s Western Atlantic headquarters, the Bermudan Government had maintained <!--del_lnk--> militia for the defence of the colony. Once the Royal Navy established a base and dockyard defended by regular soldiers, however, these militias became superfluous and were disbanded following the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812. At the end of the nineteenth century, the colony did raise volunteer units to form a reserve for the military garrison.<p>Due to its near central location in the North Atlantic Ocean, Bermuda again became an important location during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. In 1940, the <!--del_lnk--> Destroyers for Bases Agreement allowed the US military a presence in Bermuda. The US built new bases there in 1941 under a 99-year lease, operating them until the end of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. The bases consisted of 5.8 km² (2.25 mi²) of land, largely reclaimed from the sea.<p>For many years, the Americans used the airport as a forward point for aircraft looking for submarines, first German and later Soviet. <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> also established a radio-listening post on the northern tip of the islands during this time.<p>In the 1950s, after the end of World War II, the Royal Naval dockyard and the military garrison were closed. A small supply base continued to operate within the dockyard area until it, too, was closed in 1995, along with the American and Canadian bases. The US bases closed on <!--del_lnk--> 1 September, but unresolved issues concerning the withdrawal of the American forces (primarily related to environmental factors) delayed the formal return of the bases' land to the Bermudan Government until 2002.<p>Today, the only military unit remaining in Bermuda is the <!--del_lnk--> Bermuda Regiment, an amalgam of the voluntary units originally formed toward the end of the nineteenth century.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23763.png.htm" title="Map of Bermuda."><img alt="Map of Bermuda." height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bermuda-map.png" src="../../images/237/23763.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23763.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Bermuda.</div>
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<p>Bermuda is located in the North Atlantic Ocean, roughly 580 <!--del_lnk--> nautical miles (1074 kilometers) east-southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Cape Hatteras on the <!--del_lnk--> Outer Banks of <!--del_lnk--> North Carolina and roughly 590 nautical miles (1093 kilometers) southeast of <!--del_lnk--> Martha's Vineyard (see <!--del_lnk--> map). There are two <a href="../../wp/c/Corporation.htm" title="Corporation">incorporated</a> <!--del_lnk--> municipalities in Bermuda: the <!--del_lnk--> City of Hamilton and the <!--del_lnk--> Town of St. George. There are also a number of localities which are sometimes called "villages", among them <!--del_lnk--> Flatts Village, <!--del_lnk--> Tucker's Town and <!--del_lnk--> Somerset Village.<p>Contrary to common misconception, Bermuda is not located within the tropics. The subtropical climate is strongly influenced by the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Stream which flows nearby. Bermuda has a very humid climate and, as a result, the summer-time heat index can be very high, even when the actual temperature seems moderate. Winters are mild with average daytime temperatures in January and February around 20 <!--del_lnk--> °C (68 <!--del_lnk--> °F). The powerful winds and heavy rain mean that the felt temperature can fall below freezing, even though the actual temperature may rarely drop much below 10 °C (50 °F). The only source of fresh water in Bermuda is rainfall, which is collected on roofs and catchments (or drawn from underground lenses) and stored in tanks. Each dwelling usually has at least one of these tanks forming part of its foundation.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>As the <!--del_lnk--> offshore domicile of many foreign companies, Bermuda has a highly-developed international business economy; it is a <!--del_lnk--> financial exporter in insurance and other financial services. Tourism forms the other major part of Bermuda's income. Bermuda's per-capita income is approximately 50% higher than that of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>; <!--del_lnk--> CIA data shows a <!--del_lnk--> GDP of $4.5 billion in <!--del_lnk--> 2004, implying a per-capita amount of $69,900. Based on 2004 data, this gives Bermuda the highest GDP per capita in the world.<p>Bermuda is regarded as a <!--del_lnk--> premier offshore business jurisdiction, with no direct taxes on personal or corporate income. The local tax system is based upon import duties, payroll taxes and consumption taxes. Such are the numbers of leading international <!--del_lnk--> insurance companies based in Bermuda that the territory is considered the world's <!--del_lnk--> reinsurance centre. Those internationally owned and operated businesses that are physically based in Bermuda – of which there are around four hundred – are represented by the <!--del_lnk--> Association of Bermuda International Companies (ABIC). In total, over 1,500 exempted or international companies are currently registered in Bermuda.<p>Tourism is the second largest industry, with the island attracting most of its visitors from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. Much of this traffic arrives at <!--del_lnk--> Bermuda International Airport, the territory's air link to the outside world.<p>The currency is the <!--del_lnk--> Bermuda dollar, which is <!--del_lnk--> pegged to the <!--del_lnk--> US dollar. US notes and coins are used interchangeably with Bermudian notes and coins within the islands. Bermudian notes carry the image of <!--del_lnk--> HM Queen Elizabeth II.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>54.8% of the population is listed as black, 34.1% as <!--del_lnk--> white and 6.4% as <!--del_lnk--> multiracial. The island has a growing Asian community. A significant segment of the population is also of <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> heritage, the result of immigration from Portuguese-held islands (especially the <!--del_lnk--> Azores) during the past century. Its beginnings may be traced to several <!--del_lnk--> Madeiran families in the <!--del_lnk--> 1840s.<p>During the last census, racial identification became a point of controversy; the demographic descriptions used in the previous paragraph, for example, may be considered misleading. A small minority of the island's black population has a diverse ancestry, including significant European and Native American bloodlines. Portuguese Bermudans are often thought of as constituting a separate racial group, in similar fashion to <!--del_lnk--> Hispanics in the USA. Immigrants from Portuguese islands included blacks from the <a href="../../wp/c/Cape_Verde.htm" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde Islands</a>, and many Portuguese intermarried with "black" and "white" Bermudans. Consequently, there are many islanders with Portuguese ancestry, heritage, and names who are not considered among the ten or so percent of the population typically listed as "Portuguese".<p>Resurgent interest in the island's Native American past, especially in St. David's, is leading many to identify themselves with the various <!--del_lnk--> Algonquian peoples sold into slavery on the island during its first century of settlement.<p>In addition to large-scale Portuguese immigration, there has been sustained immigration from the <!--del_lnk--> West Indies during the past century.<p><a id="Visitor_attractions" name="Visitor_attractions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Visitor attractions</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23765.jpg.htm" title="St. David's Lighthouse, one of Bermuda's visitor attractions."><img alt="St. David's Lighthouse, one of Bermuda's visitor attractions." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Saint_Davids_Lighthouse.JPG" src="../../images/237/23765.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23765.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> St. David's Lighthouse, one of Bermuda's visitor attractions.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>Some of Bermuda's visitor attractions:<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="background-color:transparent">
<tr valign="top">
<td width="250px">
<ul>
<li>Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo<li>Bermuda Maritime Museum<li>Botanical Gardens<li>City Hall<li>Crisson Jewellers<li>Crystal, Fantasy and Leamington Caves</ul>
</td>
<td width="15px">
</td>
<td width="250px">
<ul>
<li>Gibbs Hill Lighthouse<li><!--del_lnk--> Royal Naval Dockyard<li>St. David's Lighthouse<li>St. George's<li>St. Peter's Church<li>Swizzle Inn</ul>
</td>
<td width="15px">
<p>
<br />
<p>
<br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Holidays" name="Holidays"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Holidays</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th width="160px">Date</th>
<th width="170px">Holiday</th>
<th>Notes</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1 January</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> New Year's Day</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>varies</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Good Friday</td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">Bermudans fly home-made <!--del_lnk--> kites to celebrate <!--del_lnk--> Easter</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 24 May</td>
<td>Bermuda Day</td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">Originally celebrated <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>'s birthday as <!--del_lnk--> Empire Day; later changed to "Bermuda Day" to provide an official opportunity to celebrate the islands' heritage and culture</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Second Monday in June</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a>'s Birthday</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>varies*</td>
<td>Emancipation Day</td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">First day of Cup match</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>First Friday in August</td>
<td>Somer's Day</td>
<td><span style="font-size:90%;">Second day of Cup match</span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>First Monday in September</td>
<td>Labour Day</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 11</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Remembrance Day</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 25</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Christmas Day</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 26</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Boxing Day</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><span style="font-size:90%;">* Last Thursday in July if 31 July, otherwise first Thursday in August.</span><p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Bermuda's culture is strongly influenced by the <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Britain.htm" title="Great Britain">British</a> colonists who came to the island, establishing most of its traditions and customs; but also by its closest geographical neighbour, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>. A large proportion of Bermuda's population is descended from <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a>-American slaves.<p>Dance and <!--del_lnk--> music are two important elements in Bermuda's culture. Many dances were influenced by imported <!--del_lnk--> Native American and <!--del_lnk--> African slaves. Caribbean influences dominate the musical scene on the island.<p><a id="Notables" name="Notables"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notables</span></h2>
<p>(alphabetically by surname)<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Clyde Best, a pioneering English <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">footballer</a> of the late 1960s and 1970s.<li><!--del_lnk--> Donald Henry "Bob" Burns, holder of the <!--del_lnk--> Guinness World Record for the loudest human voice.<li><!--del_lnk--> G. K. Butterfield, US Congressman (D-NC), former Superior Court judge and state Supreme Court justice.<li><!--del_lnk--> Earl Cameron, actor.<li><!--del_lnk--> Diana Dill, actress and mother of Michael and Joel Douglas.<li><!--del_lnk--> Michael Douglas, actor/director.<li>Major-General <!--del_lnk--> Glyn Charles Anglim Gilbert, highest-ranking Bermudan soldier.<li><!--del_lnk--> Shaun Goater, former <!--del_lnk--> Manchester City F.C. <!--del_lnk--> striker.<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward Harris, <!--del_lnk--> archaeologist and creator of the <!--del_lnk--> Harris matrix method of archaeological <!--del_lnk--> stratigraphy.<li><!--del_lnk--> Lance Hayward, jazz pianist.<li><!--del_lnk--> Clarence Hill, <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympic</a> boxing bronze-medal winner.<li><!--del_lnk--> Heather Nova, musician.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mary Prince, slave whose narrative <i>History of Mary Prince</i> helped to end slavery in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Arthur Rankin, Jr., film producer, director and co-founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Rankin/Bass production company.<li><!--del_lnk--> Clarence "Nicky" Saunders, <a href="../../wp/c/Commonwealth_Games.htm" title="Commonwealth Games">Commonwealth</a> <!--del_lnk--> high jump gold-medal winner.<li><!--del_lnk--> Gina Swainson, former <!--del_lnk--> Miss World 1979-1980.<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward "Teddy" Tucker, diver and treasure hunter.<li><!--del_lnk--> David B. Wingate, <!--del_lnk--> naturalist.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermuda"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bernard Hinault</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Sports_and_games_people.htm">Sports and games people</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" style="font-size: 90%; text-align: left;">
<caption style="font-size:1.3em;"><b>Bernard Hinault</b></caption>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/105/10559.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="378" longdesc="/wiki/Image:050722serrano_hinault2.jpg" src="../../images/105/10559.jpg" width="220" /></a><br /> Bernard Hinault (right) in the Tour de France 2005.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="background: #ADDFAD;">Personal information</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Full name</th>
<td>Bernard Hinault</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Nickname</th>
<td>Le Patron</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Date of birth</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> November 14, <!--del_lnk--> 1954 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<td>France</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="background: #ADDFAD;">Team information</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Current team</th>
<td>Retired</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Discipline</th>
<td>Road</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Role</th>
<td>Rider</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Rider type</th>
<td>Allround</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="background: #ADDFAD;">Professional team(s)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1977<br /> 1978-1983<br /> 1984-1986</td>
<td>Gitane-Campagnolo<br /> Renault-Elf-Gitane<br /> La Vie Claire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="background: #ADDFAD;">Major wins</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">Tour de France 1978: <i>overall winner</i>, 3 stages<br />
<p>Tour de France 1979: <i>overall winner</i>, green jersey, 7 stages<br /> Tour de France 1980: 3 stages<br /> Tour de France 1981: <i>overall winner</i>, 5 stages<br /> Tour de France 1982: <i>overall winner</i>, 4 stages<br /> Tour de France 1984: second place, 1 stage<br /> Tour de France 1985: <i>overall winner</i>, 2 stages<br /> Tour de France 1986: second place, polka-dot jersey, 3 stages<br /> Giro d'Italia (1980, 1982, 1985)<br /> Vuelta a España (1978, 1983)<br /> Grand Prix des Nations (1977, 1978, 1979, 1982, 1984)<br /> World Road Cycling Championship (1980)<br /> Paris-Roubaix (1981)<br /> Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (1977, 1979, 1981)<br /> Liège-Bastogne-Liège (1977, 1980)<br /> Giro di Lombardia (1979, 1984)<br /> La Flèche Wallonne (1979, 1983)<br /> Gent-Wevelgem (1977)<br /> Amstel Gold Race (1981)<br /> Tour de Romandie (1980)<br /> Quatre Jours de Dunkerque (1984)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="padding-right:1em; font-size: 80%; font-weight: lighter; text-align: center;">
<td colspan="2">Infobox last updated on:</td>
</tr>
<tr style="padding-right:1em; font-size: 80%; font-weight: lighter; text-align: center;">
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> April 16, 2007</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Bernard Hinault</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> 14 November <!--del_lnk--> 1954 in <!--del_lnk--> Yffiniac, <!--del_lnk--> Bretagne) is a <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <!--del_lnk--> cyclist best known for his five victories in the <a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a>. He is also one of only four cyclists to have won all three <!--del_lnk--> Grand Tours, and the only cyclist to have won each Grand Tour more than once. His first place Tour de France achievements were in <!--del_lnk--> 1978, <!--del_lnk--> 1979, <!--del_lnk--> 1981, <!--del_lnk--> 1982 and <!--del_lnk--> 1985. In addition, he placed second in <!--del_lnk--> 1984 and <!--del_lnk--> 1986 and won 28 stages, of which 13 were <!--del_lnk--> individual time trials. The other four cyclists to have achieved at least five first place victories in the Tour de France are <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Anquetil (<!--del_lnk--> 1964), <!--del_lnk--> Eddy Merckx (<!--del_lnk--> 1974), <!--del_lnk--> Miguel Indurain (<!--del_lnk--> 1995) and <a href="../../wp/l/Lance_Armstrong.htm" title="Lance Armstrong">Lance Armstrong</a> (<!--del_lnk--> 2003). Hinault was originally nicknamed <i>Le Blaireau</i> (the Badger) because the animal has the reputation of not letting go of his prey easily. Throughout his career, he 's been known for his distinctive personality : fiercely independent, outspoken, quick to take offense and often quick with a <i>riposte</i>. In an interview in the French magazine, Vélo, however, Hinault said the nickname had nothing to do with the animal. He said it was a local cyclists' way of saying "mate" or "buddy" in his youth - "How's it going, badger?" - and that it came to refer to him personally.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p><a id="Cycling_career" name="Cycling_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cycling career</span></h3>
<p>Hinault, born in the town of <!--del_lnk--> Yffiniac in <!--del_lnk--> Brittany started his professional cycling career in 1974. In the beginning of his career he was closely associated with <!--del_lnk--> Cyrille Guimard, an innovator in cycling and manager of the <!--del_lnk--> Gitane team. Taking Guimard's advice, Hinault did not enter Tour de France in 1977 so as to prepare for the <!--del_lnk--> 1978 Tour de France, which he won. He was hailed as the next great French cyclist and won the Tour again in <!--del_lnk--> 1979. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1980 Tour de France he was forced to abandon while wearing the <!--del_lnk--> yellow jersey because of a knee injury, but he returned to victory in the following two years, <!--del_lnk--> 1981 and <!--del_lnk--> 1982. He missed the Tour in <!--del_lnk--> 1983, again because of knee problems. The organiser of the Tour, Jacques Goddet, said in his autobiography, L'Équipée Belle, that Hinault's persistent knee problems came from pushing gears that were too high. During Hinault's absence, his teammate <a href="../../wp/l/Laurent_Fignon.htm" title="Laurent Fignon">Laurent Fignon</a> rose to prominence by winning the Tour in <!--del_lnk--> 1983. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1984 Tour de France Fignon won the race with Hinault second at more than 10 minutes behind.<p>Disagreements with Guimard led to their separation, and by the mid-1980s Hinault had become associated with the Swiss coach Paul Koechli and the La Vie Claire team. Koechli introduced meditation and relaxation methods that helped Hinault return to the Tour with a victory in <!--del_lnk--> 1985. That year he rode much of the race with a <!--del_lnk--> black eye received in a crash. In the 1985 Tour Hinault's lieutenant <a href="../../wp/g/Greg_LeMond.htm" title="Greg LeMond">Greg LeMond</a> was under pressure from Koechli and his team manager to support Hinault and not try for a victory of his own. Years later, LeMond claimed in an interview that they had lied to him about his lead over Hinault in a mountain stage, forcing him to lose several minutes and his chance of a first Tour victory.<p>Hinault also entered the <!--del_lnk--> 1986 Tour, ostensibly to return LeMond's favour of the previous year and help LeMond win his first Tour. Hinault rode an aggressive race, which he insisted was to deter and demoralize their rivals. He claimed his tactics were to wear down LeMond's (and his) opponents and that he knew that LeMond would he win because of time losses earlier in the race. Regardless of motives, this tactic worked well, and <a href="../../wp/l/Laurent_Fignon.htm" title="Laurent Fignon">Laurent Fignon</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Urs Zimmermann were put on the defensive from the first day. Fignon quit the race due to injuries aggravated by stress. In the <!--del_lnk--> Alpe d'Huez stage Hinault mounted an early attack that gained a lot of time, unsettling LeMond to the point where he felt that he had to chase Hinault. Hinault claimed his tactic was to wear opponents down by forcing them to chase him first, so that LeMond could beat them later.<p>In addition to the Tour de France, Hinault was successful in other events, with more than 200 victories over his twelve year professional career. In 1980, he won the <!--del_lnk--> World Cycling Championship in <!--del_lnk--> Salanches, France. In the other two Grand Tours, he won the <!--del_lnk--> Giro d'Italia in 1980, 1982 and 1985, and the <!--del_lnk--> Vuelta a España in 1978 and 1983. He also had first place victories in one-day <!--del_lnk--> Classics including <!--del_lnk--> Paris-Roubaix (1981) and <!--del_lnk--> Liège-Bastogne-Liège (1977, 1980). His victory in the 1980 Liège-Bastogne-Liège is memorable because of a snow storm that besieged the race from the start. Hinault made a solo attack and finished nearly 10 minutes ahead of his next rival.<p><a id="Le_Patron" name="Le_Patron"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Le Patron</span></h3>
<p>Hinault is considered the last <i>boss of the peloton</i> or "le Patron". He was prolinent in a riders' strike at Valence d'Agen in the 1978 Tour de France to protest against split stages, in which the riders had to ride a stage in the morning and another in the afternoon. He also imposed discipline and often cooperation among riders, once decreeing that "there will be no attacks today because tomorrow's stage will be difficult". He was respected by riders but feared by many for his temperament. If he felt slighted by another rider he would not hesitate to use his great strength to humiliate the offender. To the public, Hinault was often seen as arrogant, remote and frustratingly shy of publicity. When an interviewer suggested he devote more attention to fans, Hinault replied, "I race to win, not to please people".<p><a id="Retirement" name="Retirement"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Retirement</span></h3>
<p>After retiring in 1986, Hinault returned to farming in Brittany and worked for the Tour de France race organization, often appearing at stage finishes to greet stage winners and jersey holders. He also worked for <!--del_lnk--> LOOK Cycles as a technical consultant and helped develop the Look clipless pedal.<p><a id="Professional_highlights" name="Professional_highlights"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Professional highlights</span></h3>
<p><a id="Pro_Team_Sponsors" name="Pro_Team_Sponsors"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Pro Team Sponsors</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gitane-Campagnolo: 1977<li><!--del_lnk--> Renault-Elf-<!--del_lnk--> Gitane: 1978-1983<li>La Vie Claire: 1984-1986</ul>
<p><a id="Main_victories" name="Main_victories"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Main victories</span></h4>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a> (1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1985) <ul>
<li>General Classification <!--del_lnk--> Maillot jaune (<!--del_lnk--> 75 days total)<li>Points Classification <!--del_lnk--> Maillot vert (1979)<li>Climbing Classification <!--del_lnk--> Maillot à pois rouge (1986)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Giro d'Italia (1980, 1982, 1985)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vuelta a España (1978, 1983)<li><!--del_lnk--> Grand Prix des Nations (1977, 1978, 1979, 1982, 1984)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/105/10561.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arc_en_ciel.png" src="../../images/105/10561.png" width="28" /></a><!--del_lnk--> World Road Cycling Championship (1980)<li><!--del_lnk--> Paris-Roubaix (1981)<li><!--del_lnk--> Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (1977, 1979, 1981)<li><!--del_lnk--> Liège-Bastogne-Liège (1977, 1980)<li><!--del_lnk--> Giro di Lombardia (1979, 1984)<li><!--del_lnk--> La Flèche Wallonne (1979, 1983)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gent-Wevelgem (1977)<li><!--del_lnk--> Amstel Gold Race (1981)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tour de Romandie (1980)<li><!--del_lnk--> Quatre Jours de Dunkerque (1984)</ul>
<p>Hinault also won the season-long <i><!--del_lnk--> Super Prestige Pernod International</i> competition four consecutive times up to <!--del_lnk--> 1982, equalling <!--del_lnk--> Jacques Anquetil's total.<p><a id="Quotes" name="Quotes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Quotes</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i>"I slept like a baby the night before, because I knew that I'd win the next day,"</i> on winning the World Championship at Salanches, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, in 1980.<li><i>"In the beginning of the year, I choose a few races that I want to win. Other than those races, I'm willing to work for others."</i><li><i>"Cyrille Guimard does not listen to you, but in the races he is a tactical genius,"</i> on his relationship with former manager / directeur sportif Cyrille Guimard.<li><i>"As long as I breathe, I attack."</i><li><i>"He has a head, two arms, two legs, just as I,"</i> in reference to whether he fears <!--del_lnk--> Eddy Merckx.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Hinault"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bertrand Russell</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Philosophers.htm">Philosophers</a></h3>
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<th align="center" bgcolor="#B0C4DE" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:1px solid #B0C4DE; font-size: 125%;">Western Philosophy<br /><small><!--del_lnk--> 20th-century philosophy</small></th>
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<div style="line-height:1.25em;">Bertrand Russell</div>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Name:</th>
<td>Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Birth:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 May <!--del_lnk--> 1872<br /><!--del_lnk--> Trellech, <!--del_lnk--> Monmouthshire, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Death:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2 February <!--del_lnk--> 1970<br /><!--del_lnk--> Penrhyndeudraeth, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">School/tradition:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Analytic philosophy</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Main interests:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">Ethics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> epistemology, <a href="../../wp/l/Logic.htm" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> philosophy of language, <!--del_lnk--> philosophy of science, <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Notable ideas:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Logical atomism, <!--del_lnk--> knowledge by acquaintance and <!--del_lnk--> knowledge by description, <!--del_lnk--> Russell's paradox, <!--del_lnk--> Russell's teapot.</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Influences:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/Gottfried_Leibniz.htm" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/David_Hume.htm" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, <!--del_lnk--> G.E. Moore, <!--del_lnk--> Frege, <!--del_lnk--> Whitehead, <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_Wittgenstein.htm" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Mill</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Influenced:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_Wittgenstein.htm" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>, <!--del_lnk--> A. J. Ayer, <!--del_lnk--> Rudolf Carnap, <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Gödel, <a href="../../wp/k/Karl_Popper.htm" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, <!--del_lnk--> W. V. Quine</td>
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<p><b>Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell</b> <!--del_lnk--> OM <!--del_lnk--> FRS (<!--del_lnk--> 18 May <!--del_lnk--> 1872 – <!--del_lnk--> 2 February <!--del_lnk--> 1970), was a <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">British</a> <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <!--del_lnk--> logician, and <!--del_lnk--> mathematician, working mostly in the 20th century. A prolific <!--del_lnk--> writer, Bertrand Russell was also a populariser of <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and a commentator on a large variety of topics, ranging from very serious issues to the mundane. Continuing a family tradition in <a href="../../wp/p/Politics.htm" title="Politics">political</a> affairs, he was a prominent <!--del_lnk--> anti-war <!--del_lnk--> activist for most of his long life, championing free trade between nations and anti-imperialism. Millions looked up to Russell as a prophet of the <!--del_lnk--> creative and <!--del_lnk--> rational life; at the same time, his stances on many topics were extremely controversial.<p>Russell was born at the height of <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">Britain's</a> <!--del_lnk--> economic and political ascendancy. He died of <!--del_lnk--> influenza nearly a century later, at a time when the <a href="../../wp/b/British_Empire.htm" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> had all but vanished, its power dissipated by two debilitating <!--del_lnk--> world wars. As one of the world's best-known <!--del_lnk--> intellectuals, Russell's voice carried great <!--del_lnk--> moral <!--del_lnk--> authority, even into his mid 90s. Among his political activities, Russell was a vigorous proponent of <!--del_lnk--> nuclear disarmament and an outspoken <!--del_lnk--> critic of the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">American war in Vietnam</a>.<p>In 1950, Russell was made a <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Laureate in <!--del_lnk--> Literature, "in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions <!--del_lnk--> humanitarian ideals and <!--del_lnk--> freedom of thought".<p>
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</script><a id="Biography" name="Biography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biography</span></h2>
<p>Bertrand Russell was born on <!--del_lnk--> 18 May <!--del_lnk--> 1872 at <!--del_lnk--> Trellech, <!--del_lnk--> Monmouthshire, in <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, into an <!--del_lnk--> aristocratic <!--del_lnk--> English family.<p><a id="Ancestry" name="Ancestry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ancestry</span></h3>
<p>His paternal grandfather, <!--del_lnk--> John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, had been the British <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister in the 1840s and 1860s, and was the second son of <!--del_lnk--> John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford. The Russells had been prominent for several centuries in Britain, and were one of Britain's leading <!--del_lnk--> Whig (Liberal) families. Russell's mother Kate (née Stanley) was also from an aristocratic family, and was the sister of <!--del_lnk--> Rosalind Howard, Countess of Carlisle. Russell's parents were quite radical for their times—Russell's father, <!--del_lnk--> Viscount Amberley, was an <!--del_lnk--> atheist and consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor, the <!--del_lnk--> biologist <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Spalding. Both were early advocates of <a href="../../wp/b/Birth_control.htm" title="Birth control">birth control</a> at a time when this was considered scandalous. <!--del_lnk--> John Stuart Mill, the <a href="../../wp/u/Utilitarianism.htm" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarian</a> philosopher, was Russell's <!--del_lnk--> godfather.<p><a id="Childhood_and_adolescence" name="Childhood_and_adolescence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Childhood and adolescence</span></h3>
<p>Russell had two siblings: <!--del_lnk--> Frank (nearly seven years older than Bertrand), and Rachel (four years older). In June 1874 Russell's mother died of <!--del_lnk--> diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachel, and in January 1876 his father also died of <!--del_lnk--> bronchitis following a long period of <!--del_lnk--> depression. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly <!--del_lnk--> Victorian grandparents, who lived at <!--del_lnk--> Pembroke Lodge in <!--del_lnk--> Richmond Park. The first Earl Russell died in 1878, and his widow the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot) was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth. The countess was from a <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <!--del_lnk--> Presbyterian family, and successfully petitioned a British <!--del_lnk--> court to set aside a provision in Amberley's <!--del_lnk--> will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Despite her religious conservatism, she held progressive views in other areas (accepting <!--del_lnk--> Darwinism and supporting <!--del_lnk--> Irish Home Rule), and her influence on Bertrand Russell's outlook on <!--del_lnk--> social justice and standing up for principle remained with him throughout his life. However, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression and formality - Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings.<p>Russell's <!--del_lnk--> adolescence was very lonely, and he often contemplated <!--del_lnk--> suicide. He remarked in his autobiography that his keenest interests were in sex, religion and mathematics, and that only the wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide. He was educated at home by a series of tutors, and he spent countless hours in his grandfather's library. His brother Frank introduced him to <a href="../../wp/e/Euclid.htm" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, which transformed Russell's life.<p><a id="University_and_first_marriage" name="University_and_first_marriage"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">University and first marriage</span></h3>
<p>Russell won a scholarship to read <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> at <a href="../../wp/t/Trinity_College%252C_Cambridge.htm" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge University</a>, and commenced his studies there in <!--del_lnk--> 1890. He became acquainted with the younger <!--del_lnk--> G.E. Moore and came under the influence of <!--del_lnk--> Alfred North Whitehead, who recommended him to the <!--del_lnk--> Cambridge Apostles. He quickly distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating with a B.A. in the former subject in 1893 and adding a fellowship in the latter in 1895.<p>Russell first met the American <a href="../../wp/r/Religious_Society_of_Friends.htm" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quaker</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Alys Pearsall Smith, when he was seventeen years old. He fell in love with the puritanical, high-minded Alys, who was connected to several educationists and religious activists, and, contrary to his grandmother's wishes, he married her in December 1894. Their <!--del_lnk--> marriage began to fall apart in 1902 when Russell realised he no longer loved her; they divorced nineteen years later. During this period, Russell had passionate (and often simultaneous) affairs with, among others, Lady <!--del_lnk--> Ottoline Morrell and the actress, Lady <!--del_lnk--> Constance Malleson. Alys pined for him for these years and continued to love Russell for the rest of her life.<p><a id="Early_career" name="Early_career"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Early career</span></h3>
<p>Russell began his published work in 1896 with <i><a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <!--del_lnk--> Social Democracy</i>, a study in politics that was an early indication of a lifelong interest in political and social theory. In 1896, he taught German social democracy at the <!--del_lnk--> London School of Economics, where he also lectured on the science of power in the autumn of 1937. He was also a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Coefficients dining club of social reformers set up in <!--del_lnk--> 1902 by the <!--del_lnk--> Fabian campaigners <!--del_lnk--> Sidney and <!--del_lnk--> Beatrice Webb.<p>Russell became a fellow of the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Society in 1908. The first of three volumes of <i><!--del_lnk--> Principia Mathematica</i> (written with Whitehead) was published in 1910, which (along with the earlier <!--del_lnk--> <i>The Principles of Mathematics</i>) soon made Russell world famous in his field. In 1911, he became acquainted with the Austrian engineering student <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_Wittgenstein.htm" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, who he viewed as a genius and a successor who would continue his work on logic. He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various phobias and his frequent bouts of despair. The latter was often a drain on Russell's energy, but he continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his <!--del_lnk--> academic development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's <i><!--del_lnk--> Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</i> in 1922.<p><a id="First_World_War" name="First_World_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">First World War</span></h3>
<p>During the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">first World War</a>, Russell engaged in pacifist activities, and, in <!--del_lnk--> 1916, he was dismissed from <a href="../../wp/t/Trinity_College%252C_Cambridge.htm" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College</a> following his conviction under the <!--del_lnk--> Defence of the Realm Act. A later conviction resulted in six months' imprisonment in <!--del_lnk--> Brixton prison (see <i><!--del_lnk--> Activism</i>).<p><a id="Between_the_wars.2C_and_second_marriage" name="Between_the_wars.2C_and_second_marriage"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Between the wars, and second marriage</span></h3>
<p>In 1920, Russell travelled to <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the effects of the <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_Revolution_of_1917.htm" title="Russian Revolution of 1917">Russian Revolution</a>. Russell's lover <!--del_lnk--> Dora Black also visited Russia independently at the same time - she was enthusiastic about the revolution, but Russell's experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for it.<p>Russell subsequently lectured in <a href="../../wp/b/Beijing.htm" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> on philosophy for one year, accompanied by Dora. While in China, Russell became gravely ill with <a href="../../wp/p/Pneumonia.htm" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> incorrect reports of his death were published in the Japanese press. When the couple visited <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> on their return journey, Dora notified journalists that "Mr Bertrand Russell, having died according to the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists".<p>On the couple's return to England in 1921, Dora was five months pregnant, and Russell arranged a hasty divorce from Alys, marrying Dora six days after the divorce was finalised. Their children were <!--del_lnk--> John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell and <!--del_lnk--> Katharine Jane Russell (now Lady Katharine Tait). Russell supported himself during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Education.htm" title="Education">education</a> to the <!--del_lnk--> layman. Together with Dora, he also founded the experimental <!--del_lnk--> Beacon Hill School in 1927. After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943.<p>Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in 1931, Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell. He once said that his <!--del_lnk--> title was primarily useful for securing <!--del_lnk--> hotel rooms.<p>Russell's marriage to Dora grew increasingly tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having two children with an American <!--del_lnk--> journalist, <!--del_lnk--> Griffin Barry. In 1936, he took as his third wife an <!--del_lnk--> Oxford undergraduate named Patricia ("Peter") Spence, who had been his children's <!--del_lnk--> governess since the summer of 1930. Russell and Peter had one son, <!--del_lnk--> Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, later to become a prominent historian, and one of the leading figures in the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrat party.<p><a id="Second_World_War" name="Second_World_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Second World War</span></h3>
<p>In the spring of 1939, Russell moved to <!--del_lnk--> Santa Barbara to lecture at the <!--del_lnk--> University of California, Los Angeles. He was appointed professor at the <!--del_lnk--> City College of New York in 1940, but after a public outcry the appointment was annulled by a court judgement: his opinions (especially those relating to <!--del_lnk--> sexual morality, detailed in <i><!--del_lnk--> Marriage and Morals</i> ten years earlier) made him "morally unfit" to teach at the college. The protest was started by the mother of a student who (as a woman) would not have been eligible for his graduate-level course in mathematical logic. Many intellectuals, led by <!--del_lnk--> John Dewey, protested his treatment. Dewey and <!--del_lnk--> Horace M. Kallen edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Bertrand Russell Case</i>. He soon joined the <!--del_lnk--> Barnes Foundation, lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy - these lectures formed the basis of <i><!--del_lnk--> A History of Western Philosophy</i>. His relationship with the eccentric <!--del_lnk--> Albert C. Barnes soon soured, and he returned to Britain in 1944 to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College.<p><a id="Later_life" name="Later_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Later life</span></h3>
<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> 1940s and <!--del_lnk--> 1950s, Russell participated in many broadcasts over the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> on various topical and philosophical subjects. By this time in his life, Russell was world famous outside of academic circles, frequently the subject or author of <!--del_lnk--> magazine and <a href="../../wp/n/Newspaper.htm" title="Newspaper">newspaper</a> articles, and was called upon to offer up opinions on a wide variety of subjects, even mundane ones. En route to one of his lectures in <!--del_lnk--> Trondheim, Russell survived a <!--del_lnk--> plane crash in October 1948. <i><!--del_lnk--> A History of Western Philosophy</i> (1945) became a best-seller, and provided Russell with a steady income for the remainder of his life. Along with his friend <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, Russell had reached superstar status as an intellectual. In 1949, Russell was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Order of Merit, and the following year he received the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Literature.<p>In 1952, Russell was divorced by Peter, with whom he had been very unhappy. Conrad, Russell's son by Peter, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and 1968 (at which time his decision to meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother). Russell married his fourth wife, <!--del_lnk--> Edith Finch, soon after the divorce, in December <!--del_lnk--> 1952. They had known each other since <!--del_lnk--> 1926, and Edith had lectured <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> at <!--del_lnk--> Bryn Mawr College near <!--del_lnk--> Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, sharing a house for twenty years with Russell's old friend Lucy Donnelly. Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their relationship was close and loving throughout their marriage. Russell's eldest son, John, suffered from serious <!--del_lnk--> mental illness, which was the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and John's mother, Russell's former wife, Dora. John's wife Susan was also mentally ill, and eventually Russell and Edith became the legal guardians of their three daughters (two of whom were later diagnosed with <a href="../../wp/s/Schizophrenia.htm" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>).<p><a id="Political_causes" name="Political_causes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Political causes</span></h3>
<p>Russell spent the <!--del_lnk--> 1950s and <!--del_lnk--> 1960s engaged in various political causes, primarily related to nuclear disarmament and opposing the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. He wrote a great many letters to world leaders during this period. He also became a hero to many of the youthful members of the <!--del_lnk--> New Left. During the 1960s, in particular, Russell became increasingly vocal about his disapproval of the American government's policies. In <!--del_lnk--> 1963 he became the inaugural recipient of the <!--del_lnk--> Jerusalem Prize, an award for writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society.<p><a id="Final_years_and_death" name="Final_years_and_death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Final years and death</span></h3>
<p>Bertrand Russell published his three-volume autobiography in 1967, 1968 and in 1969, which was the final volume. Whilst he grew frail, he remained lucid until the end. On <!--del_lnk--> 31 January 1970 he condemned what he saw as the "<a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a> aggression in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>", saying that "We are frequently told that we must sympathize with Israel because of the suffering of the Jews in Europe at the hands of the Nazis. ... What Israel is doing today cannot be condoned, and to invoke the horror of the past to justify those of the present is gross hypocrisy". This was read out at the International Conference of Parliamentarians in <a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> on <!--del_lnk--> 3 February 1970.<p>Bertrand Russell died at 6.30 pm on <!--del_lnk--> 2 February <!--del_lnk--> 1970 at his home, <!--del_lnk--> Plas Penrhyn, <!--del_lnk--> Penrhyndeudraeth, <!--del_lnk--> Merioneth, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a> of <!--del_lnk--> influenza. He had previously fought that illness off in late December <!--del_lnk--> 1969. His ashes, as his will directed, were scattered after his cremation three days later.<p><a id="Russell.27s_philosophical_work" name="Russell.27s_philosophical_work"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Russell's philosophical work</span></h2>
<p><a id="Analytic_philosophy" name="Analytic_philosophy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analytic philosophy</span></h3>
<p>Russell is generally recognised as one of the founders of <!--del_lnk--> analytic philosophy, even of its several branches. At the beginning of the 20th century, alongside <!--del_lnk--> G. E. Moore, Russell was largely responsible for the British "revolt against <!--del_lnk--> Idealism", a philosophy greatly influenced by <!--del_lnk--> Georg Hegel and his British apostle, <!--del_lnk--> F. H. Bradley. This revolt was echoed 30 years later in <a href="../../wp/v/Vienna.htm" title="Vienna">Vienna</a> by the <!--del_lnk--> logical positivists' "revolt against <!--del_lnk--> metaphysics". Russell was particularly critical of a doctrine he ascribed to <!--del_lnk--> idealism and <!--del_lnk--> coherentism, this he dubbed the <!--del_lnk--> doctrine of internal relations, which, Russell suggested, held that in order to know any particular thing, we must know all of its relations. Based on this Russell attempted to show that this would make <!--del_lnk--> space, <a href="../../wp/t/Time.htm" title="Time">time</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a> and the concept of <a href="../../wp/n/Number.htm" title="Number">number</a> not fully intelligible. Russell's logical work with <!--del_lnk--> Whitehead continued this project.<p>Russell and Moore strove to eliminate what they saw as meaningless and incoherent assertions in philosophy, and they sought clarity and precision in argument by the use of exact <a href="../../wp/l/Language.htm" title="Language">language</a> and by breaking down philosophical <!--del_lnk--> propositions into their simplest grammatical components. Russell, in particular, saw formal logic and <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a> as the principal tools of the philosopher. Indeed, unlike most philosophers who preceded him and his early contemporaries, Russell did not believe there was a separate method for philosophy. He believed that the main task of the philosopher was to illuminate the most general propositions about the <!--del_lnk--> world and to eliminate confusion. In particular, he wanted to end what he saw as the excesses of metaphysics. Russell adopted <!--del_lnk--> William of Ockham's principle against multiplying unnecessary entities, <!--del_lnk--> Occam's Razor, as a central part of the method of analysis. <p><a id="Logic_and_philosophy_of_mathematics" name="Logic_and_philosophy_of_mathematics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Logic and philosophy of mathematics</span></h3>
<p>Russell had great influence on modern <!--del_lnk--> mathematical logic. The American philosopher and logician <!--del_lnk--> Willard Quine said Russell's work represented the greatest influence on his own work.<p>Russell's first mathematical book, <i>An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry</i>, was published in 1897. This work was heavily influenced by <a href="../../wp/i/Immanuel_Kant.htm" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>. Russell soon realized that the conception it laid out would have made <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s schema of <!--del_lnk--> space-time impossible, which he understood to be superior to his own system. Thenceforth, he rejected the entire <!--del_lnk--> Kantian program as it related to mathematics and <a href="../../wp/g/Geometry.htm" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, and he maintained that his own earliest work on the subject was nearly without value.<p>Interested in the definition of <a href="../../wp/n/Number.htm" title="Number">number</a>, Russell studied the work of <!--del_lnk--> George Boole, <a href="../../wp/g/Georg_Cantor.htm" title="Georg Cantor">Georg Cantor</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Augustus De Morgan, while materials in the Bertrand Russell Archives at <!--del_lnk--> McMaster University include notes of his reading in <!--del_lnk--> algebraic logic by <!--del_lnk--> Charles S. Peirce and <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Schröder. He became convinced that the foundations of mathematics were tied to logic, and following <!--del_lnk--> Gottlob Frege took an <!--del_lnk--> extensionalist approach in which logic was in turn based upon <!--del_lnk--> set theory. In 1900 he attended the first <!--del_lnk--> International Congress of Philosophy in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> where he became familiar with the work of the Italian mathematician, <!--del_lnk--> Giuseppe Peano. He mastered Peano's new symbolism and his set of <!--del_lnk--> axioms for <a href="../../wp/a/Arithmetic.htm" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>. Peano was able to define logically all of the terms of these axioms with the exception of <i>0</i>, <i>number</i>, <i>successor</i>, and the singular term, <i>the</i>. Russell took it upon himself to find logical definitions for each of these. Between 1897 and 1903 he published several articles applying Peano's notation to the classical Boole-Schröder algebra of relations, among them <i>On the Notion of Order</i>, <i>Sur la logique des relations avec les applications à la théorie des séries</i>, and <i>On Cardinal Numbers</i>.<p>Russell eventually discovered that Gottlob Frege had independently arrived at equivalent definitions for <i>0</i>, <i>successor</i>, and <i>number</i>, and the definition of number is now usually referred to as the Frege-Russell definition. It was largely Russell who brought Frege to the attention of the English-speaking world. He did this in 1903, when he published <!--del_lnk--> <i>The Principles of Mathematics</i>, in which the concept of class is inextricably tied to the definition of number. The appendix to this work detailed a paradox arising in Frege's application of second- and higher-order functions which took first-order functions as their arguments, and he offered his first effort to resolve what would henceforth come to be known as the Russell Paradox. In writing <i>Principles</i>, Russell came across Cantor's proof that there was no greatest <!--del_lnk--> cardinal number, which Russell believed was mistaken. The Cantor Paradox in turn was shown (for example by Crossley) to be a special case of the Russell Paradox. This caused Russell to analyze <!--del_lnk--> classes, for it was known that given any number of elements, the number of classes they result in is greater than their number. In turn, this led to the discovery of a very interesting class, namely, the class of all classes, which consists of two kinds of classes: classes that are members of themselves, and classes that are not members of themselves, which led him to find that the so-called principle of comprehension, taken for granted by logicians of the time, was fatally flawed, and that it resulted in a contradiction, whereby Y is a member of Y, if and only if, Y is not a member of Y. This has become known as <!--del_lnk--> Russell's paradox, the solution to which he outlined in an appendix to <i>Principles</i>, and which he later developed into a complete theory, the <!--del_lnk--> Theory of types. Aside from exposing a major inconsistency in <!--del_lnk--> naive set theory, Russell's work led directly to the creation of modern <!--del_lnk--> axiomatic set theory. It also crippled Frege's project of reducing arithmetic to logic. The Theory of Types and much of Russell's subsequent work have also found practical applications with <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" title="Computer science">computer science</a> and <!--del_lnk--> information technology.<p>Russell continued to defend <!--del_lnk--> logicism, the view that mathematics is in some important sense reducible to logic, and along with his former teacher, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred North Whitehead, wrote the monumental <i><!--del_lnk--> Principia Mathematica</i>, an <!--del_lnk--> axiomatic system on which all of mathematics can be built. The first volume of the <i>Principia</i> was published in 1910, and is largely ascribed to Russell. More than any other single work, it established the specialty of mathematical or symbolic logic. Two more volumes were published, but their original plan to incorporate geometry in a fourth volume was never realised, and Russell never felt up to improving the original works, though he referenced new developments and problems in his preface to the second edition. Upon completing the <i>Principia</i>, three volumes of extraordinarily <!--del_lnk--> abstract and complex reasoning, Russell was exhausted, and he never felt his intellectual faculties fully recovered from the effort. Although the <i>Principia</i> did not fall prey to the <!--del_lnk--> paradoxes in Frege's approach, it was later proven by <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Gödel that neither <i>Principia Mathematica</i>, nor any other consistent system of primitive recursive arithmetic, could, within that system, determine that every proposition that could be formulated within that system was decidable, i.e. could decide whether that proposition or its negation was provable within the system (<!--del_lnk--> Gödel's incompleteness theorem).<p>Russell's last significant work in mathematics and logic, <i>Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy</i>, was written by hand while he was in <!--del_lnk--> jail for his <!--del_lnk--> anti-war activities during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. This was largely an explication of his previous work and its philosophical significance.<p><a id="Philosophy_of_language" name="Philosophy_of_language"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Philosophy of language</span></h3>
<p>Russell was not the first philosopher to suggest that language had an important bearing on how we understand the world; however, more than anyone before him, Russell made language, or more specifically, <i>how we use language</i>, a central part of philosophy. Had there been no Russell, it seems unlikely that philosophers such as <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_Wittgenstein.htm" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Gilbert Ryle, <!--del_lnk--> J. L. Austin, and <!--del_lnk--> P. F. Strawson, among others, would have embarked upon the same course, for so much of what they did was to amplify or respond, sometimes critically, to what Russell had said before them, using many of the techniques that he originally developed. Russell, along with Moore, shared the idea that clarity of expression is a virtue, a notion that has been a touchstone for philosophers ever since, particularly among those who deal with the philosophy of language.<p>Perhaps Russell's most significant contribution to <!--del_lnk--> philosophy of language is his <!--del_lnk--> theory of descriptions, as presented in his seminal essay, <i><!--del_lnk--> On Denoting</i>, first published in 1905 in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Mind</i> philosophical journal, which the mathematician and philosopher <!--del_lnk--> Frank P. Ramsey described as "a paradigm of philosophy." The theory is normally illustrated using the phrase "the present King of France", as in "The present <!--del_lnk--> king of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> is bald." What object is this <!--del_lnk--> proposition <i>about</i>, given that there is not, at present, a king of France? (Roughly the same problem would arise if there were two kings of France at present: which of them does "<i>the</i> king of France" denote?) <!--del_lnk--> Alexius Meinong had suggested that we must posit a realm of "nonexistent entities" that we can suppose we are referring to when we use expressions such as this; but this would be a strange <!--del_lnk--> theory, to say the least. <!--del_lnk--> Frege, employing his distinction between sense and reference, suggested that such sentences, although meaningful, were neither true nor false. But <i>some</i> such propositions, such as "<i>If</i> the present king of France is bald, <i>then</i> the present king of France has no hair on his head," seem not only truth-valuable but indeed obviously true.<p>The problem is general to what are called "<!--del_lnk--> definite descriptions." Normally this includes all terms beginning with "the", and sometimes includes names, like "Walter Scott." (This point is quite contentious: Russell sometimes thought that the latter terms shouldn't be called names at all, but only "disguised definite descriptions," but much subsequent work has treated them as altogether different things.) What is the "logical form" of definite descriptions: how, in Frege's terms, could we paraphrase them in order to show how the <!--del_lnk--> truth of the whole depends on the truths of the parts? Definite descriptions appear to be like names that by their very nature denote exactly one thing, neither more or less. What, then, are we to say about the proposition as a whole if one of its parts apparently isn't functioning correctly?<p>Russell's <!--del_lnk--> solution was, first of all, to analyze not the term alone but the entire proposition that contained a definite description. "The present king of France is bald," he then suggested, can be reworded to "There is an x such that x is a present king of France, nothing other than x is a present king of France, and x is bald." Russell claimed that each definite description in fact contains a claim of <!--del_lnk--> existence and a claim of uniqueness which give this appearance, but these can be broken apart and treated separately from the predication that is the obvious content of the proposition. The proposition as a whole then says three things about some object: the definite description contains two of them, and the rest of the <!--del_lnk--> sentence contains the other. If the object does not exist, or if it is not unique, then the whole sentence turns out to be <!--del_lnk--> false, not meaningless.<p>One of the major complaints against Russell's theory, due originally to Strawson, is that definite descriptions do not claim that their object exists, they merely presuppose that it does. Strawson also claims that a denoting phrase that does not, in fact, denote anything could be supposed to follow the role of a "Widgy's inverted truth-value" and expresses the opposite meaning of the intended phrase. This can be shown using the example of "The present king of France is bald". Taken with the inverted truth-value methodology the meaning of this sentence becomes "It is true that there is no present king of France who is bald" which changes the denotation of 'the present king of France' from a primary denotation to a secondary one.<p><!--del_lnk--> Wittgenstein, Russell's student, achieved considerable prominence in the philosophy of language after the posthumous publication of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Philosophical Investigations</i>. In Russell's opinion, Wittgenstein's later work was misguided, and he decried its influence and that of its followers (especially members of the so-called "Oxford school" of <!--del_lnk--> ordinary language philosophy, who he believed were promoting a kind of <a href="../../wp/m/Mysticism.htm" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>). Russell's belief that philosophy's task is not limited to examining ordinary language is once again widely accepted in philosophy.<p><a id="Logical_atomism" name="Logical_atomism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Logical atomism</span></h3>
<p>Perhaps Russell's most systematic, metaphysical treatment of philosophical analysis and his empiricist-centric logicism is evident in what he called <!--del_lnk--> Logical atomism, which is explicated in a set of <!--del_lnk--> lectures, "The Philosophy of Logical Atomism," which he gave in 1918. In these lectures, Russell sets forth his <!--del_lnk--> concept of an <!--del_lnk--> ideal, <!--del_lnk--> isomorphic language, one that would mirror the world, whereby our knowledge can be reduced to terms of <!--del_lnk--> atomic propositions and their <!--del_lnk--> truth-functional compounds. Logical atomism is a form of radical empiricism, for Russell believed the most important requirement for such an ideal language is that every meaningful proposition must consist of terms referring directly to the objects with which we are acquainted, or that they are defined by other terms referring to objects with which we are acquainted. Russell excluded certain formal, logical terms such as <i>all</i>, <i>the</i>, <i>is</i>, and so forth, from his isomorphic requirement, but he was never entirely satisfied about our understanding of such terms. One of the central themes of Russell's atomism is that the world consists of logically independent facts, a plurality of facts, and that our knowledge depends on the data of our direct experience of them. In his later life, Russell came to doubt aspects of logical atomism, especially his principle of isomorphism, though he continued to believe that the process of philosophy ought to consist of breaking things down into their simplest components, even though we might not ever fully arrive at an ultimate <!--del_lnk--> atomic <!--del_lnk--> fact.<p><a id="Epistemology" name="Epistemology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Epistemology</span></h3>
<p>Russell's <!--del_lnk--> epistemology went through many phases. Once he shed <!--del_lnk--> neo-Hegelianism in his early years, Russell remained a <!--del_lnk--> philosophical realist for the remainder of his life, believing that our direct experiences have primacy in the acquisition of knowledge. While some of his views have lost favour, his influence remains strong in the distinction between two ways in which we can be familiar with objects: "<!--del_lnk--> knowledge by acquaintance" and "<!--del_lnk--> knowledge by description". For a time, Russell thought that we could only be acquainted with our own <!--del_lnk--> sense data—momentary <!--del_lnk--> perceptions of <!--del_lnk--> colours, <!--del_lnk--> sounds, and the like—and that everything else, including the <a href="../../wp/n/Nature.htm" title="Nature">physical</a> objects that these were sense data <i>of</i>, could only be inferred, or reasoned to—i.e. known by description—and not known directly. This distinction has gained much wider application, though Russell eventually rejected the idea of an intermediate sense datum.<p>In his later philosophy, Russell subscribed to a kind of <!--del_lnk--> neutral monism, maintaining that the distinctions between the <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">material</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Mind.htm" title="Mind">mental</a> worlds, in the final analysis, were arbitrary, and that both can be reduced to a neutral property—a view similar to one held by the American philosopher/psychologist, <!--del_lnk--> William James, and one that was first formulated by <a href="../../wp/b/Baruch_Spinoza.htm" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, whom Russell greatly admired. Instead of James' "pure experience", however, Russell characterised the stuff of our initial states of perception as "events", a stance which is curiously akin to his old teacher <!--del_lnk--> Whitehead's <!--del_lnk--> process philosophy.<p><a id="Philosophy_of_science" name="Philosophy_of_science"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Philosophy of science</span></h3>
<p>Russell frequently claimed that he was more convinced of his <i>method</i> of doing philosophy, the method of analysis, than of his philosophical conclusions. Science, of course, was one of the principal components of analysis, along with logic and mathematics. While Russell was a believer in the <!--del_lnk--> scientific method, knowledge derived from <!--del_lnk--> empirical research that is verified through repeated testing, he believed that science reaches only tentative answers, and that scientific progress is piecemeal, and attempts to find organic unities were largely futile. Indeed, he believed the same was true of philosophy. Another founder of <!--del_lnk--> modern philosophy of science, <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Mach, placed less reliance on method, per se, for he believed that any method that produced predictable results was satisfactory and that the principal role of the <!--del_lnk--> scientist was to make successful <!--del_lnk--> predictions. While Russell would doubtless agree with this as a practical matter, he believed that the ultimate objective of <i>both</i> science and philosophy was to <i>understand</i> <!--del_lnk--> reality, not simply to make predictions.<p>The fact that Russell made science a central part of his method and of philosophy was instrumental in making the <!--del_lnk--> philosophy of science a full-blooded, separate branch of philosophy and an area in which subsequent philosophers specialised. Much of Russell's thinking about science is exposed in his 1914 book, <i>Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy</i>. Among the several schools that were influenced by Russell were the <!--del_lnk--> logical positivists, particularly <!--del_lnk--> Rudolph Carnap, who maintained that the distinguishing feature of scientific propositions was their verifiability. This contrasted with the theory of <a href="../../wp/k/Karl_Popper.htm" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, also greatly influenced by Russell, who believed that their importance rested in the fact that they were <i>potentially</i> falsifiable.<p>It is worth noting that outside of his strictly philosophical pursuits, Russell was always fascinated by science, particularly <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a>, and he even authored several popular science books, <i>The ABC of Atoms</i> (1923) and <i>The ABC of Relativity</i> (1925).<p><a id="Ethics" name="Ethics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ethics</span></h3>
<p>While Russell wrote a great deal on <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethical</a> subject matters, he did not believe that the subject belonged to philosophy or that when he wrote on ethics that he did so in his capacity as a philosopher. In his earlier years, Russell was greatly influenced by <!--del_lnk--> G.E. Moore's <i>Principia Ethica</i>. Along with Moore, he then believed that moral facts were objective, but only known through <!--del_lnk--> intuition, and that they were simple properties of objects, not <!--del_lnk--> equivalent (e.g., pleasure is good) to the natural objects to which they are often ascribed (see <!--del_lnk--> Naturalistic fallacy), and that these simple, undefinable moral properties cannot be analyzed using the non-moral properties with which they are associated. In time, however, he came to agree with his philosophical hero, <a href="../../wp/d/David_Hume.htm" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, who believed that ethical terms dealt with <!--del_lnk--> subjective <!--del_lnk--> values that cannot be verified in the same way that matters of fact are. Coupled with Russell's other doctrines, this influenced the <!--del_lnk--> logical positivists, who formulated the theory of <!--del_lnk--> emotivism, which states that ethical propositions (along with those of <!--del_lnk--> metaphysics) were essentially meaningless and nonsensical or, at best, little more than expressions of <!--del_lnk--> attitudes and <!--del_lnk--> preferences. Notwithstanding his influence on them, Russell himself did not construe ethical propositions as narrowly as the positivists, for he believed that ethical considerations are not only meaningful, but that they are a vital subject matter for <!--del_lnk--> civil discourse. Indeed, though Russell was often characterised as the <!--del_lnk--> patron saint of rationality, he agreed with <a href="../../wp/d/David_Hume.htm" title="David Hume">Hume</a>, who said that reason ought to be subordinate to ethical considerations.<p><a id="Religion_and_theology" name="Religion_and_theology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religion and theology</span></h3>
<p>Russell's ethical outlook and his personal courage in facing controversies were certainly informed by his religious upbringing, principally by his paternal grandmother who instructed him with the <!--del_lnk--> Biblical injunction, "Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil" (<!--del_lnk--> Exodus 23:2), something he says influenced him throughout his life.<p>For most of his adult life, however, Russell thought it very unlikely that there was a <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">god</a>, and he maintained that <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a> is little more than <!--del_lnk--> superstition and, despite any positive effects that religion might have, it is largely harmful to people. He believed religion and the religious outlook (he considered <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a> and other systematic <!--del_lnk--> ideologies to be species of religion) serve to impede knowledge, foster fear and dependency, and are responsible for much of the war, oppression, and misery that have beset the world.<p>In his 1949 speech, "Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?", Russell expressed his difficulty over whether to call himself an <!--del_lnk--> atheist or an <!--del_lnk--> agnostic:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove that there is not a God. On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think that I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because, when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>Collected Papers, vol. 11, p. 91</i></cite></blockquote>
<p>Though he would later question God's existence, he fully accepted the <!--del_lnk--> ontological argument during his <!--del_lnk--> undergraduate years,:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>I remember the precise moment, one day in 1894, as I was walking along Trinity Lane [at Cambridge University where Russell was a student], when I saw in a flash (or thought I saw) that the ontological argument is valid. I had gone out to buy a tin of tobacco; on my way back, I suddenly threw it up in the air, and exclaimed as I caught it: "Great Scott, the ontological argument is sound!"<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 1967.</i></cite></blockquote>
<p>This quote has been exploited by many theologians over the years, such as by <!--del_lnk--> Louis Pojman in his <i>Philosophy of Religion</i>, who wish for readers to believe that even a well-known atheist-philosopher supports this particular argument for God's existence.<p>Russell also made an influential analysis of the <!--del_lnk--> omphalos hypothesis enunciated by <!--del_lnk--> Philip Henry Gosse—that any argument suggesting that the world was created as if it were already in motion could just as easily make it a few minutes old as a few thousand years:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes ago, exactly as it then was, with a population that "remembered" a wholly unreal past. There is no logically necessary connection between events at different times; therefore nothing that is happening now or will happen in the future can disprove the hypothesis that the world began five minutes ago.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>The Analysis of Mind</i>, 1921, pp. 159–60; <i>cf.</i> <i>Philosophy</i>, Norton, 1927, p. 7, where Russell acknowledges Gosse's paternity of this anti-evolutionary argument. </cite></blockquote>
<p>As a young man, Russell had a decidedly religious bent, himself, as is evident in his early <!--del_lnk--> Platonism. He longed for <!--del_lnk--> eternal truths, as he makes clear in his famous essay, "A Free Man's Worship", widely regarded as a masterpiece in prose, but one that Russell came to dislike. While he rejected the <!--del_lnk--> supernatural, he freely admitted that he yearned for a deeper meaning to life.<p>Russell's views on religion can be found in his popular book, <i><!--del_lnk--> Why I Am Not a Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects</i> (<!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-671-20323-1). Its title essay was a talk given on <!--del_lnk--> March 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1927 at Battersea Town Hall, under the auspices of the South London Branch of the <!--del_lnk--> National Secular Society, UK, and published later that year as a <!--del_lnk--> pamphlet. The book also contains other essays in which Russell considers a number of logical arguments for the <!--del_lnk--> existence of God, including the <!--del_lnk--> first cause argument, the <!--del_lnk--> natural-law argument, the <!--del_lnk--> argument from design, and moral arguments. He also discusses specifics about <!--del_lnk--> Christian theology.<p>His conclusion:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>Religion is based, I think, primarily and mainly upon fear. It is partly the terror of the unknown and partly, as I have said, the wish to feel that you have a kind of elder brother who will stand by you in all your troubles and disputes. […] A good world needs knowledge, kindliness, and courage; it does not need a regretful hankering after the past or a fettering of the free intelligence by the words uttered long ago by ignorant men.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>Why I Am Not a Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects</i></cite></blockquote>
<p><a id="Influence_on_philosophy" name="Influence_on_philosophy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Influence on philosophy</span></h2>
<p>It would be difficult to overstate Russell's influence on modern philosophy, especially in the <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a>-speaking world. While others were also influential, notably, Frege, Moore, and Wittgenstein, more than any other person, Russell made analysis the dominant approach to philosophy. Moreover, he is the founder or, at the very least, the prime mover of its major branches and themes, including several versions of the philosophy of language, formal logical analysis, and the philosophy of science. The various analytic movements throughout the last century all owe something to Russell's earlier works.<p>Russell's influence on individual philosophers is singular, and perhaps most notably in the case of <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_Wittgenstein.htm" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, who was his student between 1911 and 1914. It should also be observed that Wittgenstein exerted considerable influence on Russell, especially in leading him to conclude, much to his regret, that mathematical truths were purely tautological truths. Evidence of Russell's influence on Wittgenstein can be seen throughout the <!--del_lnk--> Tractatus, which Russell was instrumental in having published. Russell also helped to secure Wittgenstein's <!--del_lnk--> doctorate and a faculty position at <a href="../../wp/c/Cambridge.htm" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, along with several fellowships along the way. However, as previously stated, he came to disagree with Wittgenstein's later linguistic and analytic approach to philosophy, while Wittgenstein came to think of Russell as "superficial and glib," particularly in his popular writings. Russell's influence is also evident in the work of <!--del_lnk--> A. J. Ayer, <!--del_lnk--> Rudolph Carnap, <!--del_lnk--> Kurt Gödel, <a href="../../wp/k/Karl_Popper.htm" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, <!--del_lnk--> W. V. Quine, and a number of other philosophers and logicians.<p>Some see Russell's influence as mostly negative, primarily those who have been critical of Russell's emphasis on science and logic, the consequent diminishment of metaphysics, and of his insistence that ethics lies outside of philosophy. Russell's admirers and detractors are often more acquainted with his pronouncements on social and political matters, or what some (e.g., <!--del_lnk--> Ray Monk) have called his "<!--del_lnk--> journalism," than they are with his technical, philosophical work. Among non-philosophers, there is a marked tendency to conflate these matters, and to judge Russell the philosopher on what he himself would certainly consider to be his non-philosophical opinions. Russell often cautioned people to make this distinction.<p>Russell left a large assortment of writing. Since adolescence, Russell wrote about 3,000 words a day, in long hand, with relatively few corrections; his first draft nearly always was his last draft, even on the most complex, technical matters. His previously unpublished work is an immense treasure trove, and scholars are continuing to gain new insights into Russell's thought.<p><a id="Russell.27s_activism" name="Russell.27s_activism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Russell's activism</span></h2>
<p>Political and social <!--del_lnk--> activism occupied much of Russell's time for most of his long life, which makes his prodigious and seminal writing on a wide range of technical and non-technical subjects all the more remarkable.<p>Russell remained politically active to the end, writing and exhorting world leaders and lending his name to various causes. Some maintain that during his last few years he gave his youthful followers too much license and that they used his name for some outlandish purposes that a more attentive Russell would not have approved. There is evidence to show that he became aware of this when he fired his private secretary, <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Schoenman, then a young firebrand of the radical left.<p><a id="Pacifism.2C_war_and_nuclear_weapons" name="Pacifism.2C_war_and_nuclear_weapons"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pacifism, war and nuclear weapons</span></h3>
<p>While never a complete <!--del_lnk--> pacifist (in 'The Ethics of War', an article published in 1915, Russell argued on utilitarian grounds that wars of colonization were legitimate where the side with the stronger culture could put the land to better use), Russell opposed British participation in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>. As a result, he was first fined, then lost his professorship at <a href="../../wp/t/Trinity_College%252C_Cambridge.htm" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, and was later imprisoned for six months. In 1943 Russell called his stance "relative political pacifism"—he held that war was always a great <!--del_lnk--> evil, but in some particularly extreme circumstances (such as when <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> threatened to take over Europe) it might be a lesser of multiple evils. In the years leading to <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>, he supported the policy of <!--del_lnk--> appeasement; but by 1940 he acknowledged that in order to preserve democracy, <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> had to be defeated.<p>Russell was opposed to the use and possession of nuclear weapons for most of their existence, but he may not have always been of that opinion. On November 20, 1948, <!--del_lnk--> in a public speech at <!--del_lnk--> Westminster School, addressing a gathering arranged by the New Commonwealth, Russell shocked some observers with comments that seemed to suggest a <!--del_lnk--> preemptive nuclear strike on the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> might be justified. Russell apparently argued that the threat of war between the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> would enable the United States to force the Soviet Union to accept the <!--del_lnk--> Baruch Plan for international atomic energy control. (Earlier in the year he had written in the same vein to <!--del_lnk--> Walter W. Marseille.) Russell felt this plan "had very great merits and showed considerable generosity, when it is remembered that America still had an unbroken nuclear monopoly." (<i>Has Man a Future?</i>, 1961). However Nicholas Griffin of McMaster University, in his book <i>The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell: The Public Years, 1914-1970</i>, has claimed (after obtaining a transcript of the speech) that Russell's wording implies he didn't advocate the actual use of the atom bomb, but merely its diplomatic use as a massive source of leverage over the actions of the Soviets. Griffin's interpretation was slammed by <!--del_lnk--> Nigel Lawson, the former British Finance Minister, who was present at the speech and who claims it was quite clear to the audience that Russell was advocating an actual First Strike. Whichever interpretation is correct, Russell later relented, instead arguing for mutual disarmament by the nuclear powers, possibly linked to some form of <!--del_lnk--> world government.<p>In 1955 Russell released the <!--del_lnk--> Russell-Einstein Manifesto, co-signed by <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and nine other leading scientists and intellectuals, which led to the first of the <!--del_lnk--> Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs in 1957. In 1958, Russell became the first president of the <!--del_lnk--> Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. He resigned two years later when the CND would not support <!--del_lnk--> civil disobedience, and formed the <!--del_lnk--> Committee of 100. In 1961, when he was in his late eighties, he was imprisoned for a week for inciting civil disobedience, in connection with protests at the <!--del_lnk--> Ministry of Defence and <a href="../../wp/h/Hyde_Park%252C_London.htm" title="Hyde Park, London">Hyde Park</a>.<p>Russell made a cameo appearance playing himself in the anti-war <!--del_lnk--> Bollywood film "<!--del_lnk--> Aman" which was released in India in 1967. This was Russell's only appearance in a feature film.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation began work in 1963, in order to carry forward Russell's work for peace, human rights and social justice. He opposed the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> and, along with <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Paul Sartre, he organised a <!--del_lnk--> tribunal intended to expose U.S. war crimes; this came to be known as the <!--del_lnk--> Russell Tribunal.<p>Russell was an early critic of the official story in the <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> assassination; his "<!--del_lnk--> 16 Questions on the Assassination" from 1964 is still considered a good summary of the apparent inconsistencies in that case.<p><a id="Communism_and_socialism" name="Communism_and_socialism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Communism and socialism</span></h3>
<p>Russell visited the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and met <a href="../../wp/v/Vladimir_Lenin.htm" title="Lenin">Lenin</a> in 1920, and on his return wrote a critical tract, <!--del_lnk--> The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism. He was unimpressed with the result of the <!--del_lnk--> Communist revolution, and said he was "infinitely unhappy in this atmosphere—stifled by its utilitarianism, its indifference to love and beauty and the life of impulse." He believed Lenin to be similar to a religious <!--del_lnk--> zealot, cold and possessed of "no love of liberty."<p>Politically, Russell envisioned a kind of benevolent, <!--del_lnk--> democratic socialism, similar in some ways to yet possessing important differences with the conception promoted by the <!--del_lnk--> Fabian Society. He was strongly critical of <!--del_lnk--> Stalin's regime, and of the practices of states proclaiming <a href="../../wp/m/Marxism.htm" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">Communism</a> generally. Russell was a consistent enthusiast for democracy and <!--del_lnk--> world government, and advocated the establishment of a democratic international government in some of the essays collected in <i>In Praise of Idleness</i> (1935), and also in <i>Has Man a Future?</i> (1961).<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>One who believes as I do, that free intellect is the chief engine of human progress, cannot but be fundamentally opposed to Bolshevism as much as to the Church of Rome. The hopes which inspire communism are, in the main, as admirable as those instilled by the Sermon on the Mount, but they are held as fanatically and are as likely to do as much harm.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, 1920</i></cite></blockquote>
<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>For my part, while I am as convinced a Socialist as the most ardent Marxian, I do not regard Socialism as a gospel of proletarian revenge, nor even, <i>primarily</i>, as a means of securing economic justice. I regard it primarily as an adjustment to machine production demanded by considerations of common sense, and calculated to increase the happiness, not only of proletarians, but of all except a tiny minority of the human race.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>"The Case for Socialism" (In Praise of Idleness, 1935)</i></cite></blockquote>
<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>Modern methods of production have given us the possibility of ease and security for all; we have chosen, instead, to have overwork for some and starvation for the others. Hitherto we have continued to be as energetic as we were before there were machines; in this we have been foolish, but there is no reason to go on being foolish for ever.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>In Praise of Idleness, 1935</i></cite></blockquote>
<p><a id="Women.27s_suffrage" name="Women.27s_suffrage"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Women's suffrage</span></h3>
<p>As a young man, Russell was a member of the <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Party and wrote in favour of <!--del_lnk--> free trade and <!--del_lnk--> women's suffrage. In his 1910 pamphlet, <i>Anti-Suffragist Anxieties</i>, Russell wrote that some men opposed suffrage because they "fear that their liberty to act in ways that are injurious to women will be curtailed." In 1907 he was nominated by the National Union of Suffrage Societies to run for <a href="../../wp/p/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> in a <!--del_lnk--> by-election, which he lost by a wide margin.<p><a id="Sexuality" name="Sexuality"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sexuality</span></h3>
<p>Russell wrote against <!--del_lnk--> Victorian notions of morality. <i><!--del_lnk--> Marriage and Morals</i> (1929) expressed his opinion that sex between a man and woman who are not married to each other is not necessarily immoral if they truly love one another, and advocated "trial marriages" or "companionate marriage", formalised relationships whereby young people could legitimately have sexual intercourse without being expected to remain married in the long term or to have children (an idea first proposed by Judge <!--del_lnk--> Ben Lindsey). This might not seem extreme by today's standards, but it was enough to raise vigorous protests and denunciations against him during his visit to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> shortly after the book's publication. Russell was also ahead of his time in advocating open <!--del_lnk--> sex education and widespread access to <!--del_lnk--> contraception. He also advocated easy <!--del_lnk--> divorce, but only if the marriage had produced no children - Russell's view was that parents should remain married but tolerant of each other's sexual infidelity, if they had children. This reflected his life at the time - his second wife Dora was openly having an affair, and would soon become pregnant by another man, but Russell was keen for their children John and Kate to have a "normal" family life.<p>Russell's private life was even more unconventional and freewheeling than his published writings revealed, but that was not well known at the time. For example, philosopher <!--del_lnk--> Sidney Hook reports that Russell often spoke of his <!--del_lnk--> sexual prowess and of his various conquests.<p><a id="Eugenics_and_race" name="Eugenics_and_race"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Eugenics and race</span></h3>
<p>Some critics of Russell have pointed out racist passages in his early writings, as well as his initial praise for the then-fashionable idea of <!--del_lnk--> eugenics. For example, in early editions of his book <i>Marriage and Morals</i> (1929) he asserted:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>In extreme cases there can be little doubt of the superiority of one race to another.... It seems on the whole fair to regard negroes as on the average inferior to white men, although for work in the tropics they are indispensable, so that their extermination (apart from questions of humanity) would be highly undesirable.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>Marriage and Morals (1929)</i></cite></blockquote>
<p>Later in his life, Russell criticized eugenic programs for their vulnerability to corruption, and, by 1932, he was to condemn the "unwarranted assumption" that "Negroes are congenitally inferior to white men" (<i>Education and the Social Order</i>, Chap. 3). Racism rapidly declined in acceptance throughout the second half of the 20th century. In fact, Russell seems to have been one of the leaders of change in this sphere. He wrote a chapter on "Racial Antagonism" in <i>New Hopes for a Changing World</i> (1951):<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>It is sometimes maintained that racial mixture is biologically undesirable. There is no evidence whatever for this view. Nor is there, apparently, any reason to think that Negroes are congenitally less intelligent than white people, but as to that it will be difficult to judge until they have equal scope and equally good social conditions.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>New Hopes for a Changing World (London: Allen & Unwin, 1951, p. 108)</i></cite></blockquote>
<p>There is a much later condemnation-in-passing of racism in Russell's "<!--del_lnk--> 16 Questions on the Assassination" (1964), in which he mentions "Senator Russell of Georgia and Congressman Boggs of Louisiana ... whose racist views have brought shame on the United States".<p><a id="Russell_summing_up_his_life" name="Russell_summing_up_his_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Russell summing up his life</span></h2>
<p>Admitting to failure in helping the world to conquer <a href="../../wp/w/War.htm" title="War">war</a> and in winning his perpetual intellectual battle for eternal truths, Russell wrote this in "Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday", which also served as the last entry in the last volume of his <!--del_lnk--> autobiography, published in his 98th year:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>I have lived in the pursuit of a vision, both personal and social. Personal: to care for what is noble, for what is beautiful, for what is gentle; to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times. Social: to see in imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and greed and envy die because there is nothing to nourish them. These things I believe, and the world, for all its horrors, has left me unshaken.<p style="text-align: right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;">—Bertrand Russell, <i>"Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday"</i></cite></blockquote>
<p><a id="Comments_about_Russell" name="Comments_about_Russell"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Comments about Russell</span></h2>
<p><a id="His_appearance" name="His_appearance"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">His appearance</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>"It is impossible to describe Bertrand Russell except by saying that he looks like the <!--del_lnk--> Mad Hatter."</i><dl>
<dd>— <!--del_lnk--> Norbert Wiener, <i>Ex-Prodigy</i>, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1953.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="As_a_man" name="As_a_man"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">As a man</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>"Bertrand Russell would not have wished to be called a saint of any description; but he was a great and good man."</i><dl>
<dd>— <!--del_lnk--> A.J. Ayer, <i>Bertrand Russell</i>, NY: Viking Press, 1972.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="As_a_philosopher" name="As_a_philosopher"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">As a philosopher</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>"It is difficult to overstate the extent to which Russell's thought dominated twentieth century analytic philosophy: virtually every strand in its development either originated with him or was transformed by being transmitted through him. Analytic philosophy itself owes its existence more to Russell than to any other philosopher."</i><dl>
<dd>— Nicholas Griffin, The <i>Cambridge Companion to Bertrand Russell</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="As_a_writer_and_his_place_in_history" name="As_a_writer_and_his_place_in_history"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">As a writer and his place in history</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>"Russell's prose has been compared by T.S. Eliot to that of David Hume's. I would rank it higher, for it had more colour, juice, and humor. But to be lucid, exciting</i> and <i>profound in the main body of one's work is a combination of virtues given to few philosophers. Bertrand Russell has achieved immortality by his philosophical writings."</i><dl>
<dd>— <!--del_lnk--> Sidney Hook, <i>Out of Step, An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century</i>, NY: Carol & Graff, 1988.</dl>
</dl>
<dl>
<dd><i>"Russell's books should be bound in two colours, those dealing with mathematical logic in red—and all students of philosophy should read them; those dealing with ethics and politics in blue—and no one should be allowed to read them."</i><dl>
<dd>— <a href="../../wp/l/Ludwig_Wittgenstein.htm" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, in <!--del_lnk--> Rush Rhees, <i>Recollections of Wittgenstein</i>, Oxford Paperbacks, 1984.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="As_a_mathematician_and_logician" name="As_a_mathematician_and_logician"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">As a mathematician and logician</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>Of the Principia: <i>"...its enduring value was simply a deeper understanding of the central concepts of mathematics and their basic laws and interrelationships. Their total translatability into just elementary logic and a simple familiar two-place predicate, membership, is of itself a philosophical sensation."</i><dl>
<dd>— <!--del_lnk--> W.V. Quine, <i>From Stimulus to Science</i>, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="As_an_activist" name="As_an_activist"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">As an activist</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>"Oh, Bertrand Russell! Oh, <!--del_lnk--> Hewlett Johnson! Where, oh where, was your flaming conscience at that time?"</i><dl>
<dd>— <!--del_lnk--> Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, <i>The Gulag Archipelago</i>, Harper & Row, 1974.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="As_a_recipient_of_the_Nobel_Prize_for_Literature" name="As_a_recipient_of_the_Nobel_Prize_for_Literature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">As a recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>In other words, it was specifically</i> not <i>for his incontestably great contributions to philosophy—</i>The Principles of Mathematics<i>, 'On Denoting' and</i> Principia Mathematica<i>—that he was being honoured, but for the later work that his fellow philosophers were unanimous in regarding as inferior.</i><dl>
<dd>— Ray Monk, <i>Bertrand Russell, The Ghost of Madness</i>, p. 332.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="From_a_daughter" name="From_a_daughter"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">From a daughter</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd><i>"He was the most fascinating man I have ever known, the only man I ever loved, the greatest man I shall ever meet, the wittiest, the gayest, the most charming. It was a privilege to know him, and I thank God he was my father."</i><dl>
<dd>— Katharine Tait, <i>My Father Bertrand Russell</i>, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, p. 202.</dl>
</dl>
<p><a id="Further_reading" name="Further_reading"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Succession</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #ccffcc;"><!--del_lnk--> Peerage of the United Kingdom</th>
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<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Frank Russell</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Earl Russell</b><br /> 1931–1970</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> John Russell</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="NavFrame">
<div align="center" class="NavHead" style="background:#ccccff"><b><!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize in Literature: <!--del_lnk--> Laureates (1926-1950)</b></div>
<div class="NavContent">
<table>
<tr>
<td align="center" style="font-size: 90%;">
<p>1926: <!--del_lnk--> Deledda | 1927: <!--del_lnk--> Bergson | 1928: <!--del_lnk--> Undset | 1929: <!--del_lnk--> Mann | 1930: <!--del_lnk--> Lewis | 1931: <!--del_lnk--> Karlfeldt | 1932: <!--del_lnk--> Galsworthy | 1933: <!--del_lnk--> Bunin | 1934: <!--del_lnk--> Pirandello | 1936: <!--del_lnk--> O'Neill | 1937: <!--del_lnk--> Martin du Gard | 1938: <!--del_lnk--> Buck | 1939: <!--del_lnk--> Sillanpää | 1944: <!--del_lnk--> Jensen | 1945: <!--del_lnk--> G.Mistral | 1946: <!--del_lnk--> Hesse | 1947: <!--del_lnk--> Gide | 1948: <a href="../../wp/t/T._S._Eliot.htm" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a> | 1949: <!--del_lnk--> Faulkner | 1950: <strong class="selflink">Russell</strong><hr />
<div align="center"><i><!--del_lnk--> Complete List | <!--del_lnk--> Laureates (1901-1925) | <!--del_lnk--> Laureates (1951-1975) | <!--del_lnk--> Laureates (1976-2000) | <!--del_lnk--> Laureates (2001- )</i></div>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<table class="metadata persondata" id="persondata">
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Persondata</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">NAME</td>
<td>Russel, Bertrand Arthur William, 3rd Earl Russell</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">ALTERNATIVE NAMES</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">SHORT DESCRIPTION</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <!--del_lnk--> logician, and <!--del_lnk--> mathematician</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">DATE OF BIRTH</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 18 May <!--del_lnk--> 1872</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">PLACE OF BIRTH</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Trellech, <!--del_lnk--> Monmouthshire, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">DATE OF DEATH</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2 February <!--del_lnk--> 1970</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">PLACE OF DEATH</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Penrhyndeudraeth, <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Wales</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Beryllium</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<table align="right" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable" style="margin:0 0 0.5em 0.5em">
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">4</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/l/Lithium.htm" title="Lithium">lithium</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">beryllium</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/b/Boron.htm" title="Boron">boron</a></span></td>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%">-</span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Be</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">Mg</a></span></td>
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<td>
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1618.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Be-TableImage.png" src="../../images/16/1618.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead; color:black">General</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>beryllium, Be, 4</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> alkaline earth metals</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2, <!--del_lnk--> s</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>white-gray metallic<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1619.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="58" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Be_foils.jpg" src="../../images/16/1619.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 9.012182<!--del_lnk--> (3) g/mol</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>1s<sup>2</sup> 2s<sup>2</sup></td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 2</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead; color:black">Physical properties</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>1.85 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>1.690 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>1560 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (1287 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 2349 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>2742 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (2469 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 4476 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>7.895 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>297 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 16.443 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
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<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>1462</td>
<td>1608</td>
<td>1791</td>
<td>2023</td>
<td>2327</td>
<td>2742</td>
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</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>hexagonal</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td>2<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> amphoteric oxide)</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>1.57 (Pauling scale)</td>
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<tr>
<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 899.5 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2nd: 1757.1 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>3rd: 14848.7 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 105 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
</tr>
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<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 112 pm</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 90 pm</td>
</tr>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
</tr>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> diamagnetic</td>
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<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(20 °C) 35.6 nΩ·m</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 200 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(25 °C) 11.3 µm·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(<!--del_lnk--> r.t.) 12870 <!--del_lnk--> m·s<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Young's modulus</td>
<td>287 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Shear modulus</td>
<td>132 GPa</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bulk modulus</td>
<td>130 GPa</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Poisson ratio</td>
<td>0.032</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></td>
<td>5.5</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Vickers hardness</td>
<td>1670 MPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Brinell hardness</td>
<td>600 MPa</td>
</tr>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-41-7</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
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<td colspan="2">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="100%">
<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of beryllium</caption>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="2"><sup>7</sup>Be</td>
<td rowspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td rowspan="2">53.12 <a href="../../wp/d/Day.htm" title="Day">d</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε</td>
<td>-</td>
<td><sup>7</sup><a href="../../wp/l/Lithium.htm" title="Lithium">Li</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> γ</td>
<td>0.477</td>
<td>-</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>9</sup>Be</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td colspan="4">Be is <!--del_lnk--> stable with 5 <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><sup>10</sup>Be</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> trace</td>
<td>1.51×10<sup>6</sup> <!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> β<sup>-</sup></td>
<td>0.556</td>
<td><sup>10</sup><a href="../../wp/b/Boron.htm" title="Boron">B</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ffdead; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Beryllium</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/bəˈrɪliəm/</span>) is the <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Be</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 4. A <!--del_lnk--> bivalent element, beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle, <!--del_lnk--> alkaline earth <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metal</a>, that is primarily used as a hardening agent in <!--del_lnk--> alloys (most notably <!--del_lnk--> beryllium copper).<p>
<br />
<p>
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</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>Beryllium has one of the highest <!--del_lnk--> melting points of the light <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metals</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately <sup>1</sup>/<sub>3</sub> greater than that of steel. It has excellent <!--del_lnk--> thermal conductivity, is nonmagnetic and resists attack by concentrated <!--del_lnk--> nitric acid. It is highly permeable to <!--del_lnk--> X-rays, and <a href="../../wp/n/Neutron.htm" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> are liberated when it is hit by <!--del_lnk--> alpha particles, as from <a href="../../wp/r/Radium.htm" title="Radium">radium</a> or <a href="../../wp/p/Polonium.htm" title="Polonium">polonium</a> (about 30 neutrons/million alpha particles). At <!--del_lnk--> standard temperature and pressures beryllium resists <!--del_lnk--> oxidation when exposed to air (although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide). The <!--del_lnk--> speed of sound in beryllium (12,500m/s) is greater than in any other element.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The name beryllium comes from the <!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>beryllos</i>, beryl, from <!--del_lnk--> Prakrit <i>veruliya</i>, from <!--del_lnk--> Pāli <i>veuriya</i>; possibly from or simply akin to a <!--del_lnk--> Dravidian source represented by <a href="../../wp/t/Tamil_language.htm" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> <i>veiruor</i>, <i>viar</i>, "to whiten, become pale." At one time beryllium was referred to as <b>glucinium</b> (from <!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>glykys</i>, sweet), due to the sweet taste of its <a href="../../wp/s/Salt.htm" title="Salt">salts</a>. This element was discovered by <!--del_lnk--> Louis Vauquelin in <!--del_lnk--> 1798 as the oxide in <!--del_lnk--> beryl and in <!--del_lnk--> emeralds. <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Wöhler and <!--del_lnk--> A. A. Bussy independently isolated the metal in <!--del_lnk--> 1828 by reacting <a href="../../wp/p/Potassium.htm" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and <!--del_lnk--> beryllium chloride.<p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>Beryllium is an essential constituent of about 100 out of about 4000 known <a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">minerals</a>, the most important of which are <!--del_lnk--> bertrandite (Be<sub>4</sub>Si<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> beryl (Al<sub>2</sub>Be<sub>3</sub>Si<sub>6</sub>O<sub>18</sub>), <!--del_lnk--> chrysoberyl (Al<sub>2</sub>BeO<sub>4</sub>), and <!--del_lnk--> phenakite (Be<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub>). Precious forms of beryl are <!--del_lnk--> aquamarine and <!--del_lnk--> emerald.<p>The most important commercial sources of beryllium and its compounds are beryl and bertrandite. Beryllium metal did not become readily available until <!--del_lnk--> 1957. Currently, most production of this metal is accomplished by reducing <!--del_lnk--> beryllium fluoride with <a href="../../wp/m/Magnesium.htm" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> metal. The price on the US market for vacuum-cast beryllium ingots was 338 <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US$</a> per pound ($745/kg) in 2001.<dl>
<dd>BeF<sub>2</sub> + Mg → MgF<sub>2</sub> + Be</dl>
<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>Beryllium is used as an <!--del_lnk--> alloying agent in the production of beryllium-<a href="../../wp/c/Copper.htm" title="Copper">copper</a> because of its ability to absorb large amounts of heat. Beryllium-copper alloys are used in a wide variety of applications because of their <!--del_lnk--> electrical and <!--del_lnk--> thermal conductivity, high strength and <!--del_lnk--> hardness, nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These applications include the making of spot-<a href="../../wp/w/Welding.htm" title="Welding">welding</a> electrodes, <!--del_lnk--> springs, non-sparking tools and <!--del_lnk--> electrical contacts.<li>Due to their stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium-copper alloys are also used in the defense and aerospace industries as light-weight structural materials in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and <!--del_lnk--> communication satellites.<li>Thin sheets of beryllium foil are used with <!--del_lnk--> X-ray detection diagnostics to filter out visible light and allow only X-rays to be detected.<li>Beryllium is an effective p-type dopant in III-V compound semiconductors. It is widely used in materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs, and InAlAs grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE).<li>In the field of X-ray lithography beryllium is used for the reproduction of microscopic <a href="../../wp/i/Integrated_circuit.htm" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>.<li>In the <!--del_lnk--> telecommunications industry, Beryllium is made into tools that are used to tune the highly magnetic <!--del_lnk--> klystrons used for high power <!--del_lnk--> microwave transmissions for safety.<li>Because it has a low <!--del_lnk--> thermal neutron absorption cross section, the nuclear power industry uses this metal in <!--del_lnk--> nuclear reactors as a neutron reflector and moderator.<li>Beryllium is used in nuclear weapons for similar reasons. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> critical mass of a plutonium sphere is significantly reduced if the plutonium is surrounded by a beryllium shell.<li>Beryllium is sometimes used in <!--del_lnk--> neutron sources, in which the beryllium is mixed with an alpha emitter such as <sup>210</sup><a href="../../wp/p/Polonium.htm" title="Polonium">Po</a>, <sup>226</sup><a href="../../wp/r/Radium.htm" title="Radium">Ra</a>, <sup>239</sup><a href="../../wp/p/Plutonium.htm" title="Plutonium">Pu</a> or <sup>241</sup><a href="../../wp/a/Americium.htm" title="Americium">Am</a>.<li>Beryllium is also used in the making of <!--del_lnk--> gyroscopes, various <a href="../../wp/c/Computer.htm" title="Computer">computer</a> equipment, watch springs and instruments where light-weight, rigidity and dimensional stability are needed.<li><!--del_lnk--> Beryllium oxide is useful for many applications that require an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, with a very high melting point, and that acts as an electrical insulator.<li>Beryllium compounds were once used in <!--del_lnk--> fluorescent lighting tubes, but this use was discontinued because of <!--del_lnk--> berylliosis in the workers manufacturing the tubes (see below).<li>The <!--del_lnk--> James Webb Space Telescope will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors. Because JWST will face a temperature of −240 degrees Celsius (30 kelvins), the mirror is made of beryllium, a material capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass — and thus remains more uniform — in such temperatures. For the same reason, the optics of the <!--del_lnk--> Spitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium.<li>Beryllium is also used in the <!--del_lnk--> Joint European Torus fusion research facility, to condition the plasma facing components.<li>Beryllium has also been used in <!--del_lnk--> tweeter construction by the company <!--del_lnk--> Focal-JMlab on its flagship Utopia Be series as an alternative to <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a>, largely due to its lower density and greater rigidity.</ul>
<p><a id="Isotopes" name="Isotopes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Isotopes</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/32/3217.png.htm" title="Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in 10Be concentration."><img alt="Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in 10Be concentration." height="194" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Solar_Activity_Proxies.png" src="../../images/16/1620.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/32/3217.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in <sup>10</sup>Be concentration.</div>
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<p>Of beryllium's <!--del_lnk--> isotopes, only <sup>9</sup>Be is stable. <!--del_lnk--> Cosmogenic <sup>10</sup>Be is produced in the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> by <!--del_lnk--> cosmic ray <!--del_lnk--> spallation of <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen.htm" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>. Because beryllium tends to exist in <!--del_lnk--> solution at <!--del_lnk--> pH levels less than about 5.5 (and most rainwater has a pH less than 5), it will enter into solution and be transported to the Earth's surface via rainwater. As the <!--del_lnk--> precipitation quickly becomes more <!--del_lnk--> alkaline, beryllium drops out of solution. Cosmogenic <sup>10</sup>Be thereby accumulates at the <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soil</a> surface, where its relatively long <!--del_lnk--> half-life (1.51 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to <sup>10</sup><a href="../../wp/b/Boron.htm" title="Boron">B</a>. <sup>10</sup>Be and its daughter products have been used to examine <!--del_lnk--> soil erosion, <!--del_lnk--> soil formation from <!--del_lnk--> regolith, the development of <!--del_lnk--> lateritic soils, as well as variations in <!--del_lnk--> solar activity and the age of <!--del_lnk--> ice cores.<p>The fact that <sup>7</sup>Be and <sup>8</sup>Be are unstable has profound cosmological consequences as it means that elements heavier than beryllium could not be produced by nuclear fusion in the <a href="../../wp/b/Big_Bang.htm" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>. Moreover, the nuclear energy levels of <sup>8</sup>Be are such that carbon can be produced within stars, thus making life possible. (See <!--del_lnk--> triple-alpha process and <!--del_lnk--> Big Bang nucleosynthesis).<p>The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is <sup>13</sup>Be which decays through <!--del_lnk--> neutron emission. It has a half-life of 2.7 × 10<sup>-21</sup> seconds. <sup>6</sup>Be also is also very short-lived with a half-life of 5.0 × 10<sup>-21</sup> seconds.<p>The exotics <sup>11</sup>Be and <sup>14</sup>Be are known to exhibit a <!--del_lnk--> nuclear halo.<p><a id="Health_effects" name="Health_effects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Health effects</span></h2>
<p><a id="Precautions" name="Precautions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Precautions</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1621.jpg.htm" title="Beryllium ore"><img alt="Beryllium ore" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beryllium_OreUSGOV.jpg" src="../../images/16/1621.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Beryllium and its salts are <!--del_lnk--> toxic substances and potentially <!--del_lnk--> carcinogenic. Chronic <!--del_lnk--> berylliosis is a <!--del_lnk--> pulmonary and <!--del_lnk--> systemic <!--del_lnk--> granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the form of <!--del_lnk--> chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing <!--del_lnk--> fluorescent lamps in <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles <!--del_lnk--> sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult.<p>Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.<p>Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust (<a href="../../wp/l/Lung_cancer.htm" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a> is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).<p>This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt should be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.<p>A successful test for beryllium on different surface areas has been recently developed. The procedure uses fluorescence when beryllium is bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline to detect up to 10 times lower than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the work place. Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces.<p><a id="Inhalation" name="Inhalation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Inhalation</span></h3>
<p>Beryllium can be harmful if inhaled and the effects depend on period of exposure. If beryllium air levels are high enough (greater than 100 µg/m³), an acute condition can result, called acute beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage. Long term exposure to beryllium can increase the risk of developing lung cancer. The more common and serious health hazard from beryllium today is chronic beryllium disease (CBD), discussed below. It continues to occur in industries as diverse as metal recycling, dental laboratories, alloy manufacturing, nuclear weapons production, defense industries, and metal machine shops that work with alloys containing small amounts of beryllium.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1622.jpg.htm" title="A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case to be used as a window between a vacuum chamber and an X-ray microscope. Beryllium, due to its low Z number is highly transparent to X-rays."><img alt="A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case to be used as a window between a vacuum chamber and an X-ray microscope. Beryllium, due to its low Z number is highly transparent to X-rays." height="295" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Be_foil_square.jpg" src="../../images/16/1622.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1622.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A square beryllium foil mounted in a steel case to be used as a window between a vacuum chamber and an <!--del_lnk--> X-ray microscope. Beryllium, due to its low Z number is highly transparent to X-rays.</div>
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<p><a id="Chronic_beryllium_disease_.28CBD.29" name="Chronic_beryllium_disease_.28CBD.29"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Chronic beryllium disease (CBD)</span></h4>
<p>Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory reaction that principally targets the respiratory system and skin. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur within a few months or many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.02 µg/m³). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, night sweats and can cause difficulty in breathing and a persistent dry cough. It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have any symptoms. The disease is treatable but not curable. CBD occurs when the body's immune system recognizes beryllium particles as foreign material and mounts an immune system attack against the particles. Because these particles are typically inhaled into the lungs, the lungs becomes the major site where the immune system responds. The lungs become inflamed, filled with large numbers of white blood cells that accumulate wherever beryllium particles are found. The cells form balls around the beryllium particles called "granulomas." When enough of these granulomas develop, they interfere with the normal function of the organ. Over time, the lungs become stiff and lose their ability to help transfer oxygen from the air into the bloodstream. Patients with CBD develop difficulty inhaling and exhaling sufficient amounts of air and the amount of oxygen in their bloodstreams falls. Treatment of such patients includes use of oxygen and medicines that try to suppress the immune system's over-reaction to beryllium. A class of immunosuppressive medicines called glucocorticoids (example: prednisone), is most commonly used as treatment. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m³).<p><a id="Ingestion" name="Ingestion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ingestion</span></h3>
<p>Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause <!--del_lnk--> rashes or ulcers, or bumps under the skin called "granulomas."<p><a id="Effects_on_children" name="Effects_on_children"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Effects on children</span></h3>
<p>There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium, although individual cases of CBD have been reported in children of beryllium workers from the 1940s. It is likely that the health effects seen in children exposed to beryllium will be similar to the effects seen in adults. It is unknown whether children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium. It is unclear whether beryllium is <!--del_lnk--> teratogenic.<p><a id="Detection_in_the_body" name="Detection_in_the_body"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Detection in the body</span></h3>
<p>Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples. While such measurements may help establish that exposure has occurred, other tests are used to determine if that exposure has resulted in health effects. A blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD. The BeLPT has become the standard test for detecting beryllium sensitization and CBD in individuals who are suspected of having CBD and to help distinguish it from similar conditions such as sarcoidosis. It is also the main test used in industry health programs to monitor whether disease is occurring among current and former workers who have been exposed to beryllium on the job. The test can detect disease that is at an early stage, or can detect disease at more advanced stages of illness as well. The BeLPT can also be performed using cells obtained from a person's lung by a procedure called "bronchoscopy."<p><a id="Industrial_release_limits" name="Industrial_release_limits"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Industrial release limits</span></h2>
<p>Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are of the order of 0.01 µg/m³, averaged over a 30-day period, or 2 µg/m³ of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift. Compliance with the current U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit for beryllium of 2 µg/m³ has been determined to be inadequate to protect workers from developing beryllium sensitization and CBD. The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), which is an independent organization of experts in the field of occupational health, has proposed a threshold limit value (TLV) of 0.05 µg/m³ in a 2006 Notice of Intended Change (NIC). This TLV is 40 times lower than the current OHSA permissible exposure limit, reflecting the ACGIH analysis of best available peer-reviewed research data concerning how little airborne beryllium is required to cause sensitization and CBD. Because it can be difficult to control industrial exposures to beryllium, it is advisable to use any methods possible to reduce airborne and surface contamination by beryllium, to minimize the use of beryllium and beryllium-containing alloys whenever possible, and to educate people about the potential hazards if they are likely to encounter beryllium dust or fumes.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium"</div>
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<h2>'Best NGO' Award for SOS Children in India</h2><p><strong>14/09/2006</strong></p>
<img src="../../wp/c/CV_Khajuri_Kalan_14297.jpg" width="166" height="260" alt="Making music at the new village in Khajuri Kalan" class="left" /><p>The work of SOS Children's Villages in India has been recognised by the Government of India, which has announced the association as recipient of the Best Non-Governmental Organisation award for its commitment to special needs children. The award will be presented at a ceremony on 22 September 2006 in New Delhi. </p><p>SOS Children's Village Khajuri Kalan, in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, opened in April 2006 to accommodate children with special needs. India currently has inadequate facilities for special needs children and the SOS Children's Village is seen as an exemplary model in this field. The care offered is all-encompassing: the SOS families are smaller than in conventional SOS Children's Villages, and SOS mothers - who have completed one and a half years of intensive training - are assisted by an additional caregiver.</p><img src="../../wp/c/CV_Khajuri_Kalan_100176.jpg" width="270" height="202" alt="Mother and child at SOS Childrens' Village Khajuri Kalan" class="right" /><p>All areas of each of the 12 family houses are fully accessible and special needs-friendly. In order to guarantee that the children receive individual attention, qualified caregivers offer children physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and movement therapy in openly-built facilities. There is an SOS Medical Centre on-site, which includes an outpatient clinic offering care to children from the neighbouring areas. </p><p>Presently, SOS Children's Village Khajuri Kalan cares for 68 children in its 12 family houses. The National Trust, an autonomous body under the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, instituted this annual award in 2003, which is given to organisations taking action for persons with autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation or other disabilities. </p><p>Last year, the Indian government bestowed the National Award for Child Welfare to SOS Children's Villages of India. In 1998, SOS Children's Village Cochin won the National Award for Child Welfare.</p><p><strong>Relevant Countries:</strong> <a href="../../wp/i/India_A.htm">India</a>.</p>
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<p><strong>We share the best practices we have learnt in dealing with AIDS in Africa:</strong></p><p>As the world's largest orphan charity, and as a responsible member of society present in much of Africa, we have been working for years on how best to help those children left without parents by HIV/AIDS, especially in Africa. We have a set of working AIDS Africa guidelines but we also compare other programmes in the field and draw conclusions on which models work best. Much of it is common sense or Africa sense: the best solution if possible is to support the orphans in a family unit and help them keep their old family home. This requires knowing who is who and local partners are invaluable. But in practice it takes time and care to overcome obstacles which are not always expected. These papers are based on a workshop of SOS field workers held last year.</p><p><strong>HIV/AIDS programmes: principles and examples</strong></p><p><ol><li><p><strong>Target the most vulnerable children, their families & communities:</strong></p><p>Community-based research provides a basis to develop an orphan register<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_1.htm">Example of SOS Social Centre Mbabane, Swaziland</a></p></li><li><p><strong>Support vulnerable children in order to assure their immediate survival & development rights</strong></p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_2.htm">Example of SOS Social Centre Waterfalls, Zimbabwe</a></p></li><li><p><strong>Use a holistic support package tailored to meet the basic survival and development needs of a child:</strong></p><p>Family carers (volunteers) conduct regular home visits; build families capacity to protect and care for their children<br /><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_3.htm">Example of SOS Social Centre Mbabane, Swaziland</a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_4.htm">Example of SOS Social Centre Mamelodi, South Africa</a></p></li><li><p><strong>Assist Care takers of orphans and vulnerable children to access government grants</strong></p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_5.htm">Example of SOS Social Centre Lusaka, Zambia</a></p></li><li><p><strong>Immediate material needs are addressed through a household support plan which includes capacity building strategies</strong></p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_6.htm">SOS Social Centre Lilongwe, Malawi</a></p></li><li><p><strong>Mobilise community-based organisations, facilitate self-organisation and channel all support possible through the community structures</strong></p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_7.htm">SOS Social Centre Nelspruit, South Africa (partnership with Siyasitana Home Based Care group)</a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_8.htm">SOS Social Centre Mamelodi (Partnership with "Tateni" home-based care organisation)</a></p></li><li><p><strong>Planning & evaluation ensure that programmes are relevant & effective</strong></p><p><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_9.htm">SOS Social Centre Lilongwe, Malawi (slowly but surely: step by step)</a><br /><a href="../../wp/a/Aids_Africa_Orphans_Best_Practice_10.htm">SOS Community Social Centre Qwa Qwa, South Africa</a></p></li><li><p><strong>Local stakeholders should be actively involved at every stage of the planning and establishment of the programme</strong></p></li></ol></p>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Betelgeuse incident</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Air_and_Sea_transport.htm">Air & Sea transport</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17031.png.htm" title="Sketch map of the Bantry area. For full chart, see "><img alt="Sketch map of the Bantry area. For full chart, see " height="197" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bantry.PNG" src="../../images/170/17031.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>The <i>Betelgeuse</i> incident</b>, also known as the <i>Betelgeuse</i> or Whiddy Island disaster, occurred on <!--del_lnk--> 8 January <!--del_lnk--> 1979, at around 1 a.m., when the <!--del_lnk--> oil tanker <i>Betelgeuse</i> exploded in <a href="../../wp/r/Republic_of_Ireland.htm" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> at the offshore jetty of the <!--del_lnk--> Whiddy Island Oil Terminal due to the failure of the ship's structure during an operation to discharge its cargo of <!--del_lnk--> oil. The tanker was owned by <!--del_lnk--> Total S.A. and the oil terminal was owned and operated by <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Oil.<p>The explosion and resulting fire claimed the lives of 50 people (42 <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> nationals, 7 <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a> nationals and 1 <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> national). Only 27 bodies were recovered. A further fatality occurred during the salvage operation with the loss of a <!--del_lnk--> Dutch diver.<p>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17032.png.htm" title="sketch map of Ireland, showing position of Bantry Bay"><img alt="sketch map of Ireland, showing position of Bantry Bay" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BantryBay.PNG" src="../../images/170/17032.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>During the 1960s, developments in the pattern of oil transportation indicated that it would soon become most economic to move oil between the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> using <!--del_lnk--> Ultra Large Crude Carrier vessels. These vessels were so large that they would not be able to enter most of the older ports on the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/North_Sea.htm" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> coasts.<p>Accordingly, it was judged appropriate to build a new oil terminal in Europe capable of handling the largest vessels that were planned. The intention was that oil coming from the Middle East would be off-loaded at this terminal and then stored for <!--del_lnk--> transshipment to European refineries using smaller vessels. The closure of the <a href="../../wp/s/Suez_Canal.htm" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1967 as a result of the <!--del_lnk--> Six-Day War reinforced the viability of this scheme. Oil shipments had to come round the <!--del_lnk--> Cape of Good Hope, thus avoiding the vessel size constraints previously imposed by the canal.<p>In 1966, the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Oil Corporation identified <!--del_lnk--> Whiddy Island in <!--del_lnk--> Bantry Bay, Ireland, as being the most suitable site for the new terminal. Whiddy Island offered a long, sheltered deep-water anchorage. Furthermore, it was well away from any major population centres and shipping lanes. Construction started in <!--del_lnk--> 1967 and the terminal was completed in <!--del_lnk--> 1969.<p>The onshore facility included a 'tank farm' consisting of two tanks for <!--del_lnk--> ballast, two for <!--del_lnk--> bunker fuel oil, one for <!--del_lnk--> diesel oil and twelve <!--del_lnk--> crude oil storage tanks, each capable of holding 81,280 <!--del_lnk--> tonnes, bringing the total capacity to approximately 1.3 million tonnes of oil. The offshore facility was comprised of an island type <!--del_lnk--> berth (known colloquially as the 'jetty') 488 metres (1,600 ft) in length, approximately 396 metres (1,300 ft) from the onshore facility.<p>The construction and operation of the terminal transformed the economy of the Bantry area. In <!--del_lnk--> 1968 the tanker <i>Universe Ireland</i> went into service for Gulf. At 312,000 <!--del_lnk--> dwt this was the largest ship in the world. It was intended to use this vessel mainly to move oil between <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> and Whiddy Island. It was the first of six such tankers planned for use by the company.<p>The terminal was very successful for the first five years of operation, but then events began to move against it. The Suez Canal reopened and the economics of ULCCs began to appear less satisfactory than had originally been anticipated. Shipping goods in the form of infrequent but very large loads involves engaging more idle capital in the form of stock than the alternatives. Also, the process of transshipment is costly. The whole economic basis of the Whiddy terminal was incompatible with the '<!--del_lnk--> just-in-time' approach to industrial management which was being widely adopted at the time. That apart, the late <!--del_lnk--> 1970s saw a levelling-off in demand for oil as the result of both economic recession and a rise in the price of oil. All these circumstances caused a fall in the utilisation of the terminal to a level below that which had been planned for. Thus, by the late 1970s, the local Gulf operating company (Gulf Oil Terminals (Ireland) Ltd) was struggling to maintain the viability of the terminal. The company had been forced to undertake a number of cost saving measures.<p><a id="The_incident" name="The_incident"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The incident</span></h2>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> 24 November <!--del_lnk--> 1978, the <i>Betelgeuse</i> left <!--del_lnk--> Ras Tanura in the <a href="../../wp/p/Persian_Gulf.htm" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> bound for <!--del_lnk--> Leixoes, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> with a full cargo of crude oil. Built in 1968, by <!--del_lnk--> Chantiers de l'Atlantique, in <!--del_lnk--> Saint-Nazaire, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, the 121,432 dwt vessel was registered by <!--del_lnk--> Total S.A. at <!--del_lnk--> Le Havre, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>.<p>Originally the <i>Betelgeuse</i> was to call at <!--del_lnk--> Sines, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, to lighten ship, but poor weather conditions prevented the vessel from entering the harbour. Plans were further frustrated at <!--del_lnk--> Leixoes, where a ship had grounded across the entrance to the harbour, preventing the <i>Betelgeuse</i> from berthing there to discharge her cargo. The <i>Betelgeuse</i> was then instructed to sail to <!--del_lnk--> Whiddy Island, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>.<p>The <i>Betelgeuse</i> first put in at <!--del_lnk--> Vigo, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> to change some of her crew, and then sailed for <!--del_lnk--> Whiddy Island on <!--del_lnk--> 30 December <!--del_lnk--> 1978. During the passage the vessel encountered heavy weather in the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Biscay and after reporting a leakage of oil was instructed to head towards <!--del_lnk--> Brest, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> at reduced speed. However, the origin of the leak was discovered and stopped. The vessel proceeded on its original planned course, arriving in <!--del_lnk--> Bantry Bay on <!--del_lnk--> 4 January <!--del_lnk--> 1979.<p>By 8 p.m. on <!--del_lnk--> 6 January <!--del_lnk--> 1979, the <i>Betelgeuse</i> had completed berthing at the offshore jetty. At 11:30 p.m. the same day, the vessel commenced discharging its 114,000 <!--del_lnk--> tonnes of mixed Arabian <!--del_lnk--> crude oil, which was expected to take about 36 hours. A number of the crew went ashore while this was in progress and the wife of one of the officers joined her husband on the vessel.<p>At about 1 a.m. (evidence on the precise time conflicts) on Monday, <!--del_lnk--> 8 January, a rumbling/cracking noise was heard from the vessel, followed shortly by a huge explosion within its hull. The force of the explosion was seen to blow men from the jetty into the sea. Local residents reported seeing the <i>Betelgeuse</i> engulfed in a ball of fire a few moments later. A series of further explosions followed which broke the vessel in half. Much of the oil cargo still on board ignited and this generated temperatures estimated to exceed 1,000 °C. The concrete unloading jetty crumbled and firefighters, arriving on the scene from several neighbouring towns, were unable to get near the vessel. The firefighters concentrated their efforts on preventing the fire from spreading to the tanks of the storage farm and containing the oil spillage. Local families living on the island fled for their lives.<p>After a few hours the <i>Betelgeuse</i> sank at her moorings in 30 metres of water, which largely extinguished the main body of the fire. In spite of this, rescue workers were not able to approach the wreck (some of which was still above water) for two weeks due to clouds of toxic and inflammable gas surrounding it. After two weeks, it was possible to start recovering bodies from the wreck and pumping off the remains of the oil cargo that was still on board.<p><a id="The_aftermath" name="The_aftermath"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The aftermath</span></h2>
<p>What became known variously as 'the <i>Betelgeuse</i> incident', 'the <i>Betelgeuse</i> disaster' or 'the Whiddy Island disaster' was the worst maritime disaster in Irish history. (Gulf and Total executives commonly referred to 'the <i>Betelgeuse</i> incident'). Military and civilian personnel were mobilised from all over <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> to deal with it. The incident was the subject of agonised debate in the <!--del_lnk--> Dáil. One <!--del_lnk--> TD noted that there had been earlier incidents at the Whiddy Island terminal and questioned whether Gulf's status as a major employer had made the authorities reluctant to enforce a rigorous inspection regime.<p>The Irish government appointed a Tribunal to investigate the incident, presided over by Justice Declan Costello. This Tribunal took a year to hear evidence and prepare a 480 page report. The report indicated three main factors that had contributed to the incident. These were:<ol>
<li>The poor condition of the <i>Betelgeuse</i> for which its operator, <!--del_lnk--> Total S.A., was to blame. Immediately before the incident, the vessel's hull and tanks were cracked, corroded and leaking. The 11 year old vessel had been worked hard and was at the end of its service life.<li>Incorrect unloading sequences and ballasting which resulted in the buoyancy of the hull becoming uneven and the hull therefore strained. Lack of crew training was the probable explanation. Total was held largely to blame for this. However, given that all the personnel involved in the unloading had died in the explosion, it was difficult to be certain as to what had happened.<li>Inadequate and poorly maintained fire fighting systems both on the vessel and on the jetty. Gulf and Total were held jointly to blame for this. A combination of human failings and financial constraints were the immediate causes.</ol>
<p>It was determined that a faulty unloading operation had unbalanced the vessel, causing it to break its back and thereby rupturing several empty tanks. Vapour from the ruptured tanks had escaped into the vessel and exploded in a fireball. All the crew on board the ship at the time of the incident (41 in total) are believed to have died, although not all the bodies were found. In addition, one visitor to the ship (an officer's wife) and eight terminal workers were killed. Initial efforts to contain the fire were hampered by a lack of organisation and poorly maintained fire fighting equipment at the terminal. The Bantry fire brigade spent some time waiting at the town pier for a launch to take them onto the island. The terminal's own fire engine would not start. Firefighters had to break into the terminal's main depot in order to access equipment (much of which did not work) and materials.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17036.png.htm" title="Betelgeuse memorial, St Finbarr's Church graveyard, Bantry - overlooking Bantry Harbour"><img alt="Betelgeuse memorial, St Finbarr's Church graveyard, Bantry - overlooking Bantry Harbour" height="267" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Memorial.PNG" src="../../images/170/17036.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17036.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Betelgeuse memorial, St Finbarr's Church graveyard, Bantry - overlooking Bantry Harbour</div>
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<p>There was some controversy over the exact timing of events and the response of the terminal management to the disaster as it unfolded. Some local residents claimed that there was anything up to 5 minutes between the audible structural failure of the vessel and the time at which the initial explosion happened. If this were so, the opportunity to attempt an evacuation had been missed. But the terminal management insisted that the explosion had almost immediately followed the structural failure. However, all concerned praised the initiative and courage of the firefighters and rescue workers.<p>A Dutch salvage firm, L Smit & Co, raised the <i>Betelgeuse</i> in four sections. The first section (the bow) was towed out to open water, 100 miles offshore, and scuttled. This measure attracted protests from the fishing community, so two further sections were sealed up and towed to breaking yards in Spain for disposal. A fourth section was broken up locally. During the salvage operation the life of a diver was lost. The last section was not removed until July 1980. Local fishing grounds were badly contaminated and a clean-up was not finally complete until 1983.<p>The costs of salvage, clean-up and compensation are believed to have totalled around US$120 millions. That included compensation paid by Total to Gulf. Most of the relevant costs were paid by insurance companies and all the various claims and counter-claims were eventually settled out of court. Gulf never reopened the terminal and a feasibility study in 1985 showed that it no longer had any potential use in international oil trade. In 1986 Gulf surrendered its lease on the site to the Irish government. The government used the terminal (after carrying out a limited refurbishment) to hold its strategic oil reserve, with loading and unloading carried out via a buoy. The terminal's main jetty was not rebuilt.<p>A number of memorial services have been held to commemorate anniversaries of the incident. The most recent of these was on the 25th anniversary in January 2004. Relatives of the victims joined with local residents in a special service held at St Finbarr’s Church in <!--del_lnk--> Bantry. A memorial sculpture, incorporating the ship's bell which was recovered from the wreck, has been erected in the hillside graveyard overlooking the harbour. The bodies of two unidentified casualties from the incident are interred nearby.<p>
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<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<p>Gulf Oil sponsored US television coverage of the NASA space launches and voyages in the 1960's. One commercial included in this coverage had an Irish band singing a rousing maritime song with the chorus :<dl>
<dd><i>Bringin' home the oil, me boys, bringin' home the oil!</i><br />
<dd><i>Sailing all around the world, bringin' home the oil!</i><br />
<dd><i>A workin' on a tanker ship, it's very hard we toil,</i><br />
<dd><i>A sailin' into Bantry Bay, bringin' home the oil!</i></dl>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bette Davis</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Actors_models_and_celebrities.htm">Actors, models and celebrities</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; background-color:silver; color:#000;"><b>Bette Davis</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%;"><a class="image" href="../../images/237/23766.jpg.htm" title=" "><img alt=" " height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:JezebelTrailerBetteDavis2.jpg" src="../../images/237/23766.jpg" width="250" /></a><br /><small>from the <i><!--del_lnk--> Jezebel</i> film trailer, 1938.</small></td>
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<td style="text-align:left;"><b>Birth name</b></td>
<td>Ruth Elizabeth Davis</td>
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<td width="85px"><b>Born</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> April 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1908<br /><!--del_lnk--> Lowell, Massachusetts, <!--del_lnk--> USA</td>
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<td><b>Died</b></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1989<br /><!--del_lnk--> Neuilly, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Academy<br /> Awards</b></td>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Best Actress</b><br /> 1935 <i><!--del_lnk--> Dangerous</i><br /> 1938 <i><!--del_lnk--> Jezebel</i></td>
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<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Emmy<br /> Awards</b></td>
<td><b><!--del_lnk--> Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie</b><br /> 1979 <i><!--del_lnk--> Strangers: The Story of a Mother and Daughter</i></td>
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<p><b>Bette Davis</b> (<!--del_lnk--> April 5, <!--del_lnk--> 1908 – <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1989), born <b>Ruth Elizabeth Davis</b>, was a two-time <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award-winning <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <a href="../../wp/a/Actor.htm" title="Actor">actress</a> of <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Television.htm" title="Television">television</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Theatre.htm" title="Theatre">theatre</a>.<p>After appearing in <!--del_lnk--> Broadway plays, Davis moved to <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood in 1930, but her early films for <!--del_lnk--> Universal Studios were unsuccessful. She joined <!--del_lnk--> Warner Brothers in 1932 and established her career with several critically acclaimed performances. In 1937, she attempted to free herself from her contract and although she lost a well-publicized legal case, it marked the beginning of the most successful period of her career. Until the late 1940s, she was one of American cinema's most celebrated leading actresses. She was highly regarded for her performances in a range of <!--del_lnk--> film genres, from contemporary <!--del_lnk--> crime melodramas to <!--del_lnk--> historical and <!--del_lnk--> period films and occasional <!--del_lnk--> comedies, though her greatest successes were in <!--del_lnk--> romantic dramas.<p>Known for her forceful and often intense style, Davis became known for her willingness to play unsympathetic characters. She gained a reputation as a perfectionist who could be highly combative, and her confrontations with studio executives, film directors and costars were often reported. Her forthright manner, clipped vocal style and ubiquitous <!--del_lnk--> cigarette contributed to a public persona which has often been imitated and satirized.<p>Davis was the co-founder of the <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood Canteen, and was the first female president of the <!--del_lnk--> Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. She was the first actress to receive ten Academy Award nominations and the first woman to receive a <!--del_lnk--> Lifetime Achievement Award from the <!--del_lnk--> American Film Institute. Her career went through several periods of decline, and she admitted that her success had often been at the expense of her personal relationships. Married four times, she was once widowed and thrice divorced, and raised her children as a single parent. Her final years were marred by a long period of ill health. However, she continued acting until shortly before her death from <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, with more than one hundred film, television and theatre roles to her credit.<p>
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</script><a id="Background_and_early_acting_career" name="Background_and_early_acting_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Background and early acting career</span></h2>
<p>Ruth Elizabeth Davis, known from early childhood as "Betty", was born in <!--del_lnk--> Lowell, Massachusetts, to Harlow Morrell Davis and Ruth ("Ruthie") Augusta Favour; her sister, Barbara ("Bobby"), was born <!--del_lnk--> October 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1909. The family was of English, French, and Welsh ancestry. In 1915, Davis's parents separated and, in 1921, Ruth Davis moved to <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a> with her daughters, where she worked as a photographer. Betty was inspired to become an actress after seeing <!--del_lnk--> Rudolph Valentino in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse</i> (1921) and <!--del_lnk--> Mary Pickford in <i><!--del_lnk--> Little Lord Fauntleroy</i> (1921), and changed the spelling of her name to "Bette" after <!--del_lnk--> Honoré de Balzac's <i><!--del_lnk--> La Cousine Bette</i>. She received encouragement from her mother, who had aspired to become an actress.<p>She attended <!--del_lnk--> Cushing Academy, a finishing school in <!--del_lnk--> Ashburnham, <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts where she met her future husband, Harmon O. Nelson, known as "Ham". In 1926, she saw a production of <a href="../../wp/h/Henrik_Ibsen.htm" title="Henrik Ibsen">Henrik Ibsen</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> The Wild Duck</i> with <!--del_lnk--> Blanche Yurka and <!--del_lnk--> Peg Entwistle. Davis later recalled that it inspired her full commitment to her chosen career, and said, "Before that performance I <i>wanted</i> to be an actress. When it ended, I <i>had</i> to be an actress... exactly like Peg Entwistle". She auditioned for admission to <!--del_lnk--> Eva LeGallienne's Manhattan Civic Repertory, but was rejected by LeGallienne who described her attitude as "insincere" and "frivolous". She was accepted by the John Murray Anderson School of Theatre, where she also studied dance with <!--del_lnk--> Martha Graham.<p>She auditioned for <!--del_lnk--> George Cukor's stock theatre company, and although he was not impressed, he gave Davis her first paid acting assignment – a one week stint playing the part of a chorus girl in the play, <i>Broadway</i>. She was later chosen to play Hedwig, the character she had seen Peg Entwistle play, in <i>The Wild Duck</i>. After performing in Philadelphia, Washington and Boston, she made her <!--del_lnk--> Broadway debut in 1929 in <i>Broken Dishes</i>, and followed it with <i>Solid South</i>. She was seen by a <!--del_lnk--> Universal Studios talent scout, who invited her to Hollywood for a <!--del_lnk--> screen test.<p><a id="Transition_from_stage_to_film" name="Transition_from_stage_to_film"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transition from stage to film</span></h2>
<p>Accompanied by her mother, Davis traveled by train to Hollywood, arriving on December 13, 1930. She later recounted her surprise that nobody from the studio was there to meet her; a studio employee had waited for her, but left because he saw nobody who "looked like an actress". She failed her first screen test but was used in several screen tests for other actors. In a 1971 interview with <!--del_lnk--> Dick Cavett, she related the experience with the observation, "I was the most Yankee-est, most modest virgin who ever walked the earth. They laid me on a couch, and I tested fifteen men... They all had to lie on top of me and give me a passionate kiss. Oh, I thought I would die. Just thought I would die." A second test was arranged for Davis, for the film <i>A House Divided</i> (1931). Hastily dressed in an ill-fitting costume with a low neckline, she was rebuffed by the <!--del_lnk--> director <!--del_lnk--> William Wyler, who loudly commented to the assembled crew, "What do you think of these dames who show their chests and think they can get jobs?" <!--del_lnk--> Carl Laemmle, the head of Universal Studios, considered terminating Davis's employment, but the <!--del_lnk--> cinematographer <!--del_lnk--> Karl Freund told him she had "lovely eyes" and would be suitable for <i>The Bad Sister</i> (1931), in which she subsequently made her film debut. Her nervousness was compounded when she overheard the Chief of Production, <!--del_lnk--> Carl Laemmle Jr., comment to another executive that she had "about as much sex appeal as <!--del_lnk--> Slim Summerville", one of the film's co-stars. The film was not a success, and her next role in <i>Seed</i> (1931) was too brief to attract attention.<p>Universal Studios renewed her contract for three months, and she appeared in <i><!--del_lnk--> Waterloo Bridge</i> (1931) before being loaned to <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Pictures for <i>The Feathered Serpent</i> and <i>The Menace</i>, and to Capital Films for <i>Hell's House</i> (all 1932). After nine months, and six unsuccessful films, Laemmle elected not to renew her contract.<p><!--del_lnk--> George Arliss chose Davis for the lead female role in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Man Who Played God</i> (1932), and for the rest of her life, Davis credited him with helping her achieve her "break" in Hollywood. The <i>Saturday Evening Post</i> wrote, "she is not only beautiful, but she bubbles with charm", and compared her to <!--del_lnk--> Constance Bennett and <!--del_lnk--> Olive Borden. Warner Brothers signed her to a five year contract.<p>In 1932, she married "Ham" Nelson, who was scrutinized by the press; his $100 a week earnings compared unfavorably with Davis's reported $1000 a week income. Davis addressed the issue in an interview, pointing out that many Hollywood wives earned more than their husbands, but the situation proved difficult for Nelson, who refused to allow Davis to purchase a house until he could afford to pay for it himself.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23767.jpg.htm" title="As the shrewish Mildred in Of Human Bondage (1934), Davis was acclaimed for her dramatic performance."><img alt="As the shrewish Mildred in Of Human Bondage (1934), Davis was acclaimed for her dramatic performance." height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BetteDavisinOfHumanBondage.jpg" src="../../images/237/23767.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23767.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> As the shrewish Mildred in <i>Of Human Bondage</i> (1934), Davis was acclaimed for her dramatic performance.</div>
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<p>After more than twenty film roles, the role of the vicious and slatternly Mildred Rogers in <i><!--del_lnk--> Of Human Bondage</i> (1934) earned Davis her first major critical acclaim. Many actresses feared playing unsympathetic characters, and several had refused the role, but Davis viewed it as an opportunity to show the range of her acting skills. Her costar, <!--del_lnk--> Leslie Howard, was initially dismissive of her, but as filming progressed his attitude changed and he subsequently spoke highly of her abilities. The director, <!--del_lnk--> John Cromwell, allowed her relative freedom, and commented, "I let Bette have her head. I trusted her instincts." She insisted that she be portrayed realistically in her death scene, and said, "the last stages of <!--del_lnk--> consumption, poverty and neglect are not pretty and I intended to be convincing-looking".<p>The film was a success, and Davis's confronting characterization won praise from critics, with <i><!--del_lnk--> Life Magazine</i> writing that she gave "probably the best performance ever recorded on the screen by a U.S. actress." When she was not nominated for an <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award, <i>The Hollywood Citizen News</i> questioned the omission and <!--del_lnk--> Norma Shearer, herself a nominee, joined a campaign to have Davis nominated. This prompted an announcement from the Academy president, Howard Estabrook, who said that under the circumstances "any voter...may write on the ballot his or her personal choice for the winners", thus allowing, for the only time in the Academy's history, the consideration of a candidate not officially nominated for an award. <!--del_lnk--> Claudette Colbert won the award for <i><!--del_lnk--> It Happened One Night</i> but the uproar led to a change in Academy voting procedures the following year, whereby nominations were determined by votes from all eligible members of a particular branch, rather than by a smaller committee, with results independently tabulated by the accounting firm <!--del_lnk--> Price Waterhouse.<p>Davis appeared in <i><!--del_lnk--> Dangerous</i> (1935) as a troubled actress and received very good reviews. E. Arnot Robertson wrote in <i>Picture Post</i>, "I think Bette Davis would probably have been burned as a witch if she had lived two or three hundred years ago. She gives the curious feeling of being charged with power which can find no ordinary outlet". <i>The New York Times</i> hailed her as "becoming one of the most interesting of our screen actresses." She won the <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Actress for the role, but felt it was belated recognition for <i>Of Human Bondage</i>.<p>For the rest of her life, Davis maintained that she gave the statue its familiar name of "Oscar" because she felt it resembled her husband, whose middle name was Oscar, although her claim has been disputed by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, among others.<p>In her next film, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Petrified Forest</i> (1936), Davis costarred with <!--del_lnk--> Leslie Howard and <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey Bogart, but Bogart, in his first important role, received most of the critics' praise. Davis appeared in several films over the next two years but most were poorly received.<p><a id="Legal_case" name="Legal_case"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legal case</span></h2>
<p>Convinced that her career was being damaged by a succession of mediocre films, Davis accepted an offer to appear in two films in England. Knowing that she was breaching her contract with <!--del_lnk--> Warner Brothers, she fled to Canada to avoid legal papers being served upon her. Eventually brought to court in England, she later recalled the opening statement of the barrister, Sir Patrick Hastings, who represented Warner Brothers. Hastings urged the court to "come to the conclusion that this is rather a naughty young lady and that what she wants is more money". He mocked Davis's description of her contract as "slavery" by stating, incorrectly, that she was being paid $1,350 per week. He remarked, "if anybody wants to put me into perpetual servitude on the basis of that remuneration, I shall prepare to consider it". The British press offered little support to Davis, and portrayed her as overpaid and ungrateful.<p>Davis explained her viewpoint to a journalist, saying "I knew that, if I continued to appear in any more mediocre pictures, I would have no career left worth fighting for". Davis's counsel presented her complaints - that she could be suspended without pay for refusing a part, with the period of suspension added to her contract, that she could be called upon to play any part within her abilities regardless of her personal beliefs, that she could be required to support a political party against her beliefs, and that her image and likeness could be displayed in any manner deemed applicable by the studio. Jack Warner testified, and was asked, "Whatever part you choose to call upon her to play, if she thinks she can play it, whether it is distasteful and cheap, she has to play it?" Warner replied, "Yes, she must play it."<p>Davis lost the case and returned to Hollywood, in debt and without income, to resume her career. <!--del_lnk--> Olivia de Havilland mounted a similar case in 1943 and won.<p><a id="Success_as_.22The_Fourth_Warner_Brother.22" name="Success_as_.22The_Fourth_Warner_Brother.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Success as "The Fourth Warner Brother"</span></h2>
<p>Davis began work on <i><!--del_lnk--> Marked Woman</i> (1937), as a prostitute in a contemporary gangster drama inspired by the case of <!--del_lnk--> Lucky Luciano. The film, and Davis's performance, received excellent reviews and her stature as a leading actress was enhanced.<p><!--del_lnk--> David O. Selznick was conducting a search for an actress to play <!--del_lnk--> Scarlett O'Hara, a role Davis coveted, in <i><!--del_lnk--> Gone With the Wind</i>, and a radio poll named Davis as the audience favorite. She won a second Academy Award for her next film, <i><!--del_lnk--> Jezebel</i> (1938), in which she portrayed a willful and self absorbed <!--del_lnk--> Southern Belle, much like Scarlett. Warner offered her services to Selznick as part of a deal that also included <!--del_lnk--> Errol Flynn and <!--del_lnk--> Olivia de Havilland, but Selznick did not consider Davis as suitable, and rejected the offer. During the filming of <i>Jezebel</i>, Davis entered a relationship with the director, <!--del_lnk--> William Wyler. She later described him as the "love of my life", and said that making the film with him was "the time in my life of my most perfect happiness".<p><i>Jezebel</i> marked the beginning of the most successful phase of Davis's career, and over the next few years she was listed in the annual "Quigley Poll of the Top Ten Money Making Stars", which was compiled from the votes of movie exhibitors throughout the U.S. for the stars that had generated the most revenue in their theaters over the previous year. In contrast to Davis's success, her husband, Ham Nelson, had failed to establish a career for himself, and their relationship faltered. In 1938, Nelson obtained evidence that Davis was engaged in a sexual relationship with <!--del_lnk--> Howard Hughes and subsequently filed for divorce citing Davis's "cruel and inhuman manner".<p>She was emotional during the making of her next film, <i><!--del_lnk--> Dark Victory</i> (1939), and considered abandoning it until the producer <!--del_lnk--> Hal Wallis convinced her to channel her despair into her acting. The film became one of the highest grossing films of the year, and the role of Judith Traherne brought her an Academy Award nomination. In later years, Davis cited this performance as her personal favorite.<p>She appeared in three other box office hits in 1939, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Old Maid</i> with <!--del_lnk--> Miriam Hopkins, <i><!--del_lnk--> Juarez</i> with <!--del_lnk--> Paul Muni and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex</i> with <!--del_lnk--> Errol Flynn. The latter was her first color film, and was one of her few colour films made during the height of her career. To play the elderly <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_I_of_England.htm" title="Elizabeth I of England">Elizabeth I of England</a>, Davis shaved her hairline and eyebrows. During filming she was visited on the set by the actor, <!--del_lnk--> Charles Laughton. She commented that she had a "nerve" playing a woman in her sixties, to which Laughton replied, "Never not dare to hang yourself. That's the only way you grow in your profession. You must continually attempt things that you think are beyond you, or you get into a complete rut". Recalling the episode many years later, Davis remarked that Laughton's advice had influenced her throughout her career.<p>By this time, Davis was Warner Brother's most profitable star, described as "The Fourth Warner Brother", and she was given the most important of their female leading roles. Her image was considered with more care; although she continued to play character roles, she was often filmed in close-ups that emphasized her distinctive eyes. <i><!--del_lnk--> All This and Heaven Too</i> (1940) was the most financially successful film of Davis's career to that point, while <i><!--del_lnk--> The Letter</i> was considered "one of the best pictures of the year" by the <i><!--del_lnk--> Hollywood Reporter</i>, and Davis won admiration for her portrayal of an adulterous killer. During this time she was in a relationship with her former costar <!--del_lnk--> George Brent, who proposed marriage. Davis refused, as she had met Arthur Farnsworth, a <!--del_lnk--> New England innkeeper. They were married in December 1940.<p>In January 1941, Davis became the first female president of the <!--del_lnk--> Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences but antagonized the committee members with her brash manner and radical proposals. In view of the war in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, Davis advocated changing the venue for <!--del_lnk--> Academy Awards ceremonies from banquet halls to theaters, and charging admission to raise funds for the <i>British War Relief</i>. She also advocated that <!--del_lnk--> film extras should not have the opportunity to vote for awards. Faced with the disapproval and resistance of the committee, Davis resigned, and was succeeded by <!--del_lnk--> Jean Hersholt, who implemented the changes she had suggested.<p>William Wyler directed Davis in <!--del_lnk--> Lillian Hellman's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Little Foxes</i> (1941), but they clashed over the interpretation of the character, Regina Giddens. Originally played on stage by <!--del_lnk--> Tallulah Bankhead, Davis did not want to duplicate Bankhead's performance, although in many scenes Wyler felt that Bankhead's interpretation was more appropriate. Davis refused to compromise on several points, and although she received another Academy Award nomination for her performance, she never worked with Wyler again.<p><a id="War_effort.2C_and_the_Hollywood_Canteen" name="War_effort.2C_and_the_Hollywood_Canteen"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">War effort, and the Hollywood Canteen</span></h2>
<p>Following the Japanese attack on <!--del_lnk--> Pearl Harbour, Davis spent the early months of 1942 traveling across the U.S. selling <!--del_lnk--> war bonds. Criticized by <!--del_lnk--> Jack Warner for her tendency to cajole and harangue crowds into buying, she reminded him that her audiences responded most strongly to her "bitch" performances. She considered herself to be proven correct when she sold two million dollars worth of bonds in two days, as well as a picture of herself in <i>Jezebel</i> for $250,000. She also performed for black regiments as the only white member of an acting troupe formed by <!--del_lnk--> Hattie McDaniel, that also included <!--del_lnk--> Lena Horne and <!--del_lnk--> Ethel Waters.<p>When <!--del_lnk--> John Garfield discussed opening a serviceman's club in Hollywood, Davis responded enthusiastically. With the aid of Warner, <!--del_lnk--> Cary Grant and <!--del_lnk--> Jule Styne, they transformed an old nightclub into the "<!--del_lnk--> Hollywood Canteen", which opened on <!--del_lnk--> October 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1942. Hollywood's most important stars volunteered their time and talents to entertain servicemen prior to them being sent to war. Davis ensured that every night there would be at least a few important "names" for the visiting soldiers to meet, often calling on friends at the last moment to ensure the soldiers would not be disappointed. She appeared as herself in the film <i>Hollywood Canteen</i> (1944) which used the canteen as the setting for a fictional story. The canteen remained in operation until the end of World War II. Davis later commented, "There are few accomplishments in my life that I am sincerely proud of. The Hollywood Canteen is one of them." In 1980, she was awarded the Distinguished Civilian Service Medal, the <!--del_lnk--> United States Department of Defense's highest civilian award, for her work with the Hollywood Canteen.<p>Davis had initially shown little interest in the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Now, Voyager</i> (1942) until <!--del_lnk--> Hal Wallis advised her that female audiences needed romantic dramas to distract them from the reality of their lives. It became one of the best known of her "women's pictures". In it she portrayed dowdy, repressed spinster Charlotte Vale, who is forced to cater to her domineering mother's demands until psychiatric therapy and a physical makeover transform her into a beautiful, confident woman. The cigarette, often used by Davis as a dramatic prop, featured prominently in one of the film's most imitated scenes, in which <!--del_lnk--> Paul Henreid lit two cigarettes before passing one to Davis. Film reviewers complimented Davis on her performance despite some perceived weaknesses in the film's narrative, with the <i>National Board of Review</i> commenting that Davis gave the film "a dignity not fully warranted by the script".<p>During the early 1940s several of Davis's film choices were influenced by the war; <i><!--del_lnk--> Watch on the Rhine</i> (1943) featured her in a relatively low-key role, as the wife of the leader of an underground anti-Nazi movement, while <i><!--del_lnk--> Thank Your Lucky Stars</i> (1943) was a lighthearted all-star musical <!--del_lnk--> cavalcade, with each of the featured stars donating their fee to the Hollywood Canteen. Davis performed a novelty song, "They're Either Too Young or Too Old", which became a hit record after the film's release.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Old Acquaintance</i> (1943) reunited her with <!--del_lnk--> Miriam Hopkins in a story of two old friends who deal with the tensions created when one of them becomes a successful novelist. Davis felt that Hopkins tried to upstage her throughout the film's production, and the director <!--del_lnk--> Vincent Sherman and costar <!--del_lnk--> Gig Young later recalled the intense competitiveness and animosity between the two actresses, and Davis often joked that she held back nothing in a scene in which she was required to shake Hopkins in a fit of anger. <p><a id="Personal_and_professional_setbacks" name="Personal_and_professional_setbacks"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Personal and professional setbacks</span></h2>
<p>In August 1943, Davis's husband, Arthur Farnsworth, collapsed while walking along a Hollywood street, and died two days later. An <!--del_lnk--> autopsy revealed that his fall had been caused by a skull fracture which had occurred about two weeks earlier. Davis testified before an <!--del_lnk--> inquest that she knew of no event that might have caused the injury, and a finding of "accidental death" was reached. Highly distraught, she attempted to withdraw from her next film <i><!--del_lnk--> Mr. Skeffington</i> (1944), but Jack Warner, who had halted production following Farnsworth's death, convinced her to continue.<p>Although she had gained a reputation for being forthright and somewhat confrontational during the making of some of her previous films, her behaviour during filming of <i>Mr. Skeffington</i> was erratic and out-of-character. She alienated the director, <!--del_lnk--> Vincent Sherman, by refusing to film certain scenes, and insisted that some sets be rebuilt. She improvised dialogue, causing confusion among other actors, and infuriated the writer <!--del_lnk--> Julius Epstein, who was also called upon to rewrite scenes at her whim. Davis later explained her actions with the observation, "when I was most unhappy I lashed out rather than whined." Some reviewers criticized Davis for the excess of her performance; <!--del_lnk--> James Agee wrote that she "demonstrates the horrors of egocentricity on a marathonic scale", but despite the mixed reviews, she received another Academy Award nomination.<p>She married an artist, <!--del_lnk--> William Grant Sherry, in 1945. She had been drawn to him partly because he had never heard of her and was therefore not intimidated by her, but after their marriage the disparity between their levels of professional success and earnings led to tensions and arguments.<p><i><!--del_lnk--> The Corn is Green</i> (1945) starred Davis as a dowdy English teacher, who saves a young <a href="../../wp/w/Wales.htm" title="Wales">Welsh</a> miner from a life in the coal pits, by offering him education. The film was well received by critics but did not find a substantial audience. <i><!--del_lnk--> A Stolen Life</i> (1946) received poor reviews, but was one of her biggest box-office successes. It was followed by <i><!--del_lnk--> Deception</i> (1946), the first of her films to lose money.<p>In 1947, Davis gave birth to a daughter, <!--del_lnk--> Barbara (known as B.D.) and later wrote in her memoir that she became absorbed in motherhood and considered ending her career. Her relationship with Sherry began to deteriorate and she continued making films, but her popularity with audiences was steadily declining. After the completion of <i><!--del_lnk--> Beyond the Forest</i> (1949), Jack Warner released Davis from her contract, at her request. The reviews that followed were scathing; <i>Newsweek</i> called it "undoubtedly one of the most unfortunate stories [Davis] has ever tackled", while Dorothy Manners writing for the <i>Los Angeles Examiner</i>, criticized the "sheer hysteria and overexposed histrionics" of Davis's performance, and described the film as "an unfortunate finale to her brilliant career". <!--del_lnk--> Hedda Hopper wrote, "If Bette had deliberately set out to wreck her career, she could not have picked a more appropriate vehicle." The film contained the line, "What a dump!", which became closely associated with Davis after impersonators used it in their acts. In later years, Davis often used it as her opening line at speaking engagements.<p><a id="Starting_a_freelance_career" name="Starting_a_freelance_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Starting a freelance career</span></h2>
<p>By 1949, Davis and Sherry were estranged and Hollywood columnists were writing that Davis's career was at an end. She filmed <i>The Story of a Divorce</i> (released in 1951 as <i><!--del_lnk--> Payment on Demand</i>) and then, when original star <!--del_lnk--> Claudette Colbert injured her back and was unable to perform, appeared as the glamorous, aging theatrical actress, Margo Channing, in <i><!--del_lnk--> All About Eve</i> (1950), directed by <!--del_lnk--> Joseph L. Mankiewicz. Davis described the script as "the best I ever read" and during production, she established what would become a life-long friendship with her costar, <!--del_lnk--> Anne Baxter, and a romantic relationship with her leading man, <!--del_lnk--> Gary Merrill, which led to marriage. Mankiewicz later remarked, "Bette was letter perfect. She was syllable-perfect. The director's dream: the prepared actress".<p>Critics responded positively to Davis's performance and several of her lines became well known, particularly, "Fasten your seatbelts, it's going to be a bumpy night." She was again nominated for an Academy Award and critics such as Gene Ringgold described her Margo as her "all-time best performance". <!--del_lnk--> Pauline Kael wrote that much of Mankiewicz's vision of "the theatre" was "nonsense" but commended Davis, writing "[the film is] saved by one performance that is the real thing: Bette Davis is at her most instinctive and assured. Her actress – vain, scared, a woman who goes too far in her reactions and emotions – makes the whole thing come alive."<p>Davis won a "Best Actress" award from the <!--del_lnk--> Cannes Film Festival, and the <!--del_lnk--> New York Film Critics Circle Award. She also received the <!--del_lnk--> San Francisco Film Critics Circle Award as "Best Actress", having been named by them as the "Worst Actress" of 1949 for <i>Beyond the Forest</i>. During this time she was invited to leave her handprints in the forecourt of <!--del_lnk--> Grauman's Chinese Theatre.<p>In July 3, 1950 Davis's divorce from William Sherry was finalized, and on July 28 she married Gary Merrill. With Sherry's consent, Merrill adopted B.D., Davis's daughter with Sherry, and in 1950, Davis and Merrill adopted a baby girl they named Margot. The family traveled to <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, where Davis and Merrill starred in a murder-mystery film, <i><!--del_lnk--> Another Man's Poison</i>. When it received lukewarm reviews and failed at the box office, Hollywood columnists wrote that Davis's comeback had petered out, and an Academy Award nomination for <i><!--del_lnk--> The Star</i> (1952) did not halt her decline.<p>Davis and Merrill adopted a baby boy, Michael, in 1952, and Davis appeared in a <!--del_lnk--> Broadway <!--del_lnk--> revue, <i>Two's Company</i>. She was uncomfortable working outside of her area of expertise; she had never been a musical performer and her limited theatre experience had been more than twenty years earlier. She was also severely ill and was operated on for <!--del_lnk--> osteomyelitis of the jaw. Margot was diagnosed as severely brain damaged due to an injury sustained during or shortly after her birth, and was eventually placed in an institution. Davis and Merrill began arguing frequently, with B.D. later recalling episodes of <!--del_lnk--> alcohol abuse and <!--del_lnk--> domestic violence.<p>Few of Davis's films of the 1950s were successful and many of her performances were condemned by critics. <i>The Hollywood Reporter</i> wrote of mannerisms "that you'd expect to find in a nightclub impersonation of [Davis]", while the London critic, Richard Winninger, wrote, "Miss Davis, with more say than most stars as to what films she makes, seems to have lapsed into egoism. The criterion for her choice of film would appear to be that nothing must compete with the full display of each facet of the Davis art. Only bad films are good enough for her". As her career declined, her marriage continued to deteriorate until she filed for divorce in 1960. The following year, her mother died.<p><a id="Renewed_success" name="Renewed_success"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Renewed success</span></h2>
<p>In 1962, Davis opened in the <!--del_lnk--> Broadway production, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Night of the Iguana</i> to mostly mediocre reviews, and left the production after four months due to "chronic illness." She then joined <!--del_lnk--> Glenn Ford and <!--del_lnk--> Ann-Margret for the <!--del_lnk--> Frank Capra film <i><!--del_lnk--> A Pocketful of Miracles</i>, based on a story by <!--del_lnk--> Damon Runyon. She accepted her next role, in the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Guignol <!--del_lnk--> horror film, <i><!--del_lnk--> What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?</i> after reading the script and believing it could appeal to the same audience that had recently made <a href="../../wp/a/Alfred_Hitchcock.htm" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Alfred Hitchcock</a>'s <i><!--del_lnk--> Psycho</i> (1960) a success. She negotiated a deal that would pay her ten percent of the worldwide gross profits, in addition to her salary. The film became one of the year's biggest successes.<p>Davis and <!--del_lnk--> Joan Crawford played two aging sisters, former actresses forced by circumstance to share a decaying Hollywood mansion. The director, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Aldrich, explained that Davis and Crawford were each aware of how important the film was to their respective careers and commented, "It's proper to say that they really detested each other, but they behaved absolutely perfectly". After filming was completed, their public comments against each other allowed the tension to develop into a lifelong feud, and when Davis was nominated for an Academy Award, Crawford campaigned against her. Davis also received her only <!--del_lnk--> BAFTA Award nomination for this performance.<p>B.D. also played a small role in the film, and when she and Davis visited the <!--del_lnk--> Cannes Film Festival to promote it, she met Jeremy Hyman, an executive for <!--del_lnk--> Seven Arts Productions. After a short courtship, she married Hyman at the age of sixteen, with Davis's permission.<p>Davis sustained her comeback over the course of several years. <i><!--del_lnk--> Dead Ringer</i> (1964) was a crime drama in which she played twin sisters and <i><!--del_lnk--> Where Love Has Gone</i> (1964) was a romantic drama based on a <!--del_lnk--> Harold Robbins novel. Davis played the mother of <!--del_lnk--> Susan Hayward but filming was hampered by heated arguments between Davis and Hayward. <i><!--del_lnk--> Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte</i> (1964) was Robert Aldrich's follow-up to <i>What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?</i>, in which he planned to reunite Davis and Crawford, but when Crawford withdrew allegedly due to illness soon after filming began, she was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Olivia de Havilland. The film was a considerable success and brought renewed attention to its veteran cast, which also included <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Cotten, <!--del_lnk--> Mary Astor and <!--del_lnk--> Agnes Moorehead.<p>By the end of the decade, Davis had also appeared in the British films <i><!--del_lnk--> The Nanny</i> (1965) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Anniversary</i> (1968), but her career again stalled.<p><a id="Late_career" name="Late_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Late career</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23772.jpg.htm" title="Davis and Elizabeth Taylor in late 1981 during a show that was celebrating Taylor's life. Image by Alan Light"><img alt="Davis and Elizabeth Taylor in late 1981 during a show that was celebrating Taylor's life. Image by Alan Light" height="241" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DavisTaylor.jpg" src="../../images/237/23772.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23772.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Davis and <!--del_lnk--> Elizabeth Taylor in late 1981 during a show that was celebrating Taylor's life. Image by Alan Light</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>In the early 1970s, Davis was invited to appear in New York, in a stage presentation, <i>Great Ladies of the American Cinema</i>. Over five successive nights, a different female star discussed her career and answered questions from the audience; <!--del_lnk--> Myrna Loy, <!--del_lnk--> Rosalind Russell, <!--del_lnk--> Lana Turner and <!--del_lnk--> Joan Crawford were the other participants. Davis was well received and was invited to tour <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> with the similarly themed, <i>Bette Davis in Person and on Film</i>, and its success allowed her to take the production to the United Kingdom.<p>In the U.S., she appeared in the stage production, <i>Miss Moffat</i>, a musical adaptation of <i>The Corn is Green</i>, but after the show was panned by the <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> critics during its pre-Broadway run, she cited a back injury and abandoned the show, which closed immediately. She played supporting roles in <i><!--del_lnk--> Burnt Offerings</i> (1976) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Disappearance of Aimee</i> (1976), but she clashed with <!--del_lnk--> Karen Black and <!--del_lnk--> Faye Dunaway, respectively the stars of the two productions, because she felt that neither extended her an appropriate degree of respect, and that their behaviour on the film sets was unprofessional.<p>In 1977, Davis became the first woman to receive the <!--del_lnk--> American Film Institute's <!--del_lnk--> Lifetime Achievement Award. The televised event included comments from several of Davis's colleagues including <!--del_lnk--> William Wyler who joked that given the chance Davis would still like to refilm a scene from <i>The Letter</i> to which Davis nodded. <a href="../../wp/j/Jane_Fonda.htm" title="Jane Fonda">Jane Fonda</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Fonda.htm" title="Henry Fonda">Henry Fonda</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Olivia de Havilland were among the actors who paid tribute, with de Havilland commenting that Davis "got the roles I always wanted".<p>Following the telecast she found herself in demand again, often having to choose between several offers. She accepted roles in the television miniseries <i><!--del_lnk--> The Dark Secret of Harvest Home</i> (1978) and the film <i><!--del_lnk--> Death on the Nile</i> (1978). For the rest of her career the bulk of her work was for television. She won an <!--del_lnk--> Emmy Award for <i><!--del_lnk--> Strangers: The Story of a Mother and Daughter</i> (1979) with <!--del_lnk--> Gena Rowlands, and was nominated for her performances in <i><!--del_lnk--> White Mama</i> (1980) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Little Gloria... Happy at Last</i> (1982). She also played supporting roles in two <!--del_lnk--> Disney films, <i><!--del_lnk--> Return from Witch Mountain</i> (1978) and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Watcher in the Woods</i> (1980).<p>Her name became well known to a younger audience, when <!--del_lnk--> Kim Carnes's song "<!--del_lnk--> Bette Davis Eyes" became a worldwide hit and the highest selling record of 1981 in the U.S., where it stayed at number one on the music charts for more than two months. Davis's grandson was impressed that she was the subject of a hit-song and Davis considered it a compliment, writing to both Carnes and the songwriters, and accepting the gift of <!--del_lnk--> gold and platinum records from Carnes, and hanging them on her wall. <p>She continued acting for television, appearing in <i><!--del_lnk--> Family Reunion</i> (1981) opposite her grandson J. Ashley Hyman, <i><!--del_lnk--> A Piano for Mrs. Cimino</i> (1982) and <i><!--del_lnk--> Right of Way</i> (1983) with <a href="../../wp/j/James_Stewart_%2528actor%2529.htm" title="James Stewart (actor)">James Stewart</a>.<p><a id="Illness.2C_betrayal_and_death" name="Illness.2C_betrayal_and_death"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Illness, betrayal and death</span></h2>
<p>In 1983, she was acting in the television series <i><!--del_lnk--> Hotel</i> when she was diagnosed with <!--del_lnk--> breast cancer and underwent a <!--del_lnk--> mastectomy. Within two weeks of her surgery she suffered four <a href="../../wp/s/Stroke.htm" title="Stroke">strokes</a> which caused paralysis in the right side of her face and in her left arm, and left her with slurred speech. She commenced a lengthy period of physical therapy and, aided by her personal assistant, Kathryn Sermak, gained partial recovery from the paralysis.<p>During this time, her relationship with her daughter, B. D. Hyman, deteriorated when Hyman became a <!--del_lnk--> born again Christian and attempted to persuade Davis to follow suit. With her health stable, she travelled to England to film the <!--del_lnk--> Agatha Christie mystery, <i><!--del_lnk--> Murder with Mirrors</i> (1985). Upon her return, she learned that Hyman had published a memoir, titled <i><!--del_lnk--> My Mother's Keeper</i> in which she chronicled a difficult mother and daughter relationship and depicted scenes of Davis's overbearing and drunken behaviour.<p>Several of Davis's friends commented that Hyman's depictions of events were not accurate; one said, "so much of the book is out of context". <!--del_lnk--> Mike Wallace rebroadcast a <i><!--del_lnk--> Sixty Minutes</i> interview he had filmed with Hyman a few years earlier in which she commended Davis on her skills as a mother, and said that she had adopted many of Davis's principles in raising her own children. Critics of Hyman noted that Davis had financially supported the Hyman family for several years and had recently saved them from losing their house. Despite the acrimony of their divorce years earlier, Gary Merrill also defended Davis. Interviewed by <!--del_lnk--> CNN, Merrill said that Hyman was motivated by "cruelty and greed". Davis's adopted son, Michael Merrill, ended contact with Hyman and refused to speak to her again, as did Davis, who also disinherited her. <p>In her memoir, <i><!--del_lnk--> This 'N That</i> (1987), Davis wrote, "I am still recovering from the fact that a child of mine would write about me behind my back, to say nothing about the kind of book it is. I will never recover as completely from B.D.'s book as I have from the stroke. Both were shattering experiences." Her memoir concluded with a letter to her daughter, in which she addressed her several times as "Hyman", and described her actions as "a glaring lack of loyalty and thanks for the very privileged life I feel you have been given". She concluded with a reference to the title of Hyman's book, "If it refers to money, if my memory serves me right, I've been your keeper all these many years. I am continuing to do so, as my name has made your book about me a success."<p>Davis appeared in the television film, <i><!--del_lnk--> As Summers Die</i> (1986) and <!--del_lnk--> Lindsay Anderson's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Whales of August</i> (1987), in which she played the blind sister of <!--del_lnk--> Lillian Gish. The film earned good reviews, with one critic writing, "Bette crawls across the screen like a testy old hornet on a windowpane, snarling, staggering, twitching – a symphony of misfired synapses". Her last performance was the title role in <!--del_lnk--> Larry Cohen's <i><!--del_lnk--> Wicked Stepmother</i> (1989). By this time her health was failing, and after disagreements with Cohen she walked off the set. The script was rewritten to place more emphasis on <!--del_lnk--> Barbara Carrera's character, and the reworked version was released after Davis's death.<p>After abandoning <i>Wicked Stepmother</i> and with no further film offers, Davis appeared on several talk shows and was interviewed by <!--del_lnk--> Johnny Carson, <!--del_lnk--> Joan Rivers, <!--del_lnk--> Larry King and <!--del_lnk--> David Letterman, discussing her career but refusing to discuss her daughter. Her appearances were popular; Lindsay Anderson observed that the public enjoyed seeing her behaving "so bitchy". He commented, "I always disliked that because she was encouraged to behave badly. And I'd always hear her described by that awful word, feisty."<p>During 1988 and 1989, Davis was feted for her career achievements, receiving the <!--del_lnk--> Kennedy Center Honour, the <!--del_lnk--> Legion of Honour from France, the <!--del_lnk--> Campione d'Italia from Italy and the <!--del_lnk--> Film Society of Lincoln Centre Lifetime Achievement Award. She collapsed during the American Cinema Awards in 1989 and later discovered that her cancer had returned. She recovered sufficiently to travel to Spain where she was honored at the <!--del_lnk--> Donostia-San Sebastián International Film Festival, but during her visit her health rapidly deteriorated. Too weak to make the long journey back to the U.S., she travelled to France where she died on <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1989, at the American Hospital in <!--del_lnk--> Neuilly-sur-Seine.<p>She was interred in <!--del_lnk--> Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery in <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles, California</a>, alongside her mother, Ruthie, and sister, Bobby. On her tombstone is written: "She did it the hard way", an <!--del_lnk--> epitaph that had been suggested to her by Joseph L. Mankiewicz shortly after they had filmed <i>All About Eve</i>.<p>In 1997, the <!--del_lnk--> executors of her estate, Michael Merrill, her son, and Kathryn Sermak, her former assistant, established "The Bette Davis Foundation" which awards college scholarships to promising actors and actresses.<p><a id="Comments_and_criticism" name="Comments_and_criticism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Comments and criticism</span></h2>
<p>In 1964, Jack Warner spoke of the "magic quality that transformed this sometimes bland and not beautiful little girl into a great artist", and in a 1988 interview, Davis remarked that, unlike many of her contemporaries, she had forged a career without the benefit of beauty. She admitted she was terrified during the making of her earliest films and that she became tough by necessity. "Until you're known in my profession as a monster, you are not a star", she said, "[but] I've never fought for anything in a treacherous way. I've never fought for anything but the good of the film". During the making of <i>All About Eve</i>, Joseph L. Mankiewicz told her of the perception in Hollywood that she was difficult, and she explained that when the audience saw her on screen, they did not consider that her appearance was the result of numerous people working behind the scenes. If she was presented as "a horse's ass... forty feet wide, and thirty feet high", that is all the audience "would see or care about".<p>While lauded for her achievements, Davis and her films were sometimes derided; <!--del_lnk--> Pauline Kael described <i><!--del_lnk--> Now, Voyager</i> as a "shlock classic", and by the mid 1940s her sometimes mannered and histrionic performances had become the subject of caricature. Reviewers such as Edwin Schallert for the <i><!--del_lnk--> Los Angeles Times</i> praised Davis's performance in <i><!--del_lnk--> Mr. Skeffington</i> (1944), while observing, "the mimics will have more fun than a box of monkeys imitating Miss Davis", and Dorothy Manners writing for the <i>Los Angeles Examiner</i> said of her performance in the poorly received <i><!--del_lnk--> Beyond the Forest</i>, "no night club caricaturist has ever turned in such a cruel imitation of the Davis mannerisms as Bette turns on herself in this one." <i><!--del_lnk--> Time Magazine</i> noted that Davis was compulsively watchable even while criticizing her acting technique, summarizing her performance in <i><!--del_lnk--> Dead Ringer</i> (1964) with the observation, "her acting, as always, isn't really acting: it's shameless showing off. But just try to look away!"<p>She attracted a <!--del_lnk--> gay following and was frequently imitated by <!--del_lnk--> female impersonators such as <!--del_lnk--> Charles Pierce. Attempting to explain her popularity with gay audiences, the journalist Jim Emerson wrote, "Was she just a camp figurehead because her brittle, melodramatic style of acting hadn't aged well? Or was it that she was 'Larger Than Life', a tough broad who had survived? Probably some of both."<p>Her film choices were often unconventional; she sought roles as manipulators and killers in an era when actresses usually preferred to play sympathetic characters, and she excelled in them. She favored authenticity over glamour and was willing to change her own appearance if it suited the character. <!--del_lnk--> Claudette Colbert commented that Davis was the first actress to play roles older than herself, and therefore did not have to make the difficult transition to character parts as she aged.<p>As she entered old age, Davis was acknowledged for her achievements. John Springer, who had arranged her speaking tours of the early 1970s, wrote that despite the accomplishments of many of her contemporaries, Davis was "<i>the</i> star of the thirties and into the forties", achieving notability for the variety of her characterizations and her ability to assert herself, even when her material was mediocre. Individual performances continued to receive praise; in 1987, <!--del_lnk--> Bill Collins analyzed <i>The Letter</i> (1941), and described her performance as "a brilliant, subtle achievement", and wrote, "Bette Davis makes Leslie Crosbie one of the most extraordinary females in movies." In a 2000 review for <i>All About Eve</i>, Roger Ebert noted, "Davis was a character, an icon with a grand style, so even her excesses are realistic."<p>A few months before her death in 1989, Davis was one of several actors featured on the cover of <i><!--del_lnk--> Life</i>. In a film retrospective that celebrated the films and stars of 1939, <i>Life</i> concluded that Davis was the most significant actress of her era, and highlighted <i><!--del_lnk--> Dark Victory</i> as one of the most important films of the year. Her death made front-page news throughout the world as the "close of yet another chapter of the Golden Age of Hollywood". <!--del_lnk--> Angela Lansbury summed up the feeling of those of the Hollywood community who attended her memorial service, commenting after a sample from Davis's films were screened, that they had witnessed "an extraordinary legacy of acting in the twentieth century by a real master of the craft", that should provide "encouragement and illustration to future generations of aspiring actors".<p>In 1999, the <!--del_lnk--> American Film Institute published its list of the "<!--del_lnk--> AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars", which was the result of a film industry poll to determine the "50 Greatest American Screen Legends" in order to raise public awareness and appreciation of classic film. Of the 25 actresses listed, Davis was ranked at number two, behind <!--del_lnk--> Katharine Hepburn.<p><a id="Academy_Awards_and_nominations" name="Academy_Awards_and_nominations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Academy Awards and nominations</span></h2>
<p>Bette Davis became the first woman to secure 10 nominations for the <!--del_lnk--> Best Actress Oscar, and in the intervening years, only <!--del_lnk--> Katharine Hepburn and <!--del_lnk--> Meryl Streep have surpassed this figure.<p><!--del_lnk--> Steven Spielberg purchased Davis's Oscars for <i>Dangerous</i> (1935) and <i>Jezebel</i> (1938) when they were offered for auction, and returned them to the <!--del_lnk--> Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.<ul>
<li>1962: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?</i><li>1952: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> The Star</i><li>1950: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> All About Eve</i><li>1944: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> Mr. Skeffington</i><li>1942: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> Now, Voyager</i><li>1941: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> The Little Foxes</i><li>1940: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> The Letter</i><li>1939: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> Dark Victory</i><li>1938: Won for <i><!--del_lnk--> Jezebel</i><li>1935: Won for <i><!--del_lnk--> Dangerous</i><li>1934: Nominated for <i><!--del_lnk--> Of Human Bondage</i> (write-in)</ul>
<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;">Awards</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Claudette Colbert<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> It Happened One Night</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Best Actress</b><br /> 1935<br /><b>for <i><!--del_lnk--> Dangerous</i></b></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Luise Rainer<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> The Great Ziegfeld</i></b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b>Luise Rainer<br /> for <i><!--del_lnk--> The Good Earth</i></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b>Academy Award for Best Actress</b><br /> 1938<br /><b>for <i><!--del_lnk--> Jezebel</i></b></td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><a href="../../wp/v/Vivien_Leigh.htm" title="Vivien Leigh">Vivien Leigh</a><br /> for <i><a href="../../wp/g/Gone_with_the_Wind_%2528film%2529.htm" title="Gone with the Wind (film)">Gone with the Wind</a></i></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bette_Davis"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bhutan</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Asia.Asian_Countries.htm">Asian Countries</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Countries.htm">Countries</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox geography" style="width:23em;">
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<td align="center" class="mergedtoprow" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; font-size:1.2em;"><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;">འབྲུག་ཡུལ<br /><i>Druk Yul</i></span></b><br /><b><span style="line-height:1.33em;">Kingdom of Bhutan</span></b></td>
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<td align="center" class="maptable" colspan="2" style="padding:0.4em 0.8em 0.4em 0.8em;">
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<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><span style="border:1px solid #bbbbbb; display:table-cell;"><a class="image" href="../../images/6/606.png.htm" title="Flag of Bhutan"><img alt="Flag of Bhutan" height="83" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg" src="../../images/16/1623.png" width="125" /></a></span></td>
<td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;" width="50%"><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1624.png.htm" title="Coat of arms of Bhutan"><img alt="Coat of arms of Bhutan" height="85" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bhutan_emblem.png" src="../../images/16/1624.png" width="85" /></a></td>
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<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Flag</small></td>
<td><small><!--del_lnk--> Coat of arms</small></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Motto: "One Nation, One People"</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Anthem: <!--del_lnk--> Druk tsendhen</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 1em;">
<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1625.png.htm" title="Location of Bhutan"><img alt="Location of Bhutan" height="115" longdesc="/wiki/Image:LocationBhutan.png" src="../../images/16/1625.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> <b>Capital</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> (and largest city)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Thimphu<br /><small><span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 27°28′N 89°38′E</span></small></td>
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<th><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> Official languages</span></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Dzongkha, <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
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<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><b><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government.htm" title="List of countries by system of government">Government</a></b></td>
<td style="border-top:solid 1px Gainsboro; vertical-align:top;"><a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> King</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jigme Singye Wangchuck</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Formation</th>
<td> </td>
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<td> - Wangchuk Dynasty</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> December 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1907 </td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Area</th>
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<td> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 47,000 km² (<!--del_lnk--> 131st)<br /> 18,147 sq mi </td>
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<td> - Water (%)</td>
<td>negligible</td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Population</th>
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<td> - 2006 estimate</td>
<td>672,425 <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_population"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> (<!--del_lnk--> 142nd)</td>
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<td> - 2006 census</td>
<td>672,425</td>
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<td> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td>46/km² (<!--del_lnk--> {{{population_density_rank}}})<br /> 119 <p>population_density_rank = 149th/sq mi</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> GDP (<!--del_lnk--> PPP)</th>
<td>2005 estimate</td>
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<tr class="mergedrow">
<td> - Total</td>
<td>$3.007 <!--del_lnk--> billion (<!--del_lnk--> 160th)</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<td> - Per capita</td>
<td>$3,921 (<!--del_lnk--> 117th)</td>
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<th><b><!--del_lnk--> HDI</b> (2003)</th>
<td>0.536 (<font color="#FFCC00">medium</font>) (<!--del_lnk--> 134th)</td>
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<th><a href="../../wp/c/Currency.htm" title="Currency">Currency</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ngultrum (<code><!--del_lnk--> BTN</code>)</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><a href="../../wp/t/Time_zone.htm" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> BTT (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+6:00)</td>
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<td> - Summer (<!--del_lnk--> DST)</td>
<td><i>not observed</i> (<!--del_lnk--> UTC+6:00)</td>
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<tr class="mergedtoprow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Internet TLD</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> .bt</td>
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<tr class="mergedbottomrow">
<th><!--del_lnk--> Calling code</th>
<td>+975</td>
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</table>
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<p>The <b>Kingdom of Bhutan</b> (also <i>Bootan</i>) (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[buː'tɑːn]</span> <span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> Listen</span> ) is a <!--del_lnk--> landlocked <!--del_lnk--> South Asian nation situated between <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a>. The entire country is mountainous except for an 8-10 mile (13-16 km) wide strip of subtropical plains in the extreme south which is intersected by valleys known as the <!--del_lnk--> Duars. The elevation gain from the subtropical plains to the glacier-covered <a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> heights exceeds 23,000 <!--del_lnk--> feet (7,000 <!--del_lnk--> m). Its traditional economy is based on <!--del_lnk--> forestry, <!--del_lnk--> animal husbandry and <!--del_lnk--> subsistence agriculture however these account for less than 50% of a GDP now that Bhutan has become an exporter of <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectricity<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_economy"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. <!--del_lnk--> Cash crops, <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> development aid (the latter mostly from India) are also significant. An extensive census done in April, 2006 resulted in a population figure of 672,425. <!--del_lnk--> Thimphu is the capital and largest city.<p>Bhutan is one of the most isolated nations in the world; foreign influences and tourism are regulated by the government to preserve its traditional <!--del_lnk--> Tibetan Buddhist culture. Most Bhutanese follow either the <!--del_lnk--> Drukpa Kagyu or the <!--del_lnk--> Nyingmapa school of Tibetan Buddhism. The official language is <!--del_lnk--> Dzongkha (lit. "the language of the <!--del_lnk--> dzong"). Bhutan is often described as the last surviving refuge of traditional Himalayan Buddhist culture.<p>Bhutan is linked historically and culturally with its northern neighbour <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>. Yet politically and economically today's kingdom has drawn much closer to <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>.<p>Bhutan has been a <a href="../../wp/m/Monarchy.htm" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> since 1907. The different <!--del_lnk--> dzongkhags were united under the leadership of the Trongsa Penlop. The current king, <!--del_lnk--> Jigme Singye Wangchuck, has made some moves toward constitutional government.<p>
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</script><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2>
<p>'Bhutan' may be derived from the Sanskrit word 'Bhu-Uttan' which means 'High Land'. In another theory of sanskritisation, 'Bhots-ant' means 'end of Tibet' or 'south of Tibet'. However some Bhutanese call their country 'Druk Yul' and its inhabitants 'Drukpa'. The Dzongkha (and Tibetan) name for the country is 'Druk Yul' (Land of the Dragon). Because of the serenity and the virginity of the country and its landscapes, Bhutan today is sometimes referred to as the Last Shangri-La.<p>Historically, Bhutan was known by many names, such as 'Lho Mon' (Southern Land of Darkness), 'Lho Tsendenjong' (Southern Land of the Sandalwood), 'Lhomen Khazhi' (Southern Land of Four Approaches), and 'Lho Men Jong' (Southern Land of Medicinal Herbs).<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Ancient_Bhutan" name="Ancient_Bhutan"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ancient Bhutan</span></h3>
<p>Stone tools, weapons, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan was inhabited as early as <!--del_lnk--> 2000 BC. Historians have theorised that the state of <i>Lhomon</i> (literally, "southern darkness"), or <i>Monyul</i> ("Dark Land", a reference to the <!--del_lnk--> Monpa – the aboriginal peoples of Bhutan) may have existed between <!--del_lnk--> 500 BC and <a href="../../wp/a/Anno_Domini.htm" title="Anno Domini">AD</a> 600. The names <i>Lhomon Tsendenjong</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Sandalwood Country), and <i>Lhomon Khashi</i>, or Southern Mon (country of four approaches) have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles.<p>The earliest transcribed event in Bhutan was the passage of the <!--del_lnk--> Buddhist saint Padmasambhava (also called <!--del_lnk--> Guru Rinpoche) in the 8th century. Bhutan's early history is unclear, because most of the records were destroyed after fire ravaged <!--del_lnk--> Punakha, the ancient capital in 1827. By the 10th century, Bhutan's political development was heavily influenced by its religious history. Various sub-sects of Buddhism emerged which were patronised by the various Mongol and Tibetan overlords. After the decline of the Mongols in the 14th century, these sub-sects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the Drukpa sub-sect by the 16th century.<p><a id="Between_17th_century_and_the_modern_age" name="Between_17th_century_and_the_modern_age"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Between 17th century and the modern age</span></h3>
<p>Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring <!--del_lnk--> fiefdoms until unified by the <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibetan</a> lama and military leader <!--del_lnk--> Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal. To defend the country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnable <i><!--del_lnk--> dzong</i> (fortresses), and <!--del_lnk--> promulgated a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralised control. Many such <i>dzong</i> still exist. After Namgyal's death in 1651, Bhutan fell into anarchy. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Tibetans attacked Bhutan in 1710, and again in 1730 with the help of the <!--del_lnk--> Mongols. Both assaults were successfully thwarted, and an <!--del_lnk--> armistice was signed in 1759.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1626.png.htm" title="Map of Bhutan"><img alt="Map of Bhutan" height="269" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bt-map.png" src="../../images/16/1626.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1626.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of Bhutan</div>
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<p>In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom of <!--del_lnk--> Cooch Behar to the south. In 1772, Cooch Behar appealed to the <a href="../../wp/b/British_East_India_Company.htm" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> who assisted them in ousting the Bhutanese, and later in attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with the British were to continue for the next hundred years. The skirmishes eventually led to the <!--del_lnk--> Duar War (1864–1865), a confrontation over who would control the <!--del_lnk--> Bengal <!--del_lnk--> Duars. After Bhutan lost the war, the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Sinchula was signed between <!--del_lnk--> British India and Bhutan. As part of the <!--del_lnk--> reparations, the Duars were ceded to the <!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in exchange for a rent of Rs. 50,000. The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan.<p>During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys of <!--del_lnk--> Paro and <!--del_lnk--> Trongsa led to <!--del_lnk--> civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy of <!--del_lnk--> Ugyen Wangchuck, the <i>ponlop</i> (governor) of <!--del_lnk--> Tongsa. From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united the country following several civil wars and rebellions in the period 1882–1885.<p>In 1907, an epochal year for the country, <!--del_lnk--> Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by an assembly of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families. The British government promptly recognised the new monarchy, and in 1910 Bhutan signed a treaty which let Great Britain to ‘guide’ Bhutan's foreign affairs.<p><a name="1950s_to_1970s"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">1950s to 1970s</span></h3>
<p>After <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> gained <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_independence_movement.htm" title="Independence of India">independence</a> from the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> on <!--del_lnk--> August 15, <!--del_lnk--> 1947, Bhutan became of one of the first countries to recognize India's independence.<p>After the British left the region, a treaty similar to the one of 1910 was signed <!--del_lnk--> August 8, <!--del_lnk--> 1949 with the newly independent India.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1627.jpg.htm" title="The Trongsa Dzong"><img alt="The Trongsa Dzong" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:TrongsaDzong.jpg" src="../../images/16/1627.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1627.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Trongsa Dzong</div>
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<p>After the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">Chinese</a> <!--del_lnk--> People's Liberation Army entered <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> in 1951, Bhutan sealed its northern frontier and improved bilateral ties with India. To reduce the risk of Chinese encroachment, Bhutan began a modernisation program that was largely sponsored by <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. In 1953, King <!--del_lnk--> Jigme Dorji Wangchuck established the country's legislature – a 130-member <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly – to promote a more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, having held observer status for three years. In July 1972, <!--del_lnk--> Jigme Singye Wangchuck ascended to the throne at the age of 16 after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck.<p>
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<p><a id="Conflict_regarding_Bhutan.E2.80.99s_Ethnic_Nepali_Population" name="Conflict_regarding_Bhutan.E2.80.99s_Ethnic_Nepali_Population"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Conflict regarding Bhutan’s Ethnic Nepali Population</span></h3>
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<p>Bhutan has a continuing <!--del_lnk--> <b>immigration problem</b> with illegal immigration largely by people of Nepali descent. The first waves of migration by Nepalese into Bhutan in the 19th Century.. They were 'naturalized by registration’ by the 1958 Citizenship Act. More continued to settle illegally and this became exacerbated following the introduction of Bhutan’s 5-Year plans in 1961 . From the late 1980s, the government cracked down on illegal immigration which resulted in considerable numbers of people leaving Bhutan. This led to mass demonstrations and violence resulting in even more people leaving the country. Eventually the 'refugee’s' were setup in the refugee camps in eastern Nepal funded by the UNHCR. They remain there to this day.<p><a id="Recent_Developments_to_the_present_day" name="Recent_Developments_to_the_present_day"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recent Developments to the present day</span></h3>
<p>In the recent years (1988 onwards) Nepalese immigrants as well as illegal immigrants have accused Bhutan of violating Human rights. The Bhutanese regime they allege to be responsible for atrocities and crime against her Nepali speaking minority population. The allegations range from rape, executions and eviction of over 100,000 of its minority population, which accounts almost 15% of its people. These allegations remain unproven and are vehemently denied by Bhutan. Most of these refugees settled in UN run refugee camps in south-eastern Nepal where they have remained for 15 years.<p>In 1998, King <!--del_lnk--> Jigme Singye Wangchuck introduced significant political reforms, transferring most of his powers to the <!--del_lnk--> Prime Minister and allowing for impeachment of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly. In late 2003, the <!--del_lnk--> Bhutanese army successfully launched a large-scale operation to flush out anti-India insurgents who were operating training camps in southern Bhutan.<p>In 1999, the King also lifted a ban on television and the Internet, making Bhutan one of the last countries to have introduced the television. In his speech, he said that the television was a critical step to the modernization of Bhutan as well as a major contributor to the country's <!--del_lnk--> Gross National Happiness (Bhutan is the only country to measure happiness) but warned against the misuse of the television that may erode traditional Bhutanese values.<p>A new <!--del_lnk--> constitution has been presented in early 2005 which will be put up for ratification by a <!--del_lnk--> referendum before coming into force. In December 2005, King <!--del_lnk--> Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced that he would step down as King of Bhutan in 2008. King Wangchuck said he would be succeeded by his son, the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck.<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1628.jpg.htm" title="Topographic map of Bhutan"><img alt="Topographic map of Bhutan" height="189" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bhutan_topo_en.jpg" src="../../images/16/1628.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1628.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Topographic map of Bhutan</div>
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<p>The northern region consists of an arc of glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 23,000 <!--del_lnk--> feet (7,000 <!--del_lnk--> m) above sea level; the highest point is claimed to be the <!--del_lnk--> Kula Kangri, at 24,780 feet (7,553 m), but detailed topographic studies claim Kula Kangri is wholly in <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> and modern Chinese measurements claim that <!--del_lnk--> Gangkhar Puensum, which has the distinction of being the <!--del_lnk--> highest unclimbed mountain in the world, is higher at 24,835 feet (7,570 m). Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide <!--del_lnk--> pasture for livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds. The <!--del_lnk--> Black Mountains in central Bhutan form a watershed between two major river systems: the <!--del_lnk--> Mo Chhu and the <!--del_lnk--> Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 4,900 feet and 8,900 feet (1,500 m and 2,700 m) above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The <!--del_lnk--> Torsa, <!--del_lnk--> Raidak, <!--del_lnk--> Sankosh, and <!--del_lnk--> Manas are the main rivers of Bhutan, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1629.jpg.htm" title="Terraced farming in the Punakha valley."><img alt="Terraced farming in the Punakha valley." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bhutan_landscape.jpg" src="../../images/16/1629.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1629.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Terraced farming in the <!--del_lnk--> Punakha valley.</div>
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<p>In the south, the <!--del_lnk--> Shiwalik Hills are covered with dense, <!--del_lnk--> deciduous forests, <!--del_lnk--> alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 4,900 feet (1,500 m) above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropical Duars plain. Most of the Duars is located in India, although a 6–9 mile (10–15 km) wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts: the northern and the southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abuts the Himalayan foothills, has rugged, sloping terrain and dry, <!--del_lnk--> porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars has moderately fertile soil, heavy <!--del_lnk--> savannah grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by either the melting snow or the monsoon rains, empty into the <!--del_lnk--> Brahmaputra river in India. Data released by the Ministry of agriculture showed that the country had a forest cover of 64% as of October 2005. The climate in Bhutan varies with altitude, from subtropical in the south to <!--del_lnk--> temperate in the highlands and <!--del_lnk--> polar-type climate, with year-round snow, in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: <a href="../../wp/s/Summer.htm" title="Summer">summer</a>, <!--del_lnk--> monsoon, <a href="../../wp/a/Autumn.htm" title="Autumn">autumn</a>, <a href="../../wp/w/Winter.htm" title="Winter">winter</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spring_%2528season%2529.htm" title="Spring (season)">spring</a>. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan is temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool winters.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<p>Though Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest, it has grown very rapidly with about 8% in 2005 and 14% in 2006. As of March 2006, Bhutan's per capita income was US$ 1,321 making it the highest in South Asia. Bhutan's standard of living grew and is one of the best performing in South Asia. Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest and least developed, and is based on <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <!--del_lnk--> forestry, and the sale of <!--del_lnk--> hydroelectric power to India. Agriculture provides the main livelihood for more than 80% of the population. Agrarian practices consist largely of <!--del_lnk--> subsistence farming and <!--del_lnk--> animal husbandry. Handicrafts, particularly weaving and the manufacture of religious art for home altars are a small cottage industry and a source of income for some. A landscape that varies from hilly to ruggedly mountainous has made the building of roads, and other <a href="../../wp/i/Infrastructure.htm" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, difficult and expensive. This, and a lack of access to the sea, has meant that Bhutan has never been able to benefit from significant trading of its produce. Bhutan currently does not have a <a href="../../wp/r/Rail_transport.htm" title="Rail transport">railway system</a>, though <a href="../../wp/i/Indian_Railways.htm" title="Indian Railways">Indian Railways</a> plans to link up southern Bhutan with its vast network under an agreement signed in January 2005.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_IR"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> The historic trade routes over the high Himalayas, which connected India to <a href="../../wp/t/Tibet.htm" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, have been closed since the 1959 military takeover of Tibet (although smuggling activity still brings Chinese goods into Bhutan).<p>The industrial sector is minimal, production being of the <!--del_lnk--> cottage-industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian contract labour. Agricultural produce includes rice, chilies, dairy (yak) products, buckwheat, barley, root crops, apples, and citrus and maize at lower elevations. Industries include <!--del_lnk--> cement, <a href="../../wp/w/Wood.htm" title="Wood">wood</a> products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages and <!--del_lnk--> calcium carbide.<p>Bhutan's currency, the <!--del_lnk--> ngultrum, is pegged to the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Rupee. The rupee is also accepted as <!--del_lnk--> legal tender in the country. Incomes of over <!--del_lnk--> Nu 100,000 <!--del_lnk--> per annum are taxed, but very few wage and salary earners qualify. Bhutan's inflation rate was estimated at about 3% in 2003. Bhutan has a <!--del_lnk--> Gross Domestic Product of around <!--del_lnk--> USD 2.913 billion (adjusted to <!--del_lnk--> Purchasing Power Parity), making it the 162nd largest economy in the world. Per capita income is around $1,400 (€1,170), ranked 124th. Government revenues total €122 million ($146 million), though expenditures amount to €127 million ($152 million). 60% of the budget expenditure, however, is financed by India's Ministry of External Affairs.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_MEA"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> Bhutan's exports, principally electricity, <!--del_lnk--> cardamom, <a href="../../wp/g/Gypsum.htm" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a>, <!--del_lnk--> timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones and <!--del_lnk--> spices, total €128 million ($154 million) (2000 est.). Imports, however, amount to €164 million ($196 million), leading to a trade deficit. Main items imported include <!--del_lnk--> fuel and <!--del_lnk--> lubricants, <a href="../../wp/c/Cereal.htm" title="Grain">grain</a>, <!--del_lnk--> machinery, vehicles, fabrics and <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a>. Bhutan's main export partner is India, accounting for 87.9% of its export goods. <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> (4.6%) and the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> (2%) are the other two top export partners. As its border with Tibet is closed, trade between Bhutan and China is now almost non-existent. Bhutan's import partners include India (71.3%), <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> (7.8%) and <a href="../../wp/a/Austria.htm" title="Austria">Austria</a> (3%).<p>In a response to accusations in 1987 by a journalist from <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK's</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Financial Times</i> that the pace of development in Bhutan was slow, the King said that "<!--del_lnk--> Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product." <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_yoga"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> This statement appears to have presaged recent findings by western economic psychologists, including 2002 Nobel Laureate <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Kahneman, that questions the link between levels of income and happiness. It signalled his commitment to building an economy that is appropriate for Bhutan's unique culture, based on Buddhist spiritual values, and has served as a unifying vision for the economy. In addition, the policy seems to be reaping the desired results as in a recent survey organized by the University of Leicester <!--del_lnk--> in the UK, Bhutan was ranked as the planet's 8th happiest place <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Government_and_politics" name="Government_and_politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Government and politics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1631.jpg.htm" title="The Takstang Monastery. Buddhism is the state religion and plays an important part in the nation's politics."><img alt="The Takstang Monastery. Buddhism is the state religion and plays an important part in the nation's politics." height="155" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Takstan-monastery.jpg" src="../../images/16/1631.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1631.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Takstang Monastery. Buddhism is the state religion and plays an important part in the nation's politics.</div>
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<p>Politics of Bhutan takes place in a framework of a traditional <!--del_lnk--> absolute monarchy, developing into a <a href="../../wp/c/Constitutional_monarchy.htm" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> King of Bhutan is <!--del_lnk--> head of state. <!--del_lnk--> Executive power is exercised by the <!--del_lnk--> Lhengye Shungtsog, the council of ministers. <!--del_lnk--> Legislative power is vested in both the <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">government</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> National Assembly. Political parties are prohibited for the time being.<p><a id="Districts" name="Districts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Districts</span></h2>
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<p>For administrative purposes, Bhutan is divided into four <i>dzongdey</i> (administrative zones). Each <i>dzongdey</i> is further divided into <i><!--del_lnk--> dzongkhag</i> (districts). There are 20 <i>dzongkhag</i> in Bhutan. Large dzongkhags are further divided into subdistricts known as <i><!--del_lnk--> dungkhag</i>. At the basic level, groups of villages form a constituency called <i>gewog</i> and are administered by a <i>gup</i>, who is elected by the people.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:272px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1632.png.htm" title="Dzongkhag of Bhutan."><img alt="Dzongkhag of Bhutan." height="152" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bhutan-divisions-numbered.png" src="../../images/16/1632.png" width="270" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1632.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Dzongkhag of Bhutan.</div>
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<p>{ |<ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bumthang<li><!--del_lnk--> Chukha (old spelling: <i>Chhukha</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Dagana<li><!--del_lnk--> Gasa<li><!--del_lnk--> Haa<li><!--del_lnk--> Luentse (<i>Lhuntse</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mongar<li><!--del_lnk--> Paro<li><!--del_lnk--> Pemagatshel (<i>Pemagatsel</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Punaka</ol>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Samdrup Jongkhar<li><!--del_lnk--> Samtse (<i>Samchi</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sarpang<li><!--del_lnk--> Thimphu<li><!--del_lnk--> Trashigang (<i>Tashigang</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Trashiyangse<li><!--del_lnk--> Trongsa (<i>Tongsa</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tsirang (<i>Chirang</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Wangdue Phodrang (<i>Wangdi Phodrang</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zhemang (<i>Shemgang</i>)</ol>
<p>|}<p><a id="Cities_and_towns" name="Cities_and_towns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cities and towns</span></h2>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Jakar - the admistrative headquarters of <!--del_lnk--> Bumthang District and the place where Buddhism entered Bhutan.<li><!--del_lnk--> Mongar<li><!--del_lnk--> Paro - Site of the international airport<li><!--del_lnk--> Punakha - The Old Capital<li><!--del_lnk--> Phuentsholing - Commercial hub of Bhutan.<li><!--del_lnk--> Samdrup Jongkhar<li><!--del_lnk--> Thimphu - the largest city and capital of Bhutan<li><!--del_lnk--> Trashigang<li><!--del_lnk--> Trongsa</ul>
<p><a id="Military_and_foreign_affairs" name="Military_and_foreign_affairs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Military and foreign affairs</span></h2>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Royal Bhutan Army is Bhutan's military service. It includes the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Bodyguard and the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Bhutan Police. Membership is voluntary, and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 6,000 and is trained by the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Army.<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_army"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span> It has an annual budget of about US$13.7 million—1.8% of the GDP.<p>Though the 1949 Treaty with India is still sometimes misinterpreted to mean that India controls Bhutan's foreign affairs, Bhutan today handles all of its foreign affairs itself including the sensitive (to India) border demarcation issue with China. Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 22 countries, including the <a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a>, with missions in India, <a href="../../wp/b/Bangladesh.htm" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thailand.htm" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and <a href="../../wp/k/Kuwait.htm" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>. It has two <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">UN</a> missions, one in <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York</a> and one in <a href="../../wp/g/Geneva.htm" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>. Only India and Bangladesh have residential embassies in Bhutan, while Thailand has a consulate office in Bhutan.<p>By a long standing treaty, Indian and Bhutanese citizens may travel to each other's countries without a <!--del_lnk--> passport or <!--del_lnk--> visa using their national identity cards instead. Bhutanese citizens may also work in India without legal restriction. Bhutan does not have formal diplomatic ties with its northern neighbour, China, although exchanges of visits at various levels between the two have significantly increased in the recent past. The first bilateral agreement between China and Bhutan was signed in 1998, and Bhutan has also set up consulates in <a href="../../wp/m/Macau.htm" title="Macau">Macau</a> and <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>. Bhutan’s border with China is largely not demarcated and thus disputed in some places. <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_China"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p>On November 13 2005, Chinese soldiers crossed into Bhutan under the pretext that environmental conditions had forced their retreat south from the Himalayas. The Bhutanese government allowed this incursion (after the fact) on humanitarian grounds. Soon after, the Chinese began building roads and bridges within Bhutanese territory. Bhutanese Foreign Minister <!--del_lnk--> Khandu Wangchuk took up the matter with Chinese authorities after the issue was raised in Bhutanese parliament. In response, Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang of the People's Republic of China has said that the border remains in dispute (completely ignoring the original official pretext for the incursion) and that the two sides continue to work for a peaceful and cordial resolution of the dispute <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_invade"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span>. Neither the Bhutanese nor Indian governments (India still handles some foreign affairs for Bhutan) have reported any progress regarding this matter (peaceful, cordial or otherwise), and the Chinese continue to this day building infrastructure and increasing their military garrison within Bhutan. An Indian intelligence officer has said that a Chinese delegation in Bhutan told the Bhutanese that they were "overreacting." The Bhutanese newspaper <i>Kuensel</i> has said that China might use the roads to further Chinese claims along the border. <span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_alarm"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span><p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1633.jpg.htm" title="The dominant ethnic group is of Tibetan / Tibeto-Burman ancestry; Ethnic Nepalis migrants form the majority in the southern part of the country."><img alt="The dominant ethnic group is of Tibetan / Tibeto-Burman ancestry; Ethnic Nepalis migrants form the majority in the southern part of the country." height="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bhutan_man.jpg" src="../../images/16/1633.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1633.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The dominant ethnic group is of Tibetan / Tibeto-Burman ancestry; Ethnic Nepalis migrants form the majority in the southern part of the country.</div>
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<p>The population of Bhutan, once estimated at several million, has now been officially downgraded by the Bhutanese government to 750,000, after a census in the early nineties. An extensive census done in June of 2005 resulted in a further reduction of the population figure to 554,000. The government has yet to release demographic breakdown on the new population figures. Most believe that the population was artificially inflated in the seventies because of an earlier perception that nations with populations of less than a million would not be admitted to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. Hence the United Nation population figures are much higher than the figures provided by the government.<p>The population density, 45 per square kilometre (117/sq. mi), makes Bhutan one of the least densely populated countries in Asia. Roughly 20% percent of the population lives in urban areas comprised of small towns mainly along the central valley and the southern border. This percentage is increasing rapidly as the pace of rural to urban migration has been picking up. The largest town is the capital, <!--del_lnk--> Thimphu, which has a population of 50,000. Other urban areas with significant population are <!--del_lnk--> Paro, and <!--del_lnk--> Phuentsholing.<p>Among the Bhutanese people, several principal ethnic groups may be distinguished. The dominant group are the <!--del_lnk--> Ngalops, a Buddhist group based in the western part of the country. Their culture is closely related to that of Tibet. Much the same could be said of the <!--del_lnk--> Sharchops ("Easterners"), who are associated with the eastern part of Bhutan (but who traditionally follow the <!--del_lnk--> Nyingmapa rather than the official <!--del_lnk--> Drukpa Kagyu form of <!--del_lnk--> Tibetan Buddhism). These two groups together are called <!--del_lnk--> Bhutanese. The remaining 15% of the population is ethnic Nepali, most of whom are Hindu.<p>The national language is <!--del_lnk--> Dzongkha, one of 53 languages in the <!--del_lnk--> Tibetan language family. The script, here called <i>Chhokey</i> ("Dharma Language"), is identical with the Tibetan script. The government classifies 19 related Tibetan languages as <!--del_lnk--> dialects of Dzongkha. <!--del_lnk--> Lepcha is spoken in parts of western Bhutan; <!--del_lnk--> Tshangla, a close relative of Dzongkha, is widely spoken in the eastern parts. <!--del_lnk--> Khengkha is spoken in central Bhutan. The <!--del_lnk--> Nepali language is widely spoken in the south. In the schools English is the medium of instruction and Dzongkha is taught as the national language. <!--del_lnk--> Ethnologue lists 24 languages currently spoken in Bhutan, all of them in the <!--del_lnk--> Tibeto-Burman family, except Nepali, an <!--del_lnk--> Indo-Aryan language. The languages of Bhutan are still not well-characterised, and several have yet to be recorded in an in-depth academic grammar. <a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a> now has official status as well.<p>The <a href="../../wp/l/Literacy.htm" title="Literacy">literacy rate</a> is only 42.2% (56.2% of males and 28.1% of females). People 14 years old and younger comprise 39.1%, while people between 15 and 59 comprise 56.9%, and those over 60 are only 4%. The country has a median age of 20.4 years. Bhutan has a <!--del_lnk--> life expectancy of 62.2 years (61 for males and 64.5 for females) according to the latest data from the <!--del_lnk--> World Bank. There are 1,070 males to every 1,000 females in the country.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<p>While the Bhutanese are free to travel abroad, Bhutan is seen to be inaccessible to foreigners. The widespread misperception that Bhutan has set limits on tourist visas, the high tourist tariff and the requirement to go on packaged tours seem to create this impression.<p>The traditional dress for Ngalong and Sharchop men is the <i><!--del_lnk--> gho</i>, a knee-length robe tied at the waist by a cloth belt known as the <i><!--del_lnk--> kera</i>. Women wear an ankle-length dress, the <i><!--del_lnk--> kira</i>, which is clipped at one shoulder and tied at the waist. An accompaniment to the kira is a long-sleeved blouse, the <i>toego</i>, which is worn underneath the outer layer. Social status and class determine the texture, colours, and decorations that embellish the garments. Scarves and shawls are also indicators of social standings, as Bhutan has traditionally been a <!--del_lnk--> feudal society. Earrings are worn by females. Controversially, Bhutanese law now requires these garments for all Bhutanese citizens.<p><a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">Rice</a>, and increasingly <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">corn</a>, are the staple foods of the country. The diet in the hills is rich in protein because of the consumption of meat chiefly <a href="../../wp/p/Poultry.htm" title="Poultry">poultry</a>, <a href="../../wp/y/Yak.htm" title="Yak">yak</a> and <!--del_lnk--> beef. Soups of meat, rice, and dried vegetables spiced with chillies and cheese are a favourite meal during the cold seasons. Dairy foods, particularly butter and cheese from yaks and cows, are also popular, despite the scarcity of milk (because all milk is turned to butter and cheese). Popular beverages include <!--del_lnk--> butter tea, tea, locally brewed rice wine and <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a>. Bhutan is the only country in the world to have <!--del_lnk--> banned tobacco smoking and the sale of <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco.htm" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1634.jpg.htm" title="Archery is the national sport of Bhutan and competitions are held regularly."><img alt="Archery is the national sport of Bhutan and competitions are held regularly." height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bhutan_archery.jpg" src="../../images/16/1634.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1634.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Archery is the national sport of Bhutan and competitions are held regularly.</div>
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<p>Bhutan's national sport is <!--del_lnk--> archery, and competitions are held regularly in most villages. It differs from <a href="../../wp/o/Olympic_Games.htm" title="Olympic Games">Olympic</a> standards not only in technical details such as the placement of the targets and atmosphere. There are two targets placed over 100 metres apart and teams shoot from one end of the field to the other. Each member of the team shoots two arrows per round. Traditional Bhutanese archery is a social event and competitions are organised between villages, towns, and amateur teams. There are usually plenty of food and drink complete with singing and dancing cheerleaders comprising wives and supporters of the participating teams. Attempts to distract an opponent include standing around the target and making fun of the shooter's ability. Darts (<i>khuru</i>) is an equally popular outdoor team sport, in which heavy wooden darts pointed with a 10cm nail are thrown at a paperback-sized target ten to twenty metres away.<p>Another traditional sport is the <i><!--del_lnk--> digor</i>, which can be best described as <!--del_lnk--> shot put combined with horseshoe throwing. <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Soccer</a> is an increasingly popular sport. In 2002, Bhutan's national soccer team played <a href="../../wp/m/Montserrat.htm" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> - billed as 'The Other Final', the match took place on the same day Brazil played Germany in the World Cup Final, but at the time Bhutan and Montserrat were the world's two lowest ranked teams. The match was held in Thimphu's <!--del_lnk--> Changlimithang National Stadium, and Bhutan won 4-0. A documentary of the match was made by the Dutch filmmaker <!--del_lnk--> Johan Kramer. <i><!--del_lnk--> Rigsar</i> is the new emergent style of popular music, played on a a mix of traditional instruments and electronic keyboards, and dates back to the early 1990s; it shows the influence of Indian popular music, a hybrid form of traditional and Western popular influences. Traditional genres include the <i><!--del_lnk--> zhungdra</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> boedra</i>.<p>Characteristic of the region is a type of fortress known as <!--del_lnk--> dzong architecture.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1635.jpg.htm" title="Chaam or the masked dance is a mystic dance performed during Buddhist festivals."><img alt="Chaam or the masked dance is a mystic dance performed during Buddhist festivals." height="274" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bhutan-masked-dance.jpg" src="../../images/16/1635.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1635.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Chaam</i> or the masked dance is a mystic dance performed during Buddhist festivals.</div>
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<p>Bhutan has numerous public holidays, most of which centre around traditional seasonal, secular and religious festivals. They include the <!--del_lnk--> winter solstice (around <!--del_lnk--> January 1, depending on the lunar calendar), the lunar New Year (February or March), the King's birthday and the anniversary of his coronation, the official start of monsoon season (<!--del_lnk--> September 22), National Day (<!--del_lnk--> December 17), and various Buddhist and Hindu celebrations. Even the secular holidays have religious overtones, including religious dances and prayers for blessing the day.<p>Masked dances and dance dramas are common traditional features at festivals, usually accompanied by traditional music. Energetic dancers, wearing colourful wooden or composition facemasks and stylised costumes, depict heroes, demons, death heads, animals, gods, and caricatures of common people. The dancers enjoy royal patronage, and preserve ancient folk and religious customs and perpetuate the ancient art of mask making.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan"</div>
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<p>The word "<b>Bible</b>" refers to the canonical collections of <!--del_lnk--> sacred writings of <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> and <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>.<p>Judaism's Bible is often referred to as the <b><!--del_lnk--> Tanakh</b>, or <b><!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Bible</b>, which includes the sacred texts common to both the Christian and Jewish <!--del_lnk--> canons. The Christian Bible is also called the <b>Holy Bible</b>, <b>Scriptures</b>, or <b>Word of God</b>. The <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Eastern_Orthodox_Church.htm" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> Old Testament canons contain books not found in the Tanakh, but which were found in the <!--del_lnk--> Greek <!--del_lnk--> Septuagint.<p>More than 14,000 <!--del_lnk--> manuscripts and fragments of the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Tanakh exist, as do numerous copies of the Septuagint, and 5,300 manuscripts of the Greek New Testament, more than any other work of <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_history.htm" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Derivation" name="Derivation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Derivation</span></h2>
<p>According to the <!--del_lnk--> Online Etymology Dictionary the word bible is from the early <!--del_lnk--> 1300s, from Anglo-Latin <i>biblia</i>, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin, as used in the phrase <i>biblia sacra</i> ("holy books"). This then stemmed from the term (<i><!--del_lnk--> Greek:</i> <span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια</span> <i>ta biblia ta hagia</i>, "the holy books"), which derived from <i>biblion</i> ("paper" or "scroll", the ordinary word for "book"), which was originally a diminutive of <i>byblos</i> ("Egyptian papyrus"), possibly so called from the name of the <!--del_lnk--> Phoenician port from which Egyptian <!--del_lnk--> papyrus was exported to Greece. Biblical scholar Mark Hamilton states that the Greek phrase ta biblia ("the books") was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books several centuries before the time of Jesus," and would have referred to the <!--del_lnk--> Septuagint. The Online Etymology Dictionary concludes that the Christian scripture was referred to in Greek as <i>Ta Biblia</i> as early as 223 CE. The word "Bible" replaced Old English <i>biblioðece</i> ("the Scriptures") from the Greek <i>bibliotheke</i> (lit. "book-repository" from <i>biblion</i> + <i>theke</i>, meaning "case, chest, or sheath"), used of the Bible by Jerome and the common Latin word for it until <i>Biblia</i> began to displace it 9c. Use of the word in a figurative sense, as in "any authoritative book" is from 1804.<p><a id="The_Hebrew_Bible" name="The_Hebrew_Bible"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Hebrew Bible</span></h2>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Sukkot · <!--del_lnk--> Simchat Torah · <!--del_lnk--> Hanukkah · <!--del_lnk--> 9 Av</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> 10 Tevet · <!--del_lnk--> 15 Shvat · <!--del_lnk--> Purim · <!--del_lnk--> Pesach</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Rosh Chodesh · <!--del_lnk--> Shavuot · <!--del_lnk--> 3 Pilgrimages</td>
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<th style="background:#ccccff; font-size: 95%; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Important figures</b></th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Abraham · <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac.htm" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> · <!--del_lnk--> Jacob/Israel</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> The 12 Tribes of Israel · <!--del_lnk--> Lost Ten Tribes</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Sarah · <!--del_lnk--> Rebekah · <!--del_lnk--> Rachel · <!--del_lnk--> Leah</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Moses · <!--del_lnk--> Dvora · <!--del_lnk--> Ruth · <!--del_lnk--> David</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Ibn Ezra · <!--del_lnk--> Rif · <!--del_lnk--> Rambam · <!--del_lnk--> Ramban</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Gersonides · <!--del_lnk--> Saadia Gaon · <!--del_lnk--> Alter Rebbe</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Lubavitcher Rebbe · <!--del_lnk--> Moshe Feinstein</td>
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<th style="background:#ccccff; font-size: 95%; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Jewish life cycle</b></th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Brit · <!--del_lnk--> Bar mitzvah · <!--del_lnk--> Shiduch · <!--del_lnk--> Marriage</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Niddah · <!--del_lnk--> Naming · <!--del_lnk--> Pidyon · <!--del_lnk--> Burial</td>
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<th style="background:#ccccff; font-size: 95%; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><b>Religious roles</b></th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Rabbi · <!--del_lnk--> Rebbe · <!--del_lnk--> Chazzan</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Kohen/Priest · <!--del_lnk--> Mashgiach · <!--del_lnk--> Gabbai</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Mohel · <!--del_lnk--> Dayan · <!--del_lnk--> Rosh yeshiva</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Three Temples · <!--del_lnk--> Synagogue</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Mikvah · <!--del_lnk--> Sukkah · <!--del_lnk--> Mishkan</td>
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<th style="background:#ccccff; font-size: 95%; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Liturgy and <!--del_lnk--> services</th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Shacharit · <!--del_lnk--> Mincha · <!--del_lnk--> Ma'ariv</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Musaf · <!--del_lnk--> Neilah · <!--del_lnk--> Havdalah</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Tzitzit · <!--del_lnk--> Mezuzah · <!--del_lnk--> Menorah · <!--del_lnk--> Shofar</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> 4 Species · <!--del_lnk--> Kittel · <!--del_lnk--> Gartel · <!--del_lnk--> Yad</td>
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<th style="background:#ccccff; font-size: 95%; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><!--del_lnk--> Jewish prayers</th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Shema · <!--del_lnk--> Amidah · <!--del_lnk--> Aleinu · <!--del_lnk--> Kol Nidre</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Kaddish · <!--del_lnk--> Hallel · <!--del_lnk--> Ma Tovu</td>
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<th style="background:#ccccff; font-size: 95%; border-top: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaaaaa; padding: 0 5px 0 5px;"><b>Judaism & other religions</b></th>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Christianity · "<!--del_lnk--> Judeo-Christian" · <!--del_lnk--> Islam</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Catholicism · <!--del_lnk--> Reconciliation · <!--del_lnk--> Pluralism</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #edf3fe; text-align:center;">"<!--del_lnk--> Judeo-Islamic" · <!--del_lnk--> Abrahamic faiths</td>
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<td style="font-size: 90%; padding: 0 5px 0 5px; background: #ffffff; text-align:center;"><!--del_lnk--> Mormonism · <!--del_lnk--> Noahide laws · <!--del_lnk--> Others</td>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Bible (<a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span dir="rtl" lang="he" style="white-space: nowrap;" xml:lang="he"><span class="he" style="font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:12pt">תנ"ך</span></span>‎) is a term that refers to the common portions of the <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jew">Jewish</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Christian <!--del_lnk--> biblical canons. Its use is favored by some academic Biblical scholars as a <i>neutral term</i> that is preferred in academic writing both to "Old Testament" and to "Tanakh" (an acronym used commonly by Jews but unfamiliar to many English speakers and others) .<p>"Hebrew" in "<!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Bible" may refer to either the <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew language</a> or to the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew people who historically used Hebrew as a spoken language, and have continuously used the language in prayer and study, or both.<p>Because "Hebrew Bible" refers to the common portions of the Jewish and Christian biblical canons, it does not encompass the <!--del_lnk--> deuterocanonical books (largely from the <!--del_lnk--> Koine Greek <!--del_lnk--> Septuagint translation (LXX), included in the canon of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic and <!--del_lnk--> Orthodox churches). Thus the term "Hebrew Bible" corresponds most fully to the Old Testament in use by <!--del_lnk--> Protestant denominations (adhering to <!--del_lnk--> Jerome's <i>Hebraica veritas</i> doctrine). Nevertheless, the term can be used accurately by all Christian denominations in general contexts, except where reference to specific translations or books is called for.<p>The Hebrew Bible consists of 39 books. Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the <!--del_lnk--> Torah ("Teaching/Law" also known as the <a href="../../wp/p/Pentateuch.htm" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a>), <!--del_lnk--> Nevi'im ("Prophets"), and <!--del_lnk--> Ketuvim ("Writings", or <!--del_lnk--> Hagiographa).<p>(see <!--del_lnk--> Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture)<p><a id="Torah" name="Torah"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Torah</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8894.jpg.htm" title="The Torah, or Jewish scripture. In the background are the Star of David and a Menorah, two important symbols of Judaism."><img alt="The Torah, or Jewish scripture. In the background are the Star of David and a Menorah, two important symbols of Judaism." height="132" longdesc="/wiki/Image:241530_7953_torah.jpg" src="../../images/16/1639.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/88/8894.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Torah, or Jewish scripture. In the background are the <!--del_lnk--> Star of David and a <!--del_lnk--> Menorah, two important symbols of Judaism.</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Torah, or "Teaching," is also known as the five books of <!--del_lnk--> Moses, thus <!--del_lnk--> Chumash or <a href="../../wp/p/Pentateuch.htm" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> (Hebrew and Greek for "five," respectively).<p>The <a href="../../wp/p/Pentateuch.htm" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> is composed of the following five books:<ul>
<li>I <!--del_lnk--> Genesis (<i>Bereisheet</i> בראשית),<li>II <!--del_lnk--> Exodus (<i>Shemot</i> שמות),<li>III <!--del_lnk--> Leviticus (<i>Vayikra</i> ויקרא),<li>IV <!--del_lnk--> Numbers (<i>Bemidbar</i> במדבר), and<li>V <!--del_lnk--> Deuteronomy (<i>Devarim</i> דברים)</ul>
<p>The Hebrew book titles come from the first words in the respective texts. The Hebrew title for Numbers, however, comes from the fifth word of that text.<p>The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people.<ul>
<li>The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the <!--del_lnk--> creation (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity.<li>The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, <!--del_lnk--> Abraham, <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac.htm" title="Isaac">Isaac</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Jacob (also called <a href="../../wp/i/Israel.htm" title="Israel">Israel</a>), and Jacob's children (the "<!--del_lnk--> Children of Israel"), especially <!--del_lnk--> Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of <!--del_lnk--> Ur, eventually to settle in the land of <!--del_lnk--> Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt.<li>The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of <!--del_lnk--> Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, to the renewal of their covenant with God at <!--del_lnk--> Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.</ul>
<p>Traditionally, the Torah contains the <!--del_lnk--> 613 mitzvot, or commandments, of God, revealed during the passage from slavery in the land of Egypt to freedom in the land of Canaan. These commandments provide the basis for <!--del_lnk--> Halakha (Jewish religious law).<p>The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn in Jewish liturgy, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, each <!--del_lnk--> Sabbath. The cycle ends and recommences at the end of <!--del_lnk--> Sukkot, which is called <!--del_lnk--> Simchat Torah.<p><a id="Nevi.27im" name="Nevi.27im"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nevi'im</span></h3>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Nevi'im, or "Prophets," tells the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, judged the kings and the Children of Israel. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Portions of the prophetic books are read by Jews on the Sabbath (<!--del_lnk--> Shabbat). The <!--del_lnk--> Book of Jonah is read on <!--del_lnk--> Yom Kippur.<p>According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books. Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.<p>The eight books are:<ul>
<li>I. <!--del_lnk--> Joshua or Yehoshua [יהושע]<li>II. <!--del_lnk--> Judges or Shoftim [שופטים]<li>III. <!--del_lnk--> Samuel or Shmu'el [שמואל] (often divided into two books; Samuel may be considered the last of the judges or the first of the prophets, as his sons were named judges but were rejected by the Hebrew nation)<li>IV. <!--del_lnk--> Kings or Melakhim [מלכים] (often divided into two books)<li>V. <!--del_lnk--> Isaiah or Yeshayahu [ישעיהו]<li>VI. <!--del_lnk--> Jeremiah or Yirmiyahu [ירמיהו]<li>VII. <!--del_lnk--> Ezekiel or Yehezq'el [יחזקאל]<li>VIII. Trei Asar (The Twelve <!--del_lnk--> Minor Prophets) תרי עשר <ol>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Hosea or Hoshea [הושע]<li><!--del_lnk--> Joel or Yo'el [יואל]<li><!--del_lnk--> Amos [עמוס]<li><!--del_lnk--> Obadiah or Ovadyah [עבדיה]<li><!--del_lnk--> Jonah or Yonah [יונה]<li><!--del_lnk--> Micah or Mikhah [מיכה]<li><!--del_lnk--> Nahum or Nachum [נחום]<li><!--del_lnk--> Habakkuk or Habaquq [חבקוק]<li><!--del_lnk--> Zephaniah or Tsefania [צפניה]<li><!--del_lnk--> Haggai [חגי]<li><!--del_lnk--> Zechariah or Zekharia [זכריה]<li><!--del_lnk--> Malachi or Malakhi [מלאכי]</ol>
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<p><a id="Ketuvim" name="Ketuvim"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ketuvim</span></h3>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Ketuvim, or "Writings," may have been written during or after the <!--del_lnk--> Babylonian Exile but no one can be sure. According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of <!--del_lnk--> Psalms are attributed to <!--del_lnk--> David; <!--del_lnk--> King Solomon is believed to have written <!--del_lnk--> Song of Songs in his youth, <!--del_lnk--> Proverbs at the prime of his life, and <!--del_lnk--> Ecclesiastes at old age; and the prophet <!--del_lnk--> Jeremiah is thought to have written <!--del_lnk--> Lamentations. The <!--del_lnk--> Book of Ruth is the only biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew. The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a <!--del_lnk--> Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of <!--del_lnk--> King David. Five of the books, called "The Five Scrolls" (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: Song of Songs on <!--del_lnk--> Passover; the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Ruth on <!--del_lnk--> Shavuot; <!--del_lnk--> Lamentations on the <!--del_lnk--> Ninth of Av; Ecclesiastes on <!--del_lnk--> Sukkot; and the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Esther on <!--del_lnk--> Purim. Collectively, the Ketuvim contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile. It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.<p>Ketuvim contains eleven books:<ul>
<li>I. Tehillim (<!--del_lnk--> Psalms) תהלים<li>II. Mishlei (<!--del_lnk--> Book of Proverbs) משלי<li>III. 'Iyyov (<!--del_lnk--> Book of Job) איוב<li>IV. Shir ha-Shirim (<!--del_lnk--> Song of Songs) שיר השירים<li>V. Ruth (<!--del_lnk--> Book of Ruth) רות<li>VI. Eikhah (<!--del_lnk--> Lamentations) איכה [Also called <i>Kinnot</i> (קינות) in Hebrew.]<li>VII. Kohelet (<!--del_lnk--> Ecclesiastes) קהלת<li>VIII. Esther (<!--del_lnk--> Book of Esther) אסתר<li>IX. Daniel (<!--del_lnk--> Book of Daniel) דניאל<li>X. Ezra (often divided into two books, <!--del_lnk--> Book of Ezra and <!--del_lnk--> Book of Nehemiah (עזרא (נחמיה<li>XI. Divrei ha-Yamim (<!--del_lnk--> Chronicles, often divided into two books) דברי</ul>
<p>הימים<p><a id="Translations_and_editions" name="Translations_and_editions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Translations and editions</span></h3>
<p>The Tanakh was mainly written in <!--del_lnk--> Biblical Hebrew, with some portions (notably in <!--del_lnk--> Daniel and <!--del_lnk--> Ezra) in <!--del_lnk--> Aramaic.<p>Some time in the 2nd or <!--del_lnk--> 3rd century BC, the Torah was translated into <!--del_lnk--> Koine Greek, and over the next century, other books were translated (or composed) as well. This translation became known as the <!--del_lnk--> Septuagint and was widely used by Greek-speaking Jews, and later by Christians. It differs somewhat from the later standardized Hebrew (<!--del_lnk--> Masoretic Text). This translation was promoted by way of a legend that seventy separate translators all produced identical texts.<p>From the <!--del_lnk--> 800s to the <!--del_lnk--> 1400s, Jewish scholars today known as Karaites <!--del_lnk--> Masoretes compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text. A series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added <a href="../../wp/v/Vowel.htm" title="Vowel">vowel</a> points (called <!--del_lnk--> niqqud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonant letters. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels— their meaning can vary in accordance with the vowels chosen. In antiquity, variant Hebrew readings existed, some of which have survived in the <!--del_lnk--> Samaritan Pentateuch, the <a href="../../wp/d/Dead_Sea_scrolls.htm" title="Dead Sea scrolls">Dead Sea scrolls</a>, and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.<p>Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books beyond what was included in the Masoretic texts of the <!--del_lnk--> Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition ("vorlage") from the one that became the basis for the Masoretic texts.<p>Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as <!--del_lnk--> targums, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition.<p><a id="The_two_Torahs_of_Rabbinic_Judaism" name="The_two_Torahs_of_Rabbinic_Judaism"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The two Torahs of Rabbinic Judaism</span></h2>
<p>By the <!--del_lnk--> Hellenistic period of Jewish history, Jews were divided over the nature of the Torah. Some (for example, the <!--del_lnk--> Sadducees) believed that the Chumash contained the entire Torah, that is, the entire contents of what God revealed to Moses at Sinai and in the desert. Others, principally the <!--del_lnk--> Pharisees, believed that the Chumash represented only that portion of the revelation that had been written down (i.e., the Written Torah or the Written Law), but that the rest of God's revelation had been passed down orally (thus composing the Oral Law or <!--del_lnk--> Oral Torah). <!--del_lnk--> Orthodox and <!--del_lnk--> Masorti and <!--del_lnk--> Conservative Judaism state that the <!--del_lnk--> Talmud contains some of the Oral Torah. <!--del_lnk--> Reform Judaism also gives credence to the Talmud containing the Oral Torah, but, as with the written Torah, asserts that both were inspired by, but not dictated by, God.<p><a id="The_Old_Testament" name="The_Old_Testament"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Old Testament</span></h2>
<p>Christian <!--del_lnk--> Old Testament, while having most or all books in common with the Jewish <!--del_lnk--> Tanakh, varies from Judaism in the emphasis it places and the interpretations it gives them. The books come in a slightly different order. In addition, some Christian groups recognize additional books as canonical members of the Old Testament, and they may use a different text as the canonical basis for translations.<p><a id="Differing_Christian_usages_of_the_Old_Testament" name="Differing_Christian_usages_of_the_Old_Testament"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Differing Christian usages of the Old Testament</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Septuagint (Greek translation, from Alexandria in Egypt under the <!--del_lnk--> Ptolemies) was generally abandoned in favour of the <!--del_lnk--> Masoretic text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into <!--del_lnk--> Western languages from <!--del_lnk--> Saint Jerome's <!--del_lnk--> Vulgate to the present day. In <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text, where the Septuagint preserves an ancient understanding of the text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in texts discovered among the <!--del_lnk--> Dead Sea Scrolls.<p>A number of books which are part of the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew Bible are often referred to as deutrcanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e. deutero) canonisation. These books are not deuterocanonical for Orthodox Churches because they were always canonical for them. Most Protestants term these books as <!--del_lnk--> apocrypha. <!--del_lnk--> Evangelicals and those of the Modern <!--del_lnk--> Protestant traditions do not accept the deutrocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them until around the 1820s. However the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Orthodox, and <!--del_lnk--> Oriental Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament. The Roman Catholic Church recognizes seven such books (<!--del_lnk--> Tobit, <!--del_lnk--> Judith, <!--del_lnk--> 1 Maccabees, <!--del_lnk--> 2 Maccabees, <!--del_lnk--> Wisdom of Solomon, <!--del_lnk--> Ecclesiasticus, and <!--del_lnk--> Baruch), as well as some passages in <!--del_lnk--> Esther and <!--del_lnk--> Daniel. Various Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically <!--del_lnk--> 3 Maccabees, <!--del_lnk--> Psalm 151, <!--del_lnk--> 1 Esdras, <!--del_lnk--> Odes, <!--del_lnk--> Psalms of Solomon, and occasionally <!--del_lnk--> 4 Maccabees.<p><a id="The_New_Testament" name="The_New_Testament"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The New Testament</span></h2>
<p>The Bible as used by the majority of <!--del_lnk--> Christians includes the Hebrew Scripture and the <!--del_lnk--> New Testament, which relates the life and teachings of <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> letters of the <!--del_lnk--> Apostle Paul and other disciples to the early church and the <!--del_lnk--> Book of Revelation.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> New Testament is a collection of 27 books, produced by Christians, with <a href="../../wp/j/Jesus.htm" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> as its central figure, written primarily in <!--del_lnk--> Koine Greek in the early Christian period. Nearly all Christians recognize the New Testament (as stated below) as canonical <!--del_lnk--> scripture. These books can be grouped into:<table>
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<td>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> The Gospels<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Synoptic Gospels<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gospel According to Matthew<li><!--del_lnk--> Gospel According to Mark<li><!--del_lnk--> Gospel According to Luke</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Gospel According to John</ul>
</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Acts of the Apostles<li><!--del_lnk--> Pauline Epistles<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to the Romans<li><!--del_lnk--> First Epistle to the Corinthians<li><!--del_lnk--> Second Epistle to the Corinthians<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to the Galatians<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to the Philippians<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to Philemon<li><!--del_lnk--> First Epistle to the Thessalonians<li><!--del_lnk--> Second Epistle to the Thessalonians<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to the Ephesians<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to the Colossians<li><!--del_lnk--> Pastoral Epistles<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> First Epistle to Timothy<li><!--del_lnk--> Second Epistle to Timothy<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to Titus</ul>
</ul>
</ul>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle to the Hebrews<li><!--del_lnk--> General Epistles<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle of James<li><!--del_lnk--> First Epistle of Peter<li><!--del_lnk--> Second Epistle of Peter<li><!--del_lnk--> First Epistle of John<li><!--del_lnk--> Second Epistle of John<li><!--del_lnk--> Third Epistle of John<li><!--del_lnk--> Epistle of Jude</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Revelation</ul>
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<p><a id="Original_language" name="Original_language"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Original language</span></h4>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> New Testament was probably completely composed in <!--del_lnk--> Koine Greek, the language of the earliest manuscripts. Some scholars believe that parts of the Greek New Testament (in particular, the Gospel of Matthew) are actually a translation of an Aramaic or Hebrew original. Of these, a small number accept the Syriac Peshitta as representative of the original. See further <!--del_lnk--> Aramaic primacy.<p><a id="Historic_editions" name="Historic_editions"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Historic editions</span></h4>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1641.jpg.htm" title="The Codex Gigas from the 13th century, held at the Royal Library in Sweden."><img alt="The Codex Gigas from the 13th century, held at the Royal Library in Sweden." height="124" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Codex_Gigas.jpg" src="../../images/16/1641.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1641.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <b><!--del_lnk--> Codex Gigas</b> from the 13th century, held at the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Library in <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.</div>
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<p>Concerning ancient manuscripts, the three main textual traditions are sometimes called the <!--del_lnk--> Western text-type, the <!--del_lnk--> Alexandrian text-type, and <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine text-type. Together they compose the majority of New Testament <!--del_lnk--> manuscripts. There are also several ancient versions in other languages, most important of which are the <!--del_lnk--> Syriac (including the <!--del_lnk--> Peshitta and the <!--del_lnk--> Diatessaron gospel harmony), <!--del_lnk--> Ge'ez and the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> (both the <!--del_lnk--> Vetus Latina and the Vulgate).<p>The earliest surviving complete manuscript of the entire Bible is the <!--del_lnk--> Codex Amiatinus, a Latin Vulgate edition produced in eighth century England at the double monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow.<p>The earliest printed edition of the New Testament in Greek appeared in <!--del_lnk--> 1516 from the <!--del_lnk--> Froben press. It was compiled by <!--del_lnk--> Desiderius Erasmus on the basis of the few recent Greek manuscripts, all of <a href="../../wp/b/Byzantine_Empire.htm" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> tradition, at his disposal, which he completed by translating from the Vulgate parts for which he did not have a Greek text. He produced four later editions of the text.<p>Erasmus was a Roman Catholic, but his preference for the textual tradition represented in <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine Greek text of the time rather than that in the Latin Vulgate led to him being viewed with suspicion by some authorities of his church.<p>The first edition with critical apparatus (variant readings in manuscripts) was produced by the printer <!--del_lnk--> Robert Estienne of Paris in <!--del_lnk--> 1550. The type of text printed in this edition and in those of Erasmus became known as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Textus Receptus</i> (Latin for "received text"), a name given to it in the <!--del_lnk--> Elzevier edition of <!--del_lnk--> 1633, which termed it the text <i>nunc ab omnibus receptum</i> ("now received by all"). Upon it, the churches of the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Reformation based their translations into <!--del_lnk--> vernacular languages, such as the <!--del_lnk--> King James Version.<p>The discovery of older manuscripts, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Codex Sinaiticus and the <!--del_lnk--> Codex Vaticanus, led scholars to revise their opinion of this text. <!--del_lnk--> Karl Lachmann’s critical edition of <!--del_lnk--> 1831, based on manuscripts dating from the fourth century and earlier, was intended primarily to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must finally be corrected by the earlier texts. Later critical texts are based on further scholarly research and the finding of papyrus fragments, which date in some cases from within a few decades of the composition of the New Testament writings. It is on the basis of these that nearly all modern translations or revisions of older translations have been made, though some still prefer the Textus Receptus or the similar "Byzantine <!--del_lnk--> Majority Text".<p><a id="Christian_Theology" name="Christian_Theology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Christian Theology</span></h2>
<p>While individual books within the Christian Bible present narratives set in certain historical periods, most <!--del_lnk--> Christian denominations teach that the Bible itself has an overarching message.<p>There are among Christians wide differences of opinion as to how particular incidents as described in the Bible are to be interpreted and as to what meaning should be attached to various prophecies. However, Christians in general are in agreement as to the Bible's basic message. A general outline, as described by <!--del_lnk--> C.S. Lewis, is as follows:<br clear="left" />
<ol>
<li>At some point in the past, mankind learned to depart from God's will and began to <!--del_lnk--> sin.<li>Because no one is free from sin, humanity cannot deal with God directly, so God revealed Himself in ways people could understand.<li>God called <!--del_lnk--> Abraham and his progeny to be the means for saving all of mankind.<li>To this end, He gave the <!--del_lnk--> Law to <!--del_lnk--> Moses.<li>The resulting nation of Israel went through cycles of sin and <!--del_lnk--> repentance, yet the prophets show an increasing understanding of the Law as a moral, not just a ceremonial, force.<li>Jesus brought a perfect understanding of the Mosaic Law, that of love and salvation.<li>By His death and resurrection, all who believe are saved and reconciled to God.</ol>
<p>Many people who identify themselves as <!--del_lnk--> Christians, <!--del_lnk--> Muslims, or <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jews">Jews</a> regard the Bible as inspired by <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a> yet written by a variety of imperfect men over thousands of years. Belief in sacred texts is attested to in Jewish antiquity, and this belief can also be seen in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention Divine agency in relation to prophetic writings, the most explicit being: <i>2 Timothy 3:16: "All scripture, inspired of God, is profitable to teach, to reprove, to correct, to instruct in justice."</i> However, the Bible neither gives a list of which texts are inspired and their exact contents, nor a precise theological definition of what inspiration entails. In their book <i>A General Introduction to the Bible</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Norman Geisler and William Nix wrote: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record." Some Biblical scholars, particularly Evangelicals, associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 <!--del_lnk--> Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the <!--del_lnk--> autographic text of Scripture.<p><a id="The_canonization_of_the_Bible" name="The_canonization_of_the_Bible"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The canonization of the Bible</span></h2>
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<p>It has been theorized that canonical status of some books of the <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Bible was still being discussed between <!--del_lnk--> 200 BC and <!--del_lnk--> AD 100, and that it had yet to reach definitive form. It is unclear at what point during this period the Jewish canon was fixed, though the Jewish canon which did eventually form did not include all the books found in the various editions of the <!--del_lnk--> Septuagint.<p>The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the fourth century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 27-book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today. Also <i>c</i>. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see <!--del_lnk--> Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time. A definitive list did not come from an Ecumenical Council until the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Trent (1545-1563).<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Reformation, certain reformers proposed different canonical lists than what was currently in use. Though not without debate, the list of New Testament books would come to remain the same; however, the Old Testament texts present in the Septuagint, but not included in the Jewish canon, fell out of favour. In time they would come to be removed from most Protestant canons. Hence, in a Catholic context these texts are referred to as deuterocanonical books, whereas in a Protestant context they are referred to as Apocrypha, the label applied to all texts excluded from the Biblical canon. (Confusingly, Catholics and Protestants both describe certain other books, such as the ‘’Acts of Peter’’, as apocryphal).<p>Thus, the Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39-book canon—the number varies from that of the books in the Tanakh (though not in content) because of a different method of division—while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the canonical Old Testament. The term “Hebrew Scriptures” is only synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, not the Catholic, which contains the Hebrew Scriptures and additional texts. Both Catholics and Protestants have the same 27-book New Testament Canon.<p>Canonicity, which involves the discernment of which texts are divinely inspired, is distinct from questions of human authorship and the formation of the books of the Bible.<p><a id="Bible_versions_and_translations" name="Bible_versions_and_translations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bible versions and translations</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1642.jpg.htm" title="A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery."><img alt="A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery." height="163" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" src="../../images/16/1642.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1642.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.</div>
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<p>In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as "versions", with the term "translation" being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Bible versions are discussed below, while Bible translations can be found on a separate page.<p>The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the <!--del_lnk--> Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible.<p>The primary Biblical text for early Christians was the <!--del_lnk--> Septuagint or (LXX). In addition they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, <!--del_lnk--> Coptic, <!--del_lnk--> Ge'ez and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.<p>The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.<p><!--del_lnk--> Pope Damasus I assembled the first list of books of the Bible at the <!--del_lnk--> Council of Rome in 382 A.D. He commissioned Saint <!--del_lnk--> Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the <!--del_lnk--> Latin Vulgate Bible and was declared by the Church to be the only authentic and official Bible.<p><!--del_lnk--> Bible translations for many languages have been made through the various influences of Catholicism, Orthodox, Protestant, etc especially since the <!--del_lnk--> Protestant Reformation. The Bible has seen a notably large number of <!--del_lnk--> English language translations.<p>The work of Bible translation continues, including by Christian organisations such as <!--del_lnk--> Wycliffe Bible Translators (<!--del_lnk--> wycliffe.net), <!--del_lnk--> New Tribes Missions (<!--del_lnk--> ntm.org) and the <!--del_lnk--> Bible Societies (<!--del_lnk--> biblesociety.org). Of the world's 6,900 <!--del_lnk--> languages, 2,400 have some or all of the Bible, 1,600 (spoken by more than a billion people) have translation underway, and some 2,500 (spoken by 270m people) are judged as needing translation to begin.<p><a id="Differences_in_Bible_Translations" name="Differences_in_Bible_Translations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Differences in Bible Translations</span></h3>
<p>As Hebrew and Greek, the original languages of the Bible, have idioms and concepts not easily translated, there is an on going critical tension about whether it is better to give a word for word translation or to give a translation that gives a parallel idiom in the target language. For instance, in the English language Protestant translations of the Christian Bible, translations like the King James Version, the New Revised Standard Version and the New American Standard Version are seen as literal translations (or "word for word"), whereas translations like the New International Version and <!--del_lnk--> New Living Version attempt to give relevant parallel idioms. <!--del_lnk--> The Living Bible and <!--del_lnk--> The Message are two paraphrases of the Bible that try to convey the original meaning in contemporary language. The further away one gets from word to word translation, the text becomes more readable while relying more on the theological, linguistic or cultural understanding of the translator, which one would not normally expect a lay reader to require.<p><a id="Inclusive_Language" name="Inclusive_Language"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Inclusive Language</span></h2>
<p>Further, both Hebrew and Greek, like some of the Latin-origin languages, use the male gender of nouns and pronouns to refer to groups that contain both sexes. This creates some difficulty in determining whether a noun should be translated using terms that refer to men only, or men and women inclusively. Some translations avoid the issue by directly translating the word using male only terminology, whereas others try to use inclusive language where the translators believe it to be appropriate. Translations that attempt to use inclusive language are the <!--del_lnk--> New Revised Standard Version and the latest edition of the New International Version.<p><a id="The_introduction_of_chapters_and_verses" name="The_introduction_of_chapters_and_verses"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The introduction of chapters and verses</span></h2>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/h/Hebrew_language.htm" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <!--del_lnk--> Masoretic text contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the <!--del_lnk--> Talmudic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called <i>parashiyot</i>, which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the <i>parashiyot</i> is usually thematic. The <i>parashiyot</i> are not numbered.<p>In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Aleppo codex) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Bibles. In this system the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must <i>always</i> begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections <i>never</i> start at the beginning of a new line.<p>Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the <i>sedarim</i>. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the <i>quantity</i> of text.<p>The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called <i>Kephalaia</i>. It is not identical to the present chapters.<p>The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a <!--del_lnk--> 1330 manuscript, and for a printed edition in <!--del_lnk--> 1516. However, for the past generation, most Jewish editions of the complete <!--del_lnk--> Hebrew Bible have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.<p>The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.<p><!--del_lnk--> Stephen Langton is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in <!--del_lnk--> 1205. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the <!--del_lnk--> 1400s. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in <!--del_lnk--> 1565 (New Testament) and <!--del_lnk--> 1571 (Hebrew Bible).<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Advocacy_of_the_Bible" name="Advocacy_of_the_Bible"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Advocacy of the Bible</span></h2>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Christian apologists advocate a high view of the Bible and sometimes advocate the doctrine of <!--del_lnk--> Biblical inerrancy.<p>Christian scholar <!--del_lnk--> Bernard Ramm is often quoted by <!--del_lnk--> conservative Christians for writing the following in his work <i>Protestant Christian Evidences</i>:<blockquote>
<p>"Jews preserved it as no other <!--del_lnk--> manuscript has ever been preserved. With their <!--del_lnk--> massora they kept tabs on every letter, syllable, word and paragraph. They had special classes of men within their culture whose sole duty was to preserve and transmit these documents with practically perfect fidelity – <!--del_lnk--> scribes, <!--del_lnk--> lawyers, <!--del_lnk--> massorettes.</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p>In regard to the New Testament, there are about 13,000 manuscripts, complete and incomplete, in <!--del_lnk--> Greek and other languages, that have survived from <!--del_lnk--> antiquity.</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p>A thousand times over, the death knell of the Bible has been sounded, the funeral procession formed, the inscription cut on the tombstone, and committal read. But somehow the corpse never stays put. No other book has been so chopped, knifed, sifted, scrutinized, and vilified. What book on philosophy or religion or psychology or belles lettres of classical or modern times has been subject to such a mass attack as the Bible? With such venom and skepticism? With such thoroughness and erudition? Upon every chapter, line and <!--del_lnk--> tenet?</blockquote>
<blockquote>
<p>The Bible is still loved by millions, read by millions, and studied by millions."</blockquote>
<p><a id="Criticism_of_the_Bible" name="Criticism_of_the_Bible"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Criticism of the Bible</span></h2>
<p>Theologians and clerics, most notably <!--del_lnk--> Abraham Ibn Ezra, think that there are contradictions in the Bible. <!--del_lnk--> Benedict Spinoza concluded from a study of such contradictions that the <!--del_lnk--> Torah could not have had a single author, and thus, neither God nor Moses could be the authors of the Torah. By the 19th century, critical scholars, such as <!--del_lnk--> Hermann Gunkel and <!--del_lnk--> Julius Wellhausen argued that the various books of the Bible were written not by the presumed authors but by a heterogeneous set of authors over a long period. Although Biblical archeology has confirmed the existence of some of the people, places, and events mentioned in the Bible, many critical scholars have argued that the Bible be read not as an accurate historical document, but rather as a work of literature and theology that often draws on historical events — and often draws on non-Hebrew mythology — as primary source material. For these critics the Bible reveals much about the lives and times of its authors. Whether the ideas of these authors have any relevance to contemporary society is left to clerics and adherents of contemporary religions to decide.<p><a id="The_documentary_hypothesis" name="The_documentary_hypothesis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The documentary hypothesis</span></h3>
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<p>The <b>documentary hypothesis</b> posits that the <a href="../../wp/p/Pentateuch.htm" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a> (written <!--del_lnk--> Torah) has its origins in sources who lived during the time of the <!--del_lnk--> United Monarchy or later, labeled J (<!--del_lnk--> Yahwists), E (<!--del_lnk--> Elohim), D (<!--del_lnk--> Deuteronomists), and P (<!--del_lnk--> Priests). These in turn are said to go back to oral traditions, drawing on (and sometimes parodying) earlier <!--del_lnk--> ancient Near Eastern mythology. <!--del_lnk--> Julius Wellhausen, who in the late <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> gave this hypothesis a definitive formulation, suggested that these sources were edited together or <!--del_lnk--> redacted during the time of <!--del_lnk--> Ezra, perhaps by Ezra himself. Since that time Wellhausen's theory has been widely debated by critical scholars (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Yehezkel Kaufman).<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>The <!--del_lnk--> In-N-Out fast food chain has hidden bible references on its foods packaging.<li>John 3:16 is often parodied in wrestling and sports by its fans, with a favorite team or team members name, with 3:16, put on a sign held up when cheering.<li><!--del_lnk--> Family Guy references the bible in a similar manner, when Brian reads outloud a non existant line in the bible "And the lord said, Go <!--del_lnk--> Sox"<li>Many <!--del_lnk--> manga or <!--del_lnk--> graphic novels are alternativly talled Literary Bibles, with no connection to the Christian bible.<li>The Japanese sometimes carry a different meaning for the word Bible (Baibaru), meaning a phrase that one takes to heart. This is notably mentioned in the Japanese pop song "Zankoku Na Tenshi no TE-ZE".</ul>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bicycle</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Road_transport.htm">Road transport</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17014.jpg.htm" title="This racing bicycle is built using lightweight, shaped aluminium tubing and carbon fiber stays and forks. It sports a drop handlebar and thin tires and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics."><img alt="This racing bicycle is built using lightweight, shaped aluminium tubing and carbon fiber stays and forks. It sports a drop handlebar and thin tires and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics." height="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kusuma_bike_large.jpg" src="../../images/16/1643.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17014.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This <i><!--del_lnk--> racing bicycle</i> is built using lightweight, shaped <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> tubing and <!--del_lnk--> carbon fibre stays and forks. It sports a drop handlebar and thin tires and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics.</div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1644.jpg.htm" title="This mountain bicycle features oversized tires, a sturdy frame, front shock absorbers, and handlebars oriented perpendicular to the bike's axis"><img alt="This mountain bicycle features oversized tires, a sturdy frame, front shock absorbers, and handlebars oriented perpendicular to the bike's axis" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mountain_bicycle.jpg" src="../../images/16/1644.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1644.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> This <i><!--del_lnk--> mountain bicycle</i> features oversized tires, a sturdy frame, front shock absorbers, and handlebars oriented perpendicular to the bike's axis</div>
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<p>A <b>bicycle</b>, or <b>bike</b>, is a <!--del_lnk--> pedal-driven <!--del_lnk--> human-powered vehicle with two <!--del_lnk--> wheels attached to a <!--del_lnk--> frame, one behind the other. The International Union of Cycling adds the provision that the seat be more or less above the pedals, thus excluding <!--del_lnk--> recumbent bicycles.<p>First introduced in <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th-century Europe</a>, bicycles now number over one billion worldwide, providing the principal means of transportation in many regions, notably China and the Netherlands. They are also a popular form of <!--del_lnk--> recreation, and have been adapted for use in many other fields of human activity, including children's <a href="../../wp/t/Toy.htm" title="Toy">toys</a>, adult <!--del_lnk--> fitness, <!--del_lnk--> military and local <a href="../../wp/p/Police.htm" title="Police">police</a> applications, <!--del_lnk--> courier services, and cycle <a href="../../wp/s/Sport.htm" title="Sports">sports</a>.<p>The basic shape and configuration of the bicycle's frame, wheels, pedals, saddle, and handlebars have hardly changed since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885 , although many important details have since been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and computer-aided design. These have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for individuals who pursue a particular type of <!--del_lnk--> cycling.<p>The bicycle has affected history considerably, in both the cultural and industrial realms. In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies; more recently, bicycle technology has, in turn, contributed ideas in both old and newer areas.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1645.jpg.htm" title="A smartly dressed couple seated on an 1886 "quadricycle" for two"><img alt="A smartly dressed couple seated on an 1886 "quadricycle" for two" height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bicycle_two_1886.jpg" src="../../images/16/1645.jpg" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1645.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A smartly dressed couple seated on an 1886 "<!--del_lnk--> quadricycle" for two</div>
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<p>Several inventors and innovators contributed to the development of the bicycle. Its earliest known forebears were called <i><!--del_lnk--> velocipedes</i>, and included many types of human-powered vehicles. One of these, the <!--del_lnk--> scooter-like <i><!--del_lnk--> dandy horse</i> of the <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> Comte de Sivrac, dating to 1790, was long cited as the earliest bicycle. Most bicycle historians now believe that these hobbyhorses with no steering mechanism probably never existed, but were made up by <!--del_lnk--> Louis Baudry de Saunier, a 19th-century French bicycle historian. However, the term <i>hobbyhorse</i> was later applied to the first documented ancestor of the modern bicycle, first introduced to the public in Paris by the German Baron <!--del_lnk--> Karl Drais in 1818..<p>The ancestor of the bicycle was first created by a <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> Baron, <!--del_lnk--> Karl Drais, who invented and patented his machine in 1817. So the first bicycle ride was from his residence town Mannheim to the suburb Rheinau. A number of these <i>draisines</i> or <!--del_lnk--> dandy horses still exist, including one at the <!--del_lnk--> Paleis het Loo museum in <!--del_lnk--> Apeldoorn, the Netherlands. These were <i>pushbikes</i>, powered by the action of the rider's feet pushing against the ground. The Draisienne had two in-line wheels connected by a wooden frame. The rider sat astride and pushed it along with his feet, while steering the front wheel.<p><a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <!--del_lnk--> blacksmith <!--del_lnk--> Kirkpatrick MacMillan refined this in 1839 by adding a mechanical <!--del_lnk--> crank drive to the rear wheel, thus creating the first true "bicycle" in the modern sense. His system employed a pair of <!--del_lnk--> treadle drives connected by rods to a rear wheel crank, rather like a <!--del_lnk--> steam locomotive's <!--del_lnk--> driveshaft. Although the design was copied by at least two other Scottish builders, it was overtaken in popularity and influence by an inferior one.<p>In the 1850s and 1860s, Frenchmen Ernest <!--del_lnk--> Michaux and <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a different direction, placing the pedals on an enlarged front wheel. Their creation, which came to be called the "Boneshaker", featured a heavy <a href="../../wp/s/Steel.htm" title="Steel">steel</a> frame on which they mounted wooden wheels with <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> tires. Lallement emigrated to the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, where he recorded a <!--del_lnk--> patent on his bicycle in 1866 in <!--del_lnk--> New Haven, Connecticut. The Boneshaker was further refined by <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">Englishman</a> <!--del_lnk--> James Starley in the 1870s. He mounted the seat more squarely over the pedals so that the rider could push more firmly, and further enlarged the front wheel to increase the potential for speed. With tires of solid rubber, his machine became known as <i>the ordinary</i>. British cyclists likened the disparity in size of the two wheels to their coinage, nicknaming it the <i><!--del_lnk--> penny-farthing</i>. The primitive bicycles of this generation were difficult to ride, and the high seat and poor weight distribution made for dangerous falls.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><i><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1646.jpg.htm" title="Bicycle in Victorian Plymouth, with a predecessor of the Starley diamond-frame"><img alt="Bicycle in Victorian Plymouth, with a predecessor of the Starley diamond-frame" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BicyclePlymouth.jpg" src="../../images/16/1646.jpg" width="180" /></a></i><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><i><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1646.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></i></div> Bicycle in Victorian Plymouth, with a predecessor of the Starley diamond-frame</div>
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<p>The subsequent <i>dwarf ordinary</i> addressed some of these faults by adding gearing, reducing the front wheel diameter, and setting the seat further back, with no loss of speed. Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. Starley's nephew, <!--del_lnk--> J. K. Starley, J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the <i>chain</i> and producing rear-wheel drive. These models were known as <i>dwarf safeties</i>, or <i>safety bicycles</i>, for their lower seat height and better weight distribution. Starley's 1885 Rover is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle. Soon, the <i>seat tube</i> was added, creating the double-triangle, <i>diamond frame</i> of the modern bike.<p>While the Starley design was much safer, the return to smaller wheels made for a bumpy ride. The next innovations increased comfort and ushered in the 1890s <i>Golden Age of Bicycles</i>. In 1888, Scotsman <!--del_lnk--> John Boyd Dunlop introduced the <!--del_lnk--> pneumatic tire, which soon became universal. Soon after, the rear <!--del_lnk--> freewheel was developed, enabling the rider to coast without the pedals spinning out of control. This refinement led to the 1898 invention of <i>coaster brakes</i>. <!--del_lnk--> Derailleur gears and hand-operated, <!--del_lnk--> cable-pull brakes were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders. By the turn of the century, bicycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing were soon extremely popular.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1647.jpg.htm" title="American bike from 1896. The frame is made of bamboo"><img alt="American bike from 1896. The frame is made of bamboo" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bamboobike.jpg" src="../../images/16/1647.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1647.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> American bike from 1896. The frame is made of <!--del_lnk--> bamboo</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1648.jpg.htm" title="A more-than-typical Amsterdam 'granny bike'"><img alt="A more-than-typical Amsterdam 'granny bike'" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Amsterdam-flowerbike.jpg" src="../../images/16/1648.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1648.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A more-than-typical Amsterdam 'granny bike'</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1649.jpg.htm" title="Plastic bicycle from the 80's"><img alt="Plastic bicycle from the 80's" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Itera_plastic_bicycle.jpg" src="../../images/16/1649.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1649.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Plastic bicycle from the 80's</div>
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<p>Successful early bicycle manufacturers included Englishman <!--del_lnk--> Frank Bowden and German builder Ignaz Schwinn. Bowden started the <!--del_lnk--> Raleigh company in Nottingham in the 1890s, and was soon producing some 30,000 bicycles a year. Schwinn emigrated to the United States, where he founded his similarly successful company in Chicago in 1895. <!--del_lnk--> Schwinn bicycles soon featured widened tires and spring-cushioned, padded seats, sacrificing a certain amount of efficiency for increased comfort. Facilitated by connections between European nations and their overseas colonies, European-style bicycles were soon available worldwide. By the mid-20th century, bicycles had become the primary means of transportation for millions of people around the globe.<p>In many western countries, the use of bicycles levelled off or declined as motorized transportation became affordable and car-centred policies led to an increasingly hostile environment for bicycles. In North America, bicycle sales declined markedly after 1905, to the point where, by the 1940s, they had largely been relegated to the role of children's toys. However, in other parts of the world, such as China, India, and European countries such as Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands, the traditional utility bicycle remained a mainstay of transportation; its design changed only gradually to incorporate hand-operated brakes, with internal hub gears allowing up to seven speeds. In the Netherlands, such so-called 'granny bikes' have remained popular, and are again in production. In the early 1980s, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> company <i>Itera</i> invented a new type of bicycle, called the <!--del_lnk--> Itera plastic bicycle, made entirely out of plastics. The plastic bicycle was however a commercial failure.<p>In North America, increasing consciousness of physical fitness and environmental preservation spawned a renaissance of bicycling in the late 1960s. Bicycle sales in the US boomed, largely in the form of the <!--del_lnk--> racing bicycles, long used in such events as the hugely popular <a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a>. Sales were also helped by a number of technical innovations that were new to the US market, including higher performance steel alloys and gearsets with an increasing number of gears. While 10-speeds were very popular in the 1970s, 12-speed designs were introduced in the 1980s, and today most bikes feature 18 or more speeds. By the 1980s, these newer designs had driven the <!--del_lnk--> three-speed bicycle from the roads. In the late 1980s, the <!--del_lnk--> mountain bike became particularly popular, and in the 1990s something of a major fad. These task-specific designs led many American recreational cyclists to demand a more comfortable and practical product. Manufacturers responded with the <!--del_lnk--> hybrid bicycle, which restored many of the features long enjoyed by riders of the time-tested European <!--del_lnk--> utility bikes.<p><a id="Technical_aspects" name="Technical_aspects"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Technical aspects</span></h2>
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<div style="width:267px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1650.jpg.htm" title="Reflectors for night riding are one of many available safety accessories"><img alt="Reflectors for night riding are one of many available safety accessories" height="259" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bicycle.jpg" src="../../images/16/1650.jpg" width="265" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Reflectors for night riding are one of many available safety accessories</div>
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<p><a id="Legal_requirements" name="Legal_requirements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Legal requirements</span></h3>
<p>The 1968 <!--del_lnk--> Vienna Convention on Road Traffic considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle is considered a driver. The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements, sometimes even including licensing, before it can be used on public roads. In many jurisdictions it is an offense to use a bicycle that is not in roadworthy condition. In most places, bicycles must have functioning front and rear <!--del_lnk--> lights or <i>lamps</i> when ridden after dark. As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear <!--del_lnk--> reflectors are frequently also mandatory. Since a moving bicycle makes very little noise, in many countries bicycles must have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians and other bicyclists.<p><a id="Construction_and_parts" name="Construction_and_parts"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Construction and parts</span></h3>
<p><a id="Frame" name="Frame"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Frame</span></h4>
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<p>Nearly all modern <!--del_lnk--> upright bicycles feature the <i>diamond frame</i>, a truss, consisting of two <!--del_lnk--> triangles: the front triangle and the rear triangle. The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The head tube contains the <!--del_lnk--> headset, the set of bearings that allows the <!--del_lnk--> fork to spin smoothly. The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the <!--del_lnk--> bottom bracket. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run parallel to the <!--del_lnk--> chain, connecting the bottom bracket to the rear dropouts. The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear dropouts.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1651.jpg.htm" title="Bike on the beach in Goa, India"><img alt="Bike on the beach in Goa, India" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bikeinindia.JPG" src="../../images/16/1651.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1651.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bike on the beach in Goa, India</div>
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<p>Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height at the expense of compromised structural integrity, since this places a strong bending load in the seat tube, and bicycle frame members are typically weak in bending. This design purportedly allows the rider to mount and dismount in a dignified way while wearing a skirt or dress, although this is difficult on a properly-sized diamond frame. While some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a hybrid form, the <i>mixte</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> step-through frame</i>, which splits the top tube into two small top tubes that bypass the seat tube and connect to the rear dropouts. The ease of stepping through is also appreciated by those with limited flexibility or other joint problems. Unfortunately for the old tall man, because of its persistent image as a "women's" bicycle, the vast majority of mixte frames are quite small.<p>Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being strength and low weight. Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. <!--del_lnk--> Celluloid found application in mudguards, and aluminium alloys are increasingly used in components such as handlebars, seat post, and brake levers. In the 1980s <a href="../../wp/a/Aluminium.htm" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> alloy frames became popular, and their affordability now makes them common. More expensive <!--del_lnk--> carbon fibre and <a href="../../wp/t/Titanium.htm" title="Titanium">titanium</a> frames are now also available, as well as advanced steel alloys.<p><a id="Drivetrain" name="Drivetrain"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Drivetrain</span></h4>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1652.jpg.htm" title="Shimano XT rear derailleur on a mountain bike"><img alt="Shimano XT rear derailleur on a mountain bike" height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shimano_xt_rear_derailleur.jpg" src="../../images/16/1652.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1652.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Shimano XT rear derailleur on a mountain bike</div>
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<p>The <i>drivetrain</i> begins with <!--del_lnk--> pedals which rotate the <!--del_lnk--> cranks, which fit into the <!--del_lnk--> bottom bracket. Attached to the right crank is the <i>chainring</i> or sprocket which drives the <!--del_lnk--> chain, which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear <!--del_lnk--> sprockets, or cassette. Various <!--del_lnk--> gearing systems, described below, may be interspersed between the pedals and rear wheel; these gearing systems vary the number of rear wheel revolutions produced by each turn of the pedals.<p>Since cyclists' legs produce a limited amount of power most efficiently over a narrow range of <i><!--del_lnk--> cadences</i>, a variable <!--del_lnk--> gear ratio is needed to maintain an optimum pedaling speed while covering varied terrain. The gear systems are usually hand-operated, via cables, and are of two types.<ul>
<li><i>Internal <!--del_lnk--> hub gearing</i> works by <!--del_lnk--> planetary, or epicyclic, gearing, in which the outer case of the hub gear unit turns at a different speed relative to the rear axle depending on which gear is selected. Rear hub gears may offer 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, or 14 speeds. Bottom bracket fittings offer a choice of 2 speeds, and are generally foot-operated.<li><i>External gearing</i> utilizes <!--del_lnk--> derailleurs, which can be placed on both the front <i>chainring</i> and on the rear <i>cluster</i> or <i>cassette</i>, to push the chain to either side, derailing it from the sprockets. The sides of the gear rings catch the chain, pulling it up onto their teeth to change gears. There may be 1 to 3 chainrings, and 5 to 10 sprockets on the cassette.</ul>
<p>Internal hub gears are immune to adverse weather conditions that affect derailleurs, and often last longer and require less maintenance. However, they may be heavier and/or more expensive, and often do not offer the same range or number of gears. Internal hub gearing still predominates in some regions, particularly on utility bikes, whereas in other regions, such as the USA, external derailleur systems predominate.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1653.jpg.htm" title="Bicycles in the Netherlands"><img alt="Bicycles in the Netherlands" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fietsen.jpg" src="../../images/16/1653.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1653.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bicycles in the Netherlands</div>
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<p>Road bicycles have <i>close set</i> multi-step gearing, which allows very fine control of cadence, while <i>utility cycles</i> offer fewer, more widely spaced speeds. <i>Mountain bikes</i> and most entry-level road racing bikes may offer an extremely low gear to facilitate climbing slowly on steep hills.<p><!--del_lnk--> Fixed-gear track racing bikes can achieve transmission efficiencies of over 99% (nearly all the energy put in at the pedals ends up at the wheel). Biomechanical factors however determine that a human can deliver maximum power only over a narrow range of crank rotational speed or <i>cadence.</i> To match the power source with the load under varying conditions, a variable gear ratio is needed, and they work very well, though at the expense of mechanical efficiency. The efficiency varies considerably with the gear ratio being used. In a typical hub gear mechanism the mechanical efficiency will be between 82% and 92% depending on the ratio selected. Which ratios are <i>best</i> and <i>worst</i> depends on the specific model of hub gear. Derailleur type mechanisms fare better, with a typical mid-range product (of the sort used by serious amateurs) achieving between 88% and 99% efficiency at 100W. In derailleur mechanisms the highest efficiency is achieved by the larger cogs. Efficiency generally decreases with smaller cog and chainwheel sizes. Derailleur efficiency is also compromised with <i>cross-chaining</i>, or running large-ring to large-cog or small-ring to small-cog. This also results in increased wear because of the lateral deflection of the chain.<p>There have been, and still are, drivetrains that are quite different from these:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Retro-Direct drivetrains used on some early 20th century bicycles have been resurrected by bicycle hobbyists. These have two gears but no gear lever; the operator simply pedals forward for one gear and backward for the other.<li>Other bicycles of that era dispensed with the chain entirely and used an enclosed driveshaft and bevel gears. These <!--del_lnk--> shaft-driven bicycle were strongly built but were not mechanically efficient. They were primarily marketed to women, as the enclosed gears would not entangle clothing. In recent years, a small number of shaft-drive systems have reappeared on the market as a specialty item .<li>In recent years, Steve Christini and Mike Dunn added a two-wheel drive option to bicyclists. Their <!--del_lnk--> AWD system, aimed at mountain bikers, comprises an adapted differential that sends power to the front wheel once the rear begins to slip.</ul>
<p><a id="Steering_and_seating" name="Steering_and_seating"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Steering and seating</span></h4>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> handlebars turn the <!--del_lnk--> fork and the front <!--del_lnk--> wheel via the <i>stem</i>, which articulates with the <!--del_lnk--> headset. Three styles of handlebar are common. <i>Upright handlebars</i>, the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position. <i>Drop handlebars</i> are "dropped", offering the cyclist either an aerodynamic "crouched" position or a more upright posture in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts. Mountain bikes feature a <i>straight handlebar</i>, which helps prevent the rider from pitching over the front in case of sudden deceleration.<p>Variations on these styles exist. <i>Bullhorn</i> style handlebars are often seen on modern <!--del_lnk--> time trial bicycles, equipped with two forward-facing extensions, allowing a rider to rest the entire forearm on the bar. These are usually used in conjunction with the <i>aero bar</i>, a pair of forward-facing extensions spaced close together, to promote better aerodynamics. The <i>Bullhorn</i> was banned from ordinary road racing because it is difficult for the rider to control in bike traffic.<p><i>Saddles</i> also vary with rider preference, from the cushioned ones favoured by short-distance riders to narrower saddles which allow more free leg swings. Comfort depends on riding position. With comfort bikes and hybrids the cyclist sits high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable. For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, and the hips are flexed, and a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> recumbent bicycle has a reclined chair-like seat that is more comfortable than a saddle, especially for riders who suffer from certain types of back pain.<p><a id="Brakes" name="Brakes"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Brakes</span></h4>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1654.jpg.htm" title="Traditional L-shaped cantilever brake"><img alt="Traditional L-shaped cantilever brake" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pedderson-bremse.jpg" src="../../images/16/1654.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1654.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Traditional L-shaped cantilever brake</div>
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<p>Modern bicycle <i>brakes</i> are either <i>rim brakes</i>, in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims, <i>internal hub brakes</i>, in which the friction pads are contained within the wheel hubs, or disc brakes. A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal <i>coaster brakes</i> which were the rule in North America until the 1960s. Hub drum brakes do not cope well with extended braking, so rim brakes are favoured in hilly terrain. With hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake handles mounted on the handle bars and then transmitted via <!--del_lnk--> Bowden cables to the friction pads. In the late 1990s, <!--del_lnk--> disc brakes appeared on some off-road bicycles, <!--del_lnk--> tandems and <!--del_lnk--> recumbent bicycles, but are considered impractical on road bicycles, which rarely encounter conditions where the advantages of discs are significant.<p>The advantages of discs make them well-suited to steep, extended downhills through wet and muddy off-road terrain, which falls under the category of downhill and freeride bicycle riding. The use of tires as large as 3.0 inches in width also makes disc brakes a necessity, as rim brakes simply cannot straddle a tire that wide.<p>Two main disc brake systems exist: hydraulic and mechanical (cable-actuated). Mechanical disc brakes have less modulation than hydraulic disc brake systems, and since the cable is usually open to the outside, mechanical disc brakes tend to pick up small bits of dirt and grit in the cable lines when ridden in harsh terrain. Hydraulic disc brake systems generally keep contaminants out better. However, since hydraulic disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed the brake systems, repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc brakes rarely fail. Also, the hydraulic fluid may boil on steep, continuous downhills. This is due to heat building up in the disc and pads and can cause the brake to lose its ability to transmit force through incompressible fluids, since some of it has become a gas, which is compressible. To avoid this problem, 203 mm (8 inch) diameter disc rotors have become common on downhill bikes. Larger rotors dissipate heat more quickly and have a larger amount of mass to absorb heat. For these reasons, one must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using a hydraulic system versus a mechanical system.<p>For <!--del_lnk--> track cycling, <!--del_lnk--> track bicycles do not have brakes. Most track bike frames and forks do not have holes for mounting brakes, although with their increasing popularity among some road cyclists, some manufacturers have drilled their track frames to enable the fitting of brakes. Brakes are not required for riding on a track because all riders ride in the same direction and there are no corners or other traffic. Track rider are still able to slow down because all track bicycles are <!--del_lnk--> fixed, meaning that there is no freewheel. Without a freewheel, coasting is impossible, so when the rear wheel is moving, the crank is moving. To slow down one may apply resistance to the pedals. Cyclists who ride a track bike without brake(s) on the road can also slow down by skidding, by unweighting the rear wheel and applying a backwards force to the pedals, causing the rear wheel to lock up and slide along the road.<p><a id="Accessories_and_Repairs" name="Accessories_and_Repairs"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Accessories and Repairs</span></h4>
<p>Some components, which are often optional accessories on sports bicycles, are standard features on <!--del_lnk--> utility bicycles to enhance their usefulness and comfort. <i>Chainguards</i> and <i>mudguards</i>, or <i>fenders</i>, protect clothes and moving parts from oil and spray. <i>Kick stands</i> help with parking. Front-mounted wicker or steel <i>baskets</i> for carrying goods are often used. Rear racks or carriers can be used to carry items such as school satchels. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1655.jpg.htm" title="Touring bicycle equipped with head lamp, pump, rear rack, fenders/mud-guards, and numerous saddle-bags."><img alt="Touring bicycle equipped with head lamp, pump, rear rack, fenders/mud-guards, and numerous saddle-bags." height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Reiserad-beladen.jpg" src="../../images/16/1655.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1655.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Touring bicycle equipped with head lamp, pump, rear rack, fenders/mud-guards, and numerous saddle-bags.</div>
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<p><i>Toe-clips and toestraps</i>, or clipless pedals, help to keep the foot planted firmly on the pedals, and enable the cyclist to pull as well as push the pedals. Technical accessories include solid-state speedometers and odometers for measuring distance. Other accessories include <!--del_lnk--> lights, reflectors, tire pump, security lock, mirror, and horn. A <!--del_lnk--> bicycle helmet is classified by some as an accessory, but as an item of clothing by others.<p>Many cyclists carry <i>tool kits</i>, containing at least a tire patch kit (and/or a spare tube), <!--del_lnk--> tire levers, and allen wrenches. A single tool once sufficed for most repairs. More specialised parts now require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer. Some bicycle parts, particularly hub-based gearing systems, are complex, and many prefer to leave <!--del_lnk--> maintenance and repairs to professionals. Others maintain their own bicycles, enhancing their enjoyment of the <!--del_lnk--> hobby of cycling.<p>It is also possible to purchase road-side assistance from companys such as the <!--del_lnk--> Better World Club.<p><a id="Performance" name="Performance"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Performance</span></h3>
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<p>In both biological and mechanical terms, the bicycle is extraordinarily efficient. In terms of the amount of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance, investigators have calculated it to be the most efficient self-powered means of transportation. From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10-15%. In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also a most efficient means of cargo transportation.<p>A human being travelling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around 10-15 mph (16-24 km/h), using only the energy required to walk, is the most energy-efficient means of transport generally available. Air drag, which increases with the square of speed, requires increasingly higher power outputs relative to speed. A bicycle which places the rider in a seated position, <!--del_lnk--> supine position or, more rarely, <!--del_lnk--> prone position, and which may be covered in an aerodynamic fairing to achieve very low air drag, is referred to as a <!--del_lnk--> recumbent bicycle or <!--del_lnk--> human powered vehicle. Humans create the greatest amount of drag on an upright bicycle at about 75% of the total drag.<p><a id="Dynamics" name="Dynamics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dynamics</span></h3>
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<p>A bicycle stays upright by being steered so as to keep its centre of gravity over its wheels. This steering is usually provided by the rider, but under certain conditions may be provided by the bicycle itself.<p>A bicycle must lean in order to turn. This lean is induced by a method known as <!--del_lnk--> countersteering, which can be performed by the rider turning the handlebars directly with the hands or indirectly by leaning the bicycle.<p>Short-wheelbase or <!--del_lnk--> tall bicycles, when braking, can generate enough stopping force at the front wheel in order to flip longitudinally. This action, especially if performed on purpose, is known as a <!--del_lnk--> stoppie or front wheelie.<p><a id="Further_reading" name="Further_reading"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Social and historical aspects</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1656.jpg.htm" title="Present day: Bikes still popular in Amsterdam"><img alt="Present day: Bikes still popular in Amsterdam" height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BikesInAmsterdam_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg" src="../../images/16/1656.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1656.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Present day: Bikes still popular in Amsterdam</div>
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<p><a id="Economic_implications" name="Economic_implications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Economic implications</span></h3>
<p>Bicycle manufacturing proved to be a training ground for other industries and led to the development of advanced metalworking techniques, both for the frames themselves and for special components such as <!--del_lnk--> ball bearings, <!--del_lnk--> washers, and <!--del_lnk--> sprockets. These techniques later enabled skilled metalworkers and mechanics to develop the components used in early <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobiles</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Aircraft.htm" title="Aircraft">aircrafts</a>. J. K. Starley's company became the <i>Rover Cycle Company Ltd.</i> in the late 1890s, and then the <i><!--del_lnk--> Rover</i> auto maker. The <!--del_lnk--> Morris Motor Company (in <a href="../../wp/o/Oxford.htm" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>) and <!--del_lnk--> Škoda also began in the bicycle business, as did <a href="../../wp/h/Henry_Ford.htm" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Wright Brothers.<p>Some bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, the <!--del_lnk--> League of American Wheelmen lobbied for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national <!--del_lnk--> Good Roads Movement. Both their model for political organization and the paved roads for which they argued facilitated the growth of the bicycle's rival, the <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automobile</a>.<p>Until recently cycle manufacturers in the west generally built their own frames and used components made by other companies to assemble a complete cycle, although very large companies such as Raleigh used to make almost every part of a bicycles including eg bottom bracket axles etc. In recent years, US and European bicycle makers have changed their methods of production. Many companies now only assemble, every part of the bicycle including the frame will have been made by other companies. Many newer or smaller companies do no manufacturing or even assembly at all, they only deal with design and marketing, actual manufacturing is done by other companies. Some sixty percent of the world's bicycles are now being made in China. Despite this shift in production, as nations such as <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> become more wealthy, their own use of bicycles has declined due to the increasing affordability of cars and motorcycles. One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Chinese-made bicycles in foreign markets is the lower cost of labour in China.<p><a id="Female_emancipation" name="Female_emancipation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Female emancipation</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1657.jpg.htm" title="Woman with bicycle, 1890s"><img alt="Woman with bicycle, 1890s" height="296" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Woman_with_Bicycle_1890s.jpg" src="../../images/16/1657.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1657.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Woman with bicycle, 1890s</div>
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<p>The diamond-frame safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their <!--del_lnk--> emancipation in Western nations. As bicycles became safer and cheaper, more women had access to the personal freedom they embodied, and so the bicycle came to symbolise the <!--del_lnk--> New Woman of the late nineteenth century, especially in Britain and the United States.<p>The bicycle was recognised by nineteenth-century <!--del_lnk--> feminists and <!--del_lnk--> suffragists as a "freedom machine" for women. American <!--del_lnk--> Susan B. Anthony said in a <!--del_lnk--> New York World interview on <!--del_lnk--> February 2, <!--del_lnk--> 1896: "Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think it has done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. It gives women a feeling of freedom and self-reliance. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel...the picture of free, untrammeled womanhood." In 1895 <!--del_lnk--> Frances Willard, the tightly-laced president of the <!--del_lnk--> Women’s Christian Temperance Union, wrote a book called <i>How I Learned to Ride the Bicycle</i>, in which she praised the bicycle she learned to ride late in life, and which she named "Gladys", for its "gladdening effect" on her health and political optimism. Willard used a cycling metaphor to urge other suffragists to action, proclaiming, "I would not waste my life in friction when it could be turned into momentum."<p>The male anger at the freedom symbolised by the New (bicycling) Woman was demonstrated when the male undergraduates of <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="Cambridge University">Cambridge University</a> chose to show their opposition to the admission of women as full members of the university by hanging a woman in effigy in the main town square -- tellingly, a woman on a bicycle. This was as late as 1897.<p>In the 1890s the <!--del_lnk--> bicycle craze led to a movement for so-called <!--del_lnk--> rational dress, which helped liberate women from corsets and ankle-length skirts and other restrictive garments, substituting the then-shocking <!--del_lnk--> bloomers.<p><a id="Other_social_implications" name="Other_social_implications"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other social implications</span></h3>
<p>Sociologists suggest that bicycles enlarged the <!--del_lnk--> gene pool for rural workers, by enabling them to easily reach the next town and increase their <i>courting radius</i>. In cities, bicycles helped reduce crowding in inner-city tenements by allowing workers to commute from more spacious dwellings in the suburbs. They also reduced dependence on horses, with all the knock-on effects this brought to society. Bicycles allowed people to travel for leisure into the country, since bicycles were three times as energy efficient as walking, and three to four times as fast.<p><a id="Cycling_and_public_health" name="Cycling_and_public_health"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cycling and public health</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> physical exercise gained from cycling is generally linked with increased health and wellbeing. According to the <!--del_lnk--> World Health Organisation, physical inactivity is second only to <a href="../../wp/t/Tobacco_smoking.htm" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a> as a health risk in developed countries, and this is associated with many tens of billions of dollars of healthcare costs . The WHO's report suggests that increasing physical activity is a public health 'best buy', and that cycling is a 'highly suitable activity' for this purpose. The charity <!--del_lnk--> Sustrans reports that investment in cycling provision can give a 20:1 return from health and other benefits .<p>Cycling is not generally considered as a high-risk activity . In the UK, casualty rates per kilometer are comparable with walking, but are higher than for car occupants. Most cycle deaths result from a collision with a car or heavy goods vehicle .<p>A Danish study in 2000 concluded that cycling to work was linked to a 40% reduction in mortality rate; this included all causes of death, including road deaths.<p><a id="Uses_for_bicycles" name="Uses_for_bicycles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Uses for bicycles</span></h2>
<p><a id="Bicycles_at_work" name="Bicycles_at_work"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bicycles at work</span></h3>
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<div style="width:235px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1658.jpg.htm" title="Police officer on a bicycle"><img alt="Police officer on a bicycle" height="246" longdesc="/wiki/Image:PoliceOfficerOnBike.jpg" src="../../images/16/1658.jpg" width="233" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1658.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Police officer on a bicycle</div>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> postal services of many countries have long relied on bicycles. The British <!--del_lnk--> Royal Mail first started using bicycles in 1880; now bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>, 25,700 in <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, 10,500 in <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and 7000 in <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> London Ambulance Service has recently introduced bicycling paramedics, who can often get to the scene of an incident in <!--del_lnk--> Central London more quickly than a motorised ambulance.<p><a href="../../wp/p/Police.htm" title="Police">Police</a> officers adopted the bicycle as well, initially using their own. However, they eventually became a standard issue, particularly for police in rural areas. The <!--del_lnk--> Kent police purchased 20 bicycles in 1896, and by 1904 there were 129 police bicycle patrols operating. Some countries retained the police bicycle while others dispensed with them for a time. Bicycle patrols are now enjoying a resurgence in many cities, as the mobility of car-borne officers is becoming increasingly limited by traffic congestion and <!--del_lnk--> pedestrianisation. They also have the advantages that the officers are inherently more open to the public, and the transport is quieter to permit a more stealthy approach toward suspects. The pursuit of suspects can also be assisted by a bicycle.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1659.jpg.htm" title="A bicycle loaded with tender coconut for sale. Karnataka, India"><img alt="A bicycle loaded with tender coconut for sale. Karnataka, India" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Coconut_bunch.jpg" src="../../images/16/1659.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1659.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A bicycle loaded with <!--del_lnk--> tender coconut for sale. <!--del_lnk--> Karnataka, <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a></div>
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<p>Bicycles enjoy substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many countries. In the UK and North America, generations of teenagers have got their first jobs delivering newspapers by bicycle. London has many delivery companies that use bicycles with trailers. Most cities in the West, and many outside it, support a sizable and visible industry of <!--del_lnk--> cycle couriers who deliver documents and small packages. In <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, many of <a href="../../wp/m/Mumbai.htm" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Dabbawalas use bicycles to deliver hot lunches to the city’s workers. In <a href="../../wp/b/Bogot%25C3%25A1.htm" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Colombia.htm" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> the city’s largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles. Even the car industry uses bicycles. At the huge <!--del_lnk--> Mercedes-Benz factory in <!--del_lnk--> Sindelfingen, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> workers use bicycles, colour-coded by department, to move around the factory.<p><a id="Bicycle_recreation" name="Bicycle_recreation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bicycle recreation</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1660.jpg.htm" title="In the Netherlands, bicycles are made available for use in national parks"><img alt="In the Netherlands, bicycles are made available for use in national parks" height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WhiteBikesVeluwe.jpg" src="../../images/16/1660.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1660.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In the Netherlands, bicycles are made available for use in national parks</div>
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<p>Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. <!--del_lnk--> Bicycle touring, also known as cyclotourism, involves touring and exploration or sightseeing by bicycle for leisure. A <!--del_lnk--> brevet or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride.<p>One aspect of <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> popular culture is enjoying relaxed cycling in the <!--del_lnk--> countryside of the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>. The land is very flat and full of public bicycle trails where cyclist aren't bothered by <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">cars</a> and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling <!--del_lnk--> recreation. Many <!--del_lnk--> Dutch people subscribe every <!--del_lnk--> year to an event called <i><!--del_lnk--> fietsvierdaagse</i> — four days of organised cycling through the local environment. <!--del_lnk--> Paris-Brest-Paris (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over 1200 km and imposes a 90-hour time limit.<p><a id="Bicycles_and_war" name="Bicycles_and_war"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bicycles and war</span></h3>
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<p>The bicycle is not suited for combat, but it has been used as a method of transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. Bicycles were used in the <a href="../../wp/s/Second_Boer_War.htm" title="Second Boer War">Second Boer War</a>, where both sides used them for scouting. In <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, France and Germany used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march through <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a> in <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while the British employed airborne <i>Cycle-commandos</i> with folding bikes.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>, communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the <!--del_lnk--> Ho Chi Minh Trail. There are reports of mountain bicycles being used in scouting by U.S. Special Forces in the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and in subsequent battles against the <!--del_lnk--> Taliban. British troops, designated Light Bicycle Infantry <!--del_lnk--> LBI were recently, as of 06 January 2005, using bicycles to patrol in Basra, Iraq.<p>The only country to recently maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was <a href="../../wp/s/Switzerland.htm" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, who disbanded the last unit in 2003.<p><a id="Bicycle_racing" name="Bicycle_racing"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bicycle racing</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1661.jpg.htm" title="Bicycle racing around 1909"><img alt="Bicycle racing around 1909" height="179" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cyclist_L_Georget_LOC_04379.jpg" src="../../images/16/1661.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1661.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bicycle racing around 1909</div>
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<p>Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large races became popular during the 1890's "Golden Age of Cycling", with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well. At one point, almost every major city in the US had a <!--del_lnk--> velodrome or two for <!--del_lnk--> track racing events. However since the middle of the 20th Century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particularly in France, Belgium and Italy. The most famous of all bicycle races is the <a href="../../wp/t/Tour_de_France.htm" title="Tour de France">Tour de France</a>. This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world.<p>As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed. Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from the one-day road race, <!--del_lnk--> criterium, and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's <!--del_lnk--> Grand Tours. <!--del_lnk--> Recumbent bicycles were banned from bike races in 1934 after <!--del_lnk--> Marcel Berthet set a new <!--del_lnk--> hour record in his <i>Velodyne streamliner</i> (49.992 km on <!--del_lnk--> 18 November <!--del_lnk--> 1933). <!--del_lnk--> Track bicycles are used for <!--del_lnk--> track racing in <!--del_lnk--> Velodromes , while <!--del_lnk--> cyclo-cross races are held on rugged outdoor terrain. In the past decade, <!--del_lnk--> mountain bike racing has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport.<p>The governing body of international cycle sport, the <!--del_lnk--> Union Cycliste Internationale, decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules restricting the design of racing bicycles. These rules met with considerable controversy and to some extent arrested the development of the racing bicycle. Their stated motive was so that developing countries could compete in international competitions without requiring large equipment budgets, and to re-focus attention on the athlete rather than the bicyle. For example, <!--del_lnk--> monocoque frames, such as used by Chris Boardman to win the Gold medal in 1992 Olympic individual pursuit event in Barcelona, were no longer permitted.<p><a id="Modal_share:_cycle_use_in_modern_cities" name="Modal_share:_cycle_use_in_modern_cities"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modal share: cycle use in modern cities</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1662.jpg.htm" title="A parking lot for bicycles in Niigata,_Niigata, Japan."><img alt="A parking lot for bicycles in Niigata,_Niigata, Japan." height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BicycleParkingLot.jpg" src="../../images/16/1662.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1662.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A parking lot for bicycles in <!--del_lnk--> Niigata,_Niigata, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a>.</div>
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<p>Cyclists and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts both in politics and on the streets. Some jurisdictions give priority to motorised traffic, for example setting up extensive one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads. Other cities may apply active <i>traffic restraint</i> measures to limit the impact of motorised transport. In the former cases, cycling has tended to decline while in the latter it has tended to be maintained. Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur. In <a href="../../wp/s/Shanghai.htm" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, a city where bicycles were once the dominant <!--del_lnk--> mode of transportation, bicycle travel on city roads was actually banned temporarily in December 2003.<p>In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using <!--del_lnk--> bicycle racks, lockable <i>mini-garages</i>, and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft. Local governments also promote cycling by permitting the carriage of bicycles on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles. Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling.<p>Extensive <!--del_lnk--> bicycle path systems may be found in some cities. Such dedicated paths often have to be shared with inline skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Segregating bicycle and automobile traffic in cities has met with mixed success, both in terms of safety and bicycle promotion. At some point the two streams of traffic inevitably intersect, often in a haphazard and congested fashion. Studies have demonstrated that, due to the high incidence of accidents at these sites, such segregated schemes can actually <i>increase</i> the number of car-bike collisions.<p><a id="Cycling_activism" name="Cycling_activism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cycling activism</span></h3>
<p>Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals (<!--del_lnk--> energy conservation, pollution reduction, promotion of fitness). Two broad themes run in bicycle activism: one more overtly political with roots in the <!--del_lnk--> environmental movement; the other drawing on the traditions of the established bicycle lobby.<p>Such groups promote the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport and emphasize the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use. Activists in both camps also argue for improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation, and also for greater provision for cycle carriage on such services. Many cities also have <!--del_lnk--> community bicycle programs that promote cycling, especially as a means of inner-city transport. [[Image:Critical Mass, San Francisco, <!--del_lnk--> April 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2005.jpg|thumb|left|300px|San Francisco <!--del_lnk--> Critical Mass, <!--del_lnk--> 29 April <!--del_lnk--> 2005.]] Controversially, some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisors) seek the construction of <!--del_lnk--> segregated cycle facilities for journeys of all lengths. Other activists, especially those from the more established tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of many <!--del_lnk--> segregated cycle facilities with suspicion. They favour a more holistic approach based on <!--del_lnk--> the 4 'E's; <i>education</i> (of everyone involved), <i>encouragement</i> (to apply the education), <i>enforcement</i> (to protect the rights of others), and <i>engineering</i> (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). In some cases this opposition has a more ideological basis: some members of the <!--del_lnk--> Vehicular Cycling movement oppose segregated public facilities, such as on-street <!--del_lnk--> bike lanes, on principle. Some groups offer <!--del_lnk--> training courses to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic. This is part of the ongoing <!--del_lnk--> cycle path debate.<p><!--del_lnk--> Critical Mass is a worldwide activist movement of mass bicycle protest rides. It incorporates the themes of increasing the road- and mind-share given to bicycle transport, and has drawn support from environmentally minded campaigners and other schools of political thought. According to participants in Critical Mass, "We aren't blocking traffic, we <i>are</i> traffic!" However, their particular forms of protest has drawn criticism from the broader streams of activism.<p><!--del_lnk--> Midnight Ridazz is an massive established bicycle ride in Los Angeles based on recreational activism. The ride incorporates themes and ride routes designed to maximize fun and comraderie without any overt political agenda that might fracture the group of diverse riders. The one goal of Midnight Ridazz is to have fun riding a bike and thus inspire others to ride and have fun as well.<p>There is a long-running <!--del_lnk--> cycle helmet debate among activists. The most heated controversy surrounds the topic of <!--del_lnk--> compulsory helmet use.<p><a id="Types_of_bicycle" name="Types_of_bicycle"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of bicycle</span></h2>
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<p>Bicycles can be categorized in different ways: e.g. by function, by number of riders, by general construction, by gearing or by means of propulsion. The most common types are:<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1663.jpg.htm" title="Utility bicycles parked outside an academic building at Stanford University"><img alt="Utility bicycles parked outside an academic building at Stanford University" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stanford-bikes.jpg" src="../../images/16/1663.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1663.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Utility bicycles parked outside an academic building at <!--del_lnk--> Stanford University</div>
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<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Utility bicycles</i> are designed for <!--del_lnk--> commuting, <!--del_lnk--> shopping and running errands. They employ middle or heavy weight frames and tires, internal <!--del_lnk--> hub gearing, and a variety of helpful accessories. The riding position is usually upright.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Mountain bicycles</i> are designed for off-road cycling, and include other sub-types of off-road bicycles such as Cross Country (i.e."XC"), Downhill , and to a lesser extent Freeride bicycles. All mountain bicycles feature sturdy, highly durable frames and wheels, wide-gauge treaded tires, and cross-wise handlebars to help the rider resist sudden jolts. Some mountain bicycles feature various types of suspension systems (e.g. coiled spring, air or gas shock), and hydraulic or mechanical disc brakes. Mountain bicycle gearing is very wide-ranging, from very low ratios to high ratios, typically with 21 to 30 gears.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Racing bicycles</i> are designed for speed, and include road, time trial, and track bicycles. They have lightweight frames and components with minimal accessories, <i>dropped</i> handlebars to allow for an aerodynamic riding position, narrow high-pressure tires for minimal rolling resistance and multiple gears. Racing bicycles have a relatively narrow gear range, and typically varies from medium to very high ratios, distributed across 18, 20, 27 or 30 gears. The more closely spaced gear ratios allow racers to choose a gear which will enable them to ride at their optimum pedaling cadence for maximum efficiency.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Touring bicycles</i> are designed for <!--del_lnk--> bicycle touring and long journeys. They are durable and comfortable, capable of transporting baggage, and may feature any type of gearing system.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Cruiser bicycles</i> feature balloon tires, curvy "cantilever" frames, upright riding position, and padded saddles. They are popular recreation bikes for those who value style and durability over performance, especially in resort areas. The many elaborate and fanciful cruiser designs of the 1930s-1950s have become a focus for bicyle collectors.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> tandems</i> or <i>twins</i> have two riders, one on the front and one on the back.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> folding bicycles</i> can be quickly folded for easy carrying, for example on public transport.<li><i><!--del_lnk--> unicycles</i> are not proper bicycles, as they have only one wheel.</ul>
<p><a id="Standards" name="Standards"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Standards</span></h2>
<p>A number of formal and industry standards exist for bicycle components, to help make spare parts exchangeable:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> ISO 5775 Bicycle tire and rim designations<li>ISO 8090 Cycles — Terminology (same as BS 6102-4)<li>ISO 4210 Cycles — Safety requirements for bicycles</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bicycle Thieves</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Films.htm">Films</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 110%; text-align: center;"><i>Bicycle Thieves</i></th>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="289" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ladri3.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></th>
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<th>Directed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vittorio De Sica</td>
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<th>Produced by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Giuseppe Amato</td>
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<th>Written by</th>
<td>Vittorio De Sica<br /><!--del_lnk--> Cesare Zavattini<br /><!--del_lnk--> Suso Cecchi D'Amico<br /><!--del_lnk--> Gerardo Guerrieri<br /> Cesare Zavattini (story)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Luigi Bartolini (novel)</td>
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<th>Starring</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lamberto Maggiorani<br /><!--del_lnk--> Enzo Staiola</td>
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<tr>
<th>Music by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alessandro Cicognini</td>
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<th>Cinematography</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carlo Montuori</td>
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<th>Editing by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Eraldo Da Roma</td>
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<th>Distributed by</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/551.png.htm" title="Flag of Italy"><img alt="Flag of Italy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg" src="../../images/5/551.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ente Nazionale Industrie Cinematografiche<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Mayer & Joseph Burstyn</td>
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<th>Release date(s)</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/5/551.png.htm" title="Flag of Italy"><img alt="Flag of Italy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg" src="../../images/5/551.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> November 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1948<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> December 12, <!--del_lnk--> 1949</td>
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<th>Running time</th>
<td>93 min</td>
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<tr>
<th>Country</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></td>
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<th>Language</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Italian</td>
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<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> IMDb profile</b></th>
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<p><i><b>Ladri di biciclette</b></i> is a <!--del_lnk--> 1948 <!--del_lnk--> Italian neorealist <a href="../../wp/f/Film.htm" title="Film">film</a> directed by <!--del_lnk--> Vittorio De Sica. It was released as <i><b>The Bicycle Thief</b></i> in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> and as <i><b>Bicycle Thieves</b></i> in the <!--del_lnk--> UK. It tells the story of a poor man searching the streets of <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> for his stolen bicycle, which he needs to be able to work. The film is based on the novel of the same name by <!--del_lnk--> Luigi Bartolini and was adapted for the screen by <!--del_lnk--> Cesare Zavattini. It stars <!--del_lnk--> Lamberto Maggiorani as the father and <!--del_lnk--> Enzo Staiola as the son.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Title" name="Title"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Title</span></h2>
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<p>The original Italian title of the film is literally translated into English as <i>Bicycle Thieves</i>, but the film has also been released in the USA as <i>The Bicycle Thief</i>. According to critic Philip French of <i><!--del_lnk--> The Observer</i>, this alternate title is misleading, "because the desperate hero eventually becomes himself a bicycle thief."<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Plot_summary" name="Plot_summary"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plot summary</span></h2>
<p>The film tells the story of Antonio Ricci, an unemployed worker who gets a job posting flyers in the depressed post-<a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> economy of <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a>. To keep the job, he must have a <a href="../../wp/b/Bicycle.htm" title="Bicycle">bicycle</a>, so his wife Maria pawns her wedding sheets to get the money to get his bicycle from the pawnbroker. Early in the film, the bike is stolen, and Antonio and his son Bruno spend the remainder of the film searching for it. Antonio manages to locate the thief (who had already sold the bicycle) and summons the police, but with no proof and with the thief’s neighbors willing to give him a false alibi, he abandons this cause. At the end of the film Antonio, desperate to keep his job, attempts to steal a bicycle himself. He is caught and humiliated in front of Bruno, but the owner of the bicycle declines to press charges, realizing that the humiliation is punishment enough. Antonio and his family face a bleak future as the film ends, coupled with Antonio's realization that he is not morally superior to the thief.<div class="notice spoiler endspoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div>
<p><a id="Style" name="Style"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Style</span></h2>
<p><i>Bicycle Thieves</i> is the best known <!--del_lnk--> neorealist film, a movement begun by <!--del_lnk--> Luchino Visconti's <i><!--del_lnk--> Ossessione</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1943), which attempted to give a new degree of realism to cinema. Following the precepts of the movement, De Sica shot only on location in Rome, and instead of professional actors used ordinary people with no training in performance; for example, Lamberto Maggiorani, the leading actor, was a factory worker. The documentary-style camera work helped convey the feeling that the film is truly about real people.<p><a id="Awards" name="Awards"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards</span></h2>
<p>The film won an honorary <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award for Foreign Language Film, and the <!--del_lnk--> BAFTA Award for Best Film from Any Source, in <!--del_lnk--> 1950. It was heavily awarded by the <!--del_lnk--> Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists, and is commonly considered a film classic. It also won Best Foreign Language Film award from <!--del_lnk--> New York Film Critics Award for 1949<p><a id="Influence" name="Influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Influence</span></h2>
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<ul>
<li>Italian director <!--del_lnk--> Ettore Scola's film <!--del_lnk--> C'eravamo tanto amati (<i>We All Loved Each Other So Much</i>) (<!--del_lnk--> 1974) utilizes <i>Bicycle Thieves</i> as a major point of admiration as well as criticism. One of the characters, Nico, becomes obsessed with the film. Scola's film is dedicated to De Sica.<li>The plot of <i><!--del_lnk--> Pee-wee's Big Adventure</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1985), which features <!--del_lnk--> Pee-wee Herman trying to find his stolen bike, is loosely based on <i>Bicycle Thieves</i>.<li>In <!--del_lnk--> 1990, Italian director <!--del_lnk--> Maurizio Nichetti produced a spoof of Italian neo-realist cinema, named <i><!--del_lnk--> The Icicle Thief</i>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Altman's Hollywood satire <i><!--del_lnk--> The Player</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1992) uses <i>Bicycle Thieves</i> as an emblem of the perfect non-Hollywood movie, with an unhappy ending of the kind that would not be permitted in Hollywood.<li>In an episode of <!--del_lnk--> My So Called Life Angela attempts to have her first date with Jordan be a screening of "The Bicycle Thief". Brian however mocks her plans, asking "Do you think <!--del_lnk--> Jordan Catalano will understand one word of The Bicycle Thief? You only understand it because I explained it to you!"</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycle_Thieves"</div>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/209/20916.png.htm" title="According to the Big Bang, the universe emerged from an extremely dense and hot state (bottom). Since then, space itself has expanded with the passage of time, carrying the galaxies with it."><img alt="According to the Big Bang, the universe emerged from an extremely dense and hot state (bottom). Since then, space itself has expanded with the passage of time, carrying the galaxies with it." height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Universe_expansion.png" src="../../images/209/20916.png" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> physical cosmology, the <b>Big Bang</b> is the <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">scientific</a> <!--del_lnk--> theory that the <a href="../../wp/u/Universe.htm" title="Universe">universe</a> emerged from a tremendously <!--del_lnk--> dense and <!--del_lnk--> hot state about 13.7 billion years ago. The theory is based on the observations indicating the <a href="../../wp/m/Metric_expansion_of_space.htm" title="Metric expansion of space">expansion</a> of <!--del_lnk--> space (in accord with the <!--del_lnk--> Robertson-Walker model of <!--del_lnk--> general relativity) as indicated by the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">Hubble</a> <a href="../../wp/r/Redshift.htm" title="Redshift">redshift</a> of <!--del_lnk--> distant <a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a> taken together with the <!--del_lnk--> cosmological principle.<p><!--del_lnk--> Extrapolated into the past, these <!--del_lnk--> observations show that the universe has expanded from a state in which all the <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">matter</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> in the universe was at an immense temperature and density. <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">Physicists</a> do not widely agree on what happened before this, although general relativity predicts a <!--del_lnk--> gravitational singularity (for reporting on some of the more notable speculation on this issue, see <!--del_lnk--> cosmogony).<p>The term <i>Big Bang</i> is used both in a narrow sense to refer to a point in time when the observed expansion of the universe (<a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>) began — calculated to be 13.7 <!--del_lnk--> billion (<!--del_lnk--> 1.37 × 10<sup>10</sup>) years ago (±2%) — and in a more general sense to refer to the prevailing cosmological <!--del_lnk--> paradigm explaining the origin and expansion of the universe, as well as the composition of primordial matter through <!--del_lnk--> nucleosynthesis as predicted by the <!--del_lnk--> Alpher-Bethe-Gamow theory.<p>From this <!--del_lnk--> model, <!--del_lnk--> George Gamow in 1948 was able to predict, at least qualitatively, the existence of <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> (CMB). The CMB was discovered in 1964 and further corroborated the Big Bang theory, giving it an additional advantage over its chief rival, the <!--del_lnk--> steady state theory.<table id="cosmology" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size:90%; border: 1px solid gray; float:right; clear:right;">
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<p>The Big Bang theory developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations. Observers determined that most "spiral nebulae" were receding from Earth; but the observers themselves were unaware of the cosmological implications of this fact, or that the supposed nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Georges Lemaître, a Belgian Roman Catholic priest, independently derived the <!--del_lnk--> Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker equations from <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> equations of <!--del_lnk--> general relativity in 1927 and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral <!--del_lnk--> nebulae, that the universe began as a simple "primeval <a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" title="Atom">atom</a>"—what was later called the Big Bang.<p>Soon after, in 1929, <!--del_lnk--> Edwin Hubble provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory. He discovered that, seen from Earth, light from other galaxies is <a href="../../wp/r/Redshift.htm" title="Redshift">redshifted</a> proportionally to their distance from Earth. This fact is now known as <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>. Given the <!--del_lnk--> cosmological principle whereby the universe, when viewed on sufficiently large distance scales, has no preferred directions or preferred places, Hubble's law implied that the universe was expanding, contradicting the infinite and unchanging <!--del_lnk--> static universe scenario developed by Einstein.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/10/1052.jpg.htm" title="Artist's depiction of the WMAP satellite gathering data to help scientists understand the Big Bang."><img alt="Artist's depiction of the WMAP satellite gathering data to help scientists understand the Big Bang." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WMAP2.jpg" src="../../images/10/1052.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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</div>
</div>
<p>This idea allowed for two distinct possibilities. One possibility was <!--del_lnk--> Fred Hoyle's <!--del_lnk--> steady state model whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time. The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by <!--del_lnk--> George Gamow. It was actually Hoyle who coined the name of Lemaître's theory, referring to it sarcastically as "this <i>big bang</i> idea" during a program broadcast on <!--del_lnk--> March 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1949, by the <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> <!--del_lnk--> Third Programme. Hoyle repeated the term in further broadcasts in early 1950, as part of a series of five lectures entitled <i>The Nature of Things</i>. The text of each lecture was published in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Listener</i> a week after the broadcast, the first time that the term "big bang" appeared in print. While Hoyle's "steady state" and Lemaître's "Big Bang" were the two most popular models used to explain Hubble's observations, other ideas were also proposed. Some of these <!--del_lnk--> alternatives included the <!--del_lnk--> Milne model, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Tolman's <!--del_lnk--> oscillatory universe, and <!--del_lnk--> Fritz Zwicky's <!--del_lnk--> tired light hypothesis.<p>For a while, support was split between the "steady state" and "Big Bang" theories. However, the observational evidence eventually began to favour the latter. The discovery of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> in 1964 secured its place as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding what happened at the Big Bang and reconciling observations with the basic theory.<p>Huge advances in Big Bang cosmology were made in the late 1990s and the early 21st century as a result of major advances in <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a> technology in combination with large amounts of satellite data such as that from <!--del_lnk--> COBE, the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> and <!--del_lnk--> WMAP. Such data have allowed cosmologists to calculate many of the parameters of the Big Bang to a new level of precision and led to the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating. (See <!--del_lnk--> dark energy.)<p>See also: <b><!--del_lnk--> Timeline of cosmology</b><p><a id="Overview" name="Overview"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>
<div style="clear: right; float: right">
</div>
<p>Based on measurements of the expansion of the universe using <!--del_lnk--> Type 1a supernovae, measurements of temperature fluctuations in the <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background</a>, and measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> correlation function of galaxies, the universe has a calculated <!--del_lnk--> age of <!--del_lnk--> 13.7 ± 0.2 billion years. The agreement of these three independent measurements is considered strong evidence for the so-called <!--del_lnk--> ΛCDM model that describes the detailed nature of the contents of the universe.<p>The early universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an incredibly high <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> density and concomitantly huge <!--del_lnk--> temperatures and <!--del_lnk--> pressures. It expanded and cooled, going through <!--del_lnk--> phase transitions pertinent to elementary particles.<p>Approximately 10<sup>−35</sup> seconds after the <!--del_lnk--> Planck epoch a phase transition caused the universe to experience <!--del_lnk--> exponential growth during a period called <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_inflation.htm" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>. After inflation stopped, the material components of the universe were in the form of a <!--del_lnk--> quark-gluon plasma (also including all other particles—and perhaps experimentally produced recently as a quark-gluon liquid <!--del_lnk--> ) in which the constituent particles were all moving <!--del_lnk--> relativistically. As the universe continued growing in size, the temperature dropped. At a certain temperature, by an as-yet-unknown transition called <!--del_lnk--> baryogenesis, the quarks and gluons combined into <!--del_lnk--> baryons such as protons and neutrons, somehow producing the observed <!--del_lnk--> asymmetry between <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">matter</a> and <!--del_lnk--> antimatter. Still lower temperatures led to further <!--del_lnk--> symmetry breaking phase transitions that put the <!--del_lnk--> forces of physics and <!--del_lnk--> elementary particles into their present form. Later, some protons and neutrons combined to form the universe's <!--del_lnk--> deuterium and <a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a> <!--del_lnk--> nuclei in a process called <!--del_lnk--> Big Bang nucleosynthesis. As the universe cooled, matter gradually stopped moving relativistically and its <!--del_lnk--> rest mass energy density came to <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravitationally</a> dominate that of <a href="../../wp/e/Electromagnetic_radiation.htm" title="Electromagnetic radiation">radiation</a>. After about 300,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>); hence the radiation <!--del_lnk--> decoupled from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded. This relic radiation is the cosmic microwave background.<p>Over time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a>, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today. The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe. The three possible types are known as <!--del_lnk--> cold dark matter, <!--del_lnk--> hot dark matter, and <!--del_lnk--> baryonic matter. The best measurements available (from <!--del_lnk--> WMAP) show that the dominant form of matter in the universe is cold dark matter. The other two types of matter make up less than 20% of the matter in the universe.<p>The universe today appears to be dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as <!--del_lnk--> dark energy. Approximately 70% of the total energy density of today's universe is in this form. This dark energy causes the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">expansion of the universe</a> to deviate from a linear velocity-distance relationship, observed as a faster than expected expansion at very large distances. Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of a <!--del_lnk--> cosmological constant term in <!--del_lnk--> Einstein's field equations of general relativity, but its composition is unknown and, more generally, the details of its <!--del_lnk--> equation of state and relationship with the <!--del_lnk--> standard model of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically.<p>All these observations are encapsulated in the <!--del_lnk--> ΛCDM model of cosmology, which is a <!--del_lnk--> mathematical model of the Big Bang with six free parameters. Mysteries appear as one looks closer to the beginning, when particle energies were higher than can yet be studied by experiment. There is no compelling physical model for the first 10<sup>−33</sup> seconds of the universe, before the phase transition that <!--del_lnk--> grand unification theory predicts. At the "first instant", Einstein's theory of gravitation predicts a <!--del_lnk--> gravitational singularity where densities become infinite. To resolve this <a href="../../wp/p/Physical_paradox.htm" title="Physical paradox">paradox</a>, a theory of <!--del_lnk--> quantum gravitation is needed. Understanding this period of the history of the universe is one of the greatest <!--del_lnk--> unsolved problems in physics.<p>See also: <b><!--del_lnk--> Timeline of the Big Bang</b><p><a id="Theoretical_underpinnings" name="Theoretical_underpinnings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Theoretical underpinnings</span></h2>
<p>As it stands today, the Big Bang is dependent on three assumptions:<ol>
<li>The universality of <!--del_lnk--> physical laws<li>The <!--del_lnk--> cosmological principle<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Copernican principle</ol>
<p>When first developed, these ideas were simply taken as postulates, but today there are efforts underway to test each of them. Tests of the universality of physical laws have found that the largest possible deviation of the <!--del_lnk--> fine structure constant over the age of the universe is of order 10<sup>-5</sup>. The <!--del_lnk--> isotropy of the universe that defines the Cosmological Principle has been tested to a level of 10<sup>-5</sup> and the universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales to the 10% level. There are efforts underway to test the Copernican Principle by means of looking at the interaction of <!--del_lnk--> galaxy groups and clusters with the CMB through the <!--del_lnk--> Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect to a level of 1% accuracy.<p>Using these assumptions, combined with <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Einstein">Einstein</a>'s theory of <!--del_lnk--> general relativity, one finds that <!--del_lnk--> spacetime should be described by a <!--del_lnk--> homogeneous and <!--del_lnk--> isotropic <!--del_lnk--> metric, which must therefore be a <!--del_lnk--> FRW metric. These metrics rely on a <!--del_lnk--> coordinate chart or grid being laid down over all <!--del_lnk--> spacetime, with which we can specify the location of points (e.g., galaxies, stars...) in the universe. The specific chart used is called a <!--del_lnk--> comoving coordinate system, since the grid is designed to expand along with the universe, and so objects that are carried along by the expansion of the universe remain at fixed points on the grid. While their <i>coordinate</i> distance (<!--del_lnk--> comoving distance) remains constant, the <i>physical</i> distance between two such comoving points expands proportionally with the <!--del_lnk--> scale factor of the universe. See also <a href="../../wp/m/Metric_expansion_of_space.htm" title="Metric expansion of space">metric expansion of space</a>.<p>As the universe can be described by such coordinates, the Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe; <a href="../../wp/m/Metric_expansion_of_space.htm" title="Metric expansion of space">what is expanding is space itself</a>. It is this expansion that causes the physical distance between two comoving points to increase. Objects that are bound together (such as <a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" title="Atom">atoms</a>, people, <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a>, the <a href="../../wp/s/Solar_System.htm" title="Solar system">solar system</a>, or <!--del_lnk--> galaxies) do not expand with spacetime's expansion because the forces that bind them together are strong compared with the Hubble expansion that is pulling them apart.<p>One can also define a <!--del_lnk--> conformal time <span class="texhtml">η</span>, in which case the full spacetime metric takes the form of a static metric multiplied by an overall <!--del_lnk--> scale factor. The conformal time coordinate is quite useful since the <!--del_lnk--> comoving distance traveled by a light ray is equal to the conformal time interval of the trip. This enables one to understand the <!--del_lnk--> causal structure of spacetime. For example, the Big Bang occurred at a finite interval of conformal time <span class="texhtml">η<sub>0</sub></span> to the past. Objects whose comoving distance is greater than <span class="texhtml"><i>c</i>η<sub>0</sub></span> are too far away for light to have had time to travel to us since the Big Bang: therefore we cannot see all of the past universe and there is a <i>past horizon.</i> If the universe is <!--del_lnk--> accelerating, then there is only a finite amount of conformal time <span class="texhtml">η<sub><i>F</i></sub></span> to the future (though this finite amount of conformal time corresponds to an infinite amount of clock or <!--del_lnk--> proper time). Objects located at comoving distances further than <span class="texhtml"><i>c</i>η<sub><i>F</i></sub></span> can never be reached by a light ray emitted by us today, therefore we cannot influence all of the future universe and there is a <i>future horizon.</i> See also <!--del_lnk--> cosmological horizon.<p><a id="Observational_evidence" name="Observational_evidence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Observational evidence</span></h2>
<p>It is generally stated that there are three observational pillars that support the Big Bang theory of cosmology. These are the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">Hubble-type expansion</a> seen in the <a href="../../wp/r/Redshift.htm" title="Redshift">redshifts</a> of galaxies, the detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background, and the abundance of light elements. (See <!--del_lnk--> Big Bang nucleosynthesis.) Additionally, the observed <!--del_lnk--> correlation function of <!--del_lnk--> large-scale structure of the cosmos fits well with standard Big Bang theory.<p><a id="Hubble.27s_law_expansion" name="Hubble.27s_law_expansion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hubble's law expansion</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Observations of distant galaxies and <!--del_lnk--> quasars show that these objects are <a href="../../wp/r/Redshift.htm" title="Redshift">redshifted</a>, meaning that the <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a> emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This is seen by taking a <!--del_lnk--> frequency spectrum of the objects and then matching the <!--del_lnk--> spectroscopic pattern of <!--del_lnk--> emission lines or <!--del_lnk--> absorption lines corresponding to <a href="../../wp/a/Atom.htm" title="Atom">atoms</a> of the <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> interacting with the light. From this analysis, a <a href="../../wp/r/Redshift.htm" title="Redshift">redshift</a> corresponding to a <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift for the radiation can be measured which is explained by a recessional <!--del_lnk--> velocity. When the recessional velocities are plotted against the distances to the objects, a linear relationship, known as <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>, is observed:<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd><img alt="v = H_0 D \," class="tex" src="../../images/173/17394.png" /></dl>
</dl>
<p>where<dl>
<dd><span class="texhtml"><i>v</i></span> is the recessional <!--del_lnk--> velocity of the <a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a> or other distant object<dd><span class="texhtml"><i>D</i></span> is the distance to the object and<dd><span class="texhtml"><i>H</i><sub>0</sub></span> is Hubble's constant, measured to be (70 +2.4/-3.2) <!--del_lnk--> km/<!--del_lnk--> s/<!--del_lnk--> Mpc by the <!--del_lnk--> WMAP probe.</dl>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> observation has two possible explanations. One is that we are at the centre of an explosion of galaxies, a position which is untenable given the <!--del_lnk--> Copernican principle. The second explanation is that the universe is <!--del_lnk--> uniformly expanding everywhere as a unique property of <!--del_lnk--> spacetime. This type of universal expansion was developed mathematically in the context of <!--del_lnk--> general relativity well before Hubble made his analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by <!--del_lnk--> Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker.<p><a id="Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" name="Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cosmic microwave background radiation</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/35/3507.jpg.htm" title="WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation"><img alt="WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation" height="139" longdesc="/wiki/Image:WMAP.jpg" src="../../images/237/23775.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/35/3507.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> WMAP image of the cosmic microwave background radiation</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Big Bang theory predicted the existence of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation.htm" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a> or CMB which is composed of <!--del_lnk--> photons first emitted during <!--del_lnk--> baryogenesis. Because the early universe was in <!--del_lnk--> thermal equilibrium, the <!--del_lnk--> temperature of the radiation and the <a href="../../wp/p/Plasma_%2528physics%2529.htm" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> were equal until the plasma <!--del_lnk--> recombined. Before atoms formed, radiation was constantly absorbed and re-emitted in a process called <!--del_lnk--> Compton scattering: the early universe was opaque to light. However, cooling due to the expansion of the universe allowed the temperature to eventually fall below 3,000 <!--del_lnk--> K at which point electrons and nuclei combined to form atoms and the primordial plasma turned into a neutral gas. This is known as photon <!--del_lnk--> decoupling. A universe with only neutral atoms allows radiation to travel largely unimpeded.<p>Because the early universe was in thermal equilibrium, the radiation from this time had a <!--del_lnk--> blackbody spectrum and freely streamed through space until today, becoming redshifted because of the Hubble expansion. This reduces the high temperature of the blackbody spectrum. The radiation should be observable at every point in the universe to come from all directions of space.<p>In 1964, <!--del_lnk--> Arno Penzias and <!--del_lnk--> Robert Wilson, while conducting a series of diagnostic observations using a new <!--del_lnk--> microwave receiver owned by <!--del_lnk--> Bell Laboratories, discovered the cosmic background radiation. Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the general CMB predictions—the radiation was found to be isotropic and consistent with a blackbody spectrum of about 3 K—and it pitched the balance of opinion in favour of the Big Bang hypothesis. Penzias and Wilson were awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize for their discovery.<p>In 1989, <!--del_lnk--> NASA launched the <!--del_lnk--> Cosmic Background Explorer satellite (COBE), and the initial findings, released in 1990, were consistent with the Big Bang's predictions regarding the CMB. COBE found a residual temperature of 2.726 K and determined that the CMB was isotropic to about one part in 10<sup>5</sup>. During the 1990s, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based experiments and the universe was shown to be almost geometrically flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies. (See <!--del_lnk--> shape of the universe.)<p>In early 2003, the results of the <!--del_lnk--> Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy satellite (WMAP) were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. (See <!--del_lnk--> cosmic microwave background radiation experiments.) This satellite also disproved several specific <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_inflation.htm" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a> models, but the results were consistent with the inflation theory in general.<p><a id="Abundance_of_primordial_elements" name="Abundance_of_primordial_elements"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Abundance of primordial elements</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of <a href="../../wp/h/Helium.htm" title="Helium">helium</a>-4, helium-3, <!--del_lnk--> deuterium and <a href="../../wp/l/Lithium.htm" title="Lithium">lithium</a>-7 in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen, H. All the abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of <a href="../../wp/p/Photon.htm" title="Photon">photons</a> to <!--del_lnk--> baryons. The ratios predicted (by mass, not by number) are about 0.25 for <sup>4</sup>He/H, about 10<sup>-3</sup> for <sup>2</sup>H/H, about 10<sup>-4</sup> for <sup>3</sup>He/H and about 10<sup>-9</sup> for <sup>7</sup>Li/H.<p>The measured abundances all agree with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is relatively poor for <sup>7</sup>Li and <sup>4</sup>He, the two elements for which the <!--del_lnk--> systematic uncertainties are least understood. This is considered strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements. Indeed there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young universe (i.e., before star formation, as determined by studying matter essentially free of <!--del_lnk--> stellar nucleosynthesis products) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than <sup>3</sup>He, and in constant ratios, too.<p><a id="Galactic_evolution_and_distribution" name="Galactic_evolution_and_distribution"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Galactic evolution and distribution</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Detailed observations of the <!--del_lnk--> morphology and <!--del_lnk--> distribution of galaxies and <!--del_lnk--> quasars provide strong evidence for the Big Bang. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then larger structures have been forming, such as <!--del_lnk--> galaxy clusters and <!--del_lnk--> superclusters. Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of <!--del_lnk--> star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions, and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe and are helping to complete details of the theory.<p><a id="Features.2C_issues_and_problems" name="Features.2C_issues_and_problems"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Features, issues and problems</span></h2>
<p>While currently there are very few researchers who doubt the Big Bang occurred, in the past the community was divided between supporters of the Big Bang and supporters of <!--del_lnk--> alternative cosmological models. Throughout the historical development of the subject, problems with the Big Bang theory were posed in the context of a scientific controversy regarding which model could best describe the <!--del_lnk--> cosmological observations (see <a href="#History" title="">history section above</a>). With the overwhelming <!--del_lnk--> consensus in the community today supporting the Big Bang model, many of these problems are remembered as being mainly of historical interest; the solutions to them have been obtained either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations. Other issues, such as the <!--del_lnk--> cuspy halo problem and the <!--del_lnk--> dwarf galaxy problem of <!--del_lnk--> cold dark matter, are not considered to be fatal as they can be addressed through further refinements of the theory.<p>The Big Bang model admits very exotic physical phenomena that include <!--del_lnk--> dark matter, <!--del_lnk--> dark energy, and <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_inflation.htm" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a> which rely on conditions and physics that have not yet been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments. While explanations for such phenomena remain at the <!--del_lnk--> frontiers of inquiry in physics, independent observations of <!--del_lnk--> Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the <!--del_lnk--> cosmic microwave background, <!--del_lnk--> large scale structure and Type Ia <!--del_lnk--> supernovae strongly suggest the phenomena are important and real cosmological features of our universe. The <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravitational</a> effects of these features are understood observationally and theoretically but they have not yet been successfully incorporated into the <!--del_lnk--> Standard Model of <!--del_lnk--> particle physics. Though some aspects of the theory remain inadequately explained by fundamental physics, almost all cosmologists accept that the close agreement between Big Bang theory and observation have firmly established all the basic parts of the theory.<p>The following is a short list of Big Bang "problems" and puzzles:<p><a id="Horizon_problem" name="Horizon_problem"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Horizon problem</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <b>horizon problem</b> results from the premise that information cannot travel <!--del_lnk--> faster than light, and hence two regions of space which are separated by a greater distance than the speed of light multiplied by the age of the universe cannot be in <!--del_lnk--> causal contact. The observed isotropy of the <!--del_lnk--> cosmic microwave background (CMB) is problematic in this regard, because the <!--del_lnk--> horizon size at that time corresponds to a size that is about 2 degrees on the sky. If the universe has had the same expansion history since the <!--del_lnk--> Planck epoch, there is no mechanism to cause these regions to have the same temperature.<p>A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by <!--del_lnk--> inflationary theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at a time 10<sup>-35</sup> seconds after the Planck epoch. During inflation, the universe undergoes exponential expansion, and regions in causal contact expand so as to be beyond each other's horizons. <!--del_lnk--> Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be <!--del_lnk--> quantum thermal fluctuations, which would be magnified to cosmic scale. These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the universe. After inflation, the universe expands according to <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble%2527s_law.htm" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a>, and regions that were out of causal contact come back into the horizon. This explains the observed isotropy of the CMB. Inflation predicts that the <!--del_lnk--> primordial fluctuations are nearly <!--del_lnk--> scale invariant and <!--del_lnk--> Gaussian which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB.<p><a id="Flatness_problem" name="Flatness_problem"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Flatness problem</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23776.jpg.htm" title="The overall geometry of the universe is determined by whether the Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1. From top to bottom: geometry in a closed universe, an open universe and a flat universe."><img alt="The overall geometry of the universe is determined by whether the Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1. From top to bottom: geometry in a closed universe, an open universe and a flat universe." height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:End_of_universe.jpg" src="../../images/237/23776.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23776.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The overall <!--del_lnk--> geometry of the universe is determined by whether the <!--del_lnk--> Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1. From top to bottom: geometry in a <!--del_lnk--> closed universe, an <!--del_lnk--> open universe and a <!--del_lnk--> flat universe.</div>
</div>
</div>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <b>flatness problem</b> is an observational problem that results from considerations of the <!--del_lnk--> geometry associated with a <!--del_lnk--> Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric. In general, the universe can have three different kinds of geometries: <!--del_lnk--> hyperbolic geometry, <a href="../../wp/e/Euclidean_geometry.htm" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a>, or <!--del_lnk--> elliptic geometry. The geometry is determined by the total energy density of the universe (as measured by means of the <!--del_lnk--> stress-energy tensor): hyperbolic results from a density less than the <!--del_lnk--> critical density, elliptic from a density greater than the critical density, and Euclidean from exactly the critical density. The universe is required to be within one part in 10<sup>15</sup> of the critical density in its earliest stages. Any greater deviation would have caused either a <!--del_lnk--> Heat Death or a <!--del_lnk--> Big Crunch, and the universe would not exist as it does today.<p>A possible resolution to this problem is again offered by <!--del_lnk--> inflationary theory. During the inflationary period, spacetime expanded to such an extent that any residual <!--del_lnk--> curvature associated with it would have been smoothed out to a high degree of precision. Thus, it is believed that inflation drove the universe to be very nearly spatially flat.<p><a id="Magnetic_monopoles" name="Magnetic_monopoles"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Magnetic monopoles</span></h3>
<p>The <b><!--del_lnk--> magnetic monopole</b> objection was raised in the late 1970s. <!--del_lnk--> Grand unification theories predicted <!--del_lnk--> point defects in space that would manifest as <!--del_lnk--> magnetic monopoles with a density much higher than was consistent with observations, given that searches have never found any monopoles. This problem is also resolvable by <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_inflation.htm" title="Cosmic inflation">cosmic inflation</a>, which removes all point defects from the observable universe in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.<p><a id="Baryon_asymmetry" name="Baryon_asymmetry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Baryon asymmetry</span></h3>
<p>It is not yet understood why the universe has more <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">matter</a> than <!--del_lnk--> antimatter. It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot, it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of <!--del_lnk--> baryons and anti-baryons. However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. An unknown process called <b><!--del_lnk--> baryogenesis</b> created the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions, which were laid out by <!--del_lnk--> Andrei Sakharov, must be satisfied. They require that <!--del_lnk--> baryon number be not conserved, that <!--del_lnk--> C-symmetry and <!--del_lnk--> CP-symmetry be violated, and that the universe depart from <!--del_lnk--> thermodynamic equilibrium. All these conditions occur in the <!--del_lnk--> Standard Model, but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry. Experiments taking place at <!--del_lnk--> CERN near Geneva seek to trap enough <!--del_lnk--> anti-hydrogen to compare its spectrum with hydrogen. Any difference would be evidence of a <!--del_lnk--> CPT symmetry violation and therefore a <!--del_lnk--> Lorentz violation.<p><a id="Globular_cluster_age" name="Globular_cluster_age"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Globular cluster age</span></h3>
<p>In the mid-1990s, observations of <b><a href="../../wp/g/Globular_cluster.htm" title="Globular cluster">globular clusters</a></b> appeared to be inconsistent with the Big Bang. Computer simulations that matched the observations of the <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stellar</a> populations of globular clusters suggested that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with the 13.7-billion-year age of the universe. This issue was generally resolved in the late 1990s when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to <!--del_lnk--> stellar winds, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters. There still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, but it is clear that these objects are some of the oldest in the universe.<p><a id="Dark_matter" name="Dark_matter"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dark matter</span></h3>
<dl>
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<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:377px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/30/3020.jpg.htm" title="A pie chart indicating the proportional composition of different energy-density components of the universe, according to the best ΛCDM model fits. Roughly ninety-five percent is in the exotic forms of dark matter and dark energy."><img alt="A pie chart indicating the proportional composition of different energy-density components of the universe, according to the best ΛCDM model fits. Roughly ninety-five percent is in the exotic forms of dark matter and dark energy." height="268" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cosmological_composition.jpg" src="../../images/237/23777.jpg" width="375" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/30/3020.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> pie chart indicating the proportional composition of different energy-density components of the universe, according to the best <!--del_lnk--> ΛCDM model fits. Roughly ninety-five percent is in the exotic forms of <!--del_lnk--> dark matter and <!--del_lnk--> dark energy.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>During the 1970s and 1980s, various observations (notably of <!--del_lnk--> galactic rotation curves) showed that there was not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is not normal or <!--del_lnk--> baryonic matter but rather <b><!--del_lnk--> dark matter</b>. In addition, assuming that the universe was mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations. In particular, the universe is far less lumpy and contains far less <!--del_lnk--> deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now a widely accepted part of standard cosmology due to observations of the anisotropies in the CMB, <!--del_lnk--> galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, <!--del_lnk--> gravitational lensing studies, and <!--del_lnk--> x-ray measurements from galaxy clusters. In August 2006, dark matter was definitively observed through measurements of colliding galaxies in the <!--del_lnk--> Bullet Cluster. This and other detections of dark matter are only sensitive to its gravitational signature; no dark matter particles have yet been observed in laboratories. However, there are many <!--del_lnk--> particle physics candidates for dark matter, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.<p><a id="Dark_energy" name="Dark_energy"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Dark energy</span></h3>
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<dd>
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<p>In the 1990s, detailed measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> mass density of the universe revealed a value that was 30% that of the <!--del_lnk--> critical density. Since the universe is very nearly spatially flat, as is indicated by measurements of the <!--del_lnk--> cosmic microwave background, about 70% of the energy density of the universe was left unaccounted for. This mystery now appears to be connected to another one: Independent measurements of <!--del_lnk--> Type Ia supernovae have revealed that the expansion of the universe is undergoing a non-linear <!--del_lnk--> acceleration. To explain this acceleration, <!--del_lnk--> general relativity requires that much of the universe consist of an energy component with large <!--del_lnk--> negative pressure. This <b><!--del_lnk--> dark energy</b> is now thought to make up the missing 70%. Its nature remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a scalar <!--del_lnk--> cosmological constant and <!--del_lnk--> quintessence. Observations to help understand this are ongoing. Results from WMAP in 2006 indicate that the universe is 74% dark energy, 22% dark matter, and 4% regular matter (see external link).<p><a id="The_future_according_to_the_Big_Bang_theory" name="The_future_according_to_the_Big_Bang_theory"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The future according to the Big Bang theory</span></h2>
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<p>Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass <!--del_lnk--> density of the universe is above the <!--del_lnk--> critical density, then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state that was similar to that in which it started—a <!--del_lnk--> Big Crunch. Alternatively, if the density in the universe is equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down, but never stop. Star formation would cease as the universe grows less dense. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach <a href="../../wp/a/Absolute_zero.htm" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>—a <!--del_lnk--> Big Freeze. <a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" title="Black Hole">Black holes</a> would <a href="../../wp/h/Hawking_radiation.htm" title="Hawking radiation">evaporate</a>. The <a href="../../wp/e/Entropy.htm" title="Entropy">entropy</a> of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as <!--del_lnk--> heat death. Moreover, if <!--del_lnk--> proton decay exists, then hydrogen, the predominant form of baryonic matter in the universe today, would disappear, leaving only radiation.<p>Modern observations of <!--del_lnk--> accelerated expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our <!--del_lnk--> event horizon and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known. The <!--del_lnk--> ΛCDM model of the universe contains <!--del_lnk--> dark energy in the form of a <!--del_lnk--> cosmological constant. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, would remain together, and they too would be subject to <!--del_lnk--> heat death, as the universe cools and expands. Other explanations of dark energy — so-called <!--del_lnk--> phantom energy theories — suggest that ultimately <!--del_lnk--> galaxy clusters and eventually <!--del_lnk--> galaxies themselves will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called <!--del_lnk--> Big Rip.<p><a id="Speculative_physics_beyond_the_Big_Bang" name="Speculative_physics_beyond_the_Big_Bang"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23778.jpg.htm" title="A graphical representation of the expansion of the universe with the inflationary epoch represented as the dramatic expansion of the metric seen on the left. Image from WMAP press release, 2006. (Detail)"><img alt="A graphical representation of the expansion of the universe with the inflationary epoch represented as the dramatic expansion of the metric seen on the left. Image from WMAP press release, 2006. (Detail)" height="216" longdesc="/wiki/Image:CMB_Timeline300.jpg" src="../../images/237/23778.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23778.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A graphical representation of the expansion of the universe with the inflationary epoch represented as the dramatic expansion of the <!--del_lnk--> metric seen on the left. Image from <!--del_lnk--> WMAP press release, 2006. (<a href="../../images/237/23778.jpg.htm" title="Image:CMB Timeline300.jpg">Detail</a>)</div>
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<p>While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest universe, when <a href="../../wp/c/Cosmic_inflation.htm" title="Cosmic inflation">inflation</a> is hypothesized to have occurred. There may also be parts of the universe well beyond what can be observed in principle. In the case of inflation this is required: exponential expansion has pushed large regions of space beyond our observable horizon. It may be possible to deduce what happened when we better understand physics at very high energy scales. Speculations about this often involve theories of <!--del_lnk--> quantum gravitation.<p>Some proposals are:<ul>
<li>models including the <!--del_lnk--> Hartle-Hawking boundary condition in which the whole of space-time is finite;<li><!--del_lnk--> brane cosmology models, including <!--del_lnk--> brane inflation, in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in <a href="../../wp/s/String_theory.htm" title="String theory">string theory</a>; the <!--del_lnk--> pre-big bang model; the <!--del_lnk--> ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the <!--del_lnk--> cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically.<li><!--del_lnk--> chaotic inflation, in which inflation starts from random initial conditions for the universe.</ul>
<p>Some of these scenarios are qualitatively compatible with one another. Each entails untested hypotheses.<p><a id="Philosophical_and_religious_interpretations" name="Philosophical_and_religious_interpretations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Philosophical and religious interpretations</span></h2>
<p>While the Big Bang is a scientific theory that is not based on any <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a>, some similarities have not gone unnoticed. There are both theological and philosophical implications, since some religious interpretations and <!--del_lnk--> world views conflict with the Big Bang origin of the universe.<p>There are a number of interpretations of the Big Bang theory that go beyond science, some of them purporting to explain the cause of the Big Bang itself (<!--del_lnk--> first cause). These views have been criticized by some <!--del_lnk--> naturalist philosophers as being modern <!--del_lnk--> creation myths. Some people believe that the Big Bang theory is inconsistent with traditional views of creation such as that in <!--del_lnk--> Genesis, for example, while others, like astronomer <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Ross, believe that the Big Bang theory lends support to the idea of creation <!--del_lnk--> ex nihilo.<p>Initially, many scientists rejected the Big Bang theory because they thought it was religious in nature. The prevailing view at the time was that the universe was eternal, having always existed. Some felt the idea that the universe had a beginning would imply a creator (see <!--del_lnk--> Kalam cosmological argument), which would be unscientific. These connotations troubled astronomer <!--del_lnk--> Fred Hoyle and others, who developed the now discredited <!--del_lnk--> steady state theory as an alternative to the Big Bang which would allow for an eternal universe. Astrophysicist <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Eddington had no such qualms, arguing that evidence of a Big Bang and start to the universe made "religion possible for a reasonable man of science."<p>The following is a list of various religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory:<ul>
<li>A number of <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christian</a> and traditional <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> sources have accepted the Big Bang as a possible description of the origin of the universe, interpreting it to allow for a philosophical first cause. <a href="../../wp/p/Pope_Pius_XII.htm" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a> was an enthusiastic proponent of the Big Bang even before the theory was scientifically well-established and consequently the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> has been a prominent advocate for the idea that <!--del_lnk--> creation <i>ex nihilo</i> can be interpreted as consistent with the Big Bang. This view is shared by many religious Jews in all branches of rabbinic <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>. Some groups, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Kabbalah Centre, contend the Big Bang is also consistent with the teaching of creation according to <!--del_lnk--> Isaac Luria and <!--del_lnk--> Kabbalah. <li>Some modern <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islamic</a> scholars believe that the <a href="../../wp/q/Qur%2527an.htm" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> parallels the Big Bang in its account of creation, described as follows: "Do not the unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together as one unit of creation, before We clove them asunder?" (Ch:21,Ver:30). The claim has also been made that the Qur'an describes an expanding universe: "The heaven, We have built it with power. And verily, We are expanding it." (Ch:51,Ver:47). Parallels with the <!--del_lnk--> Big Crunch and an <!--del_lnk--> oscillating universe have also been suggested: "On the day when We will roll up the heavens like the rolling up of the scroll for writings, as We originated the first creation, (so) We shall reproduce it; a promise (binding on Us); surely We will bring it about." (Ch:21,Ver:104).<li>Certain <!--del_lnk--> theistic branches of <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, such as in <!--del_lnk--> Vaishnavism, conceive of a creation event with similarities to the Big Bang. For example in the third book of the <!--del_lnk--> Bhagavata Purana (primarily, chapters 10 and 26), describes a primordial state which bursts forth as the Great <!--del_lnk--> Vishnu glances over it, transforming into the active state of the sum-total of matter ("<!--del_lnk--> prakriti"). Other forms of Hinduism assert a universe without beginning or end.<li><a href="../../wp/b/Buddhism.htm" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> has a concept of universes that have no initial creation event, but instead go through infinitely repeated cycles of expansion, stability, destruction, and quiescence. The Big Bang, however, is not seen to be in conflict with this since there are ways to conceive an eternal creation and destruction of universes within the paradigm. A number of popular <!--del_lnk--> Zen philosophers were intrigued, in particular, by the concept of the <!--del_lnk--> oscillatory universe.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bill Clinton</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Political_People.htm">Political People</a></h3>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size:140%;"><b>William Jefferson Clinton</b></td>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/109/10902.jpg.htm" title="Bill Clinton"><img alt="Bill Clinton" height="209" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bill_Clinton.jpg" src="../../images/16/1667.jpg" width="160" /></a><br />
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<div style="background:lavender;">42nd <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></div>
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<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom:none; text-align:center;"><b>In office</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1993 – <!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2001</td>
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<th>Vice President(s) </th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Albert Gore, Jr.</td>
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<th>Preceded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></td>
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<th>Succeeded by</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a></td>
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<th>Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1946 (age 60)<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a><!--del_lnk--> Hope, <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
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<th>Political party</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Democratic</td>
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<th>Spouse</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hillary Rodham Clinton</td>
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<th>Religion</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Baptist</td>
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<th>Signature</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1668.gif.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="30" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bill_Clinton_signature.gif" src="../../images/16/1668.gif" width="128" /></a></td>
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<p><b>William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton</b> (born <b>William Jefferson Blythe III</b> on <!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1946) was the 42nd <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a>, serving from 1993 to 2001. Before his election as President, Clinton served nearly 12 years as the 50th and 52nd <!--del_lnk--> Governor of <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas. His wife, <!--del_lnk--> Hillary Rodham Clinton, is the junior <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Senate.htm" title="United States Senate">United States Senator</a> from <!--del_lnk--> New York, where they both reside. Clinton founded and heads the <!--del_lnk--> William J. Clinton Foundation.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p><b>William Jefferson Blythe III</b> was born in <!--del_lnk--> Hope, Arkansas, and raised in <!--del_lnk--> Hot Springs, Arkansas. He was named after his father, <!--del_lnk--> William Jefferson Blythe, Jr., a traveling salesman who died in a car accident three months before he was born. His mother, born <!--del_lnk--> Virginia Dell Cassidy (1923–1994), remarried in 1950 to <!--del_lnk--> Roger Clinton. Roger Clinton owned an automobile dealership business with his brother, Raymond. The young Billy, as he was called, was raised by his mother and stepfather, assuming his last name "Clinton" throughout elementary school but not formally changing it until he was 14. Clinton grew up in a traditional, albeit blended, family; however, according to Clinton, his stepfather was a gambler and an <!--del_lnk--> alcoholic who regularly abused Clinton's mother and sometimes Clinton's half-brother <!--del_lnk--> Roger, Jr.<p>Bill Clinton as a child went to St. John's Catholic School and Ramble Elementary School. While at <!--del_lnk--> Hot Springs High School, Clinton was an excellent student and a talented <!--del_lnk--> saxophonist. He considered dedicating his life to music, but a visit to the <!--del_lnk--> White House to meet then-President <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> following his election as a <!--del_lnk--> Boys Nation Senator led him to pursue a career in politics. Clinton was a member of Youth Order of <!--del_lnk--> DeMolay but never actually became a <!--del_lnk--> Freemason. <!--del_lnk--> <p>Clinton received a <!--del_lnk--> Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service (B.S.F.S.) degree from the <!--del_lnk--> Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at <!--del_lnk--> Georgetown University in <!--del_lnk--> Washington D.C., where he became a brother of <!--del_lnk--> Alpha Phi Omega, worked for Senator <!--del_lnk--> J. William Fulbright, was elected to <!--del_lnk--> Phi Beta Kappa and won a <!--del_lnk--> Rhodes Scholarship to <!--del_lnk--> University College, Oxford. While at Oxford, he played <!--del_lnk--> rugby union as a <!--del_lnk--> lock, and later in life he played for the Little Rock Rugby club in Arkansas. There he also participated in the <a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam_War.htm" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <!--del_lnk--> protest movement. After Oxford, Clinton obtained a <!--del_lnk--> Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree from <!--del_lnk--> Yale Law School in 1973. While at Yale, he began dating classmate <!--del_lnk--> Hillary Rodham. They married in 1975 and their only child, <!--del_lnk--> Chelsea, was born in 1980. Clinton is a member of <!--del_lnk--> Kappa Kappa Psi National Honorary Band Fraternity, Inc.<p><a id="Arkansas_political_career" name="Arkansas_political_career"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Arkansas political career</span></h2>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: larger;"><b>Bill Clinton</b></td>
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<center><b>50<sup>th</sup> & 52<sup>nd</sup> <!--del_lnk--> Governor of Arkansas</b></center>
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<center><b>Term of office:</b><br /> January 9, 1979 – January 19, 1981<br /> January 11, 1983 – December 12, 1992</center>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Lieutenant Governor:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Joe Purcell<br /> (1979-1981) <p><!--del_lnk--> Winston Bryant<br /> (1983-1991)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Jim Guy Tucker<br /> (1991-1992)</td>
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<th>Predecessor:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Joe Purcell (1st) <p><!--del_lnk--> Frank D. White (2nd)</td>
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<th>Successor:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Frank D. White (1st) <p><!--del_lnk--> Jim Guy Tucker (2nd)</td>
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<th>Born:</th>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap;"><!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1946</span><br /><!--del_lnk--> Hope, <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas</td>
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<th>Political party:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Democrat</td>
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<th>Profession:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Politician</td>
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<th>Spouse:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hillary Rodham Clinton</td>
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<p>In 1974, his first year as a <!--del_lnk--> University of Arkansas law professor, Clinton ran for the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_House_of_Representatives.htm" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>. The incumbent, <!--del_lnk--> John Paul Hammerschmidt, defeated Clinton with 52% of the vote. In 1976, Clinton was elected <!--del_lnk--> Attorney General of <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas without opposition in the general election.<p>In 1978, Bill Clinton was first elected <!--del_lnk--> Governor of Arkansas, the youngest to be elected governor since 1938. His first term was fraught with difficulties, including an unpopular motor vehicle tax and popular anger over the escape of <a href="../../wp/c/Cuba.htm" title="Cuba">Cuban</a> prisoners (from the <!--del_lnk--> Mariel boatlift) detained in <!--del_lnk--> Fort Chaffee in 1980.<p>In the 1980 election, Clinton was defeated in his bid for a second term by <!--del_lnk--> Republican challenger <!--del_lnk--> Frank D. White. As he once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history. But in 1982, Clinton won his old job back, and over the next decade he helped Arkansas transform its economy. He became a leading figure among the New Democrats, a branch of the Democratic Party that called for welfare reform and smaller government, a policy supported by both Democrats and Republicans alike.<p>Clinton's approach mollified conservative criticism during his terms as governor. However, personal and business transactions made by the Clintons during this period became the basis of the <!--del_lnk--> Whitewater investigation, which dogged his later presidential Administration. After very extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.<p><a id="Campaign_for_the_Democratic_Nomination" name="Campaign_for_the_Democratic_Nomination"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Campaign for the Democratic Nomination</span></h3>
<p>There was some media speculation in 1987 that Clinton would enter the race for <!--del_lnk--> 1988 Democratic presidential nomination after <!--del_lnk--> then-New York Governor <!--del_lnk--> Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic frontrunner <!--del_lnk--> Gary Hart bowed out due to revelations about marital infidelity. Often referred to as the "Boy Governor" at the time because of his youthful appearance, Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas Governor and postpone his presidential ambitions until 1992. Presenting himself as a moderate and a member of the <!--del_lnk--> New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, he headed the moderate <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991.<p>In 1992, Clinton was the early favorite of <!--del_lnk--> Democratic Party insiders and elected officials for the presidential nomination; therefore, he was able to rack up scores of <!--del_lnk--> superdelegates even before the first nominating contests were conducted. In spite of this, Clinton began his 1992 presidential quest on a sour note by finishing near the back of the pack in the <!--del_lnk--> Iowa caucus, which was largely uncontested due to the presence of favorite-son Senator <!--del_lnk--> Tom Harkin, who was the easy winner. Clinton’s real trouble, however, began during <!--del_lnk--> New Hampshire Primary campaign, when revelations of a possible extramarital affair with <!--del_lnk--> Gennifer Flowers began to surface. Clinton and his wife Hillary decided to go on <!--del_lnk--> 60 Minutes following the <!--del_lnk--> Super Bowl to rebut those charges of infidelity, which had started to take their toll, as Clinton had fallen way behind former <!--del_lnk--> Massachusetts Senator <!--del_lnk--> Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls. In fact, his campaign was beginning to unravel. Their TV appearance was a calculated risk, but it seemed to pay off as Clinton regained some of his lost footing. He still finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire Primary, but the media viewed it as a moral victory for Clinton, since he came within single digits of winning after trailing badly in the polls. Clinton shrewdly labeled himself “The Comeback Kid” on election night to help foster this perception and came out of New Hampshire on a roll. Tsongas, on the other hand, picked up little or no momentum from his victory.<p>Clinton used his new-found momentum to storm through the Southern primaries, including the big prizes of <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Texas, and build up a sizable delegate lead over his opponents in the race for the 1992 Democratic presidential nomination. However, there were still some doubts as to whether he could secure the nomination, as former <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> Governor <!--del_lnk--> Jerry Brown was scoring victories in other parts of the country and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside of his native South. With no major Southern state remaining on the primary calendar, Clinton set his sights on the delegate-rich New York Primary, which was to be his proving ground. Much to the surprise of some, Clinton scored a resounding victory in <!--del_lnk--> New York. It was a watershed moment for him, as he had finally broken through and shed his image as a regional candidate and as centrist Democrat whose standing with Northern liberals was questionable. Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he took on an air of inevitability and was able to cruise to the nomination, topping it off with a victory on Brown’s home turf in the California Primary.<p><a id="Presidential_election" name="Presidential_election"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Presidential election</span></h3>
<p>Clinton won the <!--del_lnk--> 1992 Presidential election (43.0% of the vote) against Republican George H. W. Bush (37.4% of the vote) and billionaire populist <!--del_lnk--> H. Ross Perot, who ran as an independent (18.9% of the vote) on a platform focusing on domestic issues; a large part of his success was Bush's steep decline in public approval. Previously described as "unbeatable" because of his approval ratings in the 80% range during the <!--del_lnk--> Persian Gulf conflict, Bush saw his public approval rating drop to just over 40% by election time.<p>Additionally, Bush reneged on his promise (<!--del_lnk--> "Read My Lips: No New Taxes!") not to raise taxes when he compromised with Democrats in an attempt to lower the Federal deficits. This hurt him among conservatives. Clinton capitalized on Bush's policy switch, repeatedly condemning the President for making a promise he failed to keep.<p>Finally, Bush's coalition was in disarray. Conservatives had been united by anti-<a href="../../wp/c/Communism.htm" title="Communism">communism</a>, but with the end of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, old rivalries re-emerged. The <!--del_lnk--> Republican Convention of 1992 was dominated by evangelical Christians, alarming some moderate voters who thought the Republican Party had been taken over by religious conservatives. All this worked in Clinton's favour. Clinton could point to his moderate, 'New Democrat' record as governor of Arkansas. Liberal Democrats were impressed by Clinton's academic credentials, his 1960s-era protest record, and support for social causes such as a woman's right to choose. Many Democrats who had supported <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> and Bush in previous elections switched their allegiance to the more moderate Clinton.<p>His election ended an era of Republican rule, including 12 consecutive years in the <!--del_lnk--> White House and 20 of the previous 24 years. That election also brought the Democrats full control of the political branches of the federal government, including both houses of Congress as well as the presidency, for the first time since 1980.<p><a id="Presidency.2C_1993-2001" name="Presidency.2C_1993-2001"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Presidency, 1993-2001</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1670.jpg.htm" title="Portrait of President Bill Clinton"><img alt="Portrait of President Bill Clinton" height="251" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Clinton.jpg" src="../../images/16/1670.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1670.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Portrait of President Bill Clinton</div>
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<p>Clinton's presidency included the longest period of economic growth in America's history. Clinton made cutting the deficit a top priority of his presidency. He supported and signed the <!--del_lnk--> Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993. The <!--del_lnk--> Clinton Administration had a domestic agenda that included successful passage of the <!--del_lnk--> Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 and the <!--del_lnk--> North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Clinton was unsuccessful in his attempt at a universal health care reform program, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Clinton health care plan. The <!--del_lnk--> foreign policy of the Clinton administration dealt with conflicts in <a href="../../wp/b/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.htm" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Haiti.htm" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, and most notably the <!--del_lnk--> Kosovo War.<p><a id="Investigation_and_impeachment" name="Investigation_and_impeachment"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Investigation and impeachment</span></h2>
<p><a id="The_Lewinsky_scandal" name="The_Lewinsky_scandal"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">The Lewinsky scandal</span></h3>
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<p>In 1998, as a result of allegations that he had lied during grand jury testimony regarding his sexual relationship with <!--del_lnk--> Monica Lewinsky, a young female White House intern, Clinton was the second U.S. president to be <!--del_lnk--> impeached by the House of Representatives (the other being <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>). The House held no serious impeachment hearings before the 1998 mid-term elections: Republican candidates rarely mentioned the issue of impeachment, but Democrats generally came out strongly against impeachment. In spite of the allegations against the President, his party picked up seats in the Congress. The Republican leadership called a <!--del_lnk--> lame duck session in December 1998 to hold impeachment proceedings.<p>Although the <!--del_lnk--> House Judiciary Committee hearings were perfunctory and ended in a straight party line vote, the debate on the Floor of the House was lively. The two charges that were passed in the House (largely on the basis of Republican support but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for <!--del_lnk--> perjury and <!--del_lnk--> obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony about his relationship to <!--del_lnk--> Monica Lewinsky during a sexual harassment lawsuit brought by former Arkansas-state employee <!--del_lnk--> Paula Jones. The obstruction charge was based on his actions during the subsequent investigation of that testimony.<p><a id="Impeachment_trial_in_the_Senate" name="Impeachment_trial_in_the_Senate"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Impeachment trial in the Senate</span></h3>
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<p>The Senate refused to convene to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington powerhouse law firm <!--del_lnk--> Williams & Connolly.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> February 12, the Senate concluded a 21-day trial with the vote on both counts falling short of the Constitutional requirement of a two-thirds majority to convict and remove an office holder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with all of the votes to convict being cast by Republicans. On the perjury charge 55 senators voted to acquit, including 10 Republicans, and 45 voted to convict; on the obstruction charge the Senate voted 50-50. Clinton, like the only other president to be impeached, <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a>, served the remainder of his term.<p><a id="Other_controversies" name="Other_controversies"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Other controversies</span></h2>
<p><a id="Administrative_controversy" name="Administrative_controversy"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Administrative controversy</span></h3>
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<p>The White House travel office controversy began on <!--del_lnk--> May 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1993, when several longtime employees of the White House Travel Office were fired. A whistleblower's letter, written during the previous administration, triggered an FBI investigation which revealed evidence of financial malfeasance.<p>The White House personnel file controversy of June 1996 arose around improper access to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of White House security, improperly requested, and received from the <a href="../../wp/f/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation.htm" title="FBI">FBI</a>, personnel files without asking permission of the subject individuals.<p><a id="Campaign_finance_and_the_pardon_controversy" name="Campaign_finance_and_the_pardon_controversy"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Campaign finance and the pardon controversy</span></h3>
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<p>The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (PRC) to influence the domestic policies of the United States, prior to and during the Clinton administration and also involved the fund-raising practices of the administration itself.<p>President Bill Clinton has been criticized for some of his presidential pardons and other acts of executive clemency. Clinton issued 140 pardons on his last day in office (<!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2001). It is common practice for Presidents to grant a number of pardons shortly before leaving office, but Clinton's last day list was more numerous than those of many previous presidents. Most of the controversy surrounded <!--del_lnk--> Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, <!--del_lnk--> Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Willey_and_Broaddrick_allegations" name="Willey_and_Broaddrick_allegations"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Willey and Broaddrick allegations</span></h3>
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<p>Two claims of sexual misconduct on the part of Bill Clinton were alleged by Kathleen Willey and Juanita Broaddrick, during the Clinton Administration. Neither claim resulted in charges against Clinton.<p><a id="Public_approval" name="Public_approval"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Public approval</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1671.jpg.htm" title="Clinton's approval ratings throughout his presidential career"><img alt="Clinton's approval ratings throughout his presidential career" height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Clinton_approval_rating.JPG" src="../../images/16/1671.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1671.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Clinton's approval ratings throughout his presidential career</div>
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<p>While Clinton's job approval rating varied over the course of his first term, ranging from a low of 36 percent in mid-1993 to a high of 64 percent in late-1993 and early-1994, his job approval rating consistently ranged from the high 50s to the high 60s in his second term. Clinton's approval rating reached its highest point at 73 percent approval in the aftermath of the impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999. A CNN/USA TODAY/Gallup poll conducted as he was leaving office, revealed deeply contradictory attitudes regarding Clinton. Although his approval rating at 68 percent was higher than that of any other departing president since polling began more than seventy years earlier, only 45 percent said they would miss him. While 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life", and 47 percent rated him as either outstanding or above average as a president, 68 percent thought he would be remembered for his "involvement in personal scandal" rather than his accomplishments as president, and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?" 47 percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.<p>In May 2006 a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found a majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush on every single issue in question.<p><a id="Public_image" name="Public_image"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Public image</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1672.jpg.htm" title="Clinton reading with a child."><img alt="Clinton reading with a child." height="291" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ClintonChild.jpg" src="../../images/16/1672.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1672.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Clinton reading with a child.</div>
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<p>As the first <!--del_lnk--> Baby Boomer president, Clinton was the first president in a half century not shaped by World War II. With his sound-bite-ready dialogue and pioneering use of pop culture in his campaigning, such as playing his saxophone on <i><!--del_lnk--> The Arsenio Hall Show</i>, Clinton was sometimes described as the "<!--del_lnk--> MTV president". Until his inauguration as president, he had earned substantially less money than his wife, and had the smallest net worth of any president in modern history, according to <i><!--del_lnk--> My Life</i>, Clinton's autobiography. Clinton, a charismatic speaker, tended to draw huge crowds during public speeches throughout his terms in office. Clinton was also very popular among <!--del_lnk--> African-Americans and made improving race relations a major theme of his presidency.<p><!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize-winning author <!--del_lnk--> Toni Morrison in 1998 called Clinton "the first Black president," saying "Clinton displays almost every trope of <!--del_lnk--> blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, <!--del_lnk--> McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas," and, despite his career accomplishments, comparing Clinton's scrutinized sex life to the stereotyping and <!--del_lnk--> double standards that blacks typically endure.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1674.jpg.htm" title="Hillary Clinton re-enacts being sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as Bill and Chelsea Clinton observe."><img alt="Hillary Clinton re-enacts being sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as Bill and Chelsea Clinton observe." height="293" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ClintonSenate.jpg" src="../../images/16/1674.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1674.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Hillary Clinton re-enacts being sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as Bill and <!--del_lnk--> Chelsea Clinton observe.</div>
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<p><a id="Post-presidential_career" name="Post-presidential_career"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Post-presidential career</span></h2>
<p><a id="Public_speaking" name="Public_speaking"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Public speaking</span></h3>
<p>Like other former American presidents, Clinton has engaged in a career as a <!--del_lnk--> public speaker on a variety of issues. In his speaking engagements around the world, he continues to comment on aspects of contemporary politics. One notable theme is his advocacy of multilateral solutions to problems facing the world. Clinton's close relationship with the <!--del_lnk--> African American community has been highlighted in his post-Presidential career with the opening of his personal office in the <!--del_lnk--> Harlem section of <a href="../../wp/n/New_York_City.htm" title="New York City">New York City</a>. He assisted his wife, <!--del_lnk--> Hillary Clinton, in her campaign for office as <!--del_lnk--> Senator from <!--del_lnk--> New York.<p>Clinton's autobiography, <i><!--del_lnk--> My Life</i>, was released in June 2004.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> July 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Clinton spoke for the fifth consecutive time to the <!--del_lnk--> Democratic National Convention, using the opportunity to praise candidate <!--del_lnk--> John Kerry. Many Democrats believed that Clinton's speech was one of the best in Convention history. In it, he criticized President George W. Bush's depiction of Kerry, saying that "strength and wisdom are not opposing values."<p>He dedicated his <!--del_lnk--> presidential library, which is the largest in the nation, the <!--del_lnk--> William J. Clinton Presidential Centre, in <!--del_lnk--> Little Rock, Arkansas on <!--del_lnk--> November 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2004. Under rainy skies, Clinton received words of praise from former presidents <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>, as well as from the current president, <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a>. He was also treated to a musical rendition from <!--del_lnk--> Bono and <!--del_lnk--> The Edge from <a href="../../wp/u/U2.htm" title="U2">U2</a>, who expressed their gratitude at Clinton's efforts to resolve the Northern Ireland conflict during his presidency.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> December 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, speaking at the <!--del_lnk--> United Nations Climate Change Conference in <a href="../../wp/m/Montreal.htm" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, Clinton publicly criticized the Bush Administration for its handling of emissions control. Further, Clinton twice visited the <!--del_lnk--> University of California, Los Angeles in 2006 to promote initiatives concerning the environment. First, on <!--del_lnk--> August 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, he met with <a href="../../wp/t/Tony_Blair.htm" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Ken Livingstone, <!--del_lnk--> Antonio Villaraigosa, and <!--del_lnk--> Gavin Newsom to advertise the <!--del_lnk--> Large Cities Climate Leadership Group. On <!--del_lnk--> October 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, he spoke in favour of <!--del_lnk--> California Proposition 87, which was voted down.<p><a id="Health" name="Health"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Health</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> September 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, Clinton had an episode of <!--del_lnk--> angina and was evaluated at <!--del_lnk--> Northern Westchester Hospital. It was determined that he had not suffered a <!--del_lnk--> coronary infarction, and he was sent home, returning the following day for <!--del_lnk--> angiography, which disclosed multiple vessel <!--del_lnk--> coronary artery disease. He was transferred to <!--del_lnk--> Columbia Presbyterian Medical Centre in New York City, where he underwent a successful quadruple <!--del_lnk--> coronary artery bypass surgery on <!--del_lnk--> September 6, <!--del_lnk--> 2004. The medical team claimed that, had he not had surgery, he would likely have suffered a massive <a href="../../wp/m/Myocardial_infarction.htm" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a> within a few months. On <!--del_lnk--> March 10, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, he underwent a follow-up surgery to remove scar tissue and fluid from his left chest cavity, a result of his open-heart surgery.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1676.jpg.htm" title="Clinton, along with Pres. George W. Bush, Laura Bush, and Pres. George H. W. Bush pay their respects to Pope John Paul II before the pope's funeral."><img alt="Clinton, along with Pres. George W. Bush, Laura Bush, and Pres. George H. W. Bush pay their respects to Pope John Paul II before the pope's funeral." height="125" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Jp2presidents.jpg" src="../../images/16/1676.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1676.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Clinton, along with Pres. George W. Bush, Laura Bush, and Pres. George H. W. Bush pay their respects to Pope John Paul II before the pope's funeral.</div>
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<p><a id="Humanitarian_work" name="Humanitarian_work"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Humanitarian work</span></h3>
<p>For more info please see the <!--del_lnk--> William J. Clinton Foundation<p>While in <a href="../../wp/s/Sydney.htm" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> to attend a Global Business Forum, Clinton signed a memorandum of understanding on behalf of his presidential foundation with the Australian government to promote HIV/AIDS programs in the Asia-Pacific region.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, Clinton announced through the <!--del_lnk--> William J. Clinton Foundation an agreement by major soft drink manufacturers to <!--del_lnk--> stop selling sugared sodas and juice drinks in public primary and secondary schools.<p><a id="Friendship_with_George_H.W._Bush" name="Friendship_with_George_H.W._Bush"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Friendship with George H.W. Bush</span></h3>
<p>There had been reported signs of a friendship growing between Clinton and George H.W. Bush. After the official unveiling of his White House portrait in June 2004, the Asian Tsunami disaster, Hurricane Katrina, and the <!--del_lnk--> 2004 election, Clinton and Bush met, although the nature of the meetings did not appear to include a reconciliation of political opinions.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1677.jpg.htm" title="Clinton with former President George H.W. Bush in January 2005."><img alt="Clinton with former President George H.W. Bush in January 2005." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bush_and_Clinton.jpg" src="../../images/16/1677.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1677.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Clinton with former President George H.W. Bush in January 2005.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> January 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, President George W. Bush named Clinton and George H. W. Bush to lead a nationwide campaign to help the victims of the <a href="../../wp/2/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake.htm" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake</a>. On <!--del_lnk--> February 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, he was selected by UN Secretary-General <a href="../../wp/k/Kofi_Annan.htm" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a> to head the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <!--del_lnk--> earthquake and tsunami relief and reconstruction effort. Five days later, Clinton appeared with Bush on the <!--del_lnk--> Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show on <!--del_lnk--> Fox in support of their bipartisan effort to raise money for relief of the disaster through the <!--del_lnk--> USA Freedom Corps, an action which Bush described as "transcending politics." Thirteen days later, they traveled to the affected areas to see the relief efforts.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> August 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2005, following the devastation of the <!--del_lnk--> Gulf Coast by <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a>, Clinton again teamed with George H. W. Bush to coordinate private relief donations, in a campaign similar to their earlier one in response to the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Ocean tsunami.<p><a id="Honors_and_accolades" name="Honors_and_accolades"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Honours and accolades</span></h2>
<p>In February 2004, Clinton (along with <a href="../../wp/m/Mikhail_Gorbachev.htm" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Sophia Loren) won a <!--del_lnk--> Grammy Award for <!--del_lnk--> Best Spoken Word Album for Children for narrating the <!--del_lnk--> Russian National Orchestra's album <i><!--del_lnk--> Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf</i>. Clinton won a second Grammy in February 2005, <!--del_lnk--> Best Spoken Word Album for <i><!--del_lnk--> My Life</i>.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, New York Republican Governor <!--del_lnk--> George Pataki named Clinton and the other living former presidents (<a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Ford.htm" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a>, and <a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a>) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the <!--del_lnk--> World Trade Centre.<p>In 2005, the <!--del_lnk--> University of Arkansas System opened the <!--del_lnk--> Clinton School of Public Service on the grounds of the Clinton Presidential Centre.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> March 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, he received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from <!--del_lnk--> Pace University, and is the first recipient of the Pace University President's Centennial Award. Following reception of the honorary degree, he spoke to the students, faculty, alumni and staff of Pace, officially kicking off the centennial anniversary of the university. Also in 2006 Clinton was awarded the <!--del_lnk--> J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Clinton was the commencement speaker along with George H. W. Bush at <!--del_lnk--> Tulane University in New Orleans. They both received honorary Doctorates of Laws from <!--del_lnk--> Tulane University. Clinton spoke to the students, faculty and alumni of Tulane and of the devastation caused by <a href="../../wp/h/Hurricane_Katrina.htm" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> that Tulane students had known firsthand.<p>In Europe, Bill Clinton remains immensely popular, especially in a large part of the Balkans and in Ireland. In <!--del_lnk--> Priština, <a href="../../wp/k/Kosovo.htm" title="Kosovo">Kosovo</a>, a five-story picture of the former president was permanently engraved into the side of the tallest building in the province as a token of gratitude for Clinton's support during the crisis in Kosovo.<p><a id="Further_reading" name="Further_reading"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Related miscellanea</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable" style="margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both; font-size:95%;">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" style="background: #ccccff;">Political offices</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Jim Guy Tucker</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Attorney General of Arkansas</b><br /> 1977 – 1979</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Steve Clark</b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Joe Purcell</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Governor of Arkansas</b><br /> 1979 – 1981</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Frank D. White</b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Frank D. White</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Governor of Arkansas</b><br /> 1983 – 1992</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Jim Guy Tucker</b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Michael Dukakis</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Democratic Party Presidential candidate</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> 1992 (won), <!--del_lnk--> 1996 (won)</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Al Gore</b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a></b><br /><!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1993 – <!--del_lnk--> January 20, <!--del_lnk--> 2001</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a></b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><!--del_lnk--> Jacques Chirac</b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> Chair of the G8</b><br /> 1997</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><a href="../../wp/t/Tony_Blair.htm" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a></b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center; background: #cccccc;">
<td align="center" colspan="3"><b>Other Offices</b></td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align: center;">
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Preceded by:<br /><b><a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a></b></td>
<td rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;" width="40%"><b><!--del_lnk--> United States order of precedence</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> as of 2006</td>
<td align="center" rowspan="1" width="30%">Succeeded by:<br /><b><a href="../../wp/c/Condoleezza_Rice.htm" title="Condoleezza Rice">Condoleezza Rice</a></b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="NavFrame" style="clear:both;">
<div class="NavHead" style="background-color:#CCCCFF;"><b><a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">Presidents of the United States of America</a></b></div>
<div class="NavContent">
<table align="center" style="margin:0.5em auto" width="95%">
<tr align="center" style="font-size: 90%;">
<td><a href="../../wp/g/George_Washington.htm" title="George Washington">Washington</a> | <a href="../../wp/j/John_Adams.htm" title="John Adams">J Adams</a> | <a href="../../wp/t/Thomas_Jefferson.htm" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a> | <!--del_lnk--> Madison | <a href="../../wp/j/James_Monroe.htm" title="James Monroe">Monroe</a> | <!--del_lnk--> JQ Adams | <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Jackson.htm" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a> | <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a> | <a href="../../wp/w/William_Henry_Harrison.htm" title="William Henry Harrison">W Harrison</a> | <a href="../../wp/j/John_Tyler.htm" title="John Tyler">Tyler</a> | <a href="../../wp/j/James_K._Polk.htm" title="James K. Polk">Polk</a> | <a href="../../wp/z/Zachary_Taylor.htm" title="Zachary Taylor">Taylor</a> | <a href="../../wp/m/Millard_Fillmore.htm" title="Millard Fillmore">Fillmore</a> | <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_Pierce.htm" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a> | <a href="../../wp/j/James_Buchanan.htm" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a> | <a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a> | <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Johnson.htm" title="Andrew Johnson">A Johnson</a> | <a href="../../wp/u/Ulysses_S._Grant.htm" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a> | <a href="../../wp/r/Rutherford_B._Hayes.htm" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a> | <a href="../../wp/j/James_Garfield.htm" title="James Garfield">Garfield</a> | <a href="../../wp/c/Chester_A._Arthur.htm" title="Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a> | <a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a> | <a href="../../wp/b/Benjamin_Harrison.htm" title="Benjamin Harrison">B Harrison</a> | <a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a> | <a href="../../wp/w/William_McKinley.htm" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a> | <a href="../../wp/t/Theodore_Roosevelt.htm" title="Theodore Roosevelt">T Roosevelt</a> | <a href="../../wp/w/William_Howard_Taft.htm" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a> | <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a> | <a href="../../wp/w/Warren_G._Harding.htm" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a> | <a href="../../wp/c/Calvin_Coolidge.htm" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a> | <a href="../../wp/h/Herbert_Hoover.htm" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a> | <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">F Roosevelt</a> | <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> | <a href="../../wp/d/Dwight_D._Eisenhower.htm" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> | <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a> | <a href="../../wp/l/Lyndon_B._Johnson.htm" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">L Johnson</a> | <a href="../../wp/r/Richard_Nixon.htm" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> | <a href="../../wp/g/Gerald_Ford.htm" title="Gerald Ford">Ford</a> | <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a> | <a href="../../wp/r/Ronald_Reagan.htm" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> | <a href="../../wp/g/George_H._W._Bush.htm" title="George H. W. Bush">GHW Bush</a> | <strong class="selflink">Clinton</strong> | <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">GW Bush</a></td>
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<div class="floatright"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/2/218.png.htm" title="U.S. presidential seal"><img alt="U.S. presidential seal" height="80" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Seal_Of_The_President_Of_The_Unites_States_Of_America.svg" src="../../images/2/218.png" width="80" /></a></span></div>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> United States Democratic Party Presidential Nominees</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Jackson.htm" title="Andrew Jackson">Jackson</a> • <a href="../../wp/m/Martin_Van_Buren.htm" title="Martin Van Buren">Van Buren</a> • <a href="../../wp/j/James_K._Polk.htm" title="James K. Polk">Polk</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Cass • <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_Pierce.htm" title="Franklin Pierce">Pierce</a> • <a href="../../wp/j/James_Buchanan.htm" title="James Buchanan">Buchanan</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Douglas/<!--del_lnk--> Breckinridge(<!--del_lnk--> SD), <!--del_lnk--> McClellan • <!--del_lnk--> Seymour • <!--del_lnk--> Greeley • <!--del_lnk--> Tilden • <a href="../../wp/w/Winfield_Scott_Hancock.htm" title="Winfield Scott Hancock">Hancock</a> • <a href="../../wp/g/Grover_Cleveland.htm" title="Grover Cleveland">Cleveland</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Bryan • <!--del_lnk--> Parker • <!--del_lnk--> Bryan • <a href="../../wp/w/Woodrow_Wilson.htm" title="Woodrow Wilson">Wilson</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Cox • <!--del_lnk--> Davis • <!--del_lnk--> Smith • <a href="../../wp/f/Franklin_D._Roosevelt.htm" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> • <a href="../../wp/h/Harry_S._Truman.htm" title="Harry S. Truman">Truman</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Stevenson • <a href="../../wp/j/John_F._Kennedy.htm" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy</a> • <a href="../../wp/l/Lyndon_B._Johnson.htm" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Johnson</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Humphrey • <!--del_lnk--> McGovern • <a href="../../wp/j/Jimmy_Carter.htm" title="Jimmy Carter">Carter</a> • <!--del_lnk--> Mondale • <!--del_lnk--> Dukakis • <strong class="selflink">Clinton</strong> • <!--del_lnk--> Gore • <!--del_lnk--> Kerry</td>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Governors of Arkansas</th>
<td rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; width: 1px"><a class="image" href="../../images/138/13843.png.htm" title="Arkansas State Flag"><img alt="Arkansas State Flag" height="50" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Arkansas.svg" src="../../images/16/1678.png" width="75" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> J. Conway • <!--del_lnk--> Yell • <!--del_lnk--> Adams • <!--del_lnk--> Drew • <!--del_lnk--> Byrd • <!--del_lnk--> Roane • <!--del_lnk--> E. Conway • <!--del_lnk--> Rector • <!--del_lnk--> Flanagin • <!--del_lnk--> Murphy • <!--del_lnk--> Clayton • <!--del_lnk--> Hadley • <!--del_lnk--> Baxter • <!--del_lnk--> Garland • <!--del_lnk--> Miller • <!--del_lnk--> Churchill • <!--del_lnk--> Berry • <!--del_lnk--> Hughes • <!--del_lnk--> Eagle • <!--del_lnk--> Fishback • <!--del_lnk--> Clarke • <!--del_lnk--> Jones • <!--del_lnk--> Davis • <!--del_lnk--> Little • <!--del_lnk--> Moore • <!--del_lnk--> Pindall • <!--del_lnk--> Martin • <!--del_lnk--> Donaghey • <!--del_lnk--> Robinson • <!--del_lnk--> Oldham • <!--del_lnk--> Futrell • <!--del_lnk--> Hays • <!--del_lnk--> Brough • <!--del_lnk--> McRae • <!--del_lnk--> Terral • <!--del_lnk--> Martineau • <!--del_lnk--> Parnell • <!--del_lnk--> Futrell • <!--del_lnk--> Bailey • <!--del_lnk--> Adkins • <!--del_lnk--> Laney • <!--del_lnk--> McMath • <!--del_lnk--> Cherry • <!--del_lnk--> Faubus • <!--del_lnk--> Rockefeller • <!--del_lnk--> Bumpers • <!--del_lnk--> Riley • <!--del_lnk--> Pryor • <!--del_lnk--> Purcell • <strong class="selflink">Clinton</strong> • <!--del_lnk--> White • <strong class="selflink">Clinton</strong> • <!--del_lnk--> Tucker • <!--del_lnk--> Huckabee</td>
</tr>
</table>
<table class="metadata persondata" id="persondata">
<tr>
<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Persondata</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">NAME</td>
<td>Clinton, Bill</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">ALTERNATIVE NAMES</td>
<td>Clinton, William Jefferson (full name)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">SHORT DESCRIPTION</td>
<td>42nd <a href="../../wp/p/President_of_the_United_States.htm" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1993–2001)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">DATE OF BIRTH</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 19 August <!--del_lnk--> 1946</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">PLACE OF BIRTH</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hope, <!--del_lnk--> Arkansas</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">DATE OF DEATH</td>
<td>living</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="metadata-label persondata-label">PLACE OF DEATH</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Computing_People.htm">Computing People</a></h3>
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<caption style="font-size: larger; background-color:transparent;"><b>William Henry Gates III</b></caption>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="../../images/16/1679.jpg.htm" title=" "><img alt=" " height="264" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bill_Gates_2004_cr.jpg" src="../../images/16/1679.jpg" width="220" /></a><br /><small>Bill Gates at IT Forum in <a href="../../wp/c/Copenhagen.htm" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, <!--del_lnk--> November 16, <!--del_lnk--> 2004, photo by Kees de Vos</small></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Born:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1955 (age 51)<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a><a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Washington, <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Occupation:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chairman, <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft.htm" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a></td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Salary:</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US$</a>966,667</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Net worth:</th>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/8/808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="10" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Green_Arrow_Up.svg" src="../../images/8/808.png" width="10" /></a>7.5% to US$53.0 billion (2006)</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Spouse:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Melinda Gates</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Children:</th>
<td>3</td>
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<th style="text-align: right;">Website:</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> microsoft.com/billgates <!--del_lnk--> Gates Foundation</td>
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<p><b>William Henry Gates III</b> (born <!--del_lnk--> October 28, <!--del_lnk--> 1955 in <a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle, Washington</a>) is an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> <!--del_lnk--> entreprenuer and the co-founder, <!--del_lnk--> chairman, former <!--del_lnk--> chief software architect, and former <!--del_lnk--> CEO of <a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft.htm" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>. <i><!--del_lnk--> Forbes</i> magazine's <!--del_lnk--> The World's Billionaires list has ranked him as the richest person on earth for the last thirteen consecutive years. According to the <i><!--del_lnk--> Forbes</i> <!--del_lnk--> 2006 <!--del_lnk--> magazine, Bill Gates's current net worth is approximately $53 billion. When family wealth is considered, <!--del_lnk--> his family ranks second behind the <!--del_lnk--> Walton family.<p>Gates is one of the best-known entrepreneurs of the <!--del_lnk--> personal computer revolution. He is widely respected for his foresight and ambition. He is also frequently criticized as having built Microsoft through unfair or unlawful business practices. Since amassing his fortune, Gates has pursued a number of <!--del_lnk--> philanthropic endeavors, donating large amounts of money to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the <!--del_lnk--> Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, founded in 2000.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>William Henry Gates III was born in <a href="../../wp/s/Seattle%252C_Washington.htm" title="Seattle, Washington">Seattle, Washington</a> to <!--del_lnk--> William H. Gates, Jr. (now <i>Sr.</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> Mary Maxwell Gates. His family was wealthy; his father was a prominent lawyer, his mother served on the board of directors for First Interstate Bank and The United Way, and her father, J. W. Maxwell, was a <!--del_lnk--> national bank president. Gates has one older sister, Kristi (Kristianne), and one younger sister, Libby. He was the fourth of his name in his family, but was known as William Gates III or "<!--del_lnk--> Trey" because his father had dropped his own "III" suffix. According to the 1993 biography <i>Hard Drive</i>, Maxwell set up a million-dollar <!--del_lnk--> trust fund for Gates the year he was born. Gates vehemently denied this in a 1994 interview with <i><!--del_lnk--> Playboy</i>, and the 1993 biography <i>Gates</i> calls the trust fund claim one of the "fictions" surrounding Gates' fortune.<p>Gates excelled in elementary school, particularly in <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and the <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">sciences</a>. At thirteen he enrolled in the <!--del_lnk--> Lakeside School, Seattle's most exclusive preparatory school where tuition in 1967 was $5,000 (Harvard tuition that year was $1,760). When he was in the eighth grade, Lakeside obtained an <!--del_lnk--> ASR-33 <!--del_lnk--> teletype <!--del_lnk--> terminal and a donation of computer time on a <!--del_lnk--> General Electric computer from a "Mothers Club" rummage sale. Gates took an interest in programming the GE system in <!--del_lnk--> BASIC and was excused from math classes to pursue his interest. After the Mothers Club donation was exhausted he and other students sought time on other systems, including <!--del_lnk--> DEC <!--del_lnk--> PDP <!--del_lnk--> minicomputers. One of these systems was a <!--del_lnk--> PDP-10 belonging to Computer Centre Corporation, which banned the Lakeside students for the summer after it caught them exploiting bugs in the <!--del_lnk--> operating system to obtain free computer time.<p>At the end of the ban, the Lakeside students (Gates, <!--del_lnk--> Paul Allen, <!--del_lnk--> Ric Weiland, and Kent Evans) offered to fix the bugs in CCC's software in exchange for free computer time. Rather than use the system via teletype, Gates went to CCC's offices and studied <!--del_lnk--> source code for various programs that ran on the system, not only in BASIC but <!--del_lnk--> FORTRAN, <!--del_lnk--> LISP, and <!--del_lnk--> machine language as well. The arrangement with CCC continued until 1970, when it went out of business. The following year Information Sciences Inc. hired the Lakeside students to write a <!--del_lnk--> payroll program in <!--del_lnk--> COBOL, providing them not only computer time but <!--del_lnk--> royalties as well. Gates also formed a venture with Allen, called <!--del_lnk--> Traf-O-Data, to make <!--del_lnk--> traffic counters based on the <!--del_lnk--> Intel 8008 processor.<p>According to a press inquiry, Bill Gates stated that he scored 1590 on his <!--del_lnk--> SATs. He enrolled at <!--del_lnk--> Harvard University in the fall of 1973 without a definite study plan. While at Harvard he met his future <a href="../../wp/b/Business.htm" title="Business">business</a> partner, <!--del_lnk--> Steve Ballmer.<p><a id="Microsoft" name="Microsoft"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Microsoft</span></h2>
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<p>After reading the January 1975 issue of <i><!--del_lnk--> Popular Electronics</i> that demonstrated the <!--del_lnk--> Altair 8800, Gates contacted <!--del_lnk--> MITS (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems), the creators of the new microcomputer, to inform them that he and others were working on a BASIC interpreter for the platform. In reality, Gates and Allen did not have an Altair and had not written code for it; they merely wanted to gauge MITS's interest. MITS president <!--del_lnk--> Ed Roberts agreed to meet them for a demo, and over the course of a few weeks they developed an Altair <!--del_lnk--> emulator that ran on a minicomputer, and then the BASIC interpreter. The demonstration, held at MITS's offices in Albuquerque, was a success and resulted in a deal with MITS to distribute the interpreter as <!--del_lnk--> Altair BASIC. Gates took a leave of absence from Harvard to work with Allen at MITS, and they dubbed their <!--del_lnk--> partnership Micro-Soft.<p><a id="Anti-piracy_efforts" name="Anti-piracy_efforts"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Anti-piracy efforts</span></h3>
<p>In February 1976, Gates published his often-quoted "<!--del_lnk--> Open Letter to Hobbyists". In the letter, Gates claimed that most users were using "stolen" <!--del_lnk--> pirated copies of Altair BASIC and that no hobbyist could afford to produce, distribute, and maintain high-quality software without payment. This letter was unpopular with many amateur programmers, not just those few using copies of the software.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1682.jpg.htm" title="Gates with Steve Jurvetson of DFJ, Stratton Sclavos of Verisign and Greg Papadopoulos of Sun Microsystems, October 1, 2004."><img alt="Gates with Steve Jurvetson of DFJ, Stratton Sclavos of Verisign and Greg Papadopoulos of Sun Microsystems, October 1, 2004." height="173" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gates_Dreaming.jpg" src="../../images/16/1682.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1682.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Gates with <!--del_lnk--> Steve Jurvetson of <!--del_lnk--> DFJ, <!--del_lnk--> Stratton Sclavos of <!--del_lnk--> Verisign and <!--del_lnk--> Greg Papadopoulos of <!--del_lnk--> Sun Microsystems, <!--del_lnk--> October 1, <!--del_lnk--> 2004.</div>
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<p><a id="Microsoft_and_IBM" name="Microsoft_and_IBM"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Microsoft and IBM</span></h3>
<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1980 <!--del_lnk--> IBM approached Microsoft to make the BASIC interpreter for its upcoming personal computer, the <!--del_lnk--> IBM PC. When IBM's representatives mentioned that they needed an <!--del_lnk--> operating system, Bill Gates referred them to <!--del_lnk--> Digital Research, makers of the widely used <!--del_lnk--> CP/M operating system. Despite at least two rounds of negotiation, IBM and DRI did not reach a licensing agreement. IBM representative Jack Sams mentioned the licensing difficulties during a subsequent meeting with Gates, and Gates told him about <!--del_lnk--> 86-DOS (QDOS), an operating system similar to CP/M that <!--del_lnk--> Seattle Computer Products had made for hardware similar to the PC. Gates asked Sams whether he wanted to talk to SCP or let Gates arrange the deal, and Sams left the negotiations to Gates. Microsoft made a deal with SCP to become the exclusive licensing agent for 86-DOS, but did not mention that IBM was a potential customer. After adapting the operating system for the PC, Microsoft delivered it to IBM as <!--del_lnk--> PC-DOS in exchange for a one-time fee. Gates never understood why DRI had walked away from the deal, and in later years he claimed that DRI founder <!--del_lnk--> Gary Kildall capriciously "went flying" during an IBM appointment, a characterization that Kildall and other DR employees would deny.<p>Later, after <!--del_lnk--> Compaq successfully cloned the IBM <!--del_lnk--> BIOS, the market saw a flood of IBM PC clones. Microsoft was quick to license DOS to other manufacturers, calling it <!--del_lnk--> MS-DOS (for Microsoft <a href="../../wp/f/Floppy_disk.htm" title="Floppy disk">Disk</a> <!--del_lnk--> Operating System). By marketing MS-DOS aggressively to manufacturers of IBM-PC clones, Microsoft went from a small player to one of the major software vendors in the home computer industry. Microsoft continued to develop operating systems as well as <!--del_lnk--> software applications.<p><a id="Windows" name="Windows"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Windows</span></h3>
<p>In the early 1980s Microsoft introduced its own version of the <!--del_lnk--> graphical user interface (GUI), based on ideas pioneered by the <!--del_lnk--> Xerox corporation, and further pioneered and developed by Apple. Microsoft released "<a href="../../wp/m/Microsoft_Windows.htm" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a>" as an addition and alternative to their DOS command line, and to compete with other systems on the market that employed a GUI. By the early 1990s, Windows had pushed other DOS-based GUIs like <!--del_lnk--> GEM and <!--del_lnk--> GEOS out of the market. The release of <!--del_lnk--> Windows 3.0 in 1990 was a tremendous success, selling around 10 million copies in the first two years and cementing Microsoft's dominance in operating systems sales.<p>By continuing to ensure, by various means, that most computers came with Microsoft software pre-installed, the Microsoft corporation eventually became the largest software company in the world, earning Gates enough money that <!--del_lnk--> Forbes Magazine named him the wealthiest person in the world for several years. Gates served as the <!--del_lnk--> CEO of the company until 2000, when <!--del_lnk--> Steve Ballmer took the position, and continues to serve as chairman of the board as of November 2006. Microsoft has thousands of patents, and Gates has nine patents to his name.<p><a id="Bill_Gates.27_role" name="Bill_Gates.27_role"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Bill Gates' role</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1683.jpg.htm" title="Bill Gates giving his deposition at Microsoft on August 27, 1998"><img alt="Bill Gates giving his deposition at Microsoft on August 27, 1998" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Billgates.JPG" src="../../images/16/1683.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1683.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bill Gates giving his deposition at Microsoft on <!--del_lnk--> August 27, <!--del_lnk--> 1998</div>
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<p>Since Microsoft's founding in 1975 and as of 2006, Gates has had primary responsibility for Microsoft's product strategy. He has aggressively broadened the company's range of products, and wherever Microsoft has achieved a dominant position he has vigorously defended it. Many decisions that have led to <!--del_lnk--> antitrust litigation over Microsoft's <!--del_lnk--> business practices have had Gates' approval. In the 1998 <i><!--del_lnk--> United States v. Microsoft</i> case, Gates gave deposition testimony that several journalists characterized as evasive. He argued over the definitions of words such as: <i>compete</i>, <i>concerned</i>, <i>ask</i>, and <i>we</i>. BusinessWeek reported:<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">
<p>Early rounds of his deposition show him offering obfuscatory answers and saying 'I don't recall' so many times that even the presiding judge had to chuckle. Worse, many of the technology chief's denials and pleas of ignorance were directly refuted by prosecutors with snippets of e-mail Gates both sent and received.</blockquote>
<p>Despite denials by Bill Gates, the judge ruled that Microsoft had committed monopolization and tying, blocking competition, in violation of the <!--del_lnk--> Sherman Act.<p>Gates meets regularly with Microsoft's senior managers and <!--del_lnk--> program managers. By all accounts he can be extremely confrontational during these meetings, particularly when he believes that managers have not thought out their business strategy or have placed the company's future at risk. He has been described shouting at length at employees before letting them continue, with such remarks as "That's the stupidest thing I've ever heard!" and "Why don't you just give up your options and join the <!--del_lnk--> Peace Corps?" However, he often backs down when the targets of his outbursts respond frankly and directly. When he is not impressed with the technical hurdles managers claim to be facing, he sometimes quips, "Do you want me to do it over the weekend?"<p>Gates' role at Microsoft for most of its history has been primarily a management and executive role. However, he was an active software developer in the early years, particularly on the company's <a href="../../wp/p/Programming_language.htm" title="Programming language">programming language</a> products. He has not officially been on a development team since working on the <!--del_lnk--> TRS-80 Model 100 line, but he wrote code as late as 1989 that shipped in the company's products. On <!--del_lnk--> June 15, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Gates announced that he would transition out of his day-to-day role over the next two years to dedicate more time to philanthropy. He appointed <!--del_lnk--> Ray Ozzie as the new Chief Software Architect and planned to remain as chairman, advising the company on key projects. One of his last initiatives before announcing his departure was the creation of a <!--del_lnk--> robotics software group at Microsoft.<p><a id="Personal_life" name="Personal_life"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Personal life</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1684.jpg.htm" title="Bill Gates and Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva in Davos. January 26, 2003 "><img alt="Bill Gates and Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva in Davos. January 26, 2003 " height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BillGates_and_Lula1852.jpeg" src="../../images/16/1684.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1684.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bill Gates and <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> President <!--del_lnk--> Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva in <!--del_lnk--> Davos. <!--del_lnk--> January 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2003</div>
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<p>Bill Gates married <!--del_lnk--> Melinda French of <a href="../../wp/d/Dallas%252C_Texas.htm" title="Dallas, Texas">Dallas, Texas</a> on <!--del_lnk--> January 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1994. They have three children: Jennifer Katharine Gates (1996), Rory John Gates (1999) and Phoebe Adele Gates (2002). <!--del_lnk--> Bill Gates' house is one of the most expensive houses in the world, and is a modern 21st century <!--del_lnk--> earth-sheltered home in the side of a hill overlooking <!--del_lnk--> Lake Washington in <!--del_lnk--> Medina, Washington. According to <!--del_lnk--> King County public records, <!--del_lnk--> as of 2006, the total assessed value of the property (land and house) is $125 million, and the annual property tax is just under $1 million. Also among Gates' private acquisitions are the <!--del_lnk--> Codex Leicester and a collection of writings by <a href="../../wp/l/Leonardo_da_Vinci.htm" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> which Gates bought for USD $30.8 million at an auction in 1994.<p>Gates's e-mail address has been widely publicized and he received as many as 4,000,000 e-mails per day in 2004, most of which were <!--del_lnk--> spam. He has almost an entire department devoted to filtering out junk emails. Gates says that most of this junk mail "offers to help [him] get out of debt or get rich quick," which "would be funny if it weren't so irritating."<p><a id="Wealth_and_investments" name="Wealth_and_investments"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Wealth and investments</span></h3>
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<div style="width:232px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1685.jpg.htm" title="Gates in Poland, 2006"><img alt="Gates in Poland, 2006" height="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bill_Gates_in_Poland.jpg" src="../../images/16/1685.jpg" width="230" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1685.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Gates in <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a>, 2006</div>
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<p>Gates has been number one on the "<!--del_lnk--> Forbes 400" list from 1993 through to 2006 and number one on <i>Forbes</i> list of "<!--del_lnk--> The World's Richest People" from 1995-2006 with 50 billion US dollars. In 1999, Gates' wealth briefly surpassed $100 billion making him the world's first <!--del_lnk--> centibillionaire (as measured in U.S. dollars). Since 2000 the nominal value of his Microsoft holdings has declined due to a fall in Microsoft's stock price after the <!--del_lnk--> dot-com bubble and the multi-billion dollar donations he has made to his charitable foundations. In May 2006, Gates said in an interview that he wished that he were not the richest man in the world, stating that he disliked the attention it brought.<p>Gates has several investments outside Microsoft. He founded <!--del_lnk--> Corbis, a digital imaging company, in <!--del_lnk--> 1989. In 2004 he became a <!--del_lnk--> director of <!--del_lnk--> Berkshire Hathaway, the investment company headed by longtime friend <!--del_lnk--> Warren Buffett. He is a client of <!--del_lnk--> Cascade Investment Group, a <!--del_lnk--> wealth management firm with diverse holdings.<p><a id="Philanthropy" name="Philanthropy"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Philanthropy</span></h3>
<p>In 2000, Gates founded the <!--del_lnk--> Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, a charitable organization, with his wife. The foundation's grants have provided funds for college <!--del_lnk--> scholarships for under-represented minorities, <a href="../../wp/a/AIDS.htm" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> prevention, diseases prevalent in <!--del_lnk--> third world countries, and other causes. In 2000, the Gates Foundation endowed the <a href="../../wp/u/University_of_Cambridge.htm" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> with $210 million for the <!--del_lnk--> Gates Cambridge Scholarships. The Foundation has also pledged over $7 billion to its various causes, including $1 billion to the <!--del_lnk--> United Negro College Fund. According to a 2004 <i>Forbes</i> magazine article, Gates gave away over $29 billion to charities from 2000 onwards. These donations are usually cited as sparking a substantial change in attitudes towards philanthropy among the very rich, with philanthropy becoming the norm.<p>On June 16, 2006, Bill Gates announced that he would move to a part-time role with Microsoft (leaving day-to-day operations management) in 2008 to begin a full-time career in <!--del_lnk--> philanthropy, but would remain as <!--del_lnk--> chairman. Days later <!--del_lnk--> Warren Buffett announced that he would begin matching Gates's contributions to the Foundation.<p><a id="Publicity" name="Publicity"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Publicity</span></h2>
<p><a id="Awards_and_recognition" name="Awards_and_recognition"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Awards and recognition</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Time Magazine named Gates one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th century, as well as one of the 100 most influential people of 2004, 2005 and again in 2006. Gates and <!--del_lnk--> Oprah Winfrey are the only two people in the world to make all four lists. Time also collectively named Gates, his wife <!--del_lnk--> Melinda and <a href="../../wp/u/U2.htm" title="U2">U2</a>'s lead singer <!--del_lnk--> Bono as the 2005 <!--del_lnk--> Persons of the Year for their humanitarian efforts. That same year he was made an honorary <!--del_lnk--> Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire by <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a>. In 2006, Gates Foundation was awarded the <i>Premio Príncipe de Asturias en Cooperación Internacional</i>. In a list compiled by the magazine <i><!--del_lnk--> New Statesman</i> in 2006, he was voted eighth in the list of "Heroes of our time". Gates was listed in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Sunday Times</i> power list in 1999, named CEO of the year by <i>Chief Executive Officers magazine</i> in 1994, ranked number one in the "Top 50 Cyber Elite" by <i>Time</i> in 1998, ranked number two in the <i><!--del_lnk--> Upside</i> Elite 100 in 1999 and was included in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Guardian</i> as one of the "Top 100 influential people in media" in 2001.<p>Gates has received three <!--del_lnk--> honorary doctorates, from the <!--del_lnk--> Nyenrode Business Universiteit, <!--del_lnk--> Breukelen, <!--del_lnk--> The Netherlands in <!--del_lnk--> 2000, the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Institute of Technology, <a href="../../wp/s/Stockholm.htm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2002 and <!--del_lnk--> Waseda University, <a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>, <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 2005. Gates was also given an <!--del_lnk--> honorary KBE (<!--del_lnk--> Knighthood) from <a href="../../wp/e/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom">Queen Elizabeth II</a> of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> in 2005, in addition to having <!--del_lnk--> entomologists name the Bill Gates flower fly, <i><!--del_lnk--> Eristalis gatesi</i>, in his honour.<p>Bill and Melinda received the Prince of Asturias Award for International Cooperation on <!--del_lnk--> May 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2006, in recognition of their world impact through charity giving. In November 2006, he and his wife were awarded the <!--del_lnk--> Order of the Aztec Eagle for their philanthropic work around the world in the areas of health and education, particularly in Mexico, and specifically in the program "Un país de lectores".<p><a id="Popular_portrayals" name="Popular_portrayals"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Popular portrayals</span></h3>
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<p>Gates is often characterized as the quintessential example of a super-intelligent "<!--del_lnk--> nerd" with immense power and wealth. This has in turn led to <a href="../../wp/p/Popular_culture.htm" title="Popular culture">pop culture</a> stereotypes of Gates as a tyrant or evil genius, often resorting to ruthless business techniques. As such he has been the subject of numerous parodies in film, television, and video games.<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1686.jpg.htm" title="Bill Gates at Consumer Electronics Show, January 4, 2006"><img alt="Bill Gates at Consumer Electronics Show, January 4, 2006" height="309" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Billgates.jpg" src="../../images/16/1686.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1686.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bill Gates at <!--del_lnk--> Consumer Electronics Show, <!--del_lnk--> January 4, <!--del_lnk--> 2006</div>
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<p>Gates has published several essays throughout the years based on his theories, predictions and visions of the computing industry. In these publications he often expresses his personal views on current topics, and discusses Microsoft's plans. His writings have been published by <i><!--del_lnk--> BusinessWeek</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Newsweek</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> USA Today</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Economist</i> and <i>Time</i>. Some of his publications since 1997 include:<ul>
<li><i>Person of the Year</i>, Time, <!--del_lnk--> December 2, <!--del_lnk--> 2005<li><i>The New World of Work</i>, Executive E-mail, <!--del_lnk--> May 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2005<li><i>The PC Era Is Just Beginning</i>, Business Week, <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 2005<li><i>Building Software That Is Interoperable by Design</i>, Executive E-Mail, <!--del_lnk--> February 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2005<li><i>The Enduring Magic of Software</i>, InformationWeek, <!--del_lnk--> October 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2004<li><i>Preserving and Enhancing the Benefits of E-mail: A Progress Report</i>, Executive E-mail, <!--del_lnk--> June 28, <!--del_lnk--> 2004<li><i>Microsoft Progress Report: Security</i>, Executive E-mail, <!--del_lnk--> March 31, <!--del_lnk--> 2004<li><i>Losing Ground in the Innovation Race?</i>, CNET News.com, <!--del_lnk--> February 25, <!--del_lnk--> 2004<li><i>A Spam-Free Future</i>, The Washington Post, <!--del_lnk--> November 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2003<li><i>Why I Hate Spam</i>, The Wall Street Journal, <!--del_lnk--> June 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2003<li><i>Building Trust in Technology</i>, Global Agenda 2003 (World Economic Forum), <!--del_lnk--> January 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2003<li><i>Security in a Connected World</i>, Executive E-Mail, <!--del_lnk--> January 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2003<li><i>The Disappearing Computer</i>, The World in 2003 (The Economist), December 2002<li><i>Slowing the Spread of AIDS in India</i>, The New York Times, <!--del_lnk--> November 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2002<li><i>Trustworthy Computing</i>, Executive E-Mail, <!--del_lnk--> July 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2002<li><i>Computing You Can Count on</i>, April 2002<li><i>Tech in a Time of Trouble</i>, The World in 2002 (The Economist), December 2001<li><i>Moving into the Digital Decade</i>, <!--del_lnk--> October 29, <!--del_lnk--> 2001<li><i>The PC: 20 Years Young</i>, <!--del_lnk--> August 12, <!--del_lnk--> 2001<li><i>Why We’re Building .NET Technology</i>, <!--del_lnk--> June 18, <!--del_lnk--> 2001<li><i>Shaping the Internet Age</i>, Internet Policy Institute, December 2000<li><i>Now for an Intelligent Internet</i>, The World in 2001 (The Economist), November 2000<li><i>Will Frankenfood Feed the World?</i>, Time, <!--del_lnk--> June 19, <!--del_lnk--> 2000<li><i>Yes, More Trade with China</i>, Washington Post, <!--del_lnk--> May 23, <!--del_lnk--> 2000<li><i>The Case for Microsoft</i>, Time, <!--del_lnk--> May 7, <!--del_lnk--> 2000<li><i>Enter "Generation i"</i>, Instructor, March 2000<li><i>Product Distribution Goes Digital</i>, IEEE Internet Computing, January 2000<li><i>Beyond Gutenberg</i>, The World in 2000 (The Economist), November 1999<li><i>Everyone, Anytime, Anywhere</i>, Forbes ASAP, <!--del_lnk--> October 4, <!--del_lnk--> 1999<li><i>The Second Wave</i>, IEEE Internet Computing Magazine, <!--del_lnk--> August 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1999<li><i>Microprocessors Upgraded the Way We Live</i>, USA Today, <!--del_lnk--> June 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1999<li><i>Why the PC Will Not Die</i>, Newsweek, <!--del_lnk--> May 31, <!--del_lnk--> 1999<li><i>The Wright Brothers: The 100 Most Important People of the Century</i>, Time, <!--del_lnk--> March 29, <!--del_lnk--> 1999<li><i>Compete, Don't Delete</i>, The Economist, <!--del_lnk--> June 13, <!--del_lnk--> 1998<li><i>Who Decides What Innovations Go into Your PC?</i>, 1997</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Performers_and_composers.htm">Performers and composers</a></h3>
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<p><b>Billie Holiday</b> (<!--del_lnk--> April 7, <!--del_lnk--> 1915 – <!--del_lnk--> July 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1959), also called <b><!--del_lnk--> Lady Day</b> (and named at birth Elinore Harris, - not Eleanora Fagan Gough), was an <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">American</a> singer, generally considered one of the greatest female <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">jazz</a> voices of all time, alongside <!--del_lnk--> Sarah Vaughan and <!--del_lnk--> Ella Fitzgerald.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life" name="Early_life"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life</span></h2>
<p>Holiday had a difficult childhood which greatly affected her life and career. Much of her childhood is clouded by conjecture and legend, some of it propagated by her autobiography, published in <!--del_lnk--> 1956. This account is known to contain many inaccuracies. Her professional pseudonym was taken from <!--del_lnk--> Billie Dove, an <!--del_lnk--> actress she admired, and <!--del_lnk--> Clarence Holiday, her probable father. At the outset of her career, she spelled her last name "Halliday," presumably to distance herself from her neglectful father, but eventually changed it back to "Holiday."<p>Holiday's grandfather was one of 17 children of a black <!--del_lnk--> Virginia female slave and a white Irish plantation owner. Allegedly, her mother Sadie was only 13 at the time of Billie's birth in <a href="../../wp/p/Philadelphia.htm" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> and had moved there in order to hide her out-of-wedlock preganancy, although the 1900 census lists Sadie's birth year as 1896, which would make her 19 when Billie was born. <!--del_lnk--> Clarence Holiday, 16 years old at the time, was a banjo player who would later play for <!--del_lnk--> Fletcher Henderson. (There is some controversy regarding Holiday's paternity, stemming from a copy of her birth certificate in the Baltimore archives that lists the father as a "Frank DeViese." Some historians consider this an anomaly, probably inserted by a hospital or government worker — see Donald Clarke, <i>Billie Holiday: Wishing on the Moon</i>, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-306-81136-7.) Clarence Holiday accepted paternity, but was hardly a responsible father. In the rare times she did see him, Billie would shake him down for money by threatening to tell his then-girlfriend that he had a daughter.<p>Billie grew up in the <!--del_lnk--> Fells Point section of <a href="../../wp/b/Baltimore%252C_Maryland.htm" title="Baltimore, Maryland">Baltimore, Maryland</a>. According to her autobiography, her house was the first on their street to have electricity. Her parents married when she was three, but they soon divorced, leaving her to be raised largely by her mother and other relatives. At the age of 10, she reported having been raped. That claim, combined with her frequent <!--del_lnk--> truancy, resulted in her being sent to The House of the Good Shepherd, a Catholic reform school, in <!--del_lnk--> 1925. It was only through the assistance of a family friend that she was released two years later <!--del_lnk--> . Scarred by these experiences, Holiday moved to <!--del_lnk--> New York with her mother in <!--del_lnk--> 1928. In <!--del_lnk--> 1929, Sadie discovered a neighbour, Wilbert Rich, in the act of raping Billie; Rich was sentenced to 3 months in jail. Sadie later remarried and abandoned Billie, who from then on was raised by a woman she called Grandma, Martha Miller. Sadie died on <!--del_lnk--> October 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1945.<p><a id="Early_singing_career" name="Early_singing_career"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early singing career</span></h2>
<p>According to Billie Holiday's accounts, she was recruited by a brothel, worked as a prostitute, and was eventually imprisoned for a short time. It was in <!--del_lnk--> Harlem in the early <!--del_lnk--> 1930s that she started singing for tips in various night clubs. According to legend, penniless and facing eviction, she sang "<!--del_lnk--> Body and Soul" in a local club and reduced the audience to tears. She later worked at various clubs for tips, ultimately landing at <!--del_lnk--> Pod's and Jerry's, a well known Harlem <a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">jazz</a> club. Her early work history is sketchy, though accounts say she was working at a club named <!--del_lnk--> Monette's in 1933 when she was discovered by talent scout <!--del_lnk--> John Hammond (see "Billie Holiday." Black History Month Biographies. 2004. Gale Group Databases. 1 Mar, 2004).<p>Hammond managed to get Holiday recording sessions with <!--del_lnk--> Benny Goodman and booked her for live performances in various New York clubs. In 1935 her career got a big push when she recorded four sides that became hits, including "What a Little Moonlight Can Do" and "Miss Brown To You". This landed her a recording contract of her own, and from 1935 to 1942 she laid down masters that would ultimately become an important segment of early American jazz. Sometimes referred to as her "<!--del_lnk--> Columbia period" (after her label), these recordings represent a large portion of her total body of work.<p>During this period, the American music industry was still moderately segregated, and many of the songs Holiday was given to record were intended for the black jukebox audience. She was often not considered for the 'best' songs of the day, which were reserved for white singers. However, Holiday's style and fresh sound soon caught the attention of musicians across the nation, and her popularity began to climb. Peggy Lee, who began recording with Benny Goodman in the early 1940s, is often said to have emulated Holiday's light, sensual style.<p>In 1936 she was working with <!--del_lnk--> Lester Young, who gave her the now-famous nickname of Lady Day. Holiday joined <!--del_lnk--> Count Basie in 1937 and <!--del_lnk--> Artie Shaw in 1938. She was one of the first black women to work with a white orchestra, an impressive accomplishment at the time.<p><a id="The_Commodore_Years_and_.22Strange_Fruit.22" name="The_Commodore_Years_and_.22Strange_Fruit.22"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Commodore Years and "Strange Fruit"</span></h2>
<p>Holiday was working for Columbia in the late 1930s when she was introduced to a song entitled "<!--del_lnk--> Strange Fruit," which began as a poem about the <!--del_lnk--> lynching of a black man written by <!--del_lnk--> Abel Meeropol, a <a href="../../wp/j/Jew.htm" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> schoolteacher from the <!--del_lnk--> Bronx. Meeropol used the pseudonym "Lewis Allen" for the work. The poem was set to music and performed at teachers' union meetings, where it was eventually heard by the manager of <!--del_lnk--> Cafe Society, an integrated nightclub in <!--del_lnk--> Greenwich Village, who introduced it to Holiday. Holiday performed the song at Cafe Society in <!--del_lnk--> 1939, a move that by her own admission left her fearful of retaliation. Holiday later said that the imagery in "<!--del_lnk--> Strange Fruit" reminded her of her father's death, and that this played a role in her persistence to perform it.<p>She approached Columbia about recording the song, but was refused due to the subject matter of the song. She arranged to record it with an alternate label, Commodore, <!--del_lnk--> Milt Gabler's alternative jazz label in 1939. She would record two major sessions at Commodore, one in 1939 and one in 1944. Although there were far fegun aCover the Waterfront" and "Embraceable You". "Strange Fruit" was highly regarded and admired by intellectuals, and is in a large part responsible for her widespread popularity. "<!--del_lnk--> Strange Fruit's" popularity also prompted Holiday to record the type of songs that would become her signature, namely slow, moving love <!--del_lnk--> ballads.<p>It is widely conjectured that this is the period where Holiday first began what would become a long, and ultimately fatal, history of substance abuse. Holiday stated that she began using hard drugs in the early 1940s.<p>Her personal life was as turbulent as the songs she sang. She married trombonist <!--del_lnk--> Jimmy Monroe on August 25, 1941. While still married to Monroe, she took up with trumpeter <!--del_lnk--> Joe Guy as his <!--del_lnk--> common law wife and her drug dealer. She finally divorced Monroe in 1947, and also split with Guy. In 1947 she was jailed on drug charges and served eight months at the <!--del_lnk--> Alderson Federal Correctional Institution for Women in <a href="../../wp/w/West_Virginia.htm" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a>. Her <!--del_lnk--> New York City Cabaret Card was subsequently revoked, which kept her from working in clubs there for the remaining 12 years of her life.<p><a id="Later_life_and_the_Verve_sessions" name="Later_life_and_the_Verve_sessions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Later life and the Verve sessions</span></h2>
<p>By the 1950s Holiday's drug abuse, drinking, relations with abusive men, and deteriorating health set her life on a slow and steady decline. Her voice coarsened and did not project the vibrance it once did. However, she seemed to stand as a prime example of the struggling artist, and projected a certain bittersweet dignity.<p>On March 28, 1952, Holiday married <!--del_lnk--> Louis McKay, a Mafia "enforcer." McKay, like most of the men in her life, was abusive, but did try to get her off drugs. They were separated at the time of her death. Holiday was also rather openly <!--del_lnk--> bisexual and was rumored to have had several affairs with notable stage and film actresses, including <!--del_lnk--> Tallulah Bankhead. Holiday also had a relationship with <!--del_lnk--> Orson Welles.<p>Her late recordings on <!--del_lnk--> Verve are as well remembered as her <!--del_lnk--> Commodore and <!--del_lnk--> Decca work. From 1952 to 1959 Holiday released a little more than 100 new recordings for this label, which would constitute about a third of her recorded work. Her voice reflects a rugged timbre on these tracks, reflecting a vulnerability to the once grand and bold diva. Her performance of "Fine and Mellow" on <!--del_lnk--> CBS's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Sound of Jazz</i> program is memorable for her interplay with her long-time friend <!--del_lnk--> Lester Young; both were less than two years from death.<p>Holiday toured Europe in 1954 and again from late 1958 to early 1959. While in London in February 1959, Holiday made a memorable televised appearance on the <!--del_lnk--> BBC's <i>Chelsea at Nine</i>, singing, among other songs, "Strange Fruit." Holiday made her final studio recordings (with <!--del_lnk--> Ray Ellis and his Orchestra, who had also recorded her <i><!--del_lnk--> Lady in Satin</i> album the previous year — see below) for the <!--del_lnk--> MGM label in March 1959 (included in her complete Verve recordings collection.) These final studio recordings were released posthumously on a self-titled album, later re-titled and re-released as <i>Last Recordings</i>. She made her final public appearance at a benefit concert at the Phoenix Theatre in Greenwich Village, New York City on May 25, 1959. According to the masters of ceremony at that performance, <!--del_lnk--> Leonard Feather (a renowned jazz critic) and <!--del_lnk--> Steve Allen, she was only able to make it through two songs, one of which was "Ain't Nobody's Business If I Do."<p>On May 31, 1959, she was taken to Metropolitan Hospital in New York, suffering from <!--del_lnk--> liver and <!--del_lnk--> heart problems. On July 12, she was placed under house arrest at the hospital for possession, despite evidence suggesting the drugs may have been planted on her. Holiday remained under police guard at the hospital until she died from <!--del_lnk--> cirrhosis of the liver on July 17, 1959 at the age of 44. In the final years of her life, she had been progressively swindled out of her earnings, and she died with only $0.70 in the bank and $750 on her person.<p>Her impact on other artists was undeniable, however; even after her death she influenced such singers as <!--del_lnk--> Janis Joplin and <!--del_lnk--> Nina Simone. In 1972, <!--del_lnk--> Diana Ross played her in a movie version of Holiday's <!--del_lnk--> autobiography, <i><!--del_lnk--> Lady Sings the Blues</i>. To everyone's surprise, the film was a commercial smash and earned a <!--del_lnk--> Best Actress nomination for Ross. In 1988 <a href="../../wp/u/U2.htm" title="U2">U2</a> released "<!--del_lnk--> Angel of Harlem", a tribute to her.<p>Like many artists, the importance of Holiday's music and her influence were only truly realized after her death. She struggled against racism and sexism her entire career, and achieved fame despite a turbulent life. She is also often cited as an example to the black and gay communities, both which admire her early efforts to stand up for equal rights, and to speak out against discrimination and racism. She is now considered one of the most important vocalists of the 20th century.<p>Billie Holiday is interred in <!--del_lnk--> Saint Raymond's Cemetery, <!--del_lnk--> Bronx, <!--del_lnk--> New York.<p><a id="Voice" name="Voice"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Voice</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/153/15301.jpg.htm" title="Billie Holiday photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1949"><img alt="Billie Holiday photographed by Carl Van Vechten, 1949" height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Billie_Holiday_1949_b.jpg" src="../../images/153/15301.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>While instantly recognizable, Holiday's voice changed over time. Her first recordings in the mid-1930s featured a bouncy, girlish voice. By the early 1940s her singing became informed by her acting skill. It was during this time when she recorded her signature songs "Strange Fruit" and "I Cover the Waterfront." Many called her voice lovingly sweet, weathered and experienced, sad and sophisticated. As she aged, the effects of her drug abuse continued to ravage her range and her voice changed considerably, becoming somewhat rougher. Her last major recording, <i><!--del_lnk--> Lady in Satin</i>, was released in 1958 and reveals a woman with an extremely limited range, but wonderful phrasing and emotion. The recording featured a backing from a 40-piece orchestra conducted and arranged by Ray Ellis, who said of the album in <!--del_lnk--> 1997:<dl>
<dd><i>I would say that the most emotional moment was her listening to the playback of "I'm a Fool to Want You." There were tears in her eyes...After we finished the album I went into the control room and listened to all the takes. I must admit I was unhappy with her performance, but I was just listening musically instead of emotionally. It wasn't until I heard the final mix a few weeks later that I realized how great her performance really was.</i></dl>
<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
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<li>Billie was 5'5"<li><!--del_lnk--> The Black Eyed Peas paid her a tribute in a <!--del_lnk--> Coca Cola <!--del_lnk--> commercial<li><!--del_lnk--> America's Next Top Model contestant <!--del_lnk--> Mercedes Yvette posed as Billie Holiday during a photoshoot in which the models had to portray a famous figure. The judges said that the photograph captured Billie's sweet sadness.<li>Holiday spent much of the 1930s working with famous jazz saxophonist <!--del_lnk--> Lester Young. It was Young who gave Holiday the nickname <!--del_lnk--> Lady Day, and Holiday gave Young the nickname "Prez". The two were reunited at a performance on the CBS television special <!--del_lnk--> The Sound of Jazz on December 8, 1957. They were both on tour in Europe in March of 1959 when Young fell ill and had to return to New York. Young died on March 15, 1959 at the age of 49. According to renowned jazz critic <!--del_lnk--> Leonard Feather, who rode with Holiday in a taxi to Young's funeral, she told Feather on the ride over, "I'll be the next one to go". Holiday died almost exactly four months later.<li>On September 18, 1994, the <!--del_lnk--> United States Postal Service honored Holiday by introducing a USPS-sponsored stamp.<li>Inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2000 (under the category 'early influence')<li>A statue of Holiday stands at the corner of Lafayette and Pennsylvania Avenues in <!--del_lnk--> Baltimore.<li>While in the hospital, Billie hid her drugs in a Kleenex box; a nurse discovered it and she was arrested on her deathbed.<li>In April 2005, in honour of the 90th anniversary of Billie's birth, Columbia University's radio station, <!--del_lnk--> WKCR-FM (www.WKCR.org), broadcast a two-week marathon festival of Billie's music, pre-empting all regular programming.<li>Cousin of boxer <!--del_lnk--> Henry Armstrong<li>The <a href="../../wp/u/U2.htm" title="U2">U2</a> song <i>Angel of Harlem</i> paid tribute to Holiday.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Regina Spektor song <i>Lady</i> is about Billie.<li>Billie is later talked about in <a href="../../wp/t/The_Simpsons.htm" title="The Simpsons">The Simpsons</a> episode: "'Round Springfield" where the dead jazz musicer <!--del_lnk--> Bleeding Gums Murphy claims to have a date with her.</ul>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Binary star</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1785.jpg.htm" title="Artist's impression of a binary system consisting of a black hole, with an accretion disc around it, and a main sequence star."><img alt="Artist's impression of a binary system consisting of a black hole, with an accretion disc around it, and a main sequence star." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Accretion_disk.jpg" src="../../images/16/1687.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1785.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Artist's impression of a binary system consisting of a <a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" title="Black hole">black hole</a>, with an <!--del_lnk--> accretion disc around it, and a <!--del_lnk--> main sequence star.</div>
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<p>A <b>binary star</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> stellar system consisting of two <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a> <!--del_lnk--> orbiting around their <!--del_lnk--> centre of mass. For each star, the other is its <i>companion star</i>. Recent research suggests that a large percentage of stars are part of systems with at least two stars. Binary star systems are very important in <!--del_lnk--> astrophysics, because observing their mutual orbits allows their <!--del_lnk--> mass to be determined. The masses of many single stars can then be determined by extrapolations made from the observation of binaries.<p>Binary stars are not the same as <!--del_lnk--> optical double stars, which appear to be close together as seen from <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>, but may not be bound by <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravitation">gravity</a>. Binary stars can either be distinguished optically (visual binaries) or by indirect techniques, such as <!--del_lnk--> spectroscopy. If binaries happen to orbit in a plane containing our line of sight, they will <!--del_lnk--> eclipse each other; these are called eclipsing binaries.<p>The components of binary star systems can exchange mass, bringing their <!--del_lnk--> evolution to stages that single stars cannot attain. Examples of binaries are <a href="../../wp/a/Algol.htm" title="Algol">Algol</a> (an eclipsing binary), <a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" title="Sirius">Sirius</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> Cygnus X-1 (of which one member is probably a <a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" title="Black hole">black hole</a>).<p>
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</script><a id="Terminology" name="Terminology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Terminology</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/215/21582.jpg.htm" title="Hubble image of the Sirius binary system, in which Sirius B can be clearly distinguished (lower left)."><img alt="Hubble image of the Sirius binary system, in which Sirius B can be clearly distinguished (lower left)." height="273" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sirius_A_and_B_Hubble_photo.jpg" src="../../images/16/1688.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/215/21582.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble</a> image of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" title="Sirius">Sirius</a> binary system, in which Sirius B can be clearly distinguished (lower left).</div>
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<p>The term <i>binary star</i> was <!--del_lnk--> coined by Sir <!--del_lnk--> William Herschel in 1802 to designate, in his definition, <i>"a real double star - the union of two stars that are formed together in one system by the laws of attraction"</i>. Any two closely-spaced stars might appear to be a <i><!--del_lnk--> double star</i>, the most famous case being <!--del_lnk--> Mizar and Alcor in the <!--del_lnk--> Big Dipper. It is however possible that a double star is merely a star pair that only looks like a binary system: the two stars can in reality be widely separated in space, but just happen to lie in roughly the same direction as seen from our vantage point. Such false binaries are termed <i>optical binaries</i>. With the invention of the <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, many such pairs were found. Herschel, in 1780, measured the separation and orientations of over 700 pairs that appeared to be binary systems, and found that about 50 pairs changed orientation over two decades of observation.<p>A true binary is a pair of stars bound together by <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravitation">gravity</a>. When they can be <!--del_lnk--> resolved (distinguished) with a powerful enough telescope (if necessary with the aid of <!--del_lnk--> interferometric methods) they are known as <i>visual binaries</i>. In other cases, the only indication of binarity is the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the emitted <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a>. Systems in which this is the case, known as <i>spectroscopic binaries</i>, consist of relatively close pairs of stars where the <!--del_lnk--> spectral lines in the light from each one shifts first toward the blue, then toward the red, as it moves first toward us, and then away from us, during its motion about their common <!--del_lnk--> centre of mass, with the period of their common orbit. If the orbital plane is very nearly along our line of sight, the two stars partially or fully <!--del_lnk--> occult each other regularly, and the system is called an <i>eclipsing binary</i>, of which <a href="../../wp/a/Algol.htm" title="Algol">Algol</a> is the best-known example.<p>Binary stars that are both visual and spectroscopic binaries are rare, and are a precious source of valuable information when found. Visual binary stars have a large true separation, and consequently usually have orbital speeds too small to be measured spectroscopically from far away. Conversely, spectroscopic binary stars move fast in their orbits because they are close together; usually too close to be detected as visual binaries. Binaries that are both visual and spectroscopic thus must be relatively close to Earth.<p>Astronomers have discovered some stars that seem to orbit around an empty space. <i>Astrometric binaries</i> are relatively nearby stars which can be seen to wobble around a middle point, with no visible companion. With some spectroscopic binaries, there is only one set of lines shifting back and forth. The same mathematics used for ordinary binaries can be applied to infer the <!--del_lnk--> mass of the missing companion. The companion could be very dim, so that it is currently undetectable or masked by the glare of its primary, or it could be an object that emits little or no <a href="../../wp/e/Electromagnetic_radiation.htm" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>, for example a <!--del_lnk--> neutron star. In some instances, there is strong evidence that the missing companion is in fact a <a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" title="Black hole">black hole</a>: a body with such strong gravity that no light is able to escape. Such binaries are known as <!--del_lnk--> high-mass X-ray binaries. Probably the best known example at present is <!--del_lnk--> Cygnus X-1, where the mass of the unseen companion is believed to be about nine times that of our sun; far exceeding the <!--del_lnk--> Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit (the maximum theoretical mass of a neutron star, the only other likely candidate for the companion). In this way, Cygnus X-1 became the first object that was widely accepted as being a black hole.<p><a id="Classifications" name="Classifications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Classifications</span></h2>
<p><a id="By_methods_of_observation" name="By_methods_of_observation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">By methods of observation</span></h3>
<p>Binary stars are classified into four types according to their observable properties. Any binary star can belong to several of these classes; for example, several spectroscopic binaries are also eclipsing binaries.<p><a id="Visual_binaries" name="Visual_binaries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Visual binaries</span></h4>
<p>A <i>visual binary</i> <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> is a binary star for which the angular separation between the two components is great enough to permit them to be observed as a <!--del_lnk--> double star in a <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescope</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> resolving power of the telescope is an important factor in the detection of visual binaries, and as telescopes become larger and more powerful an increasing number of visual binaries will be detected. The brightness of the two stars is also an important factor, as brighter stars are harder to separate due to their glare than dimmer ones are.<p>The brighter star of a visual binary is the <i>primary</i> star, and the dimmer is considered the <i>secondary.</i> The <!--del_lnk--> position angle of the secondary with respect to the primary is measured, together with the angular distance between the two stars. The time of observation is also recorded. After a sufficient number of observations are recorded over a period of time, they are plotted in <!--del_lnk--> polar coordinates with the primary star at the origin, and the most probable <!--del_lnk--> ellipse is drawn through these points such that the <!--del_lnk--> Keplerian law of areas is satisfied. This ellipse is known as the <i>apparent ellipse</i>, and is the projection of the actual elliptical <!--del_lnk--> orbit of the secondary with respect to the primary on the plane of the sky. From this projected ellipse the complete elements of the orbit may be computed, with the <!--del_lnk--> semi-major axis being expressed in angular units unless the <!--del_lnk--> stellar parallax, and hence the distance, of the system is known.<p><a id="Spectroscopic_binaries" name="Spectroscopic_binaries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Spectroscopic binaries</span></h4>
<p>A <i>spectroscopic binary star</i> is a binary star in which the separation between the stars is usually very small, and the <!--del_lnk--> orbital velocity very high. Unless the plane of the orbit happens to be perpendicular to the line of sight, the orbital velocities will have components in the line of sight and the observed <!--del_lnk--> radial velocity of the system will vary periodically. Since radial velocity can be measured with a <!--del_lnk--> spectrometer by observing the <!--del_lnk--> Doppler shift of the stars' <!--del_lnk--> spectral lines, the binaries detected in this manner are known as spectroscopic binaries. Most of these cannot be resolved as a visual binary, even with <a href="../../wp/t/Telescope.htm" title="Telescope">telescopes</a> of the highest existing <!--del_lnk--> resolving power.<p>In some spectroscopic binaries the spectra of both stars are visible and the lines are alternately double and single. Such stars are known as double-line binaries. In others, the spectrum of only one of the stars is seen and the lines in the spectrum shift periodically towards the blue, then towards red and back again. Such stars are known as single-line spectroscopic binaries.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> orbit of a spectroscopic binary is determined by making a long series of observations of the radial velocity of one or more component of the binary. The observations are plotted against time, and from the resulting curve a period is determined. If the orbit is <!--del_lnk--> circular, then the curve will be a <a href="../../wp/t/Trigonometric_function.htm" title="Trigonometric function">sine</a> curve. If the orbit is <!--del_lnk--> elliptical, the shape of the curve will depend on the <!--del_lnk--> eccentricity of the ellipse and the orientation of the major axis with reference to the line of sight.<p>It is impossible to determine individually the <!--del_lnk--> semi-major axis <i>a</i> and the inclination of the orbit plane <i>i</i>. However, the product of the semi-major axis and the sine of the inclination (i.e. <i>a</i> sin <i>i</i>) may be determined directly in linear units (e.g. kilometres). If either <i>a</i> or <i>i</i> can be determined by other means, as in the case of eclipsing binaries, a complete solution for the orbit can be found.<p><a id="Eclipsing_binaries" name="Eclipsing_binaries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Eclipsing binaries</span></h4>
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<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1689.gif.htm" title="An eclipsing binary, with an indication of the variation in intensity."><img alt="An eclipsing binary, with an indication of the variation in intensity." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Eclipsing_binary_star_animation_2.gif" src="../../images/16/1689.gif" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">An eclipsing binary, with an indication of the variation in intensity.</div>
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<p>An <i>eclipsing binary star</i> is a binary star in which the <!--del_lnk--> orbit plane of the two <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a> lies so nearly in the line of sight of the observer that the components undergo mutual <!--del_lnk--> eclipses. In the case where the binary is also a spectroscopic binary and the <!--del_lnk--> parallax of the system is known, the binary is quite valuable for stellar analysis.<p>In the last decade, measurement of eclipsing binaries' fundamental parameters has become possible with 8 meter class telescopes. This makes it feasible to use them as <!--del_lnk--> standard candles. Recently, they have been used to give direct distance estimates to the <!--del_lnk--> LMC, <!--del_lnk--> SMC, <a href="../../wp/a/Andromeda_Galaxy.htm" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Triangulum Galaxy. Eclipsing binaries offer a direct method to gauge the distance to galaxies to a new improved 5% level of accuracy.<p>Eclipsing binaries are <!--del_lnk--> variable stars, not because the light of the individual components vary but because of the eclipses. The <!--del_lnk--> light curve of an eclipsing binary is characterized by periods of practically constant light, with periodic drops in intensity. If one of the stars is larger than the other, one will be obscured by a total eclipse while the other will be obscured by an <!--del_lnk--> annular eclipse.<p>The period of the <!--del_lnk--> orbit of an eclipsing binary may be determined from a study of the light curve, and the relative sizes of the individual stars can be determined in terms of the radius of the orbit by observing how quickly the brightness changes as the disc of the near star slides over the disc of the distant star. If it is also a spectroscopic binary the <!--del_lnk--> orbital elements can also be determined, and the mass of the stars can be determined relatively easily, which means that the relative densities of the stars can be determined in this case.<p><a id="Astrometric_binaries" name="Astrometric_binaries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Astrometric binaries</span></h4>
<p>An <i>astrometric binary</i> star is a binary star for which only one of the component stars can be visually observed. The visible star's position is carefully measured and detected to have a wobble, due to the gravitational influence from its counterpart. The position of the star is repeatedly measured relative to more distant stars, and then checked for periodic shifts in position. Typically this type of measurement can only be performed on nearby stars, such as those within 10 <!--del_lnk--> parsecs. Nearby stars often have a relatively high <!--del_lnk--> proper motion, so astrometric binaries will appear to follow a <!--del_lnk--> sinusoidal path across the sky.<p>If the companion is sufficiently massive to cause an observable shift in position of the star, then its presence can be deduced. From precise <!--del_lnk--> astrometric measurements of the movement of the visible star over a sufficiently long period of time, information about the mass of the companion and its orbital period can be determined. Even though the companion is not visible, the characteristics of the system can be determined from the observations using <a href="../../wp/j/Johannes_Kepler.htm" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> laws.<p>This method of detecting binaries is also <!--del_lnk--> used to locate <a href="../../wp/e/Extrasolar_planet.htm" title="Extrasolar planet">extrasolar planets</a> orbiting a star. However the requirements to perform this measurement are very exacting, due to the great difference in the mass ratio, and the typically long period of the planet's orbit. Detection of position shifts of a star is a very exacting science, and it is difficult to achieve the necessary precision. Space telescopes can avoid the blurring effect of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, resulting in more precise resolution.<p><a id="By_configuration_of_the_system" name="By_configuration_of_the_system"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">By configuration of the system</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1690.jpg.htm" title="Artist's conception of a cataclysmic variable system."><img alt="Artist's conception of a cataclysmic variable system." height="118" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Cataclysmic_Variable.jpg" src="../../images/16/1690.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1690.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Artist's conception of a <!--del_lnk--> cataclysmic variable system.</div>
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<p>Another classification is based on the distance of the stars, relative to their sizes:<p><i>Detached binaries</i> are a kind of binary stars where each component is within its <!--del_lnk--> Roche lobe, i.e. the area where the <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravitation">gravitational pull</a> of the star itself is larger than that of the other component. The stars have no major effect on each other, and essentially evolve separately. Most binaries belong to this class.<p><i>Semidetached binary stars</i> are binary stars where one of the components fills the binary star's Roche lobe and the other does not. Gas from the surface of the Roche lobe filling component (donor) is transferred to the other star (accretor). The <!--del_lnk--> mass transfer dominates the evolution of the system. In many cases, the inflowing gas forms an <!--del_lnk--> accretion disc around the accretor. Examples of this type are <!--del_lnk--> X-ray binaries and <!--del_lnk--> Cataclysmic variable stars.<p>A <i>contact binary</i> is a type of binary star in which both components of the binary fill their Roche lobes. The uppermost part of the <!--del_lnk--> stellar atmospheres forms a <i>common envelope</i> that surrounds both stars. As the friction of the envelope brakes the <!--del_lnk--> orbital motion, the stars may eventually <!--del_lnk--> coalesce.<p><a id="Binary_star_evolution" name="Binary_star_evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Binary star evolution</span></h2>
<p><a id="Formation" name="Formation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Formation</span></h3>
<p>While it is not impossible that some binaries might be created through <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravitation">gravitational capture</a> between two single stars, given the very low likelihood of such an event (three objects are actually required, as conservation of energy rules out a single gravitating body capturing another) and the high number of binaries, this cannot be the primary formation process. Also, the observation of binaries consisting of pre <!--del_lnk--> main sequence stars, supports the theory that binaries are already formed during <!--del_lnk--> star formation. Fragmentation of the molecular cloud during the formation of <!--del_lnk--> protostars is an acceptable explanation for the formation of a binary or multiple star system.<p>The outcome of the <!--del_lnk--> three body problem, where the three stars are of comparable mass, is that eventually one of the three stars will be ejected from the system and, assuming no significant further perturbations, the remaining two will form a stable binary system.<p><a id="Mass_transfer_and_accretion" name="Mass_transfer_and_accretion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Mass transfer and accretion</span></h3>
<p>As a <!--del_lnk--> main sequence star increases in size during its <!--del_lnk--> evolution, it may at some point exceed its <!--del_lnk--> Roche lobe, meaning that some of its matter ventures into a region where the <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravitation">gravitational pull</a> of its companion star is larger than its own. The result is that matter will transfer from one star to another through a process known as Roche Lobe overflow (RLOF), either being absorbed by direct impact or through an <!--del_lnk--> accretion disc. The <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> point through which this transfer happens is called the first <!--del_lnk--> Lagrangian point. It is not uncommon that the accretion disc is the brightest (and thus sometimes the only visible) element of a binary star.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1691.gif.htm" title="An animation of the Beta Lyrae system, an eclipsing binary including an accretion disc."><img alt="An animation of the Beta Lyrae system, an eclipsing binary including an accretion disc." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Eclipsing_binary_star_animation_3.gif" src="../../images/16/1691.gif" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">An animation of the <!--del_lnk--> Beta Lyrae system, an eclipsing binary including an <!--del_lnk--> accretion disc.</div>
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<p>If a star grows outside of its Roche lobe too fast for all abundant <a href="../../wp/m/Matter.htm" title="Matter">matter</a> to be transferred to the other component, it is also possible that matter will leave the system through other Lagrange points or as <!--del_lnk--> stellar wind, thus being effectively lost to both components. Since the evolution of a star is determined by its mass, the process influences the evolution of both companions, and creates stages that can not be attained by single <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">stars</a>. <p>Studies of the eclipsing ternary <a href="../../wp/a/Algol.htm" title="Algol">Algol</a> led to the <i>Algol paradox</i> in the theory of <!--del_lnk--> stellar evolution: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones, it was observed that the more massive component Algol A is still in the <!--del_lnk--> main sequence, while the less massive Algol B is a <!--del_lnk--> subgiant star at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by <!--del_lnk--> mass transfer: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its <!--del_lnk--> Roche lobe, and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can actually be seen.<p><a id="Runaways_and_novae" name="Runaways_and_novae"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Runaways and novae</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/209/20967.jpg.htm" title="A Chandra X-ray Observatory image of the remnants of the SN 1572 supernova."><img alt="A Chandra X-ray Observatory image of the remnants of the SN 1572 supernova." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tycho-supernova-xray.jpg" src="../../images/16/1692.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/209/20967.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> Chandra X-ray Observatory image of the remnants of the <!--del_lnk--> SN 1572 supernova.</div>
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<p>It is also possible for widely separated binaries to lose gravitational contact with each other during their lifetime, as a result of external perturbations. The components will then move on to evolve as single stars. A close encounter between two binary systems can also result in the gravitational disruption of both systems, with some of the stars being ejected at high velocities, leading to <!--del_lnk--> runaway stars.<p>If a <!--del_lnk--> white dwarf has a close companion star that overflows its <!--del_lnk--> Roche lobe, the white dwarf will steadily accrete gases from the star's outer atmosphere. These are compacted on the white dwarf's surface by its intense gravity, compressed and heated to very high temperatures as additional material is drawn in. The white dwarf consists of <!--del_lnk--> degenerate matter, and so is largely unresponsive to heat, while the accreted hydrogen is not. <!--del_lnk--> Hydrogen fusion can occur in a stable manner on the surface through the <!--del_lnk--> CNO cycle, causing the enormous amount of energy liberated by this process to blow the remaining gases away from the white dwarf's surface. The result is an extremely bright outburst of light, known as a <!--del_lnk--> nova.<p>In extreme cases this event can cause the white dwarf to exceed the <!--del_lnk--> Chandrasekhar limit and trigger a <!--del_lnk--> supernova that destroys the entire star, and is another possible cause for runaways. A famous example of such an event is the supernova <!--del_lnk--> SN 1572, which was observed by <a href="../../wp/t/Tycho_Brahe.htm" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>. The <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> recently took a picture of the remnants of this event.<p><a id="Use_in_astrophysics" name="Use_in_astrophysics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Use in astrophysics</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1693.gif.htm" title="A simulated example of a binary star, where two bodies with similar mass orbit around a common barycenter in elliptic orbits."><img alt="A simulated example of a binary star, where two bodies with similar mass orbit around a common barycenter in elliptic orbits." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Orbit5.gif" src="../../images/16/1693.gif" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1693.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A simulated example of a binary star, where two bodies with similar mass orbit around a common <!--del_lnk--> barycenter in <!--del_lnk--> elliptic orbits.</div>
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<p>Binaries provide the best method for <!--del_lnk--> astronomers to determine the mass of a distant star. The gravitational pull between them causes them to orbit around their common centre of mass. From the orbital pattern of a visual binary, or the time variation of the spectrum of a spectroscopic binary, the mass of its stars can be determined. In this way, the relation between a star's appearance (<!--del_lnk--> temperature and <!--del_lnk--> radius) and its mass can be found, which allows for the determination of the mass of non-binaries.<p>Because a large proportion of stars exist in binary systems, binaries are particularly important to our understanding of the processes by which stars form. In particular, the period and masses of the binary tell us about the amount of <!--del_lnk--> angular momentum in the system. Because this is a <!--del_lnk--> conserved quantity in <a href="../../wp/p/Physics.htm" title="Physics">physics</a>, binaries give us important clues about the conditions under which the stars were formed.<p>In a binary system, the more massive star is usually designated 'A', and its companion 'B'. Thus the bright <!--del_lnk--> main sequence star of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" title="Sirius">Sirius</a> system is Sirius A, while the smaller <!--del_lnk--> white dwarf member is Sirius B. However, if the pair is very widely separated, they may be designated with superscripts as with <!--del_lnk--> Zeta Reticuli (ζ<sup>1</sup> Ret and ζ<sup>2</sup> Ret).<p><a id="Research_findings" name="Research_findings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Research findings</span></h3>
<p>It is believed that a quarter to half of all stars are in binary systems, with as many as 10% of these systems containing more than two stars (triples, quadruples, etc.).<p>There is a direct correlation between the <!--del_lnk--> period of revolution of a binary star and the <!--del_lnk--> eccentricity of its orbit, with systems of short period having smaller eccentricity. Binary stars may be found with any conceivable separation, from pairs orbiting so closely that they are practically in contact with each other, to pairs so distantly separated that their connection is indicated only by their common <!--del_lnk--> proper motion through space. Among gravitationally bound binary star systems, there exists a so called <!--del_lnk--> log normal distribution of periods, with the majority of these systems orbiting with a period of about 100 years. This is supporting evidence for the theory that binary systems are formed during <!--del_lnk--> star formation.<p>In pairs where the two stars are of equal <!--del_lnk--> brightness, they are also of the same <!--del_lnk--> spectral type. In systems where the brightnesses are different, the fainter star is bluer if the brighter star is a <!--del_lnk--> giant star, and redder if the brighter star belongs to the <!--del_lnk--> main sequence.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1694.jpg.htm" title="Artist's impression of the sight from a (hypothetical) moon of planet HD 188753 Ab (upper left), which orbits a triple star system. The brightest companion is just below the horizon."><img alt="Artist's impression of the sight from a (hypothetical) moon of planet HD 188753 Ab (upper left), which orbits a triple star system. The brightest companion is just below the horizon." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Triple-star_sunset.jpg" src="../../images/16/1694.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1694.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Artist's impression of the sight from a (hypothetical) moon of planet <!--del_lnk--> HD 188753 Ab (upper left), which orbits a <!--del_lnk--> triple star system. The brightest companion is just below the <!--del_lnk--> horizon.</div>
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<p>Since mass can be determined only from gravitational attraction, and the only stars (with the exception of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> gravitationally-lensed stars), for which this can be determined are binary stars, these are a uniquely important class of stars. In the case of a visual binary star, after the orbit has been determined and the <!--del_lnk--> stellar parallax of the system determined, the combined mass of the two stars may be obtained by a direct application of the <!--del_lnk--> Keplerian harmonic law.<p>Unfortunately, it is impossible to obtain the complete orbit of a spectroscopic binary unless it is also a visual or an eclipsing binary, so from these objects only a determination of the joint product of mass and the <a href="../../wp/t/Trigonometric_function.htm" title="Trigonometric function">sine</a> of the angle of inclination relative to the line of sight is possible. In the case of eclipsing binaries which are also spectroscopic binaries, it is possible to find a complete solution for the specifications (mass, <!--del_lnk--> density, size, <!--del_lnk--> luminosity, and approximate shape) of both members of the system.<p><!--del_lnk--> Science fiction has often featured <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planets</a> of binary or ternary stars as a setting. In reality, some orbital ranges are impossible for dynamical reasons (the planet would be expelled from its orbit relatively quickly, being either ejected from the system altogether or transferred to a more inner or outer orbital range), whilst other orbits present serious challenges for eventual <a href="../../wp/b/Biosphere.htm" title="Biosphere">biospheres</a> because of likely extreme variations in surface temperature during different parts of the orbit. Detecting planets around multiple star systems introduces additional technical difficulties, which may be why they are only rarely found. Examples include <a href="../../wp/p/PSR_B1620-26c.htm" title="PSR B1620-26c">PSR B1620-26c</a> and <!--del_lnk--> HD 188753 Ab, the latter being the only known planet in a ternary system as of 2006.<p><a id="Multiple_star_examples" name="Multiple_star_examples"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Multiple star examples</span></h2>
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<div style="width:200px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1695.jpg.htm" title="The two visibly distinguishable components of Albireo."><img alt="The two visibly distinguishable components of Albireo." height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Albireo.jpg" src="../../images/16/1695.jpg" width="198" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">The two visibly distinguishable components of <!--del_lnk--> Albireo.</div>
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<p>The large distance between the components, as well as their difference in colour, make <!--del_lnk--> Albireo one of the easiest observable visual binaries. The brightest member, which is the third brightest star in the <!--del_lnk--> constellation <!--del_lnk--> Cygnus, is actually a close binary itself. Also in the Cygnus constellation is <!--del_lnk--> Cygnus X-1, an <!--del_lnk--> X-ray source considered to be a <a href="../../wp/b/Black_hole.htm" title="Black hole">black hole</a>. It is a <!--del_lnk--> high-mass X-ray binary, with the optical counterpart being a <!--del_lnk--> variable star. Another famous binary is <a href="../../wp/s/Sirius.htm" title="Sirius">Sirius</a>, the brightest star in the night time sky, with a visual <!--del_lnk--> apparent magnitude of −1.46. It is located in the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Canis Major. In 1844 <!--del_lnk--> Friedrich Bessel deduced that Sirius was a binary. In 1862 <!--del_lnk--> Alvan Graham Clark discovered the companion (Sirius B; the visible star is Sirius A). In <!--del_lnk--> 1915 astronomers at the <!--del_lnk--> Mount Wilson Observatory determined that Sirius B was a <!--del_lnk--> white dwarf, the first to be discovered. In <!--del_lnk--> 2005, using the <a href="../../wp/h/Hubble_Space_Telescope.htm" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a>, astronomers determined Sirius B to be 12,000 km in diameter, with a mass that is 98% of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>.<p>An example of an eclipsing binary is <!--del_lnk--> Epsilon Aurigae in the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Auriga. The visible component belongs to the <!--del_lnk--> spectral class F0, the other (eclipsing) component is not visible. The next such eclipse occurs from <!--del_lnk--> 2009-<!--del_lnk--> 2011, and it is hoped that the extensive observations that will likely be carried out may yield further insights into the nature of this system. Another eclipsing binary is <!--del_lnk--> Beta Lyrae, which is a contact binary star system in the constellation of <!--del_lnk--> Lyra. Its two component stars are close enough that material from the <!--del_lnk--> photosphere of each is pulled towards the other, drawing the stars into an ellipsoid shape. Beta Lyrae is the prototype for this class of eclipsing binaries, whose components are so close together that they deform by their mutual gravitation.<p>Other interesting binaries include <!--del_lnk--> 61 Cygni (a binary in the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Cygnus, composed of two <!--del_lnk--> K class (orange) <!--del_lnk--> main sequence stars, 61 Cygni A and 61 Cygni B, which is known for its large <!--del_lnk--> proper motion), <!--del_lnk--> Procyon (the brightest star in the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Canis Minor and the eighth brightest star in the night time sky, which is a binary consisting of the main star with a faint <!--del_lnk--> white dwarf companion), SS Lacertae (an eclipsing binary which stopped eclipsing), V907 Sco (an eclipsing binary which stopped, restarted, then stopped again) and <!--del_lnk--> BG Geminorum (an eclipsing binary which is thought to contain a black hole with a K0 star in orbit around it).<p><a href="../../wp/a/Algol.htm" title="Algol">Algol</a> is the most famous ternary (long thought to be a binary), located in the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Perseus. Two components of the system eclipse each other, the variation in the intensity of Algol first being recorded in 1670 by <!--del_lnk--> Geminiano Montanari. The name Algol means "demon star" (from <a href="../../wp/a/Arabic_language.htm" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> <b>الغول</b> <i><!--del_lnk--> al-ghūl</i>), which was probably given due to its peculiar behaviour. Another visible ternary is <!--del_lnk--> Alpha Centauri, in the southern constellation of <!--del_lnk--> Centaurus, which contains the <!--del_lnk--> fourth brightest star in the night sky, with an <!--del_lnk--> apparent visual magnitude of −0.01. This system also underscores the fact that binaries need not be discounted in the search for habitable planets. Centauri A and B have an 11 AU distance at closest approach, and both should have stable habitable zones.<p>There are also examples of systems beyond ternaries: <!--del_lnk--> Castor is a sextuple star system, which is the second brightest star in the constellation <!--del_lnk--> Gemini and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. Astronomically, Castor was discovered to be a visual binary in 1719. Each of the components of Castor is itself a spectroscopic binary. Castor also has a faint and widely separated companion, which is also a spectroscopic binary.<p><a id="Fictional_usage" name="Fictional_usage"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Fictional usage</span></h2>
<p>Many writers in the <!--del_lnk--> science fiction genre have explored the possibilities of binary star systems. One of the more famous examples is the planet <!--del_lnk--> Tatooine in the <i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars.htm" title="Star Wars">Star Wars</a></i> movies, which orbits the two stars Tatoo 1 and Tatoo 2. Other instances include the <!--del_lnk--> anime series <i><!--del_lnk--> Simoun</i> and the 1994 computer game <i><!--del_lnk--> Little Big Adventure,</i> the latter set on a planet stabilised between two stars. In <!--del_lnk--> David Weber's <!--del_lnk--> Honorverse, the <!--del_lnk--> Manticore system is a binary star with three habitable planets, two of them (<!--del_lnk--> Sphinx and the capital world <!--del_lnk--> Manticore) orbiting <!--del_lnk--> Manticore A and one (<!--del_lnk--> Gryphon) orbiting <!--del_lnk--> Manticore B. In the <!--del_lnk--> Stargate fictional universe, the planet <!--del_lnk--> Chulak is located in a binary star system. At the start of the film "<!--del_lnk--> Starship Troopers", a FedNet news graphic describes the Arachnid home world as orbiting "a twin star system whose brutal gravitational forces produce an unlimited supply of Bug meteorites." The <i><!--del_lnk--> Battlestar Galactica</i> episode "<!--del_lnk--> The Captain's Hand" is set in a binary star system.<p>There are also fiction uses of even more exotic stellar configurations. In the <!--del_lnk--> Star Trek: The Next Generation episode " <!--del_lnk--> Night Terrors" the Enterprise-D becomes trapped within an unusual binary star system, and in <i><!--del_lnk--> Star Trek: Enterprise</i> episode "<!--del_lnk--> Singularity," the <i>Enterprise</i> visits a ternary star system, as do the heroes of <i><!--del_lnk--> Futurama</i> in the episode "<!--del_lnk--> My Three Suns". The home star system of the planet <!--del_lnk--> Vulcan in <i>Star Trek</i> is likely to be <!--del_lnk--> 40 Eridani, a triple star system, 16 light-years from Earth. The movie <i><!--del_lnk--> Pitch Black</i> takes place on a planet in a ternary system, whilst <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Asimov.htm" title="Isaac Asimov">Isaac Asimov</a>'s renowned short story "<!--del_lnk--> Nightfall" is set in a six-sun system. Another example comes from the re-imagined <i>Battlestar Galactica</i>, in which the <i>Battlestar Pegasus</i> fights off three Cylon base ships in a binary star system. Less well known but notable for its complexity is the Marune system, Number 993 in <!--del_lnk--> Jack Vance's "Alastor Cluster", in which the planet is lit by a combination of four suns whose combination of lighting patterns controls local culture: Marune orbits one star of a central binary pair and the second binary pair orbits the first, further out; nor are any of the orbits co-planar.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_star"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Binoculars</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Engineering.htm">Engineering</a></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1696.jpg.htm" title="Porro-prism binoculars with central focusing"><img alt="Porro-prism binoculars with central focusing" height="226" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Binoculars.jpg" src="../../images/16/1696.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1696.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Porro-prism binoculars with central focusing</div>
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<p><b>Binocular telescopes</b>, or <b>binoculars</b>, (also known as field glasses) are two identical or <!--del_lnk--> mirror-<a href="../../wp/s/Symmetry.htm" title="Symmetry">symmetrical</a> <a href="../../wp/o/Optical_telescope.htm" title="Optical telescope">telescopes</a> mounted side-by-side and aligned to point accurately in the same direction, allowing the viewer to use both eyes (<!--del_lnk--> Binocular vision) when viewing distant objects. Most are sized adequate to be held using both hands although there are much larger types.<p>Unlike a <!--del_lnk--> monocular telescope, binoculars give users a three-dimensional image: the two views, presented from slightly different viewpoints to each of the viewer's eyes, merge to produce a single perceived view with a <!--del_lnk--> sensation of depth, allowing distances to be estimated. Binoculars are also more comfortable for viewing, as they negate the need to close or obstruct one eye to avoid confusion. It is also easier and more comfortable to steadily hold and move a pair of binoculars than a single tube, as the two hands and the head form a steady three-point platform.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1697.png.htm" title="A typical Porro prism binocular design"><img alt="A typical Porro prism binocular design" height="220" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Binocularp.svg" src="../../images/16/1697.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1697.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A typical Porro prism binocular design</div>
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</script><a id="Optical_design" name="Optical_design"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Optical design</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1698.jpg.htm" title="Galilean binoculars"><img alt="Galilean binoculars" height="108" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fernglas%28alt%29.JPG" src="../../images/16/1698.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1698.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Galilean binoculars</div>
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<p><a id="Galilean_binoculars" name="Galilean_binoculars"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Galilean binoculars</span></h3>
<p>Almost from the invention of the telescope in the 17th century the advantages of mounting two of them side by side for binocular vision seems to have been explored<!--del_lnk--> . Most early binoculars used <!--del_lnk--> Galilean optics; that is they used a convex objective and a <!--del_lnk--> concave eyepiece lens. The Galilean design has the advantage of presenting an <!--del_lnk--> erect image but has a narrow field of view and is not capable of very high magnification. This type construction is still used in very cheap models and in "<!--del_lnk--> opera glasses".<p><a id="Porro_prism_binoculars" name="Porro_prism_binoculars"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Porro prism binoculars</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1699.png.htm" title="Double Porro prism design"><img alt="Double Porro prism design" height="131" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Double-porro-prism.png" src="../../images/16/1699.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/16/1699.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Double Porro prism design</div>
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<p>Named after Italian optician <!--del_lnk--> Ignazio Porro who patented this image erecting system in 1854 and later refined by makers like <!--del_lnk--> Carl Zeiss in the 1890's<!--del_lnk--> , binoculars of this type use a <b><!--del_lnk--> Porro prism</b> in a double prism Z-shaped configuration to erect the image. This feature results in binoculars that are wide, with objective lenses that are well separated but offset from the <!--del_lnk--> eyepieces. Porro prism designs have the added benefit of folding the <!--del_lnk--> optical path so that the physical length of the binoculars is less than the <!--del_lnk--> focal length of the objective and wider spacing of the objectives gives better sensation of depth.<p><a id="Roof_prism_binoculars" name="Roof_prism_binoculars"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roof prism binoculars</span></h3>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1700.png.htm" title="Abbe-Koenig "roof prism" design"><img alt="Abbe-Koenig "roof prism" design" height="106" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abbe-koenig-prism.png" src="../../images/17/1700.png" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1700.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Abbe-Koenig "roof prism" design</div>
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<p>Binoculars using <b><!--del_lnk--> Roof prisms</b> may have appeared as early as the 1880s in a design by Achille Victor Emile Daubresse<!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> . Most roof prism binoculars use either the <!--del_lnk--> Abbe-Koenig prism (named after <!--del_lnk--> Ernst Karl Abbe and <!--del_lnk--> Albert Koenig and patented by Carl Zeiss in 1905)<!--del_lnk--> or <!--del_lnk--> Schmidt-Pechan prism (invented in 1899) designs to erect the image and fold the optical path. They are narrower, more compact, and more expensive than those that use Porro prisms. They have objective lenses that are approximately in line with the eyepieces.<p><a id="Porro_vs._Roof_prisms" name="Porro_vs._Roof_prisms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Porro vs. Roof prisms</span></h3>
<p>Aside from the difference in price and portability noted above these two designs have effects on reflections and brightness. <!--del_lnk--> Porro-prism binoculars will inherently produce an intrinsically brighter image than <!--del_lnk--> roof-prism binoculars of the same magnification, objective size, and optical quality, as less light is absorbed along the optical path. However, <!--del_lnk--> as of 2005, the optical quality of the best roof-prism binoculars with up-to-date coating processes as used in Schmidt-Pechan models is comparable with the best Porro glasses, and it appears that roof prisms will dominate the market for high-quality portable binoculars in spite of their higher price. The major European optical manufacturers (Leica, Zeiss, Swarovski) have discontinued their Porro lines; Japanese manufacturers (Nikon, Fujinon, etc.) may follow suit.<p><a id="Optical_parameters" name="Optical_parameters"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Optical parameters</span></h2>
<p>Binoculars are usually rated by objective diameter, magnifying power, and <!--del_lnk--> field of view. The diameter of the objective lenses determines the light-gathering power and the theoretical <!--del_lnk--> resolving power of the binoculars. The ratio of the focal lengths of the objective and the eyepiece gives the linear magnifying power (expressed in "diameters"). It is customary to categorise binoculars by the magnification × the objective diameter in mm; e.g. 7×50. A magnification of factor 7, for example, produces an image as if one were 7 times closer to the object. The resulting “field of view” is measured in the width viewed at factor 1000 (in meters or feet).<p>The magnification required depends upon the application, but with the major proviso that large magnifications give an image much more susceptible to shake when hand-held. A larger the magnification also leads to a smaller the field of view. Binoculars with lower magnification may well show more detail because they can be held steadily and the larger fields of view can contribute to a more natural viewing experience. For general hand-held use, subject to shake, 7 to 8 diameters is a good compromise between power and image steadiness for most people. Binoculars of 7×30 or 8×30 power are good for daytime use. For general night use, a 50 mm objective gives maximum brightness; objective diameter must be increased for higher magnifications at night.<p>Binoculars concentrate the light gathered by the objective into a beam, the <!--del_lnk--> exit pupil whose diameter is the objective diameter divided by the magnifying power. For maximum effective light-gathering and brightest image, the exit pupil should equal the diameter of the fully dilated human eye—about 7 mm, reducing with age. Light gathered by a larger exit pupil is wasted. The current trend favors models with 5 mm exit pupil, such as 10x50 or 8x40, while 7x50 is falling out of favour. For daytime use an exit pupil of 3 mm—matching the eye's contracted pupil—is sufficient. However, a larger exit pupil makes alignment of the eye easier and avoids dark <!--del_lnk--> vignetting to intrude from the edges.<p><a id="Optical_coatings" name="Optical_coatings"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Optical coatings</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1701.jpg.htm" title="U.S. Navy binoculars"><img alt="U.S. Navy binoculars" height="199" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Navy_binoculars.jpg" src="../../images/17/1701.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Since binoculars may have 16 air-to-glass surfaces, with light lost at every surface, optical coatings can significantly affect their image quality. When light strikes an interface between two materials of different <!--del_lnk--> refractive index (e.g., at an air-glass interface), some of the light is <!--del_lnk--> transmitted, some <!--del_lnk--> reflected. In any sort of image-forming optical instrument (telescope, camera, microscope, etc.), ideally no light should be reflected; instead of forming an image, light which reaches the viewer after being reflected is distributed in the field of view, and reduces the contrast between the true image and the background. Reflection can be reduced, but not eliminated, by applying optical coatings to interfaces. Each time light enters or leaves a piece of glass; about 5% is reflected back. This "lost" light bounces around inside the binoculars, making the image hazy and hard to see. Lens coatings effectively lower reflection losses, which finally results in a brighter and sharper image. For example, 8x40 binoculars with good optical coatings will yield a brighter image than uncoated 8x50 binoculars. Light can also be reflected from the interior of the instrument, but it is simple to minimize this to negligible proportions.<p>A classic lens-coating material is <!--del_lnk--> magnesium fluoride; it reduces reflections from 5% to 1%. Modern lens coatings consist of complex multi-layers and reflect only 0.25% or less to yield an image with maximum brightness and natural colors. For roof-prisms, anti-phase shifting coatings are sometimes used which significantly improve contrast. The presence of a coating is typically denoted on a pair of binoculars by the following terms:<ul>
<li>coated optics: one or more surfaces coated.<li>fully coated: all air-to-glass surfaces coated. Plastic lenses, however, if used, may not be coated.<li>multi-coated: one or more surfaces are multi-layer coated.<li>fully multi-coated: all air-to-glass surfaces are multi-layer coated.</ul>
<p>Phase-corrected prism coating and dielectric prism coating are recent (in 2005) effective techniques for reducing reflections.<p><a id="Mechanical_design" name="Mechanical_design"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mechanical design</span></h2>
<p><a id="Focusing_and_adjustment" name="Focusing_and_adjustment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Focusing and adjustment</span></h3>
<p>Binoculars to be used to view objects that are not at a fixed distance must have a <!--del_lnk--> focusing arrangement. Traditionally, two different arrangements have been used to provide focus. Binoculars with "independent focus" require the two telescopes to be focused independently by adjusting each eyepiece, thereby changing the distance between ocular and objective lenses. Binoculars designed for heavy field use, such as military applications, traditionally have used independent focusing. Because general users find it more convenient to focus both tubes with one adjustment action, a second type of binocular incorporates "central focusing", which involves rotation of a central focusing wheel. In addition, one of the two eyepieces can be further adjusted to compensate for differences between the viewer's eyes (usually by rotating the eyepiece in its mount). Once this adjustment has been made for a given viewer, the binoculars can be refocused on an object at a different distance by using the focusing wheel to move both tubes together without eyepiece readjustment.<p>There are also "focus-free or "fixed-focus" " binoculars. They have a depth of field from a relatively large closest distance to infinity, and perform exactly the same as a focusing model of the same optical quality (or lack of it) focused on the middle distance.<p>Zoom binoculars, while in principle a good idea, are general considered not perform very well.<p>Most modern binoculars have hinged-telescope construction that enables the distance between eyepieces to be adjusted to accommodate viewers with different eye separation. This adjustment feature is lacking on many older binoculars.<p><a id="Image_stabilization" name="Image_stabilization"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Image stabilization</span></h3>
<p>Shake can be much reduced, and higher magnifications used, with binoculars using <!--del_lnk--> image-stabilization technology. Parts of the instrument which change the position of the image may be held steady by powered <!--del_lnk--> gyroscopes or by powered mechanisms driven by gyroscopic or inertial detectors, or may be mounted in such a way as to oppose and dampen sudden movement. Stabilization may be enabled or disabled by the user as required. These techniques allow binoculars up to 20× to be hand-held, and much improve the image stability of lower-power instruments. There are some disadvantages: the image may not be quite as good as the best unstabilized binoculars when tripod-mounted, and stabilized binoculars contain more advanced technology to go wrong, and to become obsolete. They are also more expensive, heavier, and battery life tends to be short. Stabilization is not suitable when tracking moving objects.<p><a id="Alignment" name="Alignment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alignment</span></h3>
<p>A well-collimated pair of binoculars, when viewed through human eyes and processed by a human brain, should produce a single circular, apparently three-dimensional image, with no visible indication that one is actually viewing two distinct images from slightly different viewpoints. Departure from the ideal will cause, at best, vague discomfort and visual fatigue, but the perceived field of view will be close to circular anyway. The cinematic convention used to represent a view through binoculars as two circles partially overlapping in a figure-of-eight shape is not true to life.<p>Misalignment is remedied by small movements to the prisms, often by turning screws accessible without opening the binoculars, or by adjusting the position of the objective via <!--del_lnk--> eccentric rings built into the objective cell. Alignment is usually done by a professional although instructions for checking binoculars for collimation errors and for collimating them can be found on the Internet.<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
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<p><a id="General_use" name="General_use"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">General use</span></h3>
<p>Hand-held binoculars range from small 3x10 Galilean <!--del_lnk--> opera glasses, used in <!--del_lnk--> theaters, to glasses with 7 to 12 diameters magnification and 30 to 50 mm objectives for typical outdoor use. Porro prism models predominate although bird watchers and hunters tend to prefer, and are prepared to pay for, the lighter but more expensive roof-prism models.<p>Many <!--del_lnk--> tourist attractions have installed pedestal-mounted, coin-operated binoculars to allow visitors to obtain a closer view of the attraction. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, 20 <!--del_lnk--> pence often gives a couple of minutes of operation, and in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, one or two <!--del_lnk--> quarters gives between one-and-a-half to two-and-a-half minutes.<p><a id="Military" name="Military"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Military</span></h3>
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<p>Binoculars have a long history of military use. Galilean designs were widely used up to the end of the 19th century when they gave way to porro prism types. Binoculars constructed for general military use tend to be more heavily ruggedized than their civilian counterparts. They generally avoid more fragile center focus arrangements in favour of independent focus. Prism sets in military binoculars may have redundant aluminized coatings on their prism sets to guarantee they don’t lose their reflective qualities if they get wet.<p>There are binoculars designed specifically for civilian and military use at sea. Hand held models will be 5x to 7x but with very large prism sets combined with eyepieces designed to give generous eye relief. This optical combination allows the user to see through them even when they are pitching and vibrating in relationship the viewers eye without the image vignetting or going dark. Large permanently mounted models with large objectives operating at higher magnification are also used.<p>Very large “binocular” naval <!--del_lnk--> rangefinders (up to 15 meters, weight 10 tons, for ranging <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> naval gun targets 25 km away), have been used, although late-20th-century technology made this application redundant.<p><a id="Astronomical" name="Astronomical"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Astronomical</span></h3>
<p>Binoculars are widely used by <!--del_lnk--> amateur astronomers; there wide <!--del_lnk--> field of view making them useful for <a href="../../wp/c/Comet.htm" title="Comet">comet</a> and <!--del_lnk--> supernova seeking (giant binoculars) and general observation (portable binoculars).<p>Of particular relevance for low-light and astronomical viewing is the <!--del_lnk--> ratio between magnifying power and objective lens diameter. A lower magnification facilitates a larger field of view which is useful in viewing large <!--del_lnk--> deep sky objects such as the <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, <!--del_lnk--> nebula, and <!--del_lnk--> galaxies, though the large exit pupil means some of the gathered light is wasted. The large exit pupil will also image the night sky background, effectively decreasing contrast, making the detection of faint objects more difficult except perhaps in remote locations with negligible <!--del_lnk--> light pollution. Binoculars marketed for specifically for astronomical use will tend to have higher magnification combined with a larger <!--del_lnk--> aperture objective because the diameter of the objective lens determines the faintest star you can see.<p>Much larger binoculars have been made by <!--del_lnk--> amateur telescope makers, essentially using two refracting or reflecting astronomical telescopes, with mixed results. A very large example in the professional astronomical world, although not one that would normally be called binoculars, is the <!--del_lnk--> Large Binocular Telescope in Arizona, USA, which produced its "First Light" image on <!--del_lnk--> October 26, <!--del_lnk--> 2005. The LBT comprises two 8-meter reflector telescopes. While certainly not intended to be held to the eyes of a viewer, it uses two telescopes to view the same object, giving additional information due to the larger field of view that results from the separation of the objective mirrors.<p><a id="Manufacturers" name="Manufacturers"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Manufacturers</span></h2>
<p>Some notable binocular manufacturers as of 2005:<p><b>1. European brands</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Leica GmbH (Ultravid, Duovid, Geovid: all are Roof)<li><!--del_lnk--> Swarovski Optik (SLC, EL: all are Roof; Habicht: Porro, but to be discontinued)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zeiss GmbH (FL,Victory, Conquest: all are Roof; 7x50 BGAT/T: Porro, 15x60 BGA/T Porro, discontinued)<li><!--del_lnk--> Eschenbach Optik GmbH (Farlux, Trophy, Adventure, Sektor...; some are Roof, some are Porro)<li>Docter Optik (Nobilem: Porro)<li>Optolyth (Royal: Roof; Alpin: Porro)<li><!--del_lnk--> Steiner GmbH (Commander, Nighthunter: Porro; Predator, Wildlife: Roof)<li>Russian Military Binoculars (BPOc 10x42 7x30, BKFC series)</ul>
<p><b>2. Japanese brands</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Canon Co. (I.S. series, Porro variants?)<li><!--del_lnk--> Nikon Co. (High Grade series, Monarch series,RAII, Spotter series: Roof; Prostar series, Superior E series, E series, Action EX series: Porro)<li>Fujinon Co. (FMTSX, MTSX series: Porro)<li>Kowa Co. (BD series: Roof)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pentax Co. (DCFSP/XP series; Roof, UCF series: Inverted Porro; PCFV/WP/XCF series: Porro)<li><!--del_lnk--> Olympus Co. (EXWPI series: Roof)<li><!--del_lnk--> Minolta Co. (Activa, some are Roof, some are Porro)<li>Vixen Co. (Apex/Apex Pro: Roof; Ultima: Porro)<li>Miyauchi Co. (Specialized in over-sized Porro binocualars)</ul>
<p>P.S. Many of the above are <!--del_lnk--> OEM products of Kamakura or Chinese manufacturing plants.<p><b>3. Chinese brands</b><p>In the early years of the 21st century, some mid-priced binoculars have become available in the internal Chinese market. A few of them are said to be comparable both in performance and in price to some of the better brands, with the great majority of them being inferior.<ul>
<li>Sicong (from Xian Stateoptics. Navigator series: Roof; Ares series: Porro)<li>WDtian (from Yunnan State optics, all Porro)<li>Yunnan State optics (MS series: Porro)</ul>
<p><b>4. American brands</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Bushnell Performance Optics<li><!--del_lnk--> Leupold & Stevens, Inc.<li><!--del_lnk--> Vortex Optics</ul>
<p><b>5. Russian brands</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Yukon Advanced Optics</ul>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Baigish<li><!--del_lnk--> Kronos</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binoculars"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Binomial nomenclature</h1>
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<p>In <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a>, <b>binomial nomenclature</b> is the formal method of naming <!--del_lnk--> species. As the word "binomial" suggests, the scientific name of a species is formed by the combination of two terms: the <!--del_lnk--> genus name and the species descriptor. Although the fine detail will differ, there are certain aspects which are universally adopted:<ul>
<li>Scientific names are usually printed in italics, such as <i>Homo sapiens</i>. When handwritten they should be <u>underlined</u>.<li>The first term (genus name / generic name) is <i>always</i> capitalized, while the specific descriptor (in <!--del_lnk--> zoology, the "<!--del_lnk--> specific name", in <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">botany</a>, the "<!--del_lnk--> specific epithet") <i>never</i> is, even when derived from a proper name.</ul>
<dl>
<dd>For example, <i><!--del_lnk--> Canis lupus</i> or <i><!--del_lnk--> Anthus hodgsoni</i>. Note that this is a modern convention: <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a> always capitalized the specific descriptor, and up to the early <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a> it was common to capitalize the specific descriptor if it was based on a proper name. Although not correct according to modern practices, a capitalized specific descriptor is sometimes still used in non-scientific literature based on older sources.</dl>
<ul>
<li>In scholarly texts, the main entry for the binomial is followed by the abbreviated (botany) or full (zoology) surname of the scientist who first published the classification. If the species was assigned to a different genus in the description than it is today, the abbreviation or name of the describer and the description date is set in parentheses.</ul>
<dl>
<dd>For example: <i><!--del_lnk--> Amaranthus retroflexus</i> <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a> or <i><!--del_lnk--> Passer domesticus</i> (<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758) - the latter was originally described as member of the genus <i>Fringilla</i>, hence the parentheses.</dl>
<ul>
<li>When used with a common name, the scientific name usually follows in parentheses.</ul>
<dl>
<dd>For example, "The house sparrow (<i><!--del_lnk--> Passer domesticus</i>) is decreasing in Europe."</dl>
<ul>
<li>The scientific name should generally be written in full when it is first used or when several species from the same genus are being listed or discussed in the same paper or report. It may then be abbreviated by just using an initial (and period) for the genus; for example <i>Canis lupus</i> becomes <i>C. lupus</i>. In rare cases this abbreviation form has spread to more general use — for example the bacterium <i><!--del_lnk--> Escherichia coli</i> is often referred to as just <i><!--del_lnk--> E. coli</i>, and <i><a href="../../wp/t/Tyrannosaurus.htm" title="Tyrannosaurus rex">Tyrannosaurus rex</a></i> is perhaps even better known simply as <i>T. rex</i>.<li>The abbreviation "sp." (zoology) or "spec." (botany) is used when the actual specific name cannot or need not be specified. The abbreviation "spp." (plural) indicates "several species".</ul>
<dl>
<dd>For example: "<i>Canis</i> sp.", meaning "one species of the genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Canis</i>".</dl>
<ul>
<li>Easily confused with the former is the abbreviation "ssp." (zoology) or "subsp." (botany) indicates an unspecified <!--del_lnk--> subspecies (<i>see also</i> <!--del_lnk--> trinomen, <!--del_lnk--> ternary name). "sspp." or "subspp." indicates "a number of subspecies".<li>The abbreviation "<!--del_lnk--> cf." is used when the identification is not confirmed.</ul>
<dl>
<dd>For example <i>Corvus</i> cf. <i>splendens</i> indicates "a bird similar to the <!--del_lnk--> House Crow but not certainly identified as this species".</dl>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Mycology uses the same system as in botany.<li>Binomial nomenclature is also referred to as the 'Binomial Classification System'.</ul>
<p>
<br />
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The adoption of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Swedish</a> <!--del_lnk--> botanist and <!--del_lnk--> physician <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a> (1707–1778) who attempted to describe the entire known natural world and gave <b>every species</b> (<a href="../../wp/m/Mineral.htm" title="Mineral">mineral</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">vegetable</a> or <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal</a>) a two-part name. However, binomial nomenclature in various forms existed before Linnaeus, and was used by the <!--del_lnk--> Bauhins, who lived nearly two hundred years before Linnaeus. Before Linnaeus, hardly anybody used binomial nomenclature. After Linnaeus, almost everybody did.<p><a id="Value_of_binomial_nomenclature" name="Value_of_binomial_nomenclature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Value of binomial nomenclature</span></h2>
<p>The value of the binomial nomenclature <!--del_lnk--> system derives primarily from its economy, its widespread use, and the stability of names it generally favors:<ul>
<li>Every species can be unambiguously identified with just two words.<li>The same name can be used all over the world, in all languages, avoiding difficulties of translation.<li>Although such stability as exists is far from absolute, the procedures associated with establishing binomial nomenclature tend to favour stability. For example, when species are transferred between genera (as not uncommonly happens as a result of new knowledge), if possible the species descriptor is kept the same. Similarly if what were previously thought to be distinct species are demoted from species to a lower rank, former species names may be retained as infraspecific descriptors.</ul>
<p>Despite the rules favoring stability and uniqueness, in practice a single species may have several scientific names in circulation, depending largely on taxonomic point of view (see <!--del_lnk--> synonymy).<p>A major source of instability is the resurrection of forgotten names, which can claim priority of publication. In this case, however, <!--del_lnk--> conservation according to the <!--del_lnk--> nomenclature Codes is possible.<p><a id="Codes_of_nomenclature" name="Codes_of_nomenclature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Codes of nomenclature</span></h2>
<p>From the mid nineteenth century onwards it became ever more apparent that a body of rules was necessary to govern scientific names. In the course of time these became <!--del_lnk--> Nomenclature Codes governing the naming of animals (<i><!--del_lnk--> ICZN</i>), <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a> (incl. <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">Fungi</a>, <!--del_lnk--> cyanobacteria) (<i><!--del_lnk--> ICBN</i>), <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> (<i><!--del_lnk--> ICNB</i>) and <!--del_lnk--> viruses. These Codes differ.<ul>
<li>For example, the <i>ICBN</i>, the plant <i>Code</i> does not allow <!--del_lnk--> tautonyms, whereas the <i>ICZN</i>, the animal <i>Code</i> does allow <!--del_lnk--> tautonymy.<li>The starting points, the time from which these <i>Codes</i> are in effect (retroactively), vary from group to group. In <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">botany</a> the starting point will often be in 1753 (the year <a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Carolus Linnaeus</a> first published <!--del_lnk--> Species Plantarum), in <!--del_lnk--> zoology in 1758. <!--del_lnk--> Bacteriology started anew, with a starting point in 1980).</ul>
<p>A <i><!--del_lnk--> BioCode</i> has been suggested to replace several codes, although implementation is not in sight. There also is debate concerning development of a <i><!--del_lnk--> PhyloCode</i> to name <!--del_lnk--> clades of <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetic trees, rather than taxa. Proponents of the <i>PhyloCode</i> use the name "Linnaean Codes" for the joint existing <i>Codes</i> and "Linnaean taxonomy" for the scientific classification that uses these existing <i>Codes</i>.<p><a id="Derivation_of_names" name="Derivation_of_names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Derivation of names</span></h2>
<p>The genus name and species descriptor may come from any source whatsoever. Often they are <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> words, but they may also come from <!--del_lnk--> Ancient Greek, from a place, from a person (preferably a naturalist), a name from a local language, etc. In fact, taxonomists come up with specific descriptors from a variety of sources, including inside-jokes and puns.<p>However, names are always treated grammatically as if they were a <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> sentence. For this reason the name of a species is sometimes called its "Latin name," although this terminology is frowned upon by <!--del_lnk--> biologists (and <!--del_lnk--> philologists), who prefer the phrase <b>scientific name</b>.<p>There is a separate <!--del_lnk--> list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> genus name must be unique inside each kingdom. <!--del_lnk--> Species names are commonly reused, and are usually an adjectival modifier to the genus name, which is a noun. <!--del_lnk--> Family names are often derived from a common genus within the family.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Biodiesel</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Design_and_Technology.Engineering.htm">Engineering</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Environment.htm">Environment</a></h3>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> Plant oils</th>
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<td colspan="2">
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<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/99/9914.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="195" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Olive_oil.jpg" src="../../images/17/1704.jpg" width="145" /></a></span></div>
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<th colspan="2">Types</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Vegetable fats</td>
<td align="right">(<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_vegetable_oils.htm" title="List of vegetable oils">list</a>)</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/Essential_oil.htm" title="Essential oil">Essential oil</a></td>
<td align="right">(<a href="../../wp/l/List_of_essential_oils.htm" title="List of essential oils">list</a>)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Macerated</td>
<td align="right">(<!--del_lnk--> list)</td>
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<th colspan="2">Uses</th>
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<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Drying oil - <!--del_lnk--> Oil paint</td>
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<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Cooking oil</td>
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<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Fuel - <strong class="selflink">Biodiesel</strong></td>
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<th colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Components</th>
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<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Saturated fat</td>
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<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Monounsaturated fat</td>
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<tr>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Polyunsaturated fat</td>
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<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Trans fat</td>
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<p><b>Biodiesel</b> refers to a <!--del_lnk--> diesel-equivalent, processed fuel derived from biological sources. Though derived from biological sources, it is a processed <b><!--del_lnk--> fuel</b> that can be readily used in diesel-engined vehicles, which distinguishes biodiesel from the <!--del_lnk--> straight vegetable oils (SVO) or <!--del_lnk--> waste vegetable oils (WVO) used as fuels in some modified diesel vehicles.<p>In this article's context, biodiesel refers to alkyl esters made from the <!--del_lnk--> transesterification of both <!--del_lnk--> vegetable oils and/or <!--del_lnk--> animal fats. Biodiesel is <!--del_lnk--> biodegradable and non-<!--del_lnk--> toxic, and has significantly fewer emissions than <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>-based <!--del_lnk--> diesel when burned. There is much debate about the extent to which biodiesel can safely be used in conventional diesel engines without modification. Using biodiesel in unmodified engines can lead to problems, particularly blocked injectors, which in turn can lead to serious engine damage. The majority of vehicle manufacturers say using 100% biodiesel can damage their engines. In the UK, for example, most manufactuers only maintain their engine warranties for use with maximum 5% biodiesel - blended in with 95% conventional diesel - although this position is generally considered to be overly cautious. Peugeot and Citroen are an exception in that they have both recently announced that their HDI diesel engine can run on 30% biodiesel. Scania are another exception as they allow most of their engines to operate on 100% biodiesel.<p>Biodiesel can also be used as a heating fuel in domestic and commercial boilers. A technical research paper No.7 published in the UK by the institute of plumbing and heating entitled "Biodiesel Heating, Sustainable Heating for the Future" by Andrew J. Robertson describes laboratory research and field trials project using pure biodiesel and biodiesel blends as a heating fuel in oil fired boilers. During the Biodiesel Expo 2006 in the UK, Andrew J. Robertson presented his biodiesel heating oil research from his technical paper and suggested that B20 biodiesel could reduce UK household CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by 1.5 million tonnes per year and would only require around 330,000 hectares of arable land for the required biodiesel for the UK heating oil sector. The paper also suggests that existing oil boilers can easily and cheaply be converted to biodiesel if B20 biodiesel is used.<p>Biodiesel can be distributed using today's <a href="../../wp/i/Infrastructure.htm" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>, and its use and production are increasing rapidly. Fuel stations are beginning to make biodiesel available to <!--del_lnk--> consumers, and a growing number of transport fleets use it as an additive in their fuel. Biodiesel is generally more expensive to purchase than petroleum diesel but this differential may diminish due to <!--del_lnk--> economies of scale, the rising cost of petroleum and government tax subsidies.<p>
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</script><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<p>Biodiesel is a light to dark yellow liquid. It is practically immiscible with water, has a high <!--del_lnk--> boiling point and low <!--del_lnk--> vapor pressure. Typical methyl ester biodiesel has a <!--del_lnk--> flash point of ~ 150 °C (300 °F), making it rather non-flammable. Biodiesel has a density of ~ 0.86 g/cm³, less than that of water. Biodiesel uncontaminated with starting material can be regarded as non-toxic.<p><b>Biodiesel</b> has a <!--del_lnk--> viscosity similar to <!--del_lnk--> petrodiesel, the industry term for diesel produced from <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>. It can be used as an additive in formulations of diesel to increase the <!--del_lnk--> lubricity of pure <!--del_lnk--> Ultra-Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) fuel, although care must be taken to ensure that the biodiesel used does not increase the sulfur content of the mixture above 15 ppm. Much of the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in any fuel mix, in contrast to the "BA" or "E" system used for <!--del_lnk--> ethanol mixes. For example, fuel containing 20% biodiesel is labeled B20. Pure biodiesel is referred to as B100.<p><a id="Technical_standards" name="Technical_standards"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Technical standards</span></h2>
<p>The common international standard for biodiesel is <!--del_lnk--> EN 14214.<p>There are additional national specifications. <!--del_lnk--> ASTM D 6751 is the most common standard referenced in the United States. In Germany, the requirements for biodiesel is fixed in the <!--del_lnk--> DIN EN 14214 standard. There are standards for three different varieties of biodiesel, which are made of different oils:<ul>
<li>RME (<!--del_lnk--> rapeseed methyl <!--del_lnk--> ester, according to DIN E 51606)<li>PME (vegetable methyl ester, purely vegetable products, according to DIN E 51606)<li>FME (fat methyl ester, vegetable and animal products, according to DIN V 51606)</ul>
<p>The standards ensure that the following important factors in the fuel production process are satisfied:<ul>
<li>Complete reaction.<li>Removal of <!--del_lnk--> glycerin.<li>Removal of <!--del_lnk--> catalyst.<li>Removal of <a href="../../wp/a/Alcohol.htm" title="Alcohol">alcohol</a>.<li>Absence of <!--del_lnk--> free fatty acids.<li>Low <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> content.</ul>
<p>Basic industrial tests to determine whether the products conform to the standards typically include <!--del_lnk--> gas chromatography, a test that verifies only the more important of the variables above. More complete tests are more expensive. Fuel meeting the quality standards is very non-toxic, with a toxicity rating (<!--del_lnk--> LD50) of greater than 50 mL/kg.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1705.jpg.htm" title="Biodiesel sample"><img alt="Biodiesel sample" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Biodiesel.JPG" src="../../images/17/1705.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1705.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Biodiesel sample</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p>Biodiesel can be used in pure form (B100) or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most modern diesel engines. Biodiesel will degrade natural <!--del_lnk--> rubber <!--del_lnk--> gaskets and <!--del_lnk--> hoses in vehicles (mostly found in vehicles manufactured before 1992), although these tend to wear out naturally and most likely will have already been replaced with <!--del_lnk--> Viton which is nonreactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel's higher lubricity index compared to petrodiesel is an advantage and can contribute to longer fuel injector life. Biodiesel is a better <!--del_lnk--> solvent than petrodiesel and has been known to break down deposits of residue in the fuel lines of vehicles that have previously been run on petrodiesel. Fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made, as biodiesel “cleans” the engine in the process. It is, therefore, recommended to change the fuel filter within 600-800 miles after first switching to a biodiesel blend.<p><a id="Use" name="Use"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Use</span></h3>
<p>In warm climates, pure unblended biodiesel can be poured straight into the tank of any diesel vehicle. Some older diesel engines still have natural rubber parts which will be affected by biodiesel, but in practice these rubber parts should have been replaced long ago. Biodiesel has been noted to be linked to premature injection pump failures. While many vehicles have been using biodiesel for many years without ill effect, the uncanny correlation between several cases of pump failure and biodiesel cannot be dismissed. Pure biodiesel produced 'at home' is in use by thousands of drivers who have not experienced failure, however. The fact remains that biodiesel is a very new subject and will carry some risk until it is fully researched. Biodiesel sold publicly is held to high standards set by the <!--del_lnk--> ASTM.<p><a id="Gelling" name="Gelling"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gelling</span></h3>
<p>The temperature at which pure (B100) biodiesel starts to gel varies significantly and depends upon the mix of esters and therefore the feedstock oil used to produce the biodiesel. For example, biodiesel produced from low <!--del_lnk--> erucic acid varieties of canola seed (RME) starts to gel at approximately -10 °C. Biodiesel produced from tallow tends to gel at around +16 °C. <!--del_lnk--> As of 2006, there are a very limited number of products that will significantly lower the gel point of straight biodiesel. One such product, Wintron XC30, has been shown to reduce the gel point of pure biodiesel fuels. Wintron XC30 is a blend of <!--del_lnk--> styrene <!--del_lnk--> copolymer <!--del_lnk--> esters in a <a href="../../wp/t/Toluene.htm" title="Toluene">toluene</a> base. It reduces the tendency of the <!--del_lnk--> viscosity of biodiesel to increase as it is cooled. This is a key step in cold temperature crystallisation. In this way it acts to decrease both the temperature at which the crystals formed become large enough to block the pores of a fuel filter (cold filter plugging point or CFPP) and the lowest temperature at which the fuel will still flow (pour point). A number of studies have shown that winter operation is possible with biodiesel blended with other fuel oils including #2 low <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfur.htm" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> <!--del_lnk--> diesel fuel and #1 diesel / <!--del_lnk--> kerosene. The exact blend depends on the operating environment: successful operations have run using a 65% LS #2, 30% K #1, and 5 % bio blend. Other areas have run a 70 % Low Sulfur #2, 20 % Kerosene #1, and 10% bio blend or a 80% K#1, and 20 % biodiesel blend. According to the National Biodiesel Board (NBB), B20 (20 % biodiesel, 80 % petrodiesel) does not need any treatment in addition to what is already taken with petrodiesel.<p><a id="Contamination_by_water" name="Contamination_by_water"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Contamination by water</span></h3>
<p>Biodiesel, although <!--del_lnk--> hydrophobic, may contain small but problematic quantities of water. Some of the water present is residual to processing, and some comes from storage tank <!--del_lnk--> condensation.<p>The presence of water is a problem because:<ul>
<li>Water reduces the heat of <!--del_lnk--> combustion of the bulk fuel. This means more <!--del_lnk--> smoke, harder starting, less <!--del_lnk--> power.<li>Water causes <a href="../../wp/c/Corrosion.htm" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> of vital fuel system components: fuel pumps, injector pumps, fuel lines, etc.<li>Water freezes to form ice crystals near 0 °C (32 °F). These crystals provide sites for <!--del_lnk--> nucleation and accelerate the gelling of the residual fuel.<li>Water accelerates the growth of microbe colonies which can plug up a fuel system. Biodiesel users who have heated fuel tanks therefore face a year-round microbe problem.</ul>
<p>Previously, the amount of water contaminating biodiesel has been difficult to measure by taking samples, since water and oil separate. However it is now possible to measure the water content using water in oil sensors.<p><a id="Availability" name="Availability"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Availability</span></h2>
<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2>
<p>Chemically, transesterified biodiesel comprises a mix of mono-<!--del_lnk--> alkyl <!--del_lnk--> esters of long chain <a href="../../wp/f/Fatty_acid.htm" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>. The most common form uses <!--del_lnk--> methanol to produce <!--del_lnk--> methyl esters as it is the cheapest alcohol available, though <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> can be used to produce an ethyl ester biodiesel and higher alcohols such as isopropanol and butanol have also been used. Using alcohols of higher molecular weights improves the cold flow properties of the resulting ester, at the cost of a less efficient transesterification reaction. A byproduct of the transesterification process is the production of <!--del_lnk--> glycerol. A <a href="../../wp/l/Lipid.htm" title="Lipid">lipid</a> <!--del_lnk--> transesterification production process is used to convert the base oil to the desired esters. Any Free <a href="../../wp/f/Fatty_acid.htm" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> (FFAs) in the base oil are either converted to soap and removed from the process, or they are esterified (yielding more biodiesel) using an acidic catalyst. After this processing, unlike <!--del_lnk--> straight vegetable oil, biodiesel has <!--del_lnk--> combustion properties very similar to those of petroleum diesel, and can replace it in most current uses.<p><a id="Biodiesel_feedstock" name="Biodiesel_feedstock"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biodiesel feedstock</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/124/12425.jpg.htm" title="Soybeans are used as a source of biodiesel"><img alt="Soybeans are used as a source of biodiesel" height="272" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Soybeanvarieties.jpg" src="../../images/17/1706.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/124/12425.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/s/Soybean.htm" title="Soybean">Soybeans</a> are used as a source of biodiesel</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A variety of oils can be used to produce biodiesel. These include:<ul>
<li>Virgin oil feedstock; <!--del_lnk--> rapeseed and <a href="../../wp/s/Soybean.htm" title="Soybean">soybean</a> oils are most commonly used, though other <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">crops</a> such as <a href="../../wp/m/Mustard_plant.htm" title="Mustard plant">mustard</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Palm_oil.htm" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <!--del_lnk--> hemp, <!--del_lnk--> jatropha, and even <!--del_lnk--> algae show promise (see <!--del_lnk--> List of vegetable oils for a more complete list);<li><!--del_lnk--> Waste vegetable oil (WVO);<li>Animal <!--del_lnk--> fats including <!--del_lnk--> tallow, <!--del_lnk--> lard, <!--del_lnk--> yellow grease, and the by-products of the production of <!--del_lnk--> Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil.<li>Sewage. A company in New Zealand have successfully developed a system for using sewage waste as a substrate for algae and then producing bio-diesel.</ul>
<p>Worldwide production of vegetable oil and animal fat is not yet sufficient to replace liquid fossil fuel use. Furthermore, some environmental groups object to the vast amount of <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">farming</a> and the resulting over-<a href="../../wp/f/Fertilizer.htm" title="Fertilizer">fertilization</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pesticide use, and land use conversion that they say would be needed to produce the additional vegetable oil.<p>Many advocates suggest that waste vegetable oil is the best source of oil to produce biodiesel. However, the available supply is drastically less than the amount of petroleum-based fuel that is burned for transportation and home heating in the world. According to the United States <!--del_lnk--> Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), restaurants in the US produce about 300 million US gallons (1,000,000 m³) of waste cooking oil annually. Although it is economically profitable to use WVO to produce biodiesel, it is even more profitable to convert WVO into other products such as <!--del_lnk--> soap. Therefore, most WVO that is not dumped into <!--del_lnk--> landfills is used for these other purposes. Animal fats are similarly limited in supply, and it would not be efficient to raise animals simply for their fat. However, producing biodiesel with animal fat that would have otherwise been discarded could replace a small percentage of petroleum diesel usage.<p>The estimated transportation fuel and home heating oil used in the United States is about 230 billion US gallons (0.87 km³) (Briggs, 2004). Waste vegetable oil and animal fats would not be enough to meet this demand. In the United States, estimated production of vegetable oil for all uses is about 24 billion pounds (11 million tons) or 3 billion US gallons (0.011 km³), and estimated production of animal fat is 12 billion pounds (5.3 million tons). (Van Gerpen, 2004)<p>Biodiesel feedstock plants utilize <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> to convert solar energy into chemical energy. The stored chemical energy is released when it is burned, therefore plants can offer a sustainable oil source for biodiesel production. Most of the carbon dioxide emitted when burning biodiesel is simply recycling that which was absorbed during plant growth, so the net production of greenhouse gasses is small.<p>Feedstock yield efficiency per acre affects the feasibility of ramping up production to the huge industrial levels required to power a signifcant percentage of national or world vehicles. The highest yield feedstock for biodiesel is <!--del_lnk--> algae, which can produce 250 times the amount of oil per acre as soybeans..<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Feedstock</th>
<th>US Gallons/acre</th>
<th>Litres/hectare</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/s/Soybean.htm" title="Soybean">Soybean</a></td>
<td align="right">40</td>
<td align="right">375</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rapeseed</td>
<td align="right">110</td>
<td align="right">1,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Mustard</td>
<td align="right">140</td>
<td align="right">1,300</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jatropha</td>
<td align="right">175</td>
<td align="right">1,590</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Palm_oil.htm" title="Palm oil">Palm oil</a></td>
<td align="right">650</td>
<td align="right">5,800</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Algae</td>
<td align="right">10,000</td>
<td align="right">95,000</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Efficiency_and_economic_arguments" name="Efficiency_and_economic_arguments"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Efficiency and economic arguments</span></h3>
<p>According to a study written by Drs. Van Dyne and Raymer for the <!--del_lnk--> Tennessee Valley Authority, the average US farm consumes fuel at the rate of 82 <!--del_lnk--> liters per <!--del_lnk--> hectare (8.75 US <!--del_lnk--> gallons per <!--del_lnk--> acre) of land to produce one crop. However, average crops of rapeseed produce oil at an average rate of 1,029 L/ha (110 US gal/acre), and high-yield rapeseed fields produce about 1,356 L/ha (145 US gal/acre). The ratio of input to output in these cases is roughly 1:12.5 and 1:16.5. Photosynthesis is known to have an efficiency rate of about 16 % and if the entire mass of a crop is utilized for energy production, the overall efficiency of this chain is known to be about 1 %. This does not compare favorably to <!--del_lnk--> solar cells combined with an electric drive train. Biodiesel out-competes solar cells in cost and ease of deployment. However, these statistics by themselves are not enough to show whether such a change makes economic sense. Additional factors must be taken into account, such as: the fuel equivalent of the energy required for processing, the yield of fuel from raw oil, the return on cultivating food, and the relative cost of biodiesel versus petrodiesel. A 1998 joint study by the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) traced many of the various costs involved in the production of biodiesel and found that overall, it yields 3.2 units of fuel product energy for every unit of fossil fuel energy consumed. That measure is referred to as the <!--del_lnk--> energy yield. A comparison to petroleum diesel, petroleum gasoline and <!--del_lnk--> bioethanol using the USDA numbers can be found at the Minnesota Department of Agriculture website In the comparison petroleum diesel fuel is found to have a 0.843 energy yield, along with 0.805 for petroleum gasoline, and 1.34 for bioethanol. The 1998 study used soybean oil primarily as the base oil to calculate the energy yields. Furthermore, due to the higher energy density of biodiesel, combined with the higher efficiency of the diesel engine, a gallon of biodiesel produces the effective energy of 2.25 gallons of ethanol. Also, higher oil yielding crops could increase the energy yield of biodiesel.<p>The debate over the energy balance of biodiesel is ongoing, however. Transitioning fully to biofuels could require immense tracts of land if traditional crops are used. The problem is especially severe for nations with large economies, since energy consumption scales with economic output. If using only traditional plants, most such nations do not have sufficient arable land to produce biofuel for the nation's vehicles. Nations with smaller economies (hence less energy consumption) and more arable land may be in better situations, although many regions cannot afford to divert land away from food production. For <!--del_lnk--> third world countries, biodiesel sources that use marginal land could make more sense, e.g. <!--del_lnk--> honge oil nuts grown along roads or <!--del_lnk--> jatropha grown along rail lines. More recent studies using a species of <!--del_lnk--> algae with up to 50 % oil content have concluded that only 28,000 km² or 0.3 % of the land area of the US could be utilized to produce enough biodiesel to replace all transportation fuel the country currently utilizes. Furthermore, otherwise unused desert land (which receives high solar radiation) could be most effective for growing the algae, and the algae could utilize farm waste and excess CO<sub>2</sub> from factories to help speed the growth of the algae. The direct source of the energy content of biodiesel is solar energy captured by plants during <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. The website biodiesel.co.ukdiscusses the positive energy balance of biodiesel:<dl>
<dd>When straw was left in the field, biodiesel production was strongly energy positive, yielding 1 <!--del_lnk--> GJ biodiesel for every 0.561 GJ of energy input (a yield/cost ratio of 1.78).<dd>When straw was burned as fuel and oilseed rapemeal was used as a fertilizer, the yield/cost ratio for biodiesel production was even better (3.71). In other words, for every unit of energy input to produce biodiesel, the output was 3.71 units (the difference of 2.71 units would be from solar energy).</dl>
<p>Biodiesel is becoming of interest to companies interested in commercial scale production as well as the more usual home brew biodiesel user and the user of <!--del_lnk--> straight vegetable oil or waste vegetable oil in diesel engines. Homemade <!--del_lnk--> biodiesel processors are many and varied. The success of biodiesel homebrewing, and micro-economy-of-scale operations, continues to shatter the conventional business myth that large economy-of-scale operations are the most efficient and profitable. It is becoming increasingly apparent that small-scale, localized, low-impact energy keeps more resources and revenue within communities, reduces damage to the environment, and requires less waste management.<p><a id="Environmental_benefits" name="Environmental_benefits"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental benefits</span></h2>
<p>Environmental benefits in comparison to petroleum based fuels include:<ul>
<li>Biodiesel reduces emissions of <!--del_lnk--> carbon monoxide (CO) by approximately 50 % and <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> by 78 % on a net lifecycle basis because the carbon in biodiesel emissions is recycled from carbon that was already in the atmosphere, rather than being new carbon from petroleum that was sequestered in the earth's crust. (Sheehan, 1998)<li>Biodiesel contains fewer <!--del_lnk--> aromatic hydrocarbons: benzofluoranthene: 56 % reduction; Benzopyrenes: 71 % reduction.<li>Biodiesel can reduce by as much as 20 % the direct (tailpipe) emission of <!--del_lnk--> particulates, small particles of solid combustion products, on vehicles with particulate filters, compared with low-sulfur (<50 ppm) diesel. Particulate emissions as the result of production are reduced by around 50 %, compared with fossil-sourced diesel. (Beer et al, 2004).<li>Biodiesel produces between 10 % and 25 % more <!--del_lnk--> nitrogen oxide NO<sub>x</sub> tailpipe-emissions than petrodiesel. As biodiesel has a low sulphur content, NO<sub>x</sub> emissions can be reduced through the use of <!--del_lnk--> catalytic converters to less than the NO<sub>x</sub> emissions from conventional diesel engines. Nonetheless, the NO<sub>x</sub> tailpipe emissions of biodiesel after the use of a catalytic converter will remain greater than the equivalent emissions from petrodiesel. As biodiesel contains no nitrogen, the increase in NO<sub>x</sub> emissions may be due to the higher cetane rating of biodiesel and higher oxygen content, which allows it to convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into NO<sub>x</sub> more rapidly. Debate continues over NO<sub>x</sub> emissions. In February 2006 a Navy biodiesel expert claimed NO<sub>x</sub> emissions in practice were actually lower than baseline. Further research is needed.<li>Biodiesel has higher <!--del_lnk--> cetane rating than petrodiesel, which is insignificant in terms of emissions and performance.<li>Biodiesel is biodegradable and non-toxic - the U.S. Department of Energy confirms that biodiesel is less toxic than table salt and biodegrades as quickly as sugar. (See <!--del_lnk--> Biodiesel handling and use guidelines)<li>In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, biodiesel is the only alternative fuel to have successfully completed the Health Effects Testing requirements (Tier I and Tier II) of the <!--del_lnk--> Clean Air Act (1990).</ul>
<p>Since biodiesel is more often used in a blend with petroleum diesel, there are fewer formal studies about the effects on pure biodiesel in unmodified engines and vehicles in day-to-day use. Fuel meeting the standards and engine parts that can withstand the greater solvent properties of biodiesel is expected to--and in reported cases does--run without any additional problems than the use of petroleum diesel.<ul>
<li>The flash point of biodiesel (>150 °C) is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel (64 °C) or gasoline (−45 °C). The gel point of biodiesel varies depending on the proportion of different types of esters contained. However, most biodiesel, including that made from soybean oil, has a somewhat higher gel and cloud point than petroleum diesel. In practice this often requires the heating of storage tanks, especially in cooler climates.<li>Pure biodiesel (B100) can be used in any petroleum <!--del_lnk--> diesel engine, though it is more commonly used in lower concentrations. Some areas have mandated ultra-low sulfur petrodiesel, which reduces the natural viscosity and lubricity of the fuel due to the removal of sulfur and certain other materials. Additives are required to make ULSD properly flow in engines, making biodiesel one popular alternative. Ranges as low as 2 % (B2) have been shown to restore lubricity. Many municipalities have started using 5 % biodiesel (B5) in snow-removal equipment and other systems.</ul>
<p><a id="Environmental_concerns" name="Environmental_concerns"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental concerns</span></h2>
<p><i>Where</i> the oil-producing plants are grown is of increasing concern to <!--del_lnk--> environmentalists, one of the prime worries being that countries will <!--del_lnk--> clear cut large areas of forest in order to grow such crops. This has already occurred in the <a href="../../wp/p/Philippines.htm" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, and both of these countries plan to increase their biodiesel production levels, which will lead to the <!--del_lnk--> deforestation of tens of millions of acres if these plans materialize.<!--del_lnk--> <p>The Levington Agricultural report <!--del_lnk--> highlights in section 4.6 that the use of biodiesel has an energy <!--del_lnk--> footprint 25 times bigger than the use of Pure Plant Oil (PPO) in suitably modified engines.<p>The Union of Concerned Scientists writes: "When it comes to buying a new car, gasoline-powered models are better than diesels on toxic <!--del_lnk--> soot and smog-forming <!--del_lnk--> emissions. The downside to current diesels is that they produce 10 to 20 times more toxic <!--del_lnk--> particulates than their gasoline counterparts, more than can be made up for with the use of biodiesel. Diesels fare even worse when it comes to smog-forming <!--del_lnk--> nitrogen oxide emissions, with greater than 20 times the emissions of a comparable gasoline vehicle." <p>An indepth look at some of the worrying problems with the pursuit of biodiesel can be found at Biofuelwatch,<!--del_lnk--> a leading watch dog for the unsustainable growth in the biodiesel international market.<p><a id="Historical_background" name="Historical_background"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Historical background</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Transesterification of a <!--del_lnk--> vegetable oil was conducted as early as 1853, by scientists <!--del_lnk--> E. Duffy and <!--del_lnk--> J. Patrick, many years before the first <!--del_lnk--> diesel engine became functional. <!--del_lnk--> Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single 10 ft (3 m) iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power for the first time in <!--del_lnk--> Augsburg, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> on <!--del_lnk--> August 10, <!--del_lnk--> 1893. In remembrance of this event, <!--del_lnk--> August 10 has been declared <b>International Biodiesel Day</b>. Diesel later demonstrated his <!--del_lnk--> engine and received the "Grand Prix" (highest prize) at the <!--del_lnk--> World Fair in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> in 1900. This engine stood as an example of Diesel's vision because it was powered by <a href="../../wp/p/Peanut.htm" title="Peanut">peanut</a> oil—a <a href="../../wp/b/Biofuel.htm" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a>, though not strictly biodiesel, since it was not transesterified. He believed that the utilization of a biomass fuel was the real future of his engine. In a 1912 speech, Rudolf Diesel said "the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today, but such oils may become, in the course of time, as important as petroleum and the <!--del_lnk--> coal-tar products of the present time." <!--del_lnk--> <p>During the 1920s diesel engine manufacturers altered their engines to utilize the lower <!--del_lnk--> viscosity of the <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_fuel.htm" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> (petrodiesel) rather than vegetable oil, a <!--del_lnk--> biomass fuel. The petroleum industries were able to make inroads in fuel markets because their fuel was much cheaper to produce than the <!--del_lnk--> biomass alternatives. The result was, for many years, a near elimination of the biomass fuel production infrastructure. Only recently have environmental impact concerns and a decreasing cost differential made biomass fuels such as biodiesel a growing alternative.<p>Research into the use of trans-esterified sunflower oil and refining it to diesel fuel standard was initiated in South Africa in 1979. By 1983 the process to produce fuel quality engine-tested bio-diesel was completed and published internationally (SAE Technical Paper series no. 831356. SAE International Off Highway Meeting, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA, 1983). An Austrian Company, Gaskoks, obtained the technology from the South African Agricultural Engineers, put up the first pilot plant for bio-diesel in November 1987 and the erection of the first industrial bio-diesel plant on 12 April 1989, with a capacity of 30 000 tons of rapeseed per annum. Throughout the 1990s, plants were opened in many European countries, including the <a href="../../wp/c/Czech_Republic.htm" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>. At the same time, nations in other parts of world also saw local production of biodiesel starting up and by 1998, the Austrian Biofuels Institute identified 21 countries with commercial biodiesel projects.<p>In the 1990s, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a> launched the local production of biodiesel fuel (known locally as <b>diester</b>) obtained by the transesterification of <!--del_lnk--> rapeseed oil. It is mixed to the proportion of 5 % into regular <!--del_lnk--> diesel fuel, and to the proportion of 30 % into the diesel fuel used by some captive fleets (<!--del_lnk--> public transportation). <!--del_lnk--> Renault, <!--del_lnk--> Peugeot, and other manufacturers have certified truck engines for use with up to this partial biodiesel. Experiments with 50 % biodiesel are underway.<p>In September of 2005 Minnesota became the first state to require that all diesel fuel sold in that state contain part biodiesel. The Minnesota law requires at least 2% biodiesel in all diesel fuel sold.<!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="Current_research" name="Current_research"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Current research</span></h2>
<p>There is ongoing research into finding more suitable crops and improving oil yield. Using the current yields, vast amounts of land and fresh water would be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage. It would require twice the land area of the US to be devoted to soybean production, or two-thirds to be devoted to rapeseed production, to meet current US heating and transportation needs.<p>Specially bred mustard varieties can produce reasonably high oil yields, and have the added benefit that the meal leftover after the oil has been pressed out can act as an effective and biodegradable <!--del_lnk--> pesticide.<p><a id="Algaculture" name="Algaculture"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Algaculture</span></h3>
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<p>From 1978 to 1996, the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">U.S.</a> <!--del_lnk--> National Renewable Energy Laboratory experimented with using <!--del_lnk--> algae as a biodiesel source in the "<!--del_lnk--> Aquatic Species Program".<!--del_lnk--> A recent paper from Michael Briggs, at the <!--del_lnk--> UNH Biodiesel Group, offers estimates for the realistic replacement of all <!--del_lnk--> vehicular fuel with biodiesel by utilizing algae that have a natural oil content greater than 50%, which Briggs suggests can be grown on algae <a href="../../wp/p/Pond.htm" title="Pond">ponds</a> at <!--del_lnk--> wastewater treatment plants. <!--del_lnk--> This oil-rich algae can then be extracted from the system and processed into biodiesel, with the dried remainder further reprocessed to create <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a>.<p>The production of algae to <a href="../../wp/h/Harvest.htm" title="Harvest">harvest</a> oil for biodiesel has not yet been undertaken on a <!--del_lnk--> commercial scale, but <!--del_lnk--> feasibility studies have been conducted to arrive at the above yield estimate. In addition to its projected high yield, <!--del_lnk--> algaculture — unlike <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">crop-based</a> <!--del_lnk--> biofuels — does not entail a decrease in <!--del_lnk--> food production, since it requires neither <!--del_lnk--> farmland nor <a href="../../wp/f/Fresh_water.htm" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a>.<p>On <!--del_lnk--> May 11, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 the Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation in <!--del_lnk--> Marlborough, New Zealand announced that it had produced its first sample of bio-diesel fuel made from algae found in <!--del_lnk--> sewage ponds.<!--del_lnk--> Unlike previous attempts, the algae was naturally grown in pond <!--del_lnk--> discharge from the Marlborough District Council's <!--del_lnk--> sewage treatment works. In November 2006, a commercial-scale project was announced in <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. Using American-made, closed <!--del_lnk--> bioreactors, it is expected to produce 900 millions gallons a year (58 thousand <!--del_lnk--> barrels a day) of biodiesel within a couple of years. <!--del_lnk--> <p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Biodiversity</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Environment.htm">Environment</a>; <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.General_Biology.htm">General Biology</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1707.jpg.htm" title="Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth"><img alt="Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:View_from_Bukit_Terisek.jpg" src="../../images/17/1707.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Biodiversity</b> or <b>biological diversity</b> is the diversity of <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a>. There are a number of definitions and measures of biodiversity.<p>
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</script><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p><i>Biodiversity</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> neologism and a <!--del_lnk--> portmanteau word, from <i><a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">bio</a></i> and <!--del_lnk--> diversity.The term <i>biological diversity</i> was coined by <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Lovejoy in 1980, while the word <i>biodiversity</i> itself was coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985 while planning the <i>National Forum on Biological Diversity</i> organized by the <!--del_lnk--> National Research Council (NRC) which was to be held in 1986, and first appeared in a publication in 1988 when entomologist <!--del_lnk--> E. O. Wilson used it as the title of the <!--del_lnk--> proceedings of that forum. The word <i>biodiversity</i> was deemed more effective in terms of communication than <i>biological diversity</i>.<p>Since 1986 the terms and the concept have achieved widespread use among biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, and concerned citizens worldwide. It is generally used to equate to a concern for the natural environment and nature conservation. This use has coincided with the expansion of concern over <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinction</a> observed in the last decades of the 20th century. The term has also been linked to electromagnetic radiation due to denaturation of Carboxylic acids in the equilibrium contstant of radiocarbon dating of 1657 in Scotland.<p><a id="Definitions" name="Definitions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Definitions</span></h2>
<p>The most straightforward definition is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization". A second definition holds that biodiversity is a measure of the relative diversity among organisms present in different ecosystems. "Diversity" in this definition includes diversity within a species and among species, and comparative diversity among ecosystems.<p>A third definition that is often used by ecologists is the "totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a region". An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and present a unified view of the traditional three levels at which biodiversity has been identified:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> genetic diversity - diversity of <!--del_lnk--> genes within a species. There is a genetic variability among the populations and the individuals of the same species. (See also <!--del_lnk--> population genetics.)<li><!--del_lnk--> species diversity - diversity among <!--del_lnk--> species in an ecosystem. "<!--del_lnk--> Biodiversity hotspots" are excellent examples of species diversity.<li><!--del_lnk--> ecosystem diversity - diversity at a higher level of organization, the <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem. To do with the variety of ecosystems on Earth.</ul>
<p>This third definition, which conforms to the traditional <!--del_lnk--> five organization layers in biology, provides additional justification for multilevel approaches.<p>The 1992 <a href="../../wp/u/United_Nations.htm" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <!--del_lnk--> Earth Summit in <a href="../../wp/r/Rio_de_Janeiro.htm" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> defined "biodiversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial, <!--del_lnk--> marine, and other <!--del_lnk--> aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". This is, in fact, the closest thing to a single legally accepted definition of biodiversity, since it is the definition adopted by the United Nations <!--del_lnk--> Convention on Biological Diversity. The parties to this convention include all the countries on <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>, with the exception of <a href="../../wp/a/Andorra.htm" title="Andorra">Andorra</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Brunei Darussalam, the <!--del_lnk--> Holy See, <a href="../../wp/i/Iraq.htm" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, and the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>.<p>If the gene is the fundamental unit of <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, according to E. O. Wilson, the real biodiversity is the genetic diversity. For <!--del_lnk--> geneticists, <i>biodiversity</i> is the diversity of genes and <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a>. They study processes such as mutations, gene exchanges, and genome dynamics that occur at the DNA level and generate evolution.<p>For <!--del_lnk--> biologists, biodiversity is the gamut of organisms and species and their interactions. Organisms appear and become extinct; sites are colonized and some species develop <!--del_lnk--> social organizations to improve their varied strategies of <!--del_lnk--> reproduction.<p>For <!--del_lnk--> ecologists, biodiversity is also the diversity of durable interactions among species. It not only applies to species, but also to their immediate environment (<!--del_lnk--> biotope) and their larger <!--del_lnk--> ecoregion. In each <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem, living organisms are part of a whole, interacting with not only other organisms, but also with the air, water, and soil that surround them.<p>
<br /> Is it possible to define biodiversity?<p>To use biodiversity in science and management, we have to know what it is. Otherwise, it is not possible to say whether it disappears or is preserved. Here is the problem: despite many attempts, there is no satisfactory definition of biodiversity. We can easily understand why. Any definition pigeonholes and restricts the defined term. Biodiversity defies any restriction. It includes much more than number of species or even organisms. Just as the ecosystem is the unity of the living communities and the environment that supports them, biodiversity with all its biotic variation cannot be separated from the soil, air, and even extraterrestrial factors such as sunlight. After all, it is variation in the environment that engendered and feeds biotic diversity. In short, biodiversity embraces everything. Equating biodiversity with everything is not a polemic exaggeration. Wilson (1997, p. 1) himself acknowledged as much: "Biologists are inclined to agree that it [biodiversity] is, in one sense, everything" (this "one sense" is the only one Wilson discusses). Two conclusions can be drawn from this analysis. First, we should not worry about biodiversity because, being everything, it cannot be lost. It could only change form. When one species disappears, others thrive. Second, biodiversity cannot be defined in principle.<p>Assessing species diversity<p>If we are able to discuss biodiversity at all, it is only because usually we mean a more tangible species and individual diversity. Even so, there is no way to decide whether an ecosystem with a hundred species of the same genus is more diverse than that with a smaller number of species belonging to different genera or families. Will species diversity increase if we trade fifty out of the hundred species for ten of another order? If not, what about ten species of different phylum or class? Is it legitimate to prefer ten mammal species for a thousand of insect species? Will biodiversity suffer if we sacrifice 730 ticks to save one fawn they feed on? Are rare species less important than gregarious ones? Will the answer change if the species differ in size (ten billion of bacteria versus six large oaks), or complexity (primates versus nematodes)? Do introduced species add to biodiversity or pollute the integrity of regional floras and faunas? Are we, humans, a native or an introduced species in all places other than the African savannas? How much time does it take for an introduced species to become a native species? Depending on the answer, each species could be viewed as introduced or native. Dealing with plain number of species may also be a problem. Yet, without numbers it is difficult to document that we are indeed in the midst of "the sixth great extinction spasm of geological time" Wilson (1992, p.343). The evidence for this great extinction is mostly indirect; it follows from the rule he discovered: a 90% reduction in the area available to organisms results in a long term decrease of about 50% in the number of species. Direct evidence shows something different. In the 1800s the area the Brazilian Atlantic rainforest was reduced exactly by that amount (90%). However, when the Brazilian Society of Zoology analyzed a group of almost 300 animals, they did not find a single species which had died out. Nor any plant species disappeared (Lomborg 2001). In Puerto Rico seven out of 60 species of birds had become extinct when the area of rainforest had been reduced by 99 percent over a period of 400 years. At the same time many more species colonized the island and today it has 97 species of birds (Lomborg 2001). Another piece of encouraging news is provided by Wilson himself. With all biodiversity destruction in the current sixth great extinction, "more [species] are alive today than at any time in the past" (Wilson 1992, p.216). Life is more tenacious predicted by the 90 -50% theory. Despite all our efforts and the miracles of chemistry, genetics, and other sciences, we have failed to deliberately eliminate a single harmful species (expect, perhaps, smallpox, presently confined in test tubes somewhere). Nor have we produced any useful species.<p>Lomborg, B. 2001. The skeptical environmentalist: measuring the real state of the world. Cambridge University Press. 540 p. Wilson, E.O. 1992. The diversity of life. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 424 p. Wilson, E.O. 1997. Introduction. In Biodiversity II, pages 1-3. Edited by M. L. Reaka-Kudla, D.E. Wilson, and E.O. Wilson. Joseph Henry Press, Washington, D.C. 551 p.<p><a id="Measurement_of_biodiversity" name="Measurement_of_biodiversity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Measurement of biodiversity</span></h2>
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<p>Biodiversity is a broad concept, so a variety of objective measures have been created in order to <!--del_lnk--> empirically measure biodiversity. Each measure of biodiversity relates to a particular use of the data.<p>For practical <!--del_lnk--> conservationists, this measure should quantify a value that is broadly shared among locally affected people. For others, a more economically defensible definition should allow the ensuring of continued possibilities for both adaptation and future use by people, assuring environmental <!--del_lnk--> sustainability.<p>As a consequence, biologists argue that this measure is likely to be associated with the variety of genes. Since it cannot always be said which genes are more likely to prove beneficial, the best choice for <!--del_lnk--> conservation is to assure the persistence of as many genes as possible. For ecologists, this latter approach is sometimes considered too restrictive, as it prohibits <!--del_lnk--> ecological succession.<p>Biodiversity is usually plotted as taxonomic richness of a geographic area, with some reference to a temporal scale. Whittaker described three common metrics used to measure species-level biodiversity, encompassing attention to <!--del_lnk--> species richness or <!--del_lnk--> species evenness:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Species richness - the most primitive of the indices available.<li><!--del_lnk--> Simpson index<li><!--del_lnk--> Shannon index</ul>
<p>There are three other indices which are used by ecologists:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Alpha diversity refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem, and is measured by counting the number of taxa within the ecosystem (usually species)<li><!--del_lnk--> Beta diversity is species diversity between ecosystems; this involves comparing the number of taxa that are <!--del_lnk--> unique to each of the ecosystems.<li><!--del_lnk--> Gamma diversity is a measure of the overall diversity for different ecosystems within a region.</ul>
<p><a id="Distribution_of_biodiversity" name="Distribution_of_biodiversity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution of biodiversity</span></h2>
<p>Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is consistently richer in the <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropics</a>. As one approaches polar regions one finds fewer species. Flora and fauna vary depending on <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a>, altitude, <a href="../../wp/s/Soil.htm" title="Soil">soils</a> and the presence of other species. For a listing of distinct <!--del_lnk--> ecoregions. In the year 2006 large numbers of the Earth's species are formally classified as <!--del_lnk--> rare or <!--del_lnk--> endangered or <!--del_lnk--> threatened species; moreover, most scientists estimate that there are millions more species actually endangered which simply have not been formally recognized.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of <!--del_lnk--> endemic species. These biodiversity hotspots were first identified by Dr. <!--del_lnk--> Norman Myers in two articles in the scientific journal <i>The Environmentalist</i> (1988 and 1990). Hotspots unfortunately tend to occur near areas of <!--del_lnk--> dense human habitation, leading to threats to their many endemic species. As a result of the pressures of the rapidly growing human population, human activity in many of these areas is increasing dramatically. Most of these hotspots are located in the <a href="../../wp/t/Tropics.htm" title="Tropics">tropics</a> and most of them are forests.<p>For example, <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic Forest contains roughly 20,000 plant species, 1350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else in the world. The <!--del_lnk--> Madagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests possess a very high ratio of species <!--del_lnk--> endemism and biodiversity, arising from the fact that this island separated from mainland <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> 65 million years ago.<p>Many regions of high biodiversity (as well as high <!--del_lnk--> endemism) arise from very specialized habitats which require unusual adaptation mechanisms. For example the peat <a href="../../wp/b/Bog.htm" title="Bog">bogs</a> of Northern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the alvar regions such as the <!--del_lnk--> Stora Alvaret on <!--del_lnk--> Oland, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> host a large diversity of plants and animals, many of whom are not found elsewhere.<p><a id="Biodiversity_and_evolution" name="Biodiversity_and_evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biodiversity and evolution</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1708.png.htm" title="Apparent marine fossil diversity during the Phanerozoic"><img alt="Apparent marine fossil diversity during the Phanerozoic" height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Phanerozoic_Biodiversity.png" src="../../images/17/1708.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Biodiversity found on <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a> today is the result of 4 billion years of <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> origin of life is not well known to science, though limited evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established only a few 100 million years after the <!--del_lnk--> formation of the Earth. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life consisted of <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and similar single-celled organisms.<p>The history of biodiversity during the <!--del_lnk--> Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the <a href="../../wp/c/Cambrian_explosion.htm" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>—a period during which nearly every <!--del_lnk--> phylum of <!--del_lnk--> multicellular organisms first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, global diversity showed little overall trend, but was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as <!--del_lnk--> mass extinction events.<p>The apparent biodiversity shown in the <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil_record.htm" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a> suggests that the last few million years include the period of greatest biodiversity in the <a href="../../wp/h/History_of_Earth.htm" title="History of Earth">Earth's history</a>. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is considerable uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geologic</a> sections. Some (e.g. Alroy et al. 2001) argue that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity is not much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago. Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million species, with a best estimate of somewhere near 10 million.<p>Most biologists agree however that the period since the emergence of humans is part of a new mass extinction, the <!--del_lnk--> Holocene extinction event, caused primarily by the impact humans are having on the environment. At present, the number of species estimated to have gone extinct as a result of human action is still far smaller than are observed during the major mass extinctions of the <!--del_lnk--> geological past. However, it has been argued that the present rate of extinction is sufficient to create a major mass extinction in less than 100 years. Others dispute this and suggest that the present rate of extinctions could be sustained for many thousands of years before the loss of biodiversity matches the more than 20% losses seen in past global extinction events.<p>New species are regularly discovered (on average about three new species of <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a> each year) and many, though discovered, are not yet classified (an estimate states that about 40% of freshwater fish from <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> are not yet classified). Most of the terrestrial diversity is found in <!--del_lnk--> tropical forests.<p><a id="Benefits_of_biodiversity" name="Benefits_of_biodiversity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Benefits of biodiversity</span></h2>
<p>Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to the development of human culture, and, in turn, human communities have played a major role in shaping the diversity of nature at the genetic, species, and ecological levels.<p>Biodiversity is what underlies many important <!--del_lnk--> ecological goods and services that provide benefits to humans.<p>There are three main reasons commonly cited in the literature for the benefits of biodiversity.<p><a id="Ecological_role_of_biodiversity" name="Ecological_role_of_biodiversity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ecological role of biodiversity</span></h3>
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<p>All species provide at least one <!--del_lnk--> function in an <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem. Each function is an integral part of regulating the species balance, species diversity and species health: all aspects which are intrinsic for the ecosystem as a whole to survive and prosper.<p>Ecosystems also provide various <i>infrastructure of production</i> (<!--del_lnk--> soil fertility, <a href="../../wp/p/Pollinator.htm" title="Pollinator">pollinators</a> of plants, <!--del_lnk--> predators, decomposition of <!--del_lnk--> wastes...) <i>and services</i> such as purification of the air and water, stabilisation and moderation of the <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a>, decrease of flooding, drought, and other environmental disasters.<p>Research suggests that a more diverse ecosystem is better able to withstand environmental stress and consequently is more productive. The loss of a species is thus likely to decrease the ability of the system to maintain itself or to recover from damage or disturbance. Just like a species with high <!--del_lnk--> genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high biodiversity may have a greater chance of adapting to <a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" title="Climate change">environmental change</a>. In other words, the more species comprising an <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem, the more resilient and stable the ecosystem is likely to be. The mechanisms underlying these effects are complex and hotly contested. In recent years, however, it has become clear that there are real <!--del_lnk--> ecological effects of biodiversity.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1709.jpg.htm" title="Unusual and wild strains of maize are collected to increase the crop diversity when selectively breeding domestic corn."><img alt="Unusual and wild strains of maize are collected to increase the crop diversity when selectively breeding domestic corn." height="120" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GEM_corn.jpg" src="../../images/17/1709.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><a id="Economic_role_of_biodiversity" name="Economic_role_of_biodiversity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Economic role of biodiversity</span></h3>
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<p>For all humans, biodiversity is a <i><!--del_lnk--> resource</i> for daily life. One element of biodiversity is <!--del_lnk--> crop diversity. Many see biodiversity as a <!--del_lnk--> reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, <!--del_lnk--> pharmaceutical, and <!--del_lnk--> cosmetic products. This concept of biological resources management probably explains most fears of resource disappearance related to erosion of biodiversity. However, it is also the origin of new conflicts dealing with rules of division and appropriation of natural resources.<p>Ecologists and environmentalists were the first to insist on the economic aspect of biological diversity protection. Thus, E. O. Wilson wrote in 1992 that: <i>biodiversity is the one of the greater wealths of the planet, and nevertheless less recognized as such.</i> Estimation of the value of biodiversity is a necessary precondition to any discussion on the distribution of biodiversity richness. This value can be divided into use value (direct such as tourism or indirect such as <!--del_lnk--> pollination) and non-use or <!--del_lnk--> intrinsic value. The concept of <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem services attempts to quantify the economic value to mankind of all the functions the natural environment performs.<p>Since biological resources represent an ecological interest for the community, their <!--del_lnk--> economic value is also increasing. New products are developed because of biotechnologies, and new markets created. For society, biodiversity also is a field of activity and profit. It requires a proper management setup to determine how these resources are to be used. Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are: unique <!--del_lnk--> scientific research tools, <a href="../../wp/f/Food.htm" title="Food">food</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industry</a>, <!--del_lnk--> recreation and <!--del_lnk--> Ecotourism.<p><a id="Scientific_role_of_biodiversity" name="Scientific_role_of_biodiversity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Scientific role of biodiversity</span></h3>
<p>Finally, biodiversity is important because each <!--del_lnk--> species can give scientists some clue as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve on Earth. In addition, biodiversity helps scientists understand how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems. The availability of unique genetic material for each living species may have incalculable value as evidenced by medical and genetic research that can lead to discoveries that may reduce mortality.<p>As of 2005 there have been numerous cases where genetic material unique to a given species has been utilized in developing a disease cure or producing a biochemical that is instrumental in medical research beneficial to humans. If genetic materials are lost through the present <!--del_lnk--> Holocene extinction event numerous medical cures will be foreclosed and lost forever.<p><a id="Threats_to_biodiversity" name="Threats_to_biodiversity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Threats to biodiversity</span></h2>
<p>During the last century, erosion of biodiversity has been increasingly observed. Some studies show that about one of eight known plant species is threatened with <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinction</a>. Some estimates put the loss at up to 140,000 species per year (based on <!--del_lnk--> Species-area theory) and subject to discussion. This figure indicates <!--del_lnk--> unsustainable ecological practices, because only a small number of species come into being each year. Most of the species extinctions from 1000 AD to 2000 AD are due to human activities, in particular destruction of plant and animal <!--del_lnk--> habitats. Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than <!--del_lnk--> background extinction rates.<p>Elevated rates of extinction are being driven by human <!--del_lnk--> consumption of organic resources, especially related to <!--del_lnk--> tropical forest destruction. While most of the species that are becoming extinct are not food species, their <!--del_lnk--> biomass is converted into human food when their habitat is transformed into <!--del_lnk--> pasture, <!--del_lnk--> cropland, and <!--del_lnk--> orchards. It is estimated that more than 40% of the Earth's biomass is tied up in only the few species that represent <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Humans">humans</a>, our <!--del_lnk--> livestock and <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">crops</a>. Because an <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem decreases in stability as its species are made extinct, these studies warn that the global ecosystem is destined for collapse if it is further reduced in complexity. Factors contributing to loss of biodiversity are: <!--del_lnk--> overpopulation, <!--del_lnk--> deforestation, <a href="../../wp/p/Pollution.htm" title="Pollution">pollution</a> (<!--del_lnk--> air pollution, <!--del_lnk--> water pollution, <!--del_lnk--> soil contamination) and <a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global warming">global warming</a> or climate change, driven by human activity. These factors, while all stemming from overpopulation, produce a cumulative impact upon biodiversity.<p>Some characterize loss of biodiversity not as ecosystem degradation but by conversion to trivial standardized ecosystems (e.g., <!--del_lnk--> monoculture following <!--del_lnk--> deforestation). In some countries lack of property rights or access regulation to biotic resources necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community).<p>The widespread introduction of <!--del_lnk--> exotic species by humans is a potent threat to biodiversity. When exotic species are introduced to ecosystems and establish self-sustaining populations, the endemic species in that ecosystem, that have not evolved to cope with the exotic species, may not survive. The exotic organisms may be either <!--del_lnk--> predators, <!--del_lnk--> parasites, or simply aggressive species that deprive indigenous species of nutrients, water and light. These exotic or <a href="../../wp/i/Invasive_species.htm" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a> often have features due to their evolutionary background and environment that makes them very competitive, and similarly makes <!--del_lnk--> endemic species very defenceless and/or uncompetitive against these exotic species.<p>The rich diversity of unique species across many parts of the world exist only because they are separated by barriers, particularly seas and oceans, from other species of other land masses, particularly the highly fecund, ultra-competitive, generalist "super-species". These are barriers that could never be crossed by natural processes, except for many millions of years in the future through <!--del_lnk--> continental drift. However humans have invented ships and aeroplanes, and now have the power to bring into contact species that never have met in their evolutionary history, and on a time scale of days, unlike the centuries that historically have accompanied major animal <!--del_lnk--> migrations. As a consequence of the above, if humans continue to combine species from different ecoregions, there is the potential that the world's ecosystems will end up dominated by a very few, aggressive, <!--del_lnk--> cosmopolitan "super-species".<p><a id="Biodiversity_management:_conservation.2C_preservation_and_protection" name="Biodiversity_management:_conservation.2C_preservation_and_protection"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biodiversity management: conservation, preservation and protection</span></h2>
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<p>The <!--del_lnk--> conservation of biological diversity has become a global concern. Although not everybody agrees on extent and significance of current extinction, most consider biodiversity essential. There are basically two main types of conservation options, <!--del_lnk--> in-situ conservation and <!--del_lnk--> ex-situ conservation. In-situ is usually seen as the ideal conservation strategy. However, its implementation is sometimes unfeasible. For example, destruction of rare or endangered species' habitats sometimes requires <!--del_lnk--> ex-situ conservation efforts. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation can provide a backup solution to in-situ conservation projects. Some believe both types of conservation are required to ensure proper preservation. An example of an in-situ conservation effort is the setting-up of protection areas. Examples of ex-situ conservation efforts, by contrast, would be planting germplasts in seedbanks, or growing the <!--del_lnk--> Wollemi Pine in nurseries. Such efforts allow the preservation of large populations of plants with minimal genetic erosion.<p>At national levels a <!--del_lnk--> Biodiversity Action Plan is sometimes prepared to state the protocols necessary to protect an individual species. Usually this plan also details extant data on the species and its habitat. In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a> such a plan is called a <!--del_lnk--> Recovery Plan.<p>The threat to biological diversity was among the hot topics discussed at the UN World Summit for Sustainable Development, in hope of seeing the foundation of a Global Conservation Trust to help maintain plant collections.<p><a id="Juridical_status_of_biological_diversity" name="Juridical_status_of_biological_diversity"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Juridical status of biological diversity</span></h2>
<p>Biodiversity must be evaluated and its evolution analysed (through observations, inventories, conservation...) then it must be taken into account in political decisions. It is beginning to receive a juridical setting.<ul>
<li>"Law and ecosystems" relationship is very ancient and has consequences for biodiversity. It is related to property rights, private and public. It can define protection for threatened ecosystems, but also some rights and duties (for example, <!--del_lnk--> fishing rights, hunting rights).<li>"Laws and species" is a more recent issue. It defines species that must be protected because threatened by extinction. Some people question application of these laws. The U.S. <!--del_lnk--> Endangered Species Act is an example of an attempt to address the "law and species" issue.<li>"Laws and genes" is only about a century old. While the genetic approach is not new (domestication, plant traditional selection methods), progress made in the genetic field in the past 20 years lead to the obligation to tighten laws. With the new technologies of genetic and <!--del_lnk--> genetic engineering, people are going through gene <!--del_lnk--> patenting, processes patenting, and a totally new concept of genetic resource. A very hot debate today seeks to define whether the resource is the gene, the organism, the DNA or the processes.</ul>
<p>The 1972 <!--del_lnk--> UNESCO convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were the <b>common heritage of mankind</b>. These rules probably inspired the creation of great public banks of genetic resources, located outside the source-countries.<p>New global agreements (e.g.<!--del_lnk--> Convention on Biological Diversity), now give <b>sovereign national rights over biological resources</b> (not property). The idea of static conservation of biodiversity is disappearing and being replaced by the idea of dynamic conservation, through the notion of resource and innovation.<p>The new agreements commit countries to <b>conserve biodiversity</b>, <b>develop resources for sustainability</b> and <b>share the benefits</b> resulting from their use. Under these new rules, it is expected that <!--del_lnk--> bioprospecting or collection of natural products has to be allowed by the biodiversity-rich country, in exchange for a share of the benefits.<p>Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as <!--del_lnk--> Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). The <!--del_lnk--> Convention on Biodiversity spirit implies a prior <!--del_lnk--> informed consent between the source country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what, and to settle on a <!--del_lnk--> fair agreement on benefit sharing. Bioprospecting can become a type of <!--del_lnk--> biopiracy when those principles are not respected.<p>Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however. At least one legal commentator has argued that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, arguing that the multiple layers of scientific uncertainty inherent in the concept of biodiversity will cause administrative waste and increase litigation without promoting preservation goals. See <!--del_lnk--> Fred Bosselman, A Dozen Biodiversity Puzzles, 12 N.Y.U. Environmental Law Journal 364 (2004)<p><a id="Criticisms_of_the_biodiversity_paradigm" name="Criticisms_of_the_biodiversity_paradigm"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Criticisms of the biodiversity paradigm</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/228/22800.jpg.htm" title="Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef."><img alt="Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef." height="333" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_Linckia_Starfish.JPG" src="../../images/17/1710.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><a id="The_founder_effect" name="The_founder_effect"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The founder effect</span></h3>
<p>The field of biodiversity research has often been criticised for being overly defined by the personal interests of the founders (i.e. terrestrial mammals) giving a narrow focus, rather than extending to other areas where it could be useful. This is termed the <i>founder effect</i> by Norse and Irish, (1996). France and Rigg reviewed biodiversity research literature in 1998 and found that there was a significant lack of papers studying marine <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems, leading them to dub marine biodiversity research the <i>sleeping <!--del_lnk--> hydra</i>.<p><a id="Size_bias" name="Size_bias"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Size bias</span></h3>
<p>Biodiversity researcher <!--del_lnk--> Sean Nee, writing in the <!--del_lnk--> 24 June <!--del_lnk--> 2004 edition of <!--del_lnk--> Nature, points out that the vast majority of Earth's biodiversity is microbial, and that contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on the visible world" (Nee uses "visible" as a synonym for macroscopic). For example, microbial life is very much more metabolically and environmentally diverse than multicellular life (see <!--del_lnk--> extremophile). Nee has stated: "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit <!--del_lnk--> ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. This should not be surprising — invisible life had at least three billion years to diversify and explore evolutionary space before the 'visibles' arrived".<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Biofuel</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Citizenship.Environment.htm">Environment</a></h3>
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<p><b>Biofuel</b> is any <!--del_lnk--> fuel that is derived from <!--del_lnk--> biomass — recently living <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a> or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. It is a <!--del_lnk--> renewable energy source, unlike other <!--del_lnk--> natural resources such as <a href="../../wp/p/Petroleum.htm" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> and <!--del_lnk--> nuclear fuels.<p>One definition of <i>biofuel</i> is any fuel with an 80% minimum content by volume of materials derived from living organisms harvested within the ten years preceding its manufacture.<p>Like coal and petroleum, biomass is a form of stored <!--del_lnk--> solar energy. The energy of the sun is "captured" through the process of <a href="../../wp/p/Photosynthesis.htm" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in growing plants. (<i>See also: <!--del_lnk--> Systems ecology</i>) One advantage of biofuel in comparison to most other fuel types is it is biodegradable, and thus relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. 25 Years: The Down Fall of Petrochemical Fuels Intro Petroleum, fossil fuel, fact it is not an inexhaustible source. Current life depends on petroleum, and yet we use it faster than we can make it. To sustain current life, the usage of an alternative fuel, in replacement of petroleum, is critical. The alternative fuels are much healthier for nature and the community. Corn fuel and cooking oils are also inexhaustible. Why Alternate? The alternate fuels have some pros that are a deciding factor among many to switch to the alternate source. The petrochemicals cause many smog problems in cities and suburbs that surround it, therefore causing children and adults alike to have health issues. All alternative fuel sources are much healthier, such as corn-based fuel called gasohol. Also, unlike petrochemicals, the alternative fuel sources are unlimited. The use of alternative fuels such as corn and soybean fuel will increase the economy in the U.S. and decrease the amount of money we send to the Middle East for oil. Also, it "Costs MUCH less than . . . diesel." ("Quick Breakdown: Vegetable" par.11.) The alternative fuel will also decrease the smog problems, in places like California, New York City, and Chicago.<p>What’s Available? Currently there are already alternative fuels on the market, though they are hard to locate. Vegetable oil is one good source of fuel; there is even a bus, which uses vegetable oil for fuel, which travels the country promoting the usage of alternative fuels. Also, vegetable oil is“Usually gathered from cooperating restaurants . . . ” (“Quick Breakdown: Vegetable” par. 12) Another fuel source is gasohol which can be made out of soybeans and corn. Also, cooking oil in general will work as fuel. The Impact. In 1970 the Clean Air Act was instated for the protection of the U.S. environment and society. “Vegetable oil and Biodiesel are virtually sulfur free . . . ” (“Quick Breakdown: Vegetable” par. 17) Switching to alternative fuels would support this act. The U.S. would also stop having to export money to the Middle East and start paying off our 8.66 trillion dollar debt. This would affect petroleum-based fuel companies. They will have to adapt for the betterment of the country. This would also hurt the Middle East’s economy. Though that is true, the use of corn and soybean fuels will spike the U.S.’s, specifically the mid west’s, economy upward. It would also promote farmers to work and it would increase their profit.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1711.jpg.htm" title="Sugar cane a biofuel"><img alt="Sugar cane a biofuel" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sugar_cane_leaves.jpg" src="../../images/17/1711.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Agricultural products specifically grown for use as biofuels include <a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">corn</a> and <!--del_lnk--> soybeans, primarily in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>; as well as <!--del_lnk--> flaxseed and <!--del_lnk--> rapeseed, primarily in Europe; <!--del_lnk--> sugar cane in <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Palm_oil.htm" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> in South-East Asia. Biodegradable outputs from industry, <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <!--del_lnk--> forestry, and households can also be used to produce bioenergy; examples include <!--del_lnk--> straw, <!--del_lnk--> timber, <!--del_lnk--> manure, <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> husks, <!--del_lnk--> sewage, <!--del_lnk--> biodegradable waste and food leftovers. These feedstocks are converted into <!--del_lnk--> biogas through <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic digestion. Biomass used as fuel often consists of <!--del_lnk--> underutilized types, like <!--del_lnk--> chaff and animal waste.<p>Much research is currently in progress into the utilization of <!--del_lnk--> microalgae as an energy source, with applications being developed for biodiesel, ethanol, methanol, methane, and even hydrogen. On the rise is use of <!--del_lnk--> hemp, although politics currently restrains this technology.<p><!--del_lnk--> Paradoxically, in some industrialized countries like <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, food is cheaper than fuel compared by price per <!--del_lnk--> joule . Central heating units supplied by food grade <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">wheat</a> or maize are available.<p>Biofuel can be used both for central- and decentralized production of electricity and heat. As of 2005, bioenergy covers approximately 15% of the world's energy consumption . Most bioenergy is consumed in developing countries and is used for direct heating, as opposed to <a href="../../wp/e/Electricity.htm" title="Electricity">electricity</a> production.<p>The production of biofuels to replace oil and natural gas is in active development, focusing on the use of cheap <!--del_lnk--> organic matter (usually <!--del_lnk--> cellulose, agricultural and sewage waste) in the efficient production of liquid and gas biofuels which yield high <!--del_lnk--> net energy gain. The <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a> in biofuels was recently extracted from atmospheric <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> by growing plants, so burning it does not result in a net increase of carbon dioxide in the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>. As a result, biofuels are seen by many as a way to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by using them to replace non-renewable sources of energy. Noticeable is the fact that the quality of timber or grassy biomass does not have a direct impact on its value as an energy-source.<p>Dried compressed <!--del_lnk--> peat is also sometimes considered a biofuel. However, it does not meet the criteria of being a renewable form of energy, or of the carbon being recently absorbed from atmospheric carbon dioxide by growing plants. Though more recent than petroleum or coal, on the time scale of human industrialisation, peat is a fossil fuel and burning it does contribute to atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Biofuel was used since the early days of the car industry. <!--del_lnk--> Nikolaus August Otto, the German inventor of the combustion engine, conceived his invention to run on ethanol. While <!--del_lnk--> Rudolf Diesel, the German inventor of the <!--del_lnk--> Diesel engine, conceived it to run on peanut oil. The Ford Model T, a car produced between 1903 and 1926 used ethanol. However, when crude oil began being cheaply extracted from deeper in the soil (thanks to drilling starting in the middle of the 19th century), cars began using fuels from oil. Nevertheless, before World War II, biofuels were seen as providing an alternative to imported oil in countries such as Germany, which sold a blend of gasoline with alcohol fermented from potatoes under the name <i>Reichskraftsprit</i>. In Britain, grain alcohol was blended with petrol by the Distillers Company Ltd under the name <i>Discol</i> and marketed through <!--del_lnk--> Esso's affiliate Cleveland.<p>After the War cheap Middle Eastern Oil lessened interest in biofuels. Then with the oil shocks of 1973 and 1979, there was an increase in interests from governments and academics in biofuels. However, interest decreased with the counter-shock of 1986 that made oil prices cheaper again. But since about 2000 with rising oil prices, concerns over the potential <!--del_lnk--> oil peak, greenhouse gas emissions (<a href="../../wp/g/Global_warming.htm" title="Global Warming">Global Warming</a>), and instability in the Middle East are pushing renewed interest in biofuels. Government officials have made statements and given aid in favour of biofuels. For example, U.S. president <a href="../../wp/g/George_W._Bush.htm" title="George W. Bush">George Bush</a> said in his 2006 State of Union speech, that he wants for the United States, by 2025, to replace 75% of the oil coming from the Middle East.<p><a id="Types_of_high_volume_industrial_biomass_on_Earth" name="Types_of_high_volume_industrial_biomass_on_Earth"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Types of high volume industrial biomass on Earth</span></h2>
<p>Certain types of biomass have attracted research and industrial attention. Many of these are considered to be potentially useful for energy or for the production of <!--del_lnk--> bio-based products. Most of these are available in very large quantities and have low market value.<table>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Algae<li><!--del_lnk--> Bagasse from <a href="../../wp/s/Sugarcane.htm" title="Sugarcane">Sugarcane</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Dried distiller's grain<li><!--del_lnk--> Firewood<li><!--del_lnk--> Hemp<li><!--del_lnk--> Jatropha<li><!--del_lnk--> Landscaping waste<li><!--del_lnk--> Maiden Grass<li><a href="../../wp/m/Maize.htm" title="Maize">Maize</a> (corn)<li><!--del_lnk--> Manure</ul>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Meat and bone meal<li><!--del_lnk--> Miscanthus<li><!--del_lnk--> Peat<li><!--del_lnk--> Pet waste<li><!--del_lnk--> Plate waste<li><!--del_lnk--> Rice hulls<li><!--del_lnk--> Silage<li><!--del_lnk--> Stover<li><!--del_lnk--> Switchgrass<li><!--del_lnk--> Whey</ul>
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<p><a id="Examples_of_biofuels" name="Examples_of_biofuels"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Examples of biofuels</span></h2>
<p><a id="Biologically_produced_alcohols" name="Biologically_produced_alcohols"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biologically produced alcohols</span></h3>
<p>Biologically produced <!--del_lnk--> alcohols, most commonly <a href="../../wp/e/Ethanol.htm" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> and <!--del_lnk--> methanol, and less commonly <!--del_lnk--> propanol and <!--del_lnk--> butanol are produced by the action of <!--del_lnk--> microbes and <!--del_lnk--> enzymes through fermentation — see <!--del_lnk--> alcohol fuel.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Methanol, which is currently produced from <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_gas.htm" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a>, can also be produced from biomass — although this is not economically viable at present. The <!--del_lnk--> methanol economy is an interesting alternative to the <!--del_lnk--> hydrogen economy.<li><!--del_lnk--> Biomass to liquid, synthetic fuels produced from <!--del_lnk--> syngas. Syngas in turn, is produced from biomass by <!--del_lnk--> gasification. <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Ethanol fuel produced from sugar cane is being used as <a href="../../wp/a/Automobile.htm" title="Automobile">automotive</a> fuel in Brazil. Ethanol produced from corn is being used mostly as a <!--del_lnk--> gasoline additive (oxygenator) in the United States, but direct use as fuel is growing. <!--del_lnk--> Cellulosic ethanol is being manufactured from straw (an agricultural waste product) by <!--del_lnk--> Iogen Corporation of Ontario, Canada; and other companies are attempting to do the same. <!--del_lnk--> ETBE containing 47% Ethanol is currently the biggest biofuel contributor in Europe.<li><!--del_lnk--> Butanol is formed by <!--del_lnk--> A.B.E. fermentation (Acetone, Butanol, Ethanol) and experimental modifications of the ABE process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol being the only liquid product. Butanol can be burned "straight" in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), produces more energy and is less corrosive and less water soluble than ethanol, and can be distributed via existing infrastructures.<li>Mixed Alcohols (e.g., mixture of ethanol, propanol, butanol, <!--del_lnk--> pentanol, <!--del_lnk--> hexanol and <!--del_lnk--> heptanol, such as <!--del_lnk--> Ecalene<sup>TM</sup>), obtained either by <!--del_lnk--> biomass-to-liquid technology (namely gasification to produce syngas followed by <!--del_lnk--> catalytic synthesis) or by <!--del_lnk--> bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels.<li><!--del_lnk--> GTL or <!--del_lnk--> BTL both produce synthetic fuels out of biomass in the so called <!--del_lnk--> Fischer Tropsch process. The synthetic biofuel containing oxygen is used as additive in high quality diesel and petrol.</ul>
<p><a id="Biologically_produced_gases" name="Biologically_produced_gases"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biologically produced gases</span></h3>
<p>Biogas is produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of <!--del_lnk--> organic material by <!--del_lnk--> anaerobes. Biogas can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of <!--del_lnk--> energy crops fed into <!--del_lnk--> anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid output, <!--del_lnk--> digestate, can also be used as a biofuel.<p>Biogas contains <!--del_lnk--> methane and can be recovered in industrial anaerobic digesters and <!--del_lnk--> mechanical biological treatment systems. Landfill gas is a less clean form of biogas which is produced in <!--del_lnk--> landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. Paradoxically if this gas is allowed to escape into the atmosphere it is a potent <!--del_lnk--> greenhouse gas.<p><a id="Biologically_produced_gases_from_wastes" name="Biologically_produced_gases_from_wastes"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biologically produced gases from wastes</span></h3>
<p>Biologically produced oils and gases can be produced from various wastes:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Thermal depolymerization of waste can extract methane and other oils similar to petroleum.<li><!--del_lnk--> Pyrolysis oil may be produced out of biomass, wood waste etc. using heat only in the flash <!--del_lnk--> pyrolysis process. The oil has to be treated before using in conventional fuel systems or internal combustion engines (water + pH).<li>One company, GreenFuel Technologies Corporation, has developed a patented bioreactor system that utilizes nontoxic photosynthetic algae to take in smokestacks flue gases and produce biofuels such as biodiesel, biogas and a dry fuel comparable to coal <!--del_lnk--> .</ul>
<p><a id="Biologically_produced_oils" name="Biologically_produced_oils"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biologically produced oils</span></h3>
<p>Biologically produced oils can be used in <!--del_lnk--> diesel engines:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Straight vegetable oil (SVO).<li><!--del_lnk--> Waste vegetable oil (WVO) - waste cooking oils and greases produced in quantity mostly by commercial kitchens<li>Biodiesel obtained from <!--del_lnk--> transesterification of animal <!--del_lnk--> fats and vegetable <!--del_lnk--> oil, directly usable in petroleum diesel engines.</ul>
<p>DK MAFIA<p><a id="Applications_of_biofuels" name="Applications_of_biofuels"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications of biofuels</span></h2>
<p>One widespread use of biofuels is in home cooking and heating. Typical fuels for this are wood, charcoal or dried dung. The biofuel may be burned on an open fireplace or in a special <!--del_lnk--> stove. The efficiency of this process may vary widely, from 10% for a well made fire (even less if the fire is not made carefully) up to 40% for a custom designed charcoal stove<sup>1</sup>. Inefficient use of fuel may be a minor cause of <!--del_lnk--> deforestation (though this is negligible compared to deliberate destruction to clear land for agricultural use) but more importantly it means that more work has to be put into gathering fuel, thus the quality of cooking stoves has a direct influence on the viability of biofuels.<p>"American homeowners are turning to burning corn in special stoves to reduce their energy bills. Sales of corn-burning stoves have tripled this year [...] Corn-generated heat costs less than a fifth of the current rate for propane and about a third of electrical heat" <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="Direct_electricity_generation" name="Direct_electricity_generation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Direct electricity generation</span></h3>
<p>The methane in biogas is often pure enough to pass directly through gas engines to generate green energy. <!--del_lnk--> Anaerobic digesters or <!--del_lnk--> biogas powerplants convert this renewable energy source into electricity. This can either be used commercially or on a local scale.<p><a id="Use_on_farms" name="Use_on_farms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Use on farms</span></h3>
<p>In Germany small scale use of biofuel is still a domain of agricultural farms. It is an official aim of the German government to use the entire potential of 200,000 farms for the production of biofuel and bioenergy. (Source: VDI-Bericht "Bioenergie - Energieträger der Zukunft".<p><a id="Home_use" name="Home_use"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Home use</span></h3>
<p>Different combustion-engines are being produced for very low prices lately . They allow the private house-owner to utilize low amounts of "weak" compression of methane to generate electrical and thermal power (almost) sufficient for a well insulated residential home.<p><a id="Problems_and_solutions" name="Problems_and_solutions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Problems and solutions</span></h2>
<p>Unfortunately, much cooking with biofuels is done indoors, without efficient ventilation, and using fuels such as dung causes airborne pollution. This can be a serious health hazard; 1.5 million deaths were attributed to this cause by the <!--del_lnk--> World Health Organisation <!--del_lnk--> as of 2000 <sup>2</sup>. There are various responses to this, such as improved stoves, including those with inbuilt <!--del_lnk--> flues and switching to alternative fuel sources. Most of these responses have difficulties. One is that fuels are expensive and easily damaged. Another is that alternative fuels tend to be more expensive, but the people who rely on biofuels often do so precisely because they cannot afford alternatives. <sup>3</sup> Organisations such as <!--del_lnk--> Intermediate Technology Development Group work to make improved facilities for biofuel use and better alternatives accessible to those who cannot currently get them. This work is done through improving ventilation, switching to different uses of biomass such as the creation of biogas from solid biomatter, or switching to other alternatives such as <!--del_lnk--> micro-hydro power. Many environmentalists are concerned that first growth forest may be felled in countries such as Indonesia to make way for palm oil plantations, driven by rising demand for diesel in SE Asia and Europe.<p><a id="Direct_biofuel" name="Direct_biofuel"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Direct biofuel</span></h2>
<p>Direct biofuels are biofuels that can be used in existing unmodified petroleum engines. Because engine technology changes all the time, exactly what a direct biofuel is can be hard to define; a fuel that works without problem in one unmodified engine may not work in another engine. In general, newer engines are more sensitive to fuel than older engines, but new engines are also likely to be designed with some amount of biofuel in mind.<p>Straight vegetable oil can be used in some (older) diesel engines. Only in the warmest climates can it be used without engine modifications, so it is of limited use in colder climates. Most commonly it is turned into biodiesel. No engine manufacturer explicitly allows any use of vegetable oil in their engines.<p>Biodiesel can be a direct biofuel. However, no current manufacturer covers their engine under warranty for 100% biodiesel (some have allowed 100% in the past, and it appears that changes in emission standards are the only reason they don't today, but no official statement exists). Many people have run thousands of miles on biodiesel without problem, and many studies have been made on 100% biodiesel.<p><!--del_lnk--> Butanol is often claimed as a direct replacement for gasoline. It is not in wide spread production at this time, and engine manufacturers have not made statements about its use. While on paper (and a few lab tests) it appears that butanol has sufficiently similar characteristics with gasoline such that it should work without problem in any gasoline engine, no widespread experience exists.<p>Ethanol is the most common biofuel, and over the years many engines have been designed to run on it. Many of these could not run on regular gasoline. It is open to debate if ethanol is a direct replacement in these engines though - they cannot run on anything else. In the late 1990's engines started appearing that by design can use either fuel. Ethanol is a direct replacement in these engines, but it is debatable if these engines are unmodified, or factory modified for ethanol.<p>Small amounts of biofuel are often blended with traditional fuels. The biofuel portion of these fuels is a direct replacement for the fuel they offset, but the total offset is small. For biodiesel, 5% or 20% are commonly approved by various engine manufacturers. See <!--del_lnk--> Common ethanol fuel mixtures for information on ethanol.<p><a id="International_efforts" name="International_efforts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">International efforts</span></h2>
<p>On the other hand, recognizing the importance of bioenergy and its implementation, there are international organizations such as <!--del_lnk--> IEA Bioenergy, established in 1978 by the International Energy Agency (IEA), with the aim of improving cooperation and information exchange between countries that have national programs in bioenergy research, development and deployment.<p><a href="../../wp/e/European_Union.htm" title="European Union">European Union</a> has set a goal for <!--del_lnk--> 2008 that each member state should achieve at least 5.25% biofuel usage of all used traffic fuel. By <!--del_lnk--> 2006 it looks like most of the members states will not meet this goal.<p><a id="Energy_content_of_biofuel" name="Energy_content_of_biofuel"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bioinformatics</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.General_Biology.htm">General Biology</a>; <a href="../index/subject.IT.Software.htm">Software</a></h3>
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<p><b>Bioinformatics</b> and <b>computational biology</b> involve the use of techniques including <a href="../../wp/a/Applied_mathematics.htm" title="Applied mathematics">applied mathematics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> informatics, <a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, <!--del_lnk--> artificial intelligence, <a href="../../wp/c/Chemistry.htm" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <!--del_lnk--> biochemistry to solve <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biological</a> problems usually on the <!--del_lnk--> molecular level. Research in computational biology often overlaps with <!--del_lnk--> systems biology. Major research efforts in the field include <a href="../../wp/s/Sequence_alignment.htm" title="Sequence alignment">sequence alignment</a>, <!--del_lnk--> gene finding, <!--del_lnk--> genome assembly, <!--del_lnk--> protein structure alignment, <!--del_lnk--> protein structure prediction, prediction of <!--del_lnk--> gene expression and <!--del_lnk--> protein-protein interactions, and the modeling of <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a>.<p>The terms <i>bioinformatics</i> and <i>computational biology</i> are often used interchangeably. However <i>bioinformatics</i> more properly refers to the creation and advancement of algorithms, computational and statistical techniques, and theory to solve formal and practical problems posed by or inspired from the management and analysis of biological data. <i>Computational biology,</i> on the other hand, refers to hypothesis-driven investigation of a specific biological problem using computers, carried out with experimental and simulated data, with the primary goal of discovery and the advancement of biological knowledge. A similar distinction is made by <!--del_lnk--> National Institutes of Health in their <!--del_lnk--> working definitions of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, where it is further emphasized that there is a tight coupling of developments and knowledge between the more hypothesis-driven research in computational biology and technique-driven research in bioinformatics. Computational biology also includes lesser known but equally important subdisciplines such as computational <!--del_lnk--> biochemistry and computational <!--del_lnk--> biophysics.<p>A common thread in projects in bioinformatics and computational biology is the use of mathematical tools to extract useful information from data produced by high-throughput biological techniques such as <!--del_lnk--> genome sequencing. A representative problem in bioinformatics is the assembly of high-quality genome sequences from fragmentary "shotgun" DNA <!--del_lnk--> sequencing. Other common problems include the study of <!--del_lnk--> gene regulation using data from <!--del_lnk--> microarrays or <!--del_lnk--> mass spectrometry.<p>
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</script><a id="Major_Research_Areas" name="Major_Research_Areas"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Major Research Areas</span></h2>
<p><a id="Sequence_analysis" name="Sequence_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sequence analysis</span></h3>
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<p>Since the <!--del_lnk--> Phage Φ-X174 was <!--del_lnk--> sequenced in 1977, the <!--del_lnk--> DNA sequences of hundreds of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases. These data are analyzed to determine genes that code for <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">proteins</a>, as well as regulatory sequences. A comparison of genes within a <!--del_lnk--> species or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of <!--del_lnk--> molecular systematics to construct <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetic trees). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. Today, <!--del_lnk--> computer programs are used to search the <!--del_lnk--> genome of thousands of organisms, containing billions of <!--del_lnk--> nucleotides. These programs can compensate for mutations (exchanged, deleted or inserted bases) in the DNA sequence, in order to identify sequences that are related, but not identical. A variant of this <a href="../../wp/s/Sequence_alignment.htm" title="Sequence alignment">sequence alignment</a> is used in the sequencing process itself. The so-called <!--del_lnk--> shotgun sequencing technique (which was used, for example, by <!--del_lnk--> The Institute for Genomic Research to sequence the first bacterial genome, <i>Haemophilus influenza</i>) does not give a sequential list of nucleotides, but instead the sequences of thousands of small DNA fragments (each about 600-800 nucleotides long). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned in the right way, make up the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. In the case of the <!--del_lnk--> Human Genome Project, it took several months of CPU time (on a circa-2000 vintage DEC Alpha computer) to assemble the fragments. Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced today, and genome assembly algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research.<p>Another aspect of bioinformatics in sequence analysis is the automatic <!--del_lnk--> search for genes and regulatory sequences within a genome. Not all of the nucleotides within a genome are genes. Within the genome of higher organisms, large parts of the DNA do not serve any obvious purpose. This so-called <!--del_lnk--> junk DNA may, however, contain unrecognized functional elements. Bioinformatics helps to bridge the gap between genome and <!--del_lnk--> proteome projects--for example, in the use of DNA sequences for protein identification.<p><i>See also:</i> <!--del_lnk--> sequence analysis, <!--del_lnk--> sequence profiling tool, <!--del_lnk--> sequence motif.<p><a id="Genome_annotation" name="Genome_annotation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Genome annotation</span></h4>
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<p>In the context of genomics, <b>annotation</b> is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence. The first genome annotation software system was designed in 1995 by Owen White, who was part of the team that sequenced and analyzed the first genome of a free-living organism to be decoded, the bacterium <!--del_lnk--> Haemophilus influenzae. Dr. White built a software system to find the genes (places in the DNA sequence that encode a protein), the transfer RNA, and other features, and to make initial assignments of function to those genes. Most current genome annotation systems work similarly, but the programs available for analysis of genomic DNA are constantly changing and improving.<p><a id="Computational_evolutionary_biology" name="Computational_evolutionary_biology"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Computational evolutionary biology</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of <!--del_lnk--> species, as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways; it has enabled researchers to:<ul>
<li>trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a>, rather than through <!--del_lnk--> physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone,<li>more recently, compare entire <!--del_lnk--> genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as <!--del_lnk--> gene duplication, <!--del_lnk--> lateral gene transfer, and the prediction of bacterial <!--del_lnk--> speciation factors,<li>build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time<li>track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms</ul>
<p>Future work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex <!--del_lnk--> tree of life.<p>The area of research within <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_science.htm" title="Computer science">computer science</a> that uses <!--del_lnk--> genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with <!--del_lnk--> computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are unrelated.<p><a id="Measuring_biodiversity" name="Measuring_biodiversity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Measuring biodiversity</span></h3>
<p><a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> of an ecosystem might be defined as the total genomic complement of a particular environment, from all of the species present, whether it is a biofilm in an abandoned mine, a drop of sea water, a scoop of soil, or the entire <a href="../../wp/b/Biosphere.htm" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> of the planet <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>. Databases are used to collect the <!--del_lnk--> species names, descriptions, distributions, genetic information, status and size of <!--del_lnk--> populations, <!--del_lnk--> habitat needs, and how each organism interacts with other species. Specialized <!--del_lnk--> software programs are used to find, visualize, and analyze the information, and most importantly, communicate it to other people. Computer simulations model such things as population dynamics, or calculate the cumulative genetic health of a breeding pool (in <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>) or endangered population (in <!--del_lnk--> conservation). One very exciting potential of this field is that entire <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequences, or <!--del_lnk--> genomes of <!--del_lnk--> endangered species can be preserved, allowing the results of Nature's genetic experiment to be remembered <i><!--del_lnk--> in silico</i>, and possibly reused in the future, even if that species is eventually lost.<p><i>Important Projects:</i> <!--del_lnk--> Species 2000 project; <!--del_lnk--> uBio Project.<p><a id="Analysis_of_gene_expression" name="Analysis_of_gene_expression"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analysis of gene expression</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> expression of many genes can be determined by measuring <!--del_lnk--> mRNA levels with multiple techniques including <!--del_lnk--> microarrays, <!--del_lnk--> expressed cDNA sequence tag (EST) sequencing, <!--del_lnk--> serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) tag sequencing, <!--del_lnk--> massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization. All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate <!--del_lnk--> signal from <!--del_lnk--> noise in high-throughput gene expression studies. Such studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous <!--del_lnk--> epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the transcripts that are up-regulated and down-regulated in a particular population of cancer cells.<p><a id="Analysis_of_regulation" name="Analysis_of_regulation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analysis of regulation</span></h3>
<p>Regulation is the complex orchestration of events starting with an <!--del_lnk--> extra-cellular signal and ultimately leading to an increase or decrease in the <!--del_lnk--> activity of one or more protein molecules. Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process. For example, <!--del_lnk--> promoter analysis involves the elucidation and study of <!--del_lnk--> sequence motifs in the genomic region surrounding the coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA. Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare <!--del_lnk--> microarray data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the <!--del_lnk--> cell cycle, along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.). One can then apply <!--del_lnk--> clustering algorithms to that expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed. For example, the upstream regions (promoters) of co-expressed genes can be searched for over-represented <!--del_lnk--> regulatory elements.<p><a id="Analysis_of_protein_expression" name="Analysis_of_protein_expression"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analysis of protein expression</span></h3>
<p>Protein <!--del_lnk--> microarrays and high throughput (HT) <!--del_lnk--> mass spectrometry (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. Bioinformatics is very much involved in making sense of protein microarray and HT MS data; the former approach faces similar problems as with microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples where multiple, but incomplete peptides from each protein are detected.<p><a id="Analysis_of_mutations_in_cancer" name="Analysis_of_mutations_in_cancer"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Analysis of mutations in cancer</span></h3>
<p>Massive sequencing efforts are currently underway to identify <!--del_lnk--> point mutations in a variety of <!--del_lnk--> genes in <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. The sheer volume of data produced requires automated systems to read sequence data, and to compare the sequencing results to the known sequence of the <!--del_lnk--> human genome, including known <!--del_lnk--> germline polymorphisms.<p><!--del_lnk--> Oligonucleotide microarrays, including <!--del_lnk--> comparative genomic hybridization and <!--del_lnk--> single nucleotide polymorphism arrays, able to probe simultaneously up to several hundred thousand sites throughout the genome are being used to identify chromosomal gains and losses in cancer. <!--del_lnk--> Hidden Markov model and <!--del_lnk--> change-point analysis methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes from often noisy data. Further informatics approaches are being developed to understand the implications of lesions found to be recurrent across many tumors.<p>Some modern tools (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Quantum 3.1 ) provide tool for changing the protein sequence at specific sites through alterations to its amino acids and predict changes in the bioactivity after mutations.<p><a id="Prediction_of_protein_structure" name="Prediction_of_protein_structure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Prediction of protein structure</span></h3>
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<p>Protein structure prediction is another important application of bioinformatics. The <!--del_lnk--> amino acid sequence of a protein, the so-called <i>primary structure</i>, can be easily determined from the sequence on the gene that codes for it. In the vast majority of cases, this primary structure uniquely determines a structure in its native environment. (Of course, there are exceptions, such as the <!--del_lnk--> bovine spongiform encephalopathy - aka <!--del_lnk--> Mad Cow Disease - <a href="../../wp/p/Prion.htm" title="Prion">prion</a>.) Knowledge of this structure is vital in understanding the function of the protein. For lack of better terms, structural information is usually classified as one of <i><!--del_lnk--> secondary</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> tertiary</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> quaternary</i> structure. A viable general solution to such predictions remains an open problem. As of now, most efforts have been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time.<p>One of the key ideas in bioinformatics is the notion of <!--del_lnk--> homology. In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene <i>A</i>, whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene <i>B,</i> whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function. In the structural branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to determine which parts of a protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins. In a technique called homology modelling, this information is used to predict the structure of a protein once the structure of a homologous protein is known. This currently remains the only way to predict protein structures reliably.<p>One example of this is the similar protein homology between haemoglobin in humans and the haemoglobin in legumes (<!--del_lnk--> leghemoglobin). Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in the organism. Though both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes.<p>Other techniques for predicting protein structure include protein threading and <i>de novo</i> (from scratch) physics-based modeling.<p>See also <!--del_lnk--> structural motif and <!--del_lnk--> structural domain.<p><a id="Comparative_genomics" name="Comparative_genomics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Comparative genomics</span></h3>
<p>The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between <!--del_lnk--> genes (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and <!--del_lnk--> endosymbiosis, often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectra of algorithmic, statistical and mathematical techniques, ranging from exact, <!--del_lnk--> heuristics, fixed parameter and <!--del_lnk--> approximation algorithms for problems based on parsimony models to <!--del_lnk--> Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithms for <!--del_lnk--> Bayesian analysis of problems based on probabilistic models.<p>Many of these studies are based on the homology detection and protein families computation.<p>See also <!--del_lnk--> comparative genomics, <!--del_lnk--> bayesian network and <!--del_lnk--> protein family.<p><a id="Modeling_biological_systems" name="Modeling_biological_systems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modeling biological systems</span></h3>
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<p>Systems biology involves the use of <!--del_lnk--> computer simulations of <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cellular</a> subsystems (such as the <!--del_lnk--> networks of metabolites and <!--del_lnk--> enzymes which comprise <!--del_lnk--> metabolism, <!--del_lnk--> signal transduction pathways and <!--del_lnk--> gene regulatory networks) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes. <!--del_lnk--> Artificial life or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms.<p><a id="High-throughput_image_analysis" name="High-throughput_image_analysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">High-throughput image analysis</span></h3>
<p>Computational technologies are used to accelerate or fully automate the processing, quantification and analysis of large amounts of high-information-content <!--del_lnk--> biomedical imagery. Modern image analysis systems augment an observer's ability to make measurements from a large or complex set of images, by improving <!--del_lnk--> accuracy, <!--del_lnk--> objectivity, or speed. A fully developed analysis system may completely replace the observer. Although these systems are not unique to biomedical imagery, biomedical imaging is becoming more important for both <!--del_lnk--> diagnostics and research. Some examples are:<ul>
<li>high-throughput and high-fidelity quantification and sub-cellular localization (<!--del_lnk--> high-content screening, <!--del_lnk--> cytohistopathology)<li><!--del_lnk--> morphometrics<li>clinical image analysis and visualization<li>determining the real-time air-flow patterns in breathing lungs of living animals<li>quantifying occlusion size in real-time imagery from the development of and recovery during arterial injury<li>making behavioural observations from extended video recordings of laboratory animals<li>infrared measurements for metabolic activity determination</ul>
<p><a id="Software_tools" name="Software_tools"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Software tools</span></h2>
<p>First generation bioinformatics tools consisted of applications, usually with a text-based interface, which performed a specific task well. The computational biology tool best-known among biologists is probably <!--del_lnk--> BLAST, an algorithm for searching large databases of protein or DNA sequences. The <!--del_lnk--> NCBI provides a popular web-based implementation that searches their massive sequence databases. Also fairly early on, due to the amassing of sequence and annotation data, keyword search engines which were able to resolve gene and protein synonyms were important. In these early days, computer scripting languages such as <a href="../../wp/p/Perl.htm" title="Perl">Perl</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Python were often used to interface with <!--del_lnk--> biological databases and <!--del_lnk--> parse output from bioinformatics programs written in languages such as <!--del_lnk--> C or <a href="../../wp/c/C%252B%252B.htm" title="C++">C++</a>, and much legacy <!--del_lnk--> code is still in use today. Today, many other languages are used to author excellent software, and communities of bioinformatics programmers have set up <!--del_lnk--> free open source bioinformatics projects to develop and distribute the tools and modules they produce.<p>As the data sources expanded and diversified, both in content and geography, bioinformatic meta search engines, such as <!--del_lnk--> Sequence profiling tools, emerged to help find relevant information from several databases. These meta search engines might index data from a local server or even from a panel of third party services.<p>More recently, SOAP-based interfaces have been developed for a wide variety of bioinformatics applications allowing an application running on one computer in one part of the world to use algorithms, data and computing resources on servers in other parts of the world. A large availability of these <!--del_lnk--> SOAP-based bioinformatics web services, along with the open source bioinformatics collections, lead to the next generation of bioinformatics tools: the <!--del_lnk--> integrated bioinformatics platform. These tools range from a collection of standalone tools with a common data format under a single, slick standalone or web-based interface, to integrative and extensible <!--del_lnk--> bioinformatics workflow development environments.<p>An interesting novel direction for bioinformatics applications is illustrated by Q-Pharm's Quantum 3.1, an example of the bioinformatics post-<!--del_lnk--> QSAR technology applying quantum and molecular physics instead of statistical methods.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Biology</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.General_Biology.htm">General Biology</a></h3>
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<p><b>Biology</b> (from <!--del_lnk--> Greek <i>βίος λόγος</i>, see <!--del_lnk--> below) is the branch of <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a> dealing with the study of <!--del_lnk--> living organisms. It is concerned with the <!--del_lnk--> characteristics, <a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">classification</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> behaviors of <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a>, how <!--del_lnk--> species come into <!--del_lnk--> existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the <!--del_lnk--> natural environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of <!--del_lnk--> academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address <!--del_lnk--> phenomena related to living organisms (biological phenomena) over a wide range of scales, from <!--del_lnk--> biophysics to <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a>. All concepts in biology are subject to the same laws that other branches of science obey, such as the laws of <a href="../../wp/t/Thermodynamics.htm" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> conservation of energy.<div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin:0.5em;">
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<td valign="top"><a class="image" href="../../images/172/17285.jpg.htm" title="Escherichia coli"><img alt="Escherichia coli" height="76" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EscherichiaColi_NIAID.jpg" src="../../images/237/23779.jpg" width="90" /></a></td>
<td valign="top"><a class="image" href="../../images/50/5010.jpg.htm" title="Tree fern"><img alt="Tree fern" height="104" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Tree_Fern.jpg" src="../../images/237/23780.jpg" width="90" /></a></td>
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<td valign="bottom"><a class="image" href="../../images/237/23781.jpg.htm" title="Goliath beetle"><img alt="Goliath beetle" height="109" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Goliath_beetle.jpg" src="../../images/237/23781.jpg" width="90" /></a></td>
<td valign="bottom"><a class="image" href="../../images/54/5492.jpg.htm" title="Gazelle"><img alt="Gazelle" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Thompson%27s_Gazelle.jpeg" src="../../images/237/23782.jpg" width="90" /></a></td>
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<div class="thumbcaption">Biology studies the variety of life <i>(clockwise from top-left)</i> <i><!--del_lnk--> E. coli</i>, tree <a href="../../wp/f/Fern.htm" title="Fern">fern</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Gazelle.htm" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a>, Goliath <a href="../../wp/b/Beetle.htm" title="Beetle">beetle</a></div>
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<p>At the organism level, biology has partially explained phenomena such as <!--del_lnk--> birth, <!--del_lnk--> growth, <!--del_lnk--> aging, <!--del_lnk--> death and <!--del_lnk--> decay of living organisms, similarities between offspring and their parents (<!--del_lnk--> heredity) and flowering of plants which have puzzled humanity throughout history. Other phenomena, such as <!--del_lnk--> lactation, <!--del_lnk--> metamorphosis, <!--del_lnk--> egg-hatching, <!--del_lnk--> healing, and <!--del_lnk--> tropism have been addressed. On a wider scale of time and space, biologists have studied <!--del_lnk--> domestication of animals and plants, the wide variety of living organisms (<a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>), changes in living organisms over many generations (<a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a>), <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinction</a>, <!--del_lnk--> speciation, <!--del_lnk--> social behaviour among animals, etc.<p>While <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">botany</a> encompasses the study of plants, <!--del_lnk--> zoology is the branch of science that is concerned about the study of animals and <a href="../../wp/a/Anthropology.htm" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> is the branch of biology which studies human beings. However, at the <!--del_lnk--> molecular scale, life is studied in the disciplines of <!--del_lnk--> molecular biology, <!--del_lnk--> biochemistry, and <!--del_lnk--> molecular genetics. More fundamental than these fields is biophysics which deals with energy within biological systems. At the next level, that of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>, it is studied in <!--del_lnk--> cell biology. At the <!--del_lnk--> multicellular scale, it is examined in <!--del_lnk--> physiology, <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> histology. <!--del_lnk--> Developmental biology studies life at the level of an individual organism's development or <!--del_lnk--> ontogeny. Moving up the scale towards more than one organism, <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a> considers how <!--del_lnk--> heredity works between parent and offspring. <!--del_lnk--> Ethology considers the behaviour of organisms in their natural environment. <!--del_lnk--> Population genetics looks at the level of an entire <!--del_lnk--> population, and <!--del_lnk--> systematics considers the multi-species scale of <!--del_lnk--> lineages. Interdependent populations and their <!--del_lnk--> habitats are examined in <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary biology. A speculative new field is <!--del_lnk--> astrobiology (or xenobiology), which examines the possibility of life beyond the Earth.<p>
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</script><a id="Principles" name="Principles"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Principles</span></h2>
<p>Biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by <a href="../../wp/m/Mathematics.htm" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>. Biological systems have predictable <a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">statistical</a> tendencies to behave in certain ways, but these tendencies are usually not as concrete as those described in subjects such as physics. However, biology is still subject to the same physical laws of the universe such as thermodynamics and conservation of mass.<p>The biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: <!--del_lnk--> universality, <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, <!--del_lnk--> diversity, <!--del_lnk--> continuity, <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <!--del_lnk--> homeostasis, and <!--del_lnk--> interactions.<p><a id="Universality:_Biochemistry.2C_cells.2C_and_the_genetic_code" name="Universality:_Biochemistry.2C_cells.2C_and_the_genetic_code"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Universality: Biochemistry, cells, and the genetic code</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23783.png.htm" title="Schematic representation of DNA, the primary genetic material."><img alt="Schematic representation of DNA, the primary genetic material." height="260" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DNA-structure-and-bases.png" src="../../images/237/23783.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23783.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Schematic representation of <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a>, the primary <!--del_lnk--> genetic material.</div>
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<p>Some striking examples of biological universality include life's <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon.htm" title="Carbon">carbon</a>-<!--del_lnk--> based <!--del_lnk--> biochemistry and its ability to pass on <!--del_lnk--> characteristics via <!--del_lnk--> genetic material, using a DNA and RNA based <a href="../../wp/g/Genetic_code.htm" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a> with only minor variations across all living things.<p>Another universal principle is that all <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a> (that is, all forms of life on Earth except for <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Virus">viruses</a>) are made of <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>. Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes.<p><a id="Evolution" name="Evolution"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Evolution</span></h3>
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<p>The central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a> (see <!--del_lnk--> Common descent). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). <!--del_lnk--> Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the <!--del_lnk--> modern synthesis of the theory.<p>The evolutionary history of a <!--del_lnk--> species— which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended— together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its <!--del_lnk--> phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of <!--del_lnk--> DNA sequences conducted within <!--del_lnk--> molecular biology or <!--del_lnk--> genomics, and comparisons of <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossils</a> or other records of ancient organisms in <a href="../../wp/p/Paleontology.htm" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetics, <!--del_lnk--> phenetics, and <!--del_lnk--> cladistics (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary timeline).<br clear="right" />
<p>In recent years, evolution and other branches of science have come under attack by people who disagree with scientific findings regarding the origins and diversity of life, favoring instead religious explanations. See <a href="../../wp/c/Creation-evolution_controversy.htm" title="Creation-evolution controversy">Creation-evolution controversy</a> for more information.<p><a id="Diversity" name="Diversity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diversity</span></h3>
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<div style="width:342px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/48/4801.png.htm" title="A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated."><img alt="A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated." height="230" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Phylogenetic_tree.svg" src="../../images/237/23784.png" width="340" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/48/4801.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetic tree of <!--del_lnk--> all living things, based on <!--del_lnk--> rRNA <!--del_lnk--> gene data, showing the separation of the three domains <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, <!--del_lnk--> archaea, and <a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> as described initially by <!--del_lnk--> Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.</div>
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<p>Classification is the province of the disciplines of <!--del_lnk--> systematics and <!--del_lnk--> taxonomy. Taxonomy places organisms in groups called <!--del_lnk--> taxa, while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. This classification technique has evolved to reflect advances in <!--del_lnk--> cladistics and <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetics.<p>Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms:<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Monera -- <!--del_lnk--> Protista -- <a href="../../wp/f/Fungus.htm" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> -- <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a> -- <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a></dl>
<p>However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the <!--del_lnk--> three-domain system:<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Archaea (originally Archaebacteria) -- <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">Bacteria</a> (originally Eubacteria) -- <a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a></dl>
<p>These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors.<p>Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is separately classified. The order is 1) Kingdom, 2) Phylum, 3) Class, 4) Order, 5) Family, 6) Genus, 7) Species. The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its Genus and Species. For example, humans would be listed as <i>Homo sapiens</i>. Homo would be the Genus and Sapiens is the species. Whenever writing the scientific name of an organism it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics. The term used for classification is called Taxonomy.<p>There is also a series of intracellular <!--del_lnk--> parasites that are progressively "less alive" in terms of <!--del_lnk--> metabolic activity:<dl>
<dd><!--del_lnk--> Viruses -- <!--del_lnk--> Viroids -- <a href="../../wp/p/Prion.htm" title="Prion">Prions</a></dl>
<p><a id="Continuity" name="Continuity"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Continuity</span></h3>
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<p>Up into the <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see <!--del_lnk--> abiogenesis). This misconception was challenged by <a href="../../wp/w/William_Harvey.htm" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>'s diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> "<!--del_lnk--> Omne vivum ex ovo"), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.<p>A group of organisms shares a common descent if they share a common <!--del_lnk--> ancestor. All <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a> on the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a> have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral <!--del_lnk--> gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about <!--del_lnk--> 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality of the <a href="../../wp/g/Genetic_code.htm" title="Genetic code">genetic code</a> as definitive evidence in favour of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a>, <!--del_lnk--> archaea, and <a href="../../wp/e/Eukaryote.htm" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (see: <!--del_lnk--> origin of life).<p><a id="Homeostasis" name="Homeostasis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Homeostasis</span></h3>
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<p>Homeostasis is the ability of an <!--del_lnk--> open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple <!--del_lnk--> dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a>, whether <!--del_lnk--> unicellular or <!--del_lnk--> multicellular, exhibit homeostasis. Homeostasis manifests itself at the cellular level through the maintenance of a stable internal acidity (<!--del_lnk--> pH); at the organismic level, <!--del_lnk--> warm-blooded animals maintain a constant internal body temperature; and at the level of the <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem, as when atmospheric <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> levels rise and <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a> are theoretically able to grow healthier and remove more of the gas from the atmosphere. <!--del_lnk--> Tissues and <!--del_lnk--> organs can also maintain homeostasis.<p><a id="Interactions" name="Interactions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Interactions</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/59/5922.jpg.htm" title="Mutual symbiosis between clownfish of the genus Amphiprion that dwell among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the clown fish from its predators"><img alt="Mutual symbiosis between clownfish of the genus Amphiprion that dwell among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the clown fish from its predators" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Common_clownfish.jpg" src="../../images/237/23785.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/59/5922.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Mutual <!--del_lnk--> symbiosis between <!--del_lnk--> clownfish of the genus <!--del_lnk--> Amphiprion that dwell among the tentacles of tropical <!--del_lnk--> sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the clown fish from its predators</div>
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<p>Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its <!--del_lnk--> environment. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacterium</a> responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">lion</a> is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> <!--del_lnk--> savannah. For any given species, <!--del_lnk--> behaviors can be <!--del_lnk--> co-operative, <!--del_lnk--> aggressive, <!--del_lnk--> parasitic or <!--del_lnk--> symbiotic. Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem. Studies of this type are the province of <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a>.<p><a id="Scope" name="Scope"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Scope</span></h2>
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<p>Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but as a number of clustered sub-disciplines. This article considers four broad groupings. The first group consists of those disciplines that study the basic structures of living systems: <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, <!--del_lnk--> genes etc.; the second group considers the operation of these structures at the level of tissues, organs, and bodies; the third group considers organisms and their histories; the final constellation of disciplines focuses on their interactions. It is important to note, however, that these boundaries, groupings, and descriptions are a simplified characterization of biological research. In reality, the boundaries between disciplines are fluid, and most disciplines frequently borrow techniques from each other. For example, evolutionary biology leans heavily on techniques from molecular biology to determine <!--del_lnk--> DNA sequences, which assist in understanding the genetic variation of a population; and physiology borrows extensively from cell biology in describing the function of organ systems.<br clear="right" />
<p><a id="Structure_of_life" name="Structure_of_life"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Structure of life</span></h3>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Molecular biology is the study of biology at a <!--del_lnk--> molecular level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.<p><!--del_lnk--> Cell biology studies the <!--del_lnk--> physiological properties of <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, as well as their <!--del_lnk--> behaviors, interactions, and <!--del_lnk--> environment. This is done both on a <a href="../../wp/m/Microscope.htm" title="Microscope">microscopic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> molecular level. Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a>.<p>Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and molecular biology. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.<p><a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">Genetics</a> is the <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">science</a> of <!--del_lnk--> genes, <!--del_lnk--> heredity, and the <!--del_lnk--> variation of <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a>. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of <!--del_lnk--> genetic interactions. Within <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a>, genetic information generally is carried in <!--del_lnk--> chromosomes, where it is represented in the <!--del_lnk--> chemical structure of particular <a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a> <!--del_lnk--> molecules.<p><!--del_lnk--> Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final <!--del_lnk--> phenotype of the organism.<p>Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in <!--del_lnk--> embryology, modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of <!--del_lnk--> cell growth, <!--del_lnk--> differentiation, and "<!--del_lnk--> morphogenesis," which is the process that gives rise to <!--del_lnk--> tissues, <!--del_lnk--> organs, and <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Model organisms for developmental biology include the round worm <i><!--del_lnk--> Caenorhabditis elegans</i>, the fruit fly <i><a href="../../wp/d/Drosophila_melanogaster.htm" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila melanogaster</a></i>, the zebrafish <i><!--del_lnk--> Brachydanio rerio</i>, the mouse <i><!--del_lnk--> Mus musculus</i>, and the weed <i><!--del_lnk--> Arabidopsis thaliana</i>.<p><a id="Physiology_of_organisms" name="Physiology_of_organisms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Physiology of organisms</span></h3>
<p><i>Main articles:</i> <b><!--del_lnk--> Physiology</b>, <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a><p>Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into <!--del_lnk--> plant physiology and <!--del_lnk--> animal physiology, but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organism</a> is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a> cells can also apply to <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a> cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of <!--del_lnk--> human physiology to non-human <!--del_lnk--> species. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields.<p><a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a> is an important branch of physiology and considers how <!--del_lnk--> organ systems in animals, such as the <!--del_lnk--> nervous, <!--del_lnk--> immune, <!--del_lnk--> endocrine, <!--del_lnk--> respiratory, and <!--del_lnk--> circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medically</a> oriented disciplines such as <!--del_lnk--> neurology and <!--del_lnk--> immunology.<p><a id="Diversity_and_evolution_of_organisms" name="Diversity_and_evolution_of_organisms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diversity and evolution of organisms</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23786.png.htm" title="In population genetics the evolution of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak"><img alt="In population genetics the evolution of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak" height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png" src="../../images/237/23786.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23786.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In <!--del_lnk--> population genetics the <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of a <!--del_lnk--> population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a <!--del_lnk--> fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><i>Main articles:</i> <b><!--del_lnk--> Evolutionary biology</b>, <a href="../../wp/b/Biodiversity.htm" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">Botany</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Zoology<p>Evolutionary biology is concerned with the origin and descent of <!--del_lnk--> species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many <!--del_lnk--> taxonomically-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a> such as <!--del_lnk--> mammalogy, <!--del_lnk--> ornithology, or <!--del_lnk--> herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology is mainly based on <a href="../../wp/p/Paleontology.htm" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, which uses the <a href="../../wp/f/Fossil.htm" title="Fossil">fossil</a> record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as <!--del_lnk--> population genetics and evolutionary theory. In the <!--del_lnk--> 1990s, <!--del_lnk--> developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of <!--del_lnk--> evolutionary developmental biology. Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are <!--del_lnk--> phylogenetics, <!--del_lnk--> systematics, and <!--del_lnk--> taxonomy.<p>The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are <a href="../../wp/b/Botany.htm" title="Botany">botany</a> and <!--del_lnk--> zoology. Botany is the scientific study of <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a>. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the <!--del_lnk--> growth, <!--del_lnk--> reproduction, <!--del_lnk--> metabolism, <!--del_lnk--> development, <!--del_lnk--> diseases, and <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of plant life. Zoology involves the study of <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animals</a>, including the study of their <!--del_lnk--> physiology within the fields of <a href="../../wp/a/Anatomy.htm" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a> and <!--del_lnk--> embryology. The common <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetic</a> and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in <!--del_lnk--> molecular biology, <!--del_lnk--> molecular genetics, and <!--del_lnk--> developmental biology. The <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a> of animals is covered under <!--del_lnk--> behavioural ecology and other fields.<p><a id="Classification_of_life" name="Classification_of_life"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Classification of life</span></h4>
<p>The dominant classification system is called <!--del_lnk--> Linnaean taxonomy, which includes ranks and <a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial nomenclature</a>. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the <!--del_lnk--> International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the <!--del_lnk--> International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the <!--del_lnk--> International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The <!--del_lnk--> Virus cInternational Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.<p><a id="Interactions_of_organisms" name="Interactions_of_organisms"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Interactions of organisms</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:321px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/6/668.png.htm" title="A food web, a generalization of the food chain, depicting the complex interrelationships among organisms in an ecosystem."><img alt="A food web, a generalization of the food chain, depicting the complex interrelationships among organisms in an ecosystem." height="170" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Foodweb.png" src="../../images/6/668.png" width="319" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">A <!--del_lnk--> food web, a generalization of the food chain, depicting the complex interrelationships among organisms in an <!--del_lnk--> ecosystem.</div>
</div>
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<p><i>Main articles:</i> <b><a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></b>, <!--del_lnk--> Ethology, <!--del_lnk--> Behaviour, <!--del_lnk--> Biogeography<p><a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">Ecology</a> studies the distribution and abundance of <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">living organisms</a>, and the interactions between organisms and their <!--del_lnk--> environment. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as <a href="../../wp/c/Climate.htm" title="Climate">climate</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geology</a>, as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat. Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and <!--del_lnk--> populations to <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems and the <a href="../../wp/b/Biosphere.htm" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>. As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines.<p><!--del_lnk--> Ethology studies <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal</a> <!--del_lnk--> behaviour (particularly of social animals such as <!--del_lnk--> primates and <!--del_lnk--> canids), and is sometimes considered a branch of <!--del_lnk--> zoology. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of behavior and the understanding of behaviour in terms of the theory of <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, whose book <i>The expression of the emotions in animals and men</i> influenced many ethologists.<p><!--del_lnk--> Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>, focusing on topics like <a href="../../wp/p/Plate_tectonics.htm" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Climate_change.htm" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, dispersal and migration, and <!--del_lnk--> cladistics.<p><a id="Etymology" name="Etymology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2>
<p>Formed by combining the <!--del_lnk--> Greek <i><span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">βίος</span></i> <i>(bios)</i>, meaning 'life', and <i><span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">λόγος</span></i> <i>(logos)</i>, meaning 'study of', the word "biology" in its modern sense seems to have been introduced independently by <!--del_lnk--> Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (<i>Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur</i>, <!--del_lnk--> 1802) and by <!--del_lnk--> Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (<i>Hydrogéologie</i>, 1802). The word itself is sometimes said to have been coined in <!--del_lnk--> 1800 by <!--del_lnk--> Karl Friedrich Burdach, but it appears in the title of Volume 3 of Michael Christoph Hanov's <i>Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae</i>: <i>Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia</i>, published in <!--del_lnk--> 1766.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>Major discoveries in biology include:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Cell theory<li><!--del_lnk--> Germ theory of disease<li><a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">Genetics</a><li><a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">Evolution</a><li><a href="../../wp/d/DNA.htm" title="DNA">DNA</a></ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bionicle: Mask of Light</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Films.htm">Films</a></h3>
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<table cellspacing="2" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%;">
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 110%; text-align: center;"><i>Bionicle: Mask of Light</i></th>
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<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="279" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bioniclemask.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></th>
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<tr>
<th>Directed by</th>
<td>David Molina,<br /> Terry Shakespeare</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Produced by</th>
<td>Conny Kalcher</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Written by</th>
<td>Henry Gilroy,<br /> Tracy Berna,<br /> Bob Thompson</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Starring</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Christopher Gaze,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Michael Dobson,<br /><!--del_lnk--> Paul Dobson</td>
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<th>Music by</th>
<td>Nathan Furst</td>
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<tr>
<th>Distributed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Miramax Films</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Release date(s)</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> September 13, <!--del_lnk--> 2003</td>
</tr>
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<th>Running time</th>
<td>70 min.</td>
</tr>
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<th>Language</th>
<td>English</td>
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<th>Budget</th>
<td>US$5.2 million</td>
</tr>
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<th>Followed by</th>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Bionicle 2: Legends of Metru Nui</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> IMDb profile</b></th>
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</table>
<p><b>Bionicle: Mask of Light</b> is first in three of the direct-to-video <!--del_lnk--> Bionicle movies based on the <a href="../../wp/l/Lego.htm" title="Lego">Lego</a> toy series. It has sold over 40 million copies worldwide since it's release.<p>The movies revolve around an island called <!--del_lnk--> Mata Nui. The spirit protecting the island, put into a deep sleep, has returned and only the Mask of Light, in the hands of two Matoran who are assisted by six heroes, can return it to the Toa of Light and return his mask before it is too late.<p>The direct-to-video sales made <i>Mask of Light</i> one of the top selling DVD's of 2003 in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, and has helped in the development of two more movies in the franchise. It was praised for its visual effects and sound direction, but thought to be average in its storyline and character development.<p>
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</script><a id="Plot" name="Plot"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Plot</span></h2>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>The story starts out with the backstory briefly explained the story thus far (How <!--del_lnk--> Mata Nui brought the Matoran to the island that they named Mata Nui in his honour, how <!--del_lnk--> Makuta put Mata Nui into a deep slumber, etc). The story then shifts to the fortress village of Ta-Koro, which in located in a lake of <!--del_lnk--> lava. The island-wide Kohlii championship is about to start and <!--del_lnk--> Jaller is looking for his teammate <!--del_lnk--> Takua the Chronicler. He soon finds him, looking at a warning totem next to a molten river. Just before they are to leave, Takua picks up the totem, and the ground begins shaking. He drops the artifact into the lava, revealing a <!--del_lnk--> Kanohi mask that was embedded in the totem. At that moment, a wave of lava begins to rush through the chamber at Takua. He throws the mask to Jaller and tries to use a lavaboard to get across the lava river, but only gets halfway. Just as he is about to become "lava bones" (As Jaller later puts it), he is saved by <!--del_lnk--> Toa Tahu Nuva, Toa of Fire. The two then rush to the Kohlii field, and Jaller puts the mask in his pack. At the field, <!--del_lnk--> Turaga Vakama introduces the three Toa present: Tahu, Gali the Toa of Water, and Pohatu the Toa of Stone. He then introduces the three teams: Hewkii and Hafu of the desert Po-Koro, Hahli and Macku of Ga-Koro, which is built over a lake, and Takua and Jaller. The match caries on into the night, until Ga-Koro is the winner. At the end, the Mask Takua found falls out of Jaller's pack, shining a bright light on him. The Turaga deduce that this is the Mask of Light, which is to be worn by a legendary Seventh Toa that will defeat Makuta. The Mask of Light will lead its herald to the Seventh Toa, who is Takua. But he's too much of a wimp to admit it, so Jaller is mistakenly believed to be the Toa's Herald. Unfortunately for Takua, he still has to come along as well to chronicle Jaller’s heroics. Pohatu leaves to spread word about the Seventh Toa, and Gali has left already. The two leave Ta-Koro the next day on Takua's Ussal Crab, Pewku, with the Mask leading them to Le-Wahi.<p>Deep beneath Mata Nui, Makuta is fully aware of what is happening above. He talks to a large statue of a Kanohi Hau Mask, which he refers to as his brother Mata Nui. He then decides to release three of his spawns of shadow, the Rahkshi, to find and destroy the Herald. On the surface, Gali is at the Kini Nui, a giant temple near the center of the island. The Rahkshi burst from the centre of the Kini Nui and attack Gali, who narrowly escapes by hiding in a nearby river. Realizing the Rahkshi are headed for Ta-Koro, she gets there before them and alerts the city. The Rahkshi burst through the walls of Ta-Koro anyway, using their powers of shattering, disintegration, and poison to wreak havoc and eventually destroy the village, but all the Matoran escape unharmed. In the fight, Tahu's mask is scratched by the Rahkshi Lerahk’s poison staff, leaving a sickly green scratch. He doesn't care through, as he is more concerned about the destruction of his village. Takua and Jaller are heading through the jungle of Le-Wahi, following where the past of light shows them to go. They are then attacked by a Graalok ash bear, and are rescued by Lewa, Toa of Air, who gives them a faster way of traveling, a Gukko bird, with the use to fly to the icy Ko-Wahi. Upon their arrival, they learn of Ta-Koro's destruction, the message sent by the Drums of Le-koro. Lewa then flies to Ta-Wahi to find out more, leaving Takua and Jaller behind. They are caught in a blizzard, and run into Kopaka, Toa of Ice, whose personality is as cold as his powers. Upon arriving at Ko-Koro, they are attacked by the Rahkshi, and escape down the side of a mountain. Kopaka is knocked out in the escape, and Takua tries to get away across a lake, using Kopaka's shield as a raft and the Mask as a paddle. Just as the Rahkshi close in, Kopaka wakes up and freezes the Rahkshi in the lake. Pewku (who had been left behind in Le-Wahi) arrives, and Kopaka leaves to see to his village. The Matoran then leave for the underground Onu-Wahi.<p>In the underground network of tunnels, Takua gets lost. He is surprised by Makuta, who appears before him in the form of two glowing red eyes. He warns Takua that if he does not give him the Mask of Light, Jaller will die. Takua refuses, but later panics and leaves Jaller and the mask and behind. Pohatu and Onua (The Toa of Earth), are telling the Onu-Matoran about the Seventh Toa when Takua and Pewku arrive. Guess who else arrives: the Rahkshi, only different ones this time. These Rahkshi have the powers of fear (makes victim incredibly afraid), anger (turns victims against each other), and hunger (saps victim of its strength). As the Matoran are forced to flee from their villages Takua realizes this is his fault, as he is the real Herald, meaning the Rahkshi are looking for <i>him.</i> Tahu, Gali, and Lewa arrive, and Tahu's scar has gotten worse. When he is hit by Kurahk’s anger energy, the poison and the anger cause his to attack Gali. He is stopped when Kopaka arrives, freezing the enraged Tahu in ice. Meanwhile, Pohatu and Onua cause a cave in, and the Toa are forced to flee the village. Gali, Kopaka, and Lewa later free Tahu from his madness.<p>Takua finds Jaller and the two head for the Kini Nui, which the mask says the Seventh Toa should be. Nothing happens, though, and all six <!--del_lnk--> Rahkshi surround them. The Toa come to their aid, and destroy all the Rahkshi except Turahk, who tries to kill Takua, but Jaller takes the blow instead. As the dying Jaller tells Takua "You were always different" the Chronicler realizes that the Herald doesn't find the Seventh Toa, the Herald is the Seventh <!--del_lnk--> Toa. Takua puts on the Mask of Light and becomes Takanuva, Toa of Light. He destroys Turahk, and then builds the Ussanui out of Rahkshi parts and flies down to Makuta's lair. After a "game of Kolhii" (played with a ball of protodermis) Takanuva and Makuta fall into a pool of protodermis and emerge as <!--del_lnk--> Takutanuva. The combined being leads the Matoran, Turaga, and Toa (Who had been lead down to witness Makuta's defeat by Hahli, the new Chronicler), through a gate in the Kanohi mask statue. Takutanuva, who is holding the gate up, then regenerates Jaller by sending some of his energies into Jaller's mask. However, this transfer leaves Takutanuva to weak to hold the door up, and it crushes him. As the dusk clears, only the Mask of Light remains. Takanuva is then revived as well, and his light makes a hole in the cavern, revealing the long lost city of <!--del_lnk--> Metru Nui.<div class="notice metadata spoiler" style="border-top: 2px solid #dddddd; border-bottom:2px solid #dddddd; text-align: justify; margin: 1em; padding: 0.2em;"><i><b>Spoilers end here.</b></i></div>
<p><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Miramax and <a href="../../wp/l/Lego.htm" title="Lego">Lego</a> made a partnership in 2002 to develop and distribute two Bionicle movies. The directors Terry Shakespeare and David Molina noted that there were several already existing interpretations of the Bionicle look, including the flash web comic, comic book, and CG commericals, and eventually decided to base it on the CG commercial look. After attending several days of "Bionicle school" in <a href="../../wp/d/Denmark.htm" title="Denmark">Denmark</a>, they were given a grounding in how they were developed. Several features were redesigned for the movie, including the introduction of a movable mouth to allow for a more human character. Also, the characters such as the Toa Nuva were redesigned, beginning with the creation of a <!--del_lnk--> skeleton and <!--del_lnk--> muscles. For the design, Shakespeare noted that "The first film had primary colors that were coded to the areas and a younger feel."<p>Two scripts for the <!--del_lnk--> Bionicle movie were created, one by writer <!--del_lnk--> Alastair Swinnerton (also one of the original Bionicle creators) and one from the other, Henry Gilroy, to see who would write the better script. Due to time constraints, however, the Gilroy script was accepted with some of Alastair's ideas included. He reported that the creator Bob Thompson, who had reportedly had some of the characters in mind for years. "I really made it my duty to stick close by his vision, while bringing my ideas of comical character and big screen action, all the while staying true to the <!--del_lnk--> LEGO ideals of construction and community." The Lego Company insists they would "never compromise their values for the bottom line." The movie was also an occasion for the expansion of the Bionicle universe by the addition of the Rahkshi and its line of toys.<p><a id="Reception" name="Reception"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reception</span></h2>
<p>The film premiered on <!--del_lnk--> September 13th, <!--del_lnk--> 2003, at <!--del_lnk--> Legoland in <!--del_lnk--> Carlsbad, California, which featured a huge mosaic built of <a href="../../wp/l/Lego.htm" title="Legos">Legos</a> and a special effects show. The DVD was one of the ten best selling premiere DVDs of 2003. Cartoon Network acquired the license to broadcast Mask of Light, airing for the first time on <!--del_lnk--> April 17th, <!--del_lnk--> 2004.<p>Entertainment Weekly gave the first Bionicle movie a "B+" The film was thought to be spectacular with its visual effects and sound mix, but lacking in dynamic characters, and possessing a simple plot, though others thought that thanks to skilled voice acting, the characters were allowed to grow. The assumption that people are already familiar with the story made it difficult to follow for the uninitiated. Some reviewers noted references to <!--del_lnk--> Raiders of the Lost Ark ,<a href="../../wp/h/Harry_Potter.htm" title="Harry Potter">Harry Potter</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Peter Jackson's <!--del_lnk--> Lord Of The Rings lauded film trilogy (whose final film was released in December later the same year) throughout the story. A video game based on the movie was released on the Playstation 2, GameCube, Xbox, and Gameboy Advance receiving below average reviews. There was also a novelization of the film and a line of toys from it.<p>Bionicle won the <!--del_lnk--> Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing in a DVD Premiere Movie. Composer Nathan Furst was nominated for his second consecutive DVD Exclusive Award for Best Original Score. Mask of Light was also nominated for Best Director, Best Animated Premiere Movie, Best Visual Effects, Best Original Score, and Best Editing.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bionicle:_Mask_of_Light"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Biosphere</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Climate_and_the_Weather.htm">Climate and the Weather</a></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4118.jpg.htm" title="A false-color composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE."><img alt="A false-color composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE." class="thumbimage" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" src="../../images/41/4118.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4118.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> false-colour composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September <!--del_lnk--> 1997 to August <!--del_lnk--> 2000. Provided by the <!--del_lnk--> SeaWiFS Project, <!--del_lnk--> NASA/<!--del_lnk--> Goddard Space Flight Centre and <!--del_lnk--> ORBIMAGE.</div>
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<p>The <b>biosphere</b> is the outermost part of the <a href="../../wp/p/Planet.htm" title="Planet">planet</a>'s shell — including <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">air</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Landform.htm" title="Landform">land</a>, <!--del_lnk--> surface rocks, and <a href="../../wp/w/Water.htm" title="Water">water</a> — within which <a href="../../wp/l/Life.htm" title="Life">life</a> occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest <!--del_lnk--> biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is the global <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecological</a> system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the <!--del_lnk--> lithosphere (rocks), <!--del_lnk--> hydrosphere (water), and <a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> (air). This biosphere is postulated to have <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolved</a>, beginning through a process of <!--del_lnk--> biogenesis or <!--del_lnk--> biopoesis, at least some 3.5 billion years ago.<p><!--del_lnk--> Biomass accounts for about 3.7 kg carbon per square metre of the earth's surface averaged over land and sea, making a total of about 1900 <!--del_lnk--> gigatonnes of carbon.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Origin_and_use_of_the_term" name="Origin_and_use_of_the_term"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origin and use of the term</span></h2>
<p>The term "biosphere" was coined by geologist <!--del_lnk--> Eduard Suess in 1875, which he defined as:<div style="font-size:125%">
<blockquote class="templatequote" style="margin-top:0;">
<p>The place on earth's surface where life dwells.</blockquote>
</div>
<p>While this concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the impact of both <a href="../../wp/c/Charles_Darwin.htm" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Maury on the <!--del_lnk--> earth sciences. The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s (<i>see</i> <!--del_lnk--> Vladimir I. Vernadsky), preceding the 1935 introduction of the term "<b><!--del_lnk--> ecosystem</b>" by Sir <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Tansley (see <!--del_lnk--> ecology history). Vernadsky defined <a href="../../wp/e/Ecology.htm" title="Ecology">ecology</a> as the science of the biosphere. It is an <!--del_lnk--> interdisciplinary concept for integrating <a href="../../wp/a/Astronomy.htm" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <!--del_lnk--> geophysics, <a href="../../wp/m/Meteorology.htm" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> biogeography, <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Geology.htm" title="Geology">geology</a>, <!--del_lnk--> geochemistry, <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrology.htm" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> and, generally speaking, all life and earth sciences.<p><a id="Narrow_definition" name="Narrow_definition"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Narrow definition</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4120.jpg.htm" title="A familiar scene on Earth which simultaneously shows the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere."><img alt="A familiar scene on Earth which simultaneously shows the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere." class="thumbimage" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:90_mile_beach.jpg" src="../../images/41/4120.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/41/4120.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A familiar <a href="../../wp/b/Beach.htm" title="Beach">scene</a> on Earth which simultaneously shows the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.</div>
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<p>Some life scientists and earth scientists use <i>biosphere</i> in a more limited sense. For example, geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the "<!--del_lnk--> biomass" or "<!--del_lnk--> biota" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being <i><!--del_lnk--> lithosphere</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> hydrosphere</i>, and <i><a href="../../wp/e/Earth%2527s_atmosphere.htm" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a></i>. The narrow meaning used by geochemists is one of the consequences of specialization in modern science. Some might prefer the word <b>ecosphere</b>, coined in the 1960s, as all encompassing of both biological and physical components of the planet.<p>The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined <b>biospherics</b> as the science and technology of analogs and <!--del_lnk--> models of <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres — for example, human-centered biospheres or a native <!--del_lnk--> Martian biosphere — in the field of biospherics.<p><a id="Gaia.27s_biosphere" name="Gaia.27s_biosphere"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gaia's biosphere</span></h3>
<p>The concept that the biosphere is itself a living organism, either actually or metaphorically, is known as the <!--del_lnk--> Gaia hypothesis.<p><a id="Extent_of_the_earth.27s_biosphere" name="Extent_of_the_earth.27s_biosphere"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Extent of the earth's biosphere</span></h2>
<p>Some theorists have postulated that the Earth is poorly suited to life, although nearly every part of the planet, from the <!--del_lnk--> polar ice caps to the <!--del_lnk--> Equator, supports life of some kind. Indeed, recent advances in <!--del_lnk--> microbiology have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called "uninhabitable zones" may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the surface. The actual thickness of the biosphere on earth is hard to measure. Birds typically fly at altitudes of 650 to 2000 meters, and fish that live deep underwater can be found down to -8,372 meters in the <!--del_lnk--> Puerto Rico Trench.<p>There are more extreme examples for life on the planet: <!--del_lnk--> Ruppell's Vulture has been found at altitudes of 11,300 meters; <!--del_lnk--> Bar-headed Geese migrate at altitudes of at least 8,300 meters (over <a href="../../wp/m/Mount_Everest.htm" title="Mount Everest">Mount Everest</a>); Yaks live at elevations between 3,200 to 5,400 meters above sea level; mountain goats live up to 3,050 meters. Herbivorous animals at these elevations depend on lichens, grasses, and herbs but the biggest tree is the Tine palm or mountain coconut found 3,400 meters above sea level.<p>Microscopic organisms (e.g., bacteria) live at such extremes that, taking them into consideration puts the thickness of the biosphere much greater, but at minimum it extends from 5,400 meters above sea level to at least 9,000 meters below sea level.<p><a id="Biosphere_1.2C_Biosphere_2.2C_Biosphere_3" name="Biosphere_1.2C_Biosphere_2.2C_Biosphere_3"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biosphere 1, Biosphere 2, Biosphere 3</span></h2>
<p>When the word <i>Biosphere</i> is followed by a number, it is usually referring to a specific system. Thus:<ol>
<li>Biosphere 1 - The planet <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Biosphere 2 - A laboratory in Arizona which contains 3.15 acres (13,000 m²) of closed ecosystem<li><!--del_lnk--> Biosphere 3 (aka BIOS-3) - Experiment conducted by Russians in 1967-68 <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <!--del_lnk--> <li><!--del_lnk--> Biosphere J - An experiment in Japan</ol>
<p><a id="Biosphere_1" name="Biosphere_1"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Biosphere 1</span></h3>
<p>Our biosphere is divided into a number of <!--del_lnk--> biomes, inhabited by broadly similar <!--del_lnk--> flora and <!--del_lnk--> fauna. On land, biomes are separated primarily by <!--del_lnk--> latitude. Terrestrial biomes lying within the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Circle.htm" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Antarctic Circles are relatively barren of <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plant</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">animal</a> life, while most of the more populous biomes lie near the <!--del_lnk--> Equator. Terrestrial organisms in temperate and arctic biomes have relatively small amounts of total biomass, smaller energy budgets, and display prominent adaptations to cold, including world-spanning migrations, social adaptations, <!--del_lnk--> homeothermy, <!--del_lnk--> estivation and multiple layers of insulation.<p>For important major components of Earth's biosphere, see: <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">Ocean</a>; <a href="../../wp/f/Forest.htm" title="Forest">Forest</a>; <a href="../../wp/d/Desert.htm" title="Desert">Desert</a>; <!--del_lnk--> Steppe; <!--del_lnk--> Lake; <a href="../../wp/r/River.htm" title="River">River</a>.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere"</div>
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<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/193/19300.jpg.htm" title="The structure of insulin"><img alt="The structure of insulin" height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:InsulinMonomer.jpg" src="../../images/17/1713.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Biotechnology</b> is <a href="../../wp/t/Technology.htm" title="Technology">technology</a> based on <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a>, especially when used in <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <!--del_lnk--> food science, and <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> UN <!--del_lnk--> Convention on Biological Diversity has come up with one of many definitions of biotechnology:<dl>
<dd><i>"Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use."</i></dl>
<p>This definition is at odds with common usage in the United States, where "biotechnology" generally refers to <!--del_lnk--> recombinant DNA based and/or <!--del_lnk--> tissue culture based processes that have only been commercialized since the 1970s. Thus, in common usage, modifying plants or animals by breeding, which has been practiced for thousands of years, would not be considered biotechnology. This distinction emphasizes that modern, recombinant DNA based biotechnology is not just a more powerful version of existing technology, but represents something new and different; for instance, theoretically, recombinant DNA biotechnology allows us to take virtually any gene and express it in any organism; we can take the genes that make crimson colour in plants and put them into guinea pigs to make pink pets, or, we can take the genes that help arctic fish survive the freezing temperatures and put them into food to increase the amount of time it can grow before it freezes. This sort of gene transfer was virtually impossible with historical processes.<p>There has been a great deal of talk - and money - poured into biotechnology with the hope that miracle drugs will appear. While there do seem to be a small number of efficacious drugs, in general the Biotech revolution has not happened in the pharmaceutical sector. However, recent progress with monoclonal antibody based drugs, such as Genentech's <!--del_lnk--> Avastin (tm) suggest that biotech may finally have found a role in pharmaceutical sales.<p>Biotechnology can also be defined as the manipulation of organisms to do practical things and to provide useful products.<p>One aspect of biotechnology is the directed use of <a href="../../wp/o/Organism.htm" title="Organism">organisms</a> for the manufacture of organic products (examples include <a href="../../wp/b/Beer.htm" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a href="../../wp/m/Milk.htm" title="Milk">milk</a> products). For another example, naturally present <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacteria</a> are utilized by the mining industry in <!--del_lnk--> bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (<!--del_lnk--> bioremediation), and produce <!--del_lnk--> biological weapons.<p>There are also applications of biotechnology that do not use living organisms. Examples are <!--del_lnk--> DNA microarrays used in <a href="../../wp/g/Genetics.htm" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> radioactive tracers used in medicine.<p><b>Red biotechnology</b> is applied to <!--del_lnk--> medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce <!--del_lnk--> antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through <!--del_lnk--> genomic manipulation.<p><b>White biotechnology</b>, also known as <b>grey biotechnology</b>, is biotechnology applied to <a href="../../wp/i/Industry.htm" title="Industry">industrial</a> processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.<p><b>Green biotechnology</b> is biotechnology applied to <!--del_lnk--> agricultural processes. An example is the designing of <!--del_lnk--> transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a <!--del_lnk--> pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be <!--del_lnk--> Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.<p><b><a href="../../wp/b/Bioinformatics.htm" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></b> is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques. The field is also often referred to as computational biology. It plays a key role in various areas, such as <!--del_lnk--> functional genomics, <!--del_lnk--> structural genomics, and <!--del_lnk--> proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.<p>The term <b>blue biotechnology</b> has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.<p>
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</script><a id="Biotechnology_medical_products" name="Biotechnology_medical_products"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biotechnology medical products</span></h2>
<p>Traditional pharmaceutical drugs are small chemicals molecules that treat the symptoms of a disease or illness - one molecule directed at a single target. Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as <!--del_lnk--> proteins and these target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady; it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that are not accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule <i>via</i> a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.<p>Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but large molecules are created by living cells: for example, - bacteria cells, yeast cell,animal cells.<p>Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered <!--del_lnk--> microorganisms such as <i><!--del_lnk--> E. coli</i> or <a href="../../wp/y/Yeast.htm" title="Yeast">yeast</a> for the production of substances like <a href="../../wp/i/Insulin.htm" title="Insulin">insulin</a> or <!--del_lnk--> antibiotics. It can also refer to <!--del_lnk--> transgenic animals or <!--del_lnk--> transgenic plants, such as <!--del_lnk--> Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as <!--del_lnk--> Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also widely used to manufacture pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of <!--del_lnk--> plant-made pharmaceuticals.<p>Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat <!--del_lnk--> diabetes, <!--del_lnk--> Hepatitis B, <!--del_lnk--> Hepatitis C, <!--del_lnk--> Cancers, <!--del_lnk--> Arthritis, <a href="../../wp/h/Haemophilia.htm" title="Haemophilia">Haemophilia</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Bone Fractures, <a href="../../wp/m/Multiple_sclerosis.htm" title="Multiple Sclerosis">Multiple Sclerosis</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Cardiovascular as well as molecular diagnostic devices than can be used to define the patient population. <!--del_lnk--> Herceptin, is the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein <!--del_lnk--> HER2.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Early cultures also understood the importance of using <!--del_lnk--> natural processes to breakdown waste products into inert forms. From very early nomadic tribes to pre-urban civilizations it was common knowledge that given enough time organic waste products would be absorbed and eventually integrated into the soil. It was not until the advent of modern microbiology and chemistry that this process was fully understood and attributed to bacteria.<p>The most practical use of biotechnology, which is still present today, is the cultivations of plants to produce food suitable to humans. <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the <!--del_lnk--> Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology farmers were able to select the best suited and high-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism byproducts were used to <!--del_lnk--> fertilize, <a href="../../wp/n/Nitrogen_fixation.htm" title="Nitrogen fixation">restore nitrogen</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments, <!--del_lnk--> breeding them with other plants, and by using <!--del_lnk--> artificial selection. In modern times some plants are <!--del_lnk--> genetically modified to produce specific nutritional values or to be economical.<p>The process of <!--del_lnk--> Ethanol fermentation was also one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in <a href="../../wp/m/Mesopotamia.htm" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, and <a href="../../wp/i/Iran.htm" title="Iran">Iran</a> developed the process of <!--del_lnk--> brewing which consisted of combining malted grains with specifics yeasts to produce alcoholic beverages. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later other cultures produced the process of <!--del_lnk--> Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_Pasteur.htm" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur’s</a> work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.<p>Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as <!--del_lnk--> medications in many early civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have lead to many developments such as <!--del_lnk--> antibiotics, <!--del_lnk--> vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness.<p>A more recent field in biotechnology is that of <!--del_lnk--> genetic engineering. Genetic modification has opened up many new fields of biotechnology and allowed the modification of plants, animals, and even humans on a molecular level.<p><a id="Global_biotechnology_trends" name="Global_biotechnology_trends"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Global biotechnology trends</span></h2>
<p>According to Burrill and Company, an industry investment bank, over $350 billion has been invested in biotech so far, and global revenues have risen from $23 billion in 2000 to more than $50 billion in 2005. The greatest growth has been in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> but all regions of the world have shown strong growth trends.<p>There has been little innovation in the traditional pharmaceutical industry over the past decade and biopharmaceuticals are now achieving the fastest rates of growth against this background, particularly in <!--del_lnk--> breast cancer treatment. Biopharmaceuticals typically treat sub-sets of the total population with a disease whereas traditional drugs are developed to treat the population as a whole. However, one of the great difficulties with traditional drugs are the toxic side effects the incidence of which can be unpredictable in individual patients.<p><a id="Biotechnology_firms" name="Biotechnology_firms"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Biotechnology firms</span></h2>
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<dd>
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<p>There are around 4,000 biotechnology firms across the globe. Almost 50% of these are in the European Union; 30% in the US and the balance in Asia. The leading biotechnology firms are <!--del_lnk--> Amgen, <!--del_lnk--> Genentech and <!--del_lnk--> Serono.<p><a id="Key_visionaries_and_personalities_in_biotechnology_sector" name="Key_visionaries_and_personalities_in_biotechnology_sector"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Key visionaries and personalities in biotechnology sector</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="../../wp/f/Finland.htm" title="Finland">Finland</a> : <!--del_lnk--> Leena Palotie<li><a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> : <!--del_lnk--> Kari Stefansson<li><a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> : <!--del_lnk--> Timothy O'Brien, <!--del_lnk--> Dermot P Kelleher, <!--del_lnk--> Pearse Lyons<li><!--del_lnk--> USA : <!--del_lnk--> Kate Jacques, <!--del_lnk--> David Botstein, <!--del_lnk--> Craig Venter, <!--del_lnk--> Sydney Brenner, <!--del_lnk--> Eric Lander, <!--del_lnk--> Leroy Hood, <!--del_lnk--> Robert Langer, <!--del_lnk--> Henry I. Miller, <!--del_lnk--> Roger Beachy, <!--del_lnk--> William Rutter, <!--del_lnk--> George Rathmann, <!--del_lnk--> Herbert Boyer, <!--del_lnk--> Michael West, <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Okarma<li><a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> : <!--del_lnk--> Paul D Kemp<li><a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> : <!--del_lnk--> Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (<!--del_lnk--> Biocon)<li><a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> : <!--del_lnk--> Mike Tyers</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bird</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Birds</b><br />
<center><small>Fossil range: Late <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> - Recent</small></center>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1714.jpg.htm" title="Superb Fairy-wren, Malurus cyaneus, juvenile"><img alt="Superb Fairy-wren, Malurus cyaneus, juvenile" height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Superb_fairy_wren2_LiquidGhoul.jpg" src="../../images/17/1714.jpg" width="240" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small><!--del_lnk--> Superb Fairy-wren, <i>Malurus cyaneus</i>, juvenile</small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Subphylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrata</a><br />
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<td>(unranked)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Archosauria<br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><b>Aves</b><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758</small></td>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Orders</center>
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<center>Many - see <a href="#Bird_orders" title="">section below</a>.</center>
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<p><b>Birds</b> are <!--del_lnk--> bipedal, <!--del_lnk--> warm-blooded, <!--del_lnk--> oviparous <a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> animals <!--del_lnk--> characterized primarily by <a href="../../wp/f/Feather.htm" title="Feather">feathers</a>, forelimbs modified as <!--del_lnk--> wings, and (in most) hollow bones.<p>Birds range in size from the tiny <!--del_lnk--> hummingbirds to the huge <a href="../../wp/o/Ostrich.htm" title="Ostrich">Ostrich</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Emu.htm" title="Emu">Emu</a>. Depending on the <!--del_lnk--> taxonomic viewpoint, there are about 8,800–10,200 living bird species (and about 120–130 that have become <a href="../../wp/e/Extinction.htm" title="Extinction">extinct</a> in the span of human history) in the world, making them the most diverse class of <!--del_lnk--> terrestrial <a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>.<p>Birds feed on <!--del_lnk--> nectar, <a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">plants</a>, seeds, <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/Fish.htm" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <!--del_lnk--> carrion, or other birds.<p>Most birds are <!--del_lnk--> diurnal, or active during the day, but some birds, such as the <a href="../../wp/o/Owl.htm" title="Owl">owls</a> and <!--del_lnk--> nightjars, are <!--del_lnk--> nocturnal or <!--del_lnk--> crepuscular (active during twilight hours), and many coastal <a href="../../wp/w/Wader.htm" title="Wader">waders</a> feed when the tides are appropriate, by day or night.<p>Many birds <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migrate</a> long distances to utilise optimum habitats (e.g., <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Tern.htm" title="Arctic Tern">Arctic Tern</a>) while others spend almost all their time at sea (e.g. the <!--del_lnk--> Wandering Albatross). Some, such as <!--del_lnk--> Common Swifts, stay aloft for days at a time, even sleeping on the wing.<p>Common characteristics of birds include a bony <!--del_lnk--> beak with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled <!--del_lnk--> eggs, high <!--del_lnk--> metabolic rate, a 4-chambered heart, and a light but strong <!--del_lnk--> skeleton. Most birds are characterised by <!--del_lnk--> flight, though the <!--del_lnk--> ratites are flightless, and several other species, particularly on islands, have also lost this ability. Flightless birds include the <a href="../../wp/p/Penguin.htm" title="Penguin">penguins</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Ostrich.htm" title="Ostrich">ostrich</a>, <!--del_lnk--> kiwi, and the extinct <a href="../../wp/d/Dodo.htm" title="Dodo">Dodo</a>. Flightless species are vulnerable to extinction when humans or the mammals they introduce arrive in their habitat. The <a href="../../wp/g/Great_Auk.htm" title="Great Auk">Great Auk</a>, flightless <!--del_lnk--> rails, and the <!--del_lnk--> moa of <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand, for example, all became extinct due to human influence.<p>Birds are among the most extensively studied of all animal groups. Hundreds of academic journals and thousands of scientists are devoted to bird research, while amateur enthusiasts (called birdwatchers, twitchers or, more commonly, <!--del_lnk--> birders) probably number in the millions.<p>
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</script><a id="High-level_taxonomy" name="High-level_taxonomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">High-level taxonomy</span></h2>
<p>Birds are categorised as a <!--del_lnk--> biological class, <b>Aves</b>. The earliest known species of this class is <i><a href="../../wp/a/Archaeopteryx.htm" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx lithographica</a></i>, from the Late <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period. Modern phylogenies place birds in the dinosaur clade <a href="../../wp/t/Theropoda.htm" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a>. According to the current consensus, Aves and a sister group, the <!--del_lnk--> order <!--del_lnk--> Crocodilia, together are the sole living members of an unranked "<a href="../../wp/r/Reptile.htm" title="Reptile">reptile</a>" <!--del_lnk--> clade, the <!--del_lnk--> Archosauria.<p><!--del_lnk--> Phylogenetically, Aves is usually defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds (or of a specific modern bird species like <i><a href="../../wp/h/House_Sparrow.htm" title="House Sparrow">Passer domesticus</a></i>), and <i><a href="../../wp/a/Archaeopteryx.htm" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i>.<p>Modern birds are divided into two <!--del_lnk--> superorders, the <!--del_lnk--> Paleognathae (mostly flightless birds like <a href="../../wp/o/Ostrich.htm" title="Ostrich">ostriches</a>), and the wildly diverse <!--del_lnk--> Neognathae, containing all other birds.<p><a id="Bird_orders" name="Bird_orders"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bird orders</span></h2>
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<div style="width:281px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1715.png.htm" title="Relationships between bird orders according the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. "Galloanseri" is now considered a superorder Galloanserae."><img alt="Relationships between bird orders according the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. "Galloanseri" is now considered a superorder Galloanserae." height="480" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Galloanseri2.png" src="../../images/17/1715.png" width="279" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1715.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Relationships between bird orders according the <!--del_lnk--> Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. "Galloanseri" is now considered a <!--del_lnk--> superorder <!--del_lnk--> Galloanserae.</div>
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<p>This is a list of the taxonomic orders in the subclass Neornithes, or modern birds. The <!--del_lnk--> list of birds gives a more detailed summary of these, including families.<p><b>SUBCLASS NEORNITHES</b><br /><!--del_lnk--> Paleognathae:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Struthioniformes, <a href="../../wp/o/Ostrich.htm" title="Ostrich">Ostrich</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Emu.htm" title="Emu">emus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> kiwis, and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Tinamiformes, <!--del_lnk--> tinamous</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Neognathae:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Anseriformes, waterfowl<li><!--del_lnk--> Galliformes, fowl<li><!--del_lnk--> Gaviiformes, <!--del_lnk--> loons<li><!--del_lnk--> Podicipediformes, <!--del_lnk--> grebes<li><!--del_lnk--> Procellariiformes, <a href="../../wp/a/Albatross.htm" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a>, <!--del_lnk--> petrels, and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Sphenisciformes, <a href="../../wp/p/Penguin.htm" title="Penguin">penguins</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Pelecaniformes, <!--del_lnk--> pelicans and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Ciconiiformes, <!--del_lnk--> storks and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Phoenicopteriformes, <a href="../../wp/f/Flamingo.htm" title="Flamingo">flamingos</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Accipitriformes, <a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" title="Eagle">eagles</a>, <a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" title="Hawk">hawks</a> and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Falconiformes, <a href="../../wp/f/Falcon.htm" title="Falcon">falcons</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Gruiformes, cranes and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Charadriiformes, <a href="../../wp/g/Gull.htm" title="Gull">gulls</a>, <!--del_lnk--> button-quail, plovers and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Pteroclidiformes, sandgrouse<li><!--del_lnk--> Columbiformes, <a href="../../wp/d/Dove.htm" title="Dove">doves and pigeons</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Psittaciformes, <a href="../../wp/p/Parrot.htm" title="Parrot">parrots</a> and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Cuculiformes, <!--del_lnk--> cuckoos, <!--del_lnk--> turacos, <!--del_lnk--> hoatzin<li><!--del_lnk--> Strigiformes, <a href="../../wp/o/Owl.htm" title="Owl">owls</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Caprimulgiformes, <!--del_lnk--> nightjars and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Apodiformes, <a href="../../wp/s/Swift.htm" title="Swift">swifts</a> and <!--del_lnk--> hummingbirds<li><!--del_lnk--> Coraciiformes, <!--del_lnk--> kingfishers<li><!--del_lnk--> Piciformes, <a href="../../wp/w/Woodpecker.htm" title="Woodpecker">woodpeckers</a> and allies<li><!--del_lnk--> Trogoniformes, <!--del_lnk--> trogons<li><!--del_lnk--> Coliiformes, mousebirds<li><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes, passerines</ul>
<p>Note: This is the traditional classification (the so-called <!--del_lnk--> Clements order). A radically different classification based on molecular data has been developed (the so-called Sibley-Monroe classification or <!--del_lnk--> Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy). This has influenced taxonomical thinking considerably, with the <!--del_lnk--> Galloanserae proving well-supported by recent molecular, fossil and anatomical evidence. With increasingly good evidence, it has become possible by <!--del_lnk--> 2006 to test the major proposals of the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy. The results are often nothing short of astounding, see e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Charadriiformes or <!--del_lnk--> Caprimulgiformes.<p><a id="Extinct_bird_orders" name="Extinct_bird_orders"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Extinct bird orders</span></h3>
<p>A wide variety of bird groups became extinct during the <!--del_lnk--> Mesozoic era and left no modern descendants. These include the orders <!--del_lnk--> Archaeopterygiformes, <!--del_lnk--> Confuciusornithiformes, toothed seabirds like the <!--del_lnk--> Hesperornithes and <!--del_lnk--> Ichthyornithes, and the diverse subclass <!--del_lnk--> Enantiornithes ("opposite birds").<p>For a complete listing of prehistoric bird groups, see <!--del_lnk--> Fossil birds.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1716.jpg.htm" title="Shoebill, Balaeniceps rex"><img alt="Shoebill, Balaeniceps rex" height="345" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Shoebill.jpeg" src="../../images/17/1716.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1716.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Shoebill, <i>Balaeniceps rex</i></div>
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<p><a id="Evolution" name="Evolution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Evolution</span></h2>
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<p>There is <!--del_lnk--> significant evidence that birds evolved from <a href="../../wp/t/Theropoda.htm" title="Theropoda">theropod</a> <!--del_lnk--> dinosaurs, specifically, that birds are members of <!--del_lnk--> Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes <!--del_lnk--> dromaeosaurs and <!--del_lnk--> oviraptorids, among others. As more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds are discovered, the formerly clear distinction between non-birds and birds becomes less so. Recent discoveries in northeast the <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> (<!--del_lnk--> Liaoning Province), demonstrating that many small <!--del_lnk--> theropod dinosaurs had feathers, contribute to this ambiguity.<p>The basal bird <i><a href="../../wp/a/Archaeopteryx.htm" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i>, from the <a href="../../wp/j/Jurassic.htm" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, is well-known as one of the first "missing links" to be found in support of <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolution</a> in the late <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a>, though it is not considered a direct ancestor of modern birds. <i><!--del_lnk--> Confuciusornis</i> is another early bird; it lived in the <!--del_lnk--> Early Cretaceous. Both may be predated by <i><!--del_lnk--> Protoavis texensis</i>, though the fragmentary nature of this fossil leaves it open to considerable doubt if this was a bird ancestor. Other <!--del_lnk--> Mesozoic birds include the <!--del_lnk--> Enantiornithes, <!--del_lnk--> Yanornis, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ichthyornis</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Gansus</i> and the <!--del_lnk--> Hesperornithiformes, a group of flightless divers resembling <!--del_lnk--> grebes and <!--del_lnk--> loons.<p>The recently discovered dromaeosaur <i><!--del_lnk--> Cryptovolans</i> was capable of powered flight, possessed a sternal <!--del_lnk--> keel and had ribs with <!--del_lnk--> uncinate processes. In fact, <i><!--del_lnk--> Cryptovolans</i> makes a better "bird" than <i><a href="../../wp/a/Archaeopteryx.htm" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i> which is missing some of these modern bird features. Because of this, some paleontologists have suggested that <!--del_lnk--> dromaeosaurs are actually basal birds whose larger members are secondarily flightless, i.e. that dromaeosaurs evolved from birds and not the other way around. Evidence for this theory is currently inconclusive, but digs continue to unearth fossils (especially in China) of the strange feathered dromaeosaurs. At any rate, it is fairly certain that avian flight existed in the mid-Jurassic and was "tried out" in several lineages and variants by the mid-Cretaceous.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/122/12234.jpg.htm" title="Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus"><img alt="Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus" height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Snowy.owl.overall.arp.750pix.jpg" src="../../images/17/1717.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/122/12234.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="../../wp/s/Snowy_Owl.htm" title="Snowy Owl">Snowy Owl</a>, <i>Bubo scandiacus</i></div>
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<p>Although <a href="../../wp/o/Ornithischia.htm" title="Ornithischia">ornithischian</a> (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the same <!--del_lnk--> hip structure as birds, birds actually originated from the <a href="../../wp/s/Saurischia.htm" title="Saurischia">saurischian</a> (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs (if the dinosaurian origin theory is correct), and thus arrived at their hip structure condition <!--del_lnk--> independently. In fact, the bird-like hip structure also developed a third time among a peculiar group of theropods, the <!--del_lnk--> Therizinosauridae.<p>An alternate theory to the dinosaurian origin of birds, espoused by a few scientists (most notably Lary Martin and Alan Feduccia), states that birds (including <!--del_lnk--> maniraptoran "dinosaurs") evolved from early archosaurs like <i><!--del_lnk--> Longisquama</i>, a theory which is contested by most other scientists in paleontology, and by experts in feather development and evolution such as R.O. Prum. See the <i><!--del_lnk--> Longisquama</i> article for more on this alternative.<p>Modern birds are classified in Neornithes, which are now known to have evolved into some basic lineages by the end of the Cretaceous (see <i><!--del_lnk--> Vegavis</i>). The Neornithes are split into the Paleognathae and Neognathae. The paleognaths include the <!--del_lnk--> tinamous (found only in Central and South America) and the <!--del_lnk--> ratites. The ratites are large flightless birds, and include ostriches, cassowaries, kiwis and emus (though some scientists suspect that the ratites represent an artificial grouping of birds which have independently lost the ability to fly in a number of unrelated lineages). The basal divergence from the remaining Neognathes was that of the Galloanseri, the superorder containing the <!--del_lnk--> Anseriformes (<!--del_lnk--> ducks, <a href="../../wp/g/Goose.htm" title="Goose">geese</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Swan.htm" title="Swan">swans</a>), and the <!--del_lnk--> Galliformes (the <!--del_lnk--> pheasants, <!--del_lnk--> grouse, and their allies). See the chart for more information.<p>The classification of birds is a contentious issue. <!--del_lnk--> Sibley & Ahlquist's <i>Phylogeny and Classification of Birds</i> (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds (although frequently debated and constantly revised). A preponderance of evidence seems to suggest that the modern bird orders constitute accurate <!--del_lnk--> taxa. However, scientists are not in agreement as to the relationships between the orders; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem but no strong consensus has emerged. More recently, new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders. See also: <!--del_lnk--> Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1718.jpg.htm" title="Anatomy of a typical bird"><img alt="Anatomy of a typical bird" height="217" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bird.parts.jpg" src="../../images/17/1718.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1718.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Anatomy of a typical bird</div>
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<p><a id="Bird_anatomy" name="Bird_anatomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Bird anatomy</span></h2>
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<p>Birds have a <!--del_lnk--> body plan that shows so many unusual adaptations (mostly aiding <!--del_lnk--> flight) that birds have earned their own unique <a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">class</a> in the <a href="../../wp/v/Vertebrate.htm" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <!--del_lnk--> phylum.<p>Unlike mammals, birds don't urinate. Their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from the bloodstream, but instead of excreting it as urea dissolved in urine as we do, they excrete it in the form of uric acid. Uric acid has a very low solubility in water, so it emerges as a white paste. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca. The cloaca is a multi-purpose hole for birds: their wastes come out of it, they have sex by putting their cloacas together, and females lay eggs out of it.<p>Birds have one of the most complex lung system of all organisms. Air enters the bird and immediately 75% of the air bypasses the lungs and flows directally into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. When the bird exhales the air from the postirior air sac is forced into the lungs thus birds receive a supply of air during both inhalation and exhalation. The gas exchange then takes place in the capillaries.<p>The nervous system relative to the birds size is actually quite large. The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight related function while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and nest building. A birds eyes are developed for taking off, spotting landmarks, hunting and feeding. Birds with eyes on the side of their head have a wide vision field while birds with eyes on the front of their heads like owls have binocular vision and can measure depth.<p><a id="Nesting" name="Nesting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nesting</span></h2>
<p><a id="Eggs" name="Eggs"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Eggs</span></h3>
<p>All birds lay <!--del_lnk--> amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of <!--del_lnk--> calcium carbonate. Non-passerines typically have white eggs, except in some ground-nesting groups such as the <!--del_lnk--> Charadriiformes, <!--del_lnk--> sandgrouse and <!--del_lnk--> nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and some <!--del_lnk--> parasitic <!--del_lnk--> cuckoos which have to match the passerine host's egg. Most passerines, in contrast, lay coloured eggs, even if, like the <!--del_lnk--> tits they are hole-nesters.<p>The brown or red <!--del_lnk--> protoporphyrin markings on passerine eggs reduce brittleness and are a substitute for calcium when that element is in short supply. The colour of individual eggs is genetically influenced, and appears to be inherited through the mother only, suggesting that the <!--del_lnk--> gene responsible for pigmentation is on the sex determining W chromosome (female birds are WZ, males ZZ).<p>The eggs are laid in a <!--del_lnk--> nest, which may be anything from a bare cliff ledge or ground scrape to elaboratey decorated structures such as those of the <!--del_lnk--> oropendolas.<p><a id="Social_systems_and_parental_care" name="Social_systems_and_parental_care"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Social systems and parental care</span></h3>
<p>The three mating systems that predominate among birds are polyandry, polygyny, and monogamy. <!--del_lnk--> Monogamy is seen in approximately 91% of all bird species. <!--del_lnk--> Polygyny constitutes 2% of all birds and <!--del_lnk--> polyandry is seen in less than 1%. Monogamous species of males and females pair for the breeding season. In some cases, the individuals may pair for life.<p>One reason for the high rate of monogamy among birds is the fact that male birds are just as adept at parental care as females. In most groups of animals, male parental care is rare, but in birds it is quite common; in fact, it is more extensive in birds than in any other vertebrate class. In birds, male care can be seen as important or essential to female fitness. "In one form of monogamy such as with obligate monogamy a female cannot rear a litter without the aid of a male" .<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/111/11135.jpg.htm" title="These Redwing hatchlings are completely dependent on parental care."><img alt="These Redwing hatchlings are completely dependent on parental care." height="238" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Redwing_nest.jpg" src="../../images/17/1719.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/111/11135.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> These <a href="../../wp/r/Redwing.htm" title="Redwing">Redwing</a> hatchlings are completely dependent on parental care.</div>
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<p>The parental behaviour most closely associated with monogamy is male <!--del_lnk--> incubation. Interestingly, male incubation is the most confining male parental behaviour. It takes time and also may require physiological changes that interfere with continued mating. This extreme loss of mating opportunities leads to a reduction in reproductive success among incubating males. "This information then suggests that sexual selection may be less intense in taxa where males incubate, hypothetically because males allocate more effort to parental care and less to mating" . In other words, in bird species in which male incubation is common, females tend to select mates on the basis of parental behaviors rather than physical appearance.<p><a id="Birds_and_humans" name="Birds_and_humans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Birds and humans</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10362.jpg.htm" title="Chinstrap Penguin, Pygoscelis antarctica"><img alt="Chinstrap Penguin, Pygoscelis antarctica" height="128" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Penguinu.jpg" src="../../images/17/1720.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/103/10362.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Chinstrap Penguin, <i>Pygoscelis antarctica</i></div>
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<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1721.jpg.htm" title="A birdbox is an artificial platform for birds to make a nest"><img alt="A birdbox is an artificial platform for birds to make a nest" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Iso_linnunpontto.jpg" src="../../images/17/1721.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1721.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A <!--del_lnk--> birdbox is an artificial platform for birds to make a nest</div>
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<p>Birds are an important food source for <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">humans</a>. The most commonly eaten species is the domestic <a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" title="Chicken">chicken</a> and its <!--del_lnk--> eggs, although <a href="../../wp/g/Goose.htm" title="Goose">geese</a>, <!--del_lnk--> pheasants, <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey_%2528bird%2529.htm" title="Turkey (bird)">turkeys</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> ducks are also widely eaten. Other birds that have been utilized for food include <a href="../../wp/e/Emu.htm" title="Emu">emus</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Ostrich.htm" title="Ostrich">ostriches</a>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dove.htm" title="Dove">pigeons</a>, <!--del_lnk--> grouse, <!--del_lnk--> quails, <a href="../../wp/d/Dove.htm" title="Dove">doves</a>, <!--del_lnk--> woodcocks, <!--del_lnk--> songbirds, and others, including small <!--del_lnk--> passerines such as <!--del_lnk--> finches. Birds grown for human consumption are referred to as <a href="../../wp/p/Poultry.htm" title="Poultry">poultry</a>.<p>At one time <a href="../../wp/s/Swan.htm" title="Swan">swans</a> and <a href="../../wp/f/Flamingo.htm" title="Flamingo">flamingos</a> were delicacies of the rich and powerful, although these are generally protected now.<p>Besides meat and eggs, birds provide other items useful to humans, including <a href="../../wp/f/Feather.htm" title="Feather">feathers</a> for bedding and decoration, <!--del_lnk--> guano-derived phosphorus and nitrogen used in fertilizer and gunpowder, and the central ingredient of <!--del_lnk--> bird's nest soup.<p>Humans have caused the disappearance of some bird species. The <a href="../../wp/p/Passenger_Pigeon.htm" title="Passenger Pigeon">Passenger Pigeon</a> and <a href="../../wp/d/Dodo.htm" title="Dodo">Dodo</a> were <!--del_lnk--> hunted to extinction, and many others have become endangered or extinct through <!--del_lnk--> habitat destruction (e.g. by <!--del_lnk--> deforestation or intensive <a href="../../wp/a/Agriculture.htm" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>).<p>Some species have come to depend on human activities for food and are widespread to the point of being pests. For example, the common pigeon or <a href="../../wp/r/Rock_Pigeon.htm" title="Rock Pigeon">Rock Pigeon</a> (<i>Columba livia</i>) thrives in urban areas around the world. In North America, introduced <a href="../../wp/h/House_Sparrow.htm" title="House Sparrow">House Sparrows</a>, <!--del_lnk--> European Starlings, and <!--del_lnk--> House Finches are similarly widespread.<p>Other birds have long been used by humans to perform tasks. For example, <!--del_lnk--> homing pigeons were used to carry messages before the advent of modern instant communications methods (many are still kept for sport). <a href="../../wp/f/Falcon.htm" title="Falcon">Falcons</a> are still used for hunting, while <a href="../../wp/c/Cormorant.htm" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a> are employed by fishermen. <a href="../../wp/c/Chicken.htm" title="Chicken">Chickens</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pigeon.htm" title="Pigeon">pigeons</a> are popular as experimental subjects, and are often used in <a href="../../wp/b/Biology.htm" title="Biology">biology</a> and <!--del_lnk--> comparative psychology research. As birds are very sensitive to toxins, the <!--del_lnk--> Canary was used in <!--del_lnk--> coal mines to indicate the presence of poisonous gases, allowing miners sufficient time to escape without injury.<p>Colorful, particularly tropical, birds (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> parrots, and <!--del_lnk--> mynas) are often kept as <!--del_lnk--> pets although this practice has led to the illegal <!--del_lnk--> trafficking of some endangered species; <!--del_lnk--> CITES, an international agreement adopted in 1963, has considerably reduced trafficking in the bird species it protects.<p>Bird diseases that can be contracted by humans include <!--del_lnk--> psittacosis, <!--del_lnk--> salmonellosis, <!--del_lnk--> campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis (avian <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>), <!--del_lnk--> avian influenza, <!--del_lnk--> giardiasis, and <!--del_lnk--> cryptosporidiosis.<p><a id="Threats_to_birds" name="Threats_to_birds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Threats to birds</span></h2>
<p>According to Worldwatch Institute, bird populations are declining worldwide, with 1,200 species facing extinction in the next century. Among the biggest cited reasons are habitat loss, predation by nonnative species, oil spills and pesticide use, hunting and fishing, and climate change.<p><a id="Trivia" name="Trivia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Trivia</span></h2>
<ul>
<li>To preen or groom their feathers, birds use their bills to brush away foreign particles.<li>The birds of a region are called the <b><!--del_lnk--> avifauna</b>.<li>Few birds use chemical defences against predators. <!--del_lnk--> Tubenoses can eject an unpleasant <!--del_lnk--> oil against an aggressor, and some species of <!--del_lnk--> pitohui, found in <!--del_lnk--> New Guinea, secrete a powerful <!--del_lnk--> neurotoxin in their skin and feathers.<li>The <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> word for bird is <b>avis</b>.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bird migration</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1724.jpg.htm" title="Flock of Barnacle Geese during autumn migration"><img alt="Flock of Barnacle Geese during autumn migration" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BrantaLeucopsisMigration.jpg" src="../../images/17/1724.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Many species of birds undertake seasonal journeys of various lengths, a phenomenon known as <b>Bird migration</b>. The different strategies followed by bird groups are detailed below.<p>
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</script><a id="Long-distance_land_bird_migration" name="Long-distance_land_bird_migration"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Long-distance land bird migration</span></h2>
<p>Many species of land <!--del_lnk--> migratory birds migrate very long distances, the most common pattern being for birds to breed in the temperate or arctic <!--del_lnk--> northern hemisphere and spend the non-breeding season in warmer regions, often in the tropics or the temperate zones of the southern hemisphere.<p>There is a strong <!--del_lnk--> genetic component to migration in terms of timing and route, but this may be modified by environmental influences. An interesting example where a change of migration route has occurred because of such a geographical barrier is the trend for some <a href="../../wp/b/Blackcap.htm" title="Blackcap">Blackcaps</a> in central Europe to migrate west and winter in <!--del_lnk--> Britain rather than cross the <!--del_lnk--> Alps. Theoretical analyses, summarised by Alerstam (2001), show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on <!--del_lnk--> aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food in order to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of <!--del_lnk--> Swainson's Thrush, which fly far east across <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> before turning south via <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> to reach northern <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a>; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.<p>The advantage of the migration strategy is that, in the long days of the northern summer, breeding birds have more hours to feed their young on often abundant food supplies, particularly insects. As the days shorten in autumn and food supplies become scarce, the birds can return to warmer regions where the length of the day varies less and there is an all year round food supply. Most of the passerine migrants fly by night in small flocks. During dusk prior to migration, they show a restlessness which is termed <i>zugunruhe</i>. They may also sing at night during this period of pre-migration restlessness.<p>The downside of migration is the hazards of the journey, especially when difficult habitats such as deserts and oceans must be crossed, and weather conditions may be adverse.<p>The risks of predation are also high. The <!--del_lnk--> Eleonora's Falcon which breeds on <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> islands has a very late breeding season, timed so that autumn <!--del_lnk--> passerine migrants can be hunted to feed its young.<p>Whether a particular species migrates depends on a number of factors. The climate of the breeding area is important, and few species can cope with the harsh winters of inland <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> or northern <!--del_lnk--> Eurasia. Thus the <a href="../../wp/b/Blackbird.htm" title="Blackbird">Blackbird</a> <i>Turdus merula</i> is migratory in <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia, but not in the milder climate of southern Europe.<p>The nature of the staple food is also important. Most specialist insect eaters are long-distance migrants, and have little choice but to head south in winter.<p>Sometimes the factors are finely balanced. The <!--del_lnk--> Whinchat <i>Saxicola rubetra</i> of Europe and the <!--del_lnk--> Siberian Stonechat <i>Saxicola maura</i> of Asia are a long-distance migrants wintering in the tropics, whereas their close relative, the <!--del_lnk--> European Stonechat <i>Saxicola rubicola</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> resident bird in most of its range, and moves only short distances from the colder north and east.<p>Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for migrating birds. Examples are the <!--del_lnk--> Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and <!--del_lnk--> Spurn in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Drift migration of birds blown off course by the wind can result in "falls" of large numbers of migrants at coastal sites.<p>Another cause of birds occurring outside their normal ranges is the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended.<p>A mechanism which can lead to great rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range is <!--del_lnk--> reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly.<p>Recent research suggests that long-distance passerine migrants are of <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South American</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a>, rather than <!--del_lnk--> northern hemisphere, <a href="../../wp/e/Evolution.htm" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> origins. They are effectively southern species coming north to breed rather than northern species going south to winter.<p><a id="Broad-winged_long_distance_migrants" name="Broad-winged_long_distance_migrants"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Broad-winged long distance migrants</span></h2>
<p>Some large broad-winged birds rely on <!--del_lnk--> thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_of_prey.htm" title="Bird of prey">birds of prey</a> such as <a href="../../wp/v/Vulture.htm" title="Vulture">vultures</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" title="Eagle">eagles</a> and <!--del_lnk--> buzzards, but also <!--del_lnk--> storks.<p>Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals can only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances.<p>The Mediterranean and other seas therefore present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which are forced to cross at the narrowest points. This means that massive numbers of large <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_of_prey.htm" title="Bird of prey">raptors</a> and storks pass through areas such as <a href="../../wp/g/Gibraltar.htm" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Falsterbo and the <!--del_lnk--> Bosphorus at migration times. Commoner species, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Honey Buzzard, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn.<p>Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants.<p><a id="Short-distance_land_bird_migration" name="Short-distance_land_bird_migration"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Short-distance land bird migration</span></h2>
<p>The long-distance migrants in the previous section are effectively genetically programmed to respond to changing lengths of days. However many species move shorter distances, but may do so only in response to harsh weather conditions.<p>Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as <!--del_lnk--> Wallcreeper and <!--del_lnk--> White-throated Dipper, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as <!--del_lnk--> Merlin and <a href="../../wp/s/Skylark.htm" title="Skylark">Skylark</a> will move further to the coast or to a more southerly region.<p>Species like the <a href="../../wp/c/Chaffinch.htm" title="Chaffinch">Chaffinch</a> are not migratory in <!--del_lnk--> Britain, but will move south or to <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> in very cold weather. Interestingly, in <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia, the female of this species migrates, but not the male, giving rise to the specific name <i>coelebs</i>, a bachelor.<p>Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those which have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Chiffchaff, are species of southern hemisphere origins which have progressively shortened their return migration so that they stay in the northern hemisphere.<p>Those species which have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the <!--del_lnk--> waxwings, are effectively moving in response to winter weather, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.<p><a id="Wildfowl_and_waders" name="Wildfowl_and_waders"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Wildfowl and waders</span></h2>
<p>The typical image of migration is of northern landbirds such as <!--del_lnk--> swallows and birds of prey making long flights to the tropics. Many northern-breeding <!--del_lnk--> ducks, <a href="../../wp/g/Goose.htm" title="Goose">geese</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Swan.htm" title="Swan">swans</a> are also long-distance migrants, but need only to move from their arctic breeding grounds far enough south to escape frozen waters.<p>This means that most <!--del_lnk--> wildfowl remain in the Northern hemisphere, but in milder countries. For example, the <!--del_lnk--> Pink-footed Goose migrates from <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Britain and neighbouring countries. Usually wintering grounds are traditional and learned by the young when they migrate with their parents.<p>Some ducks, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Garganey, do move completely or partially into the tropics.<p>A similar situation occurs with <a href="../../wp/w/Wader.htm" title="Wader">waders</a> (called "shorebirds" in North America). Many species, such as <!--del_lnk--> Dunlin and <!--del_lnk--> Western Sandpiper, undertake long movements from their arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as <!--del_lnk--> Semipalmated Sandpiper travel huge distances to the tropics.<p>Most of the wildfowl are large and powerful, and even the waders are strong fliers. This means that birds wintering in temperate regions have the capacity to make further shorter movements in the event of particularly inclement weather.<p>The same considerations about barriers and detours that apply to long-distance land-bird migration apply to water birds, but in reverse: a large area of land without bodies of water that offer feeding sites is a barrier to a water bird. Open sea may also be a barrier to a bird that feeds in coastal waters. Detours avoiding such barriers are observed: for example, <!--del_lnk--> Brent Geese migrating from the <!--del_lnk--> Taymyr Peninsula to the <!--del_lnk--> Wadden Sea travel via the <!--del_lnk--> White Sea coast and the <a href="../../wp/b/Baltic_Sea.htm" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a> rather than directly across the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Ocean.htm" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a> and northern <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia.<p>For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to "refuel" for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the <!--del_lnk--> Bay of Fundy and <!--del_lnk--> Delaware Bay.<p>Some <!--del_lnk--> Alaskan <!--del_lnk--> Bar-tailed Godwits have the longest non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km to their <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> non-breeding areas (<i>BTO News</i> 258: 3, 2005). Prior to migration, 55% of their bodyweight is stored fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey.<p><a id="Seabirds" name="Seabirds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Seabirds</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1725.jpg.htm" title="Arctic Terns"><img alt="Arctic Terns" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arctic_terns.jpg" src="../../images/17/1725.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Much of what has been said in the previous section applies to many <!--del_lnk--> seabirds. Some, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Black Guillemot and some <a href="../../wp/g/Gull.htm" title="Gull">gulls</a>, are quite sedentary; others, such as most of the <a href="../../wp/t/Tern.htm" title="Tern">terns</a> and <!--del_lnk--> auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move south varying distances in winter. The <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Tern.htm" title="Arctic Tern">Arctic Tern</a> has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its arctic breeding grounds to the antarctic non-breeding areas. One Arctic Tern, <!--del_lnk--> ringed (banded) as a chick on the <!--del_lnk--> Farne Islands off the <!--del_lnk--> British east coast, reached <a href="../../wp/m/Melbourne.htm" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (14,000 miles). Seabirds, of course, have the advantage that they can feed on migration.<p>The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order <!--del_lnk--> Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the <a href="../../wp/a/Albatross.htm" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a> of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses in general spread thinly over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many of them are also among the longest-distance migrants; <!--del_lnk--> Sooty Shearwaters nesting on the <a href="../../wp/f/Falkland_Islands.htm" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> migrate 14,000 km (9,000 miles) between the breeding colony and the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">North Atlantic Ocean</a> off <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a>, and some <!--del_lnk--> Manx Shearwaters do the same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx Shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km (5 million miles) during its over-50 year lifespan.<p>Pelagic <!--del_lnk--> birding trips attract <!--del_lnk--> petrels and other procellarids by tipping "chum", a mixture of fish oil and offal, into the sea. Within minutes, a previously apparently empty ocean is full of <!--del_lnk--> petrels, <!--del_lnk--> fulmars and <!--del_lnk--> shearwaters attracted by the food.<p>A few seabirds, such as <!--del_lnk--> Wilson's Petrel and <!--del_lnk--> Great Shearwater, breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.<p><a id="The_tropics" name="The_tropics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The tropics</span></h2>
<p>In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for an adequate food supply. Apart from the seasonal movements of northern hemisphere wintering species, most species are in the broadest sense resident. However many species undergo movements of varying distances depending on the rainfall.<p>Many tropical regions have wet and dry seasons, the <!--del_lnk--> monsoons of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> being perhaps the best known example. An example of a bird whose distribution is rain associated is the <!--del_lnk--> Woodland Kingfisher of west <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<p>There are a few species, notably <!--del_lnk--> cuckoos, which are genuine long-distance migrants within the tropics. An example is the <!--del_lnk--> Lesser Cuckoo, which breeds in India and spends the non-breeding season in Africa.<p>In the high mountains, such as the <a href="../../wp/h/Himalayas.htm" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> and the <a href="../../wp/a/Andes.htm" title="Andes">Andes</a>, there are also seasonal altitudinal movements in many species.<p><a id="Australasia" name="Australasia"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Australasia</span></h2>
<p>Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern-Hemisphere phenomenon. In the Southern Hemisphere, seasonal migration tends to be much less marked. There are several reasons for this.<p>First, the largely uninterrupted expanses of land mass or ocean tend not to funnel migrations into narrow and obvious pathways, making them less obvious to the human observer. Second, at least for terrestrial birds, climatic regions tend to fade into one another over a long distance rather than be entirely separate: this means that rather than make long trips over unsuitable habitat to reach particular destinations, migrant species can usually travel at a relaxed pace, feeding as they go. Short of banding studies it is often not obvious that the birds seen in any particular locality as the seasons change are in fact different members of the same species passing through, gradually working their way north or south.<p>Relatively few <!--del_lnk--> Australasian birds migrate in the way that so many European and North American species do. This is largely a matter of geography: the Australasian climate has seasonal extremes no less compelling than those of Europe; however, they are far less predictable and tend to take place over periods both shorter and longer. A couple of weeks of heavy rain in one part or another of the usually dry centre of Australia, for example, produces dramatic plant and invertebrate growth, attracting birds from all directions. This can happen at any time of year, summer or winter and, in any given area, may not happen again for a decade or more.<p>Broader climatic extremes are highly unpredictable also: expected seasonal heat or rain arrives or does not arrive, depending on the vagaries of <a href="../../wp/e/El_Ni%25C3%25B1o-Southern_Oscillation.htm" title="El Niño">El Niño</a>. It is commonplace to have stretches of five or ten years at a time when winter rains do not eventuate during the El Niño cycle, and equally common to have La Niña periods which turn arid zones into areas of lush grass and shallow lakes. Long distance migration requires a heavy investment in time and body mass—and, given the random nature of El Niño, an investment with an uncertain return.<p>In broad terms, Australasian birds tend to be sedentary or nomadic, moving on whenever conditions become unfavourable to whichever area happens to be more suitable at the time.<p>There are many exceptions, however. Some species make the long haul to breed in far distant northern climes every year, notably <a href="../../wp/s/Swift.htm" title="Swift">swifts</a>, and a great many wading birds that breed in the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Circle.htm" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a> during the southern winter.<p>Many others arrive for the southern spring and summer to breed, then fly to tropical northern Australia, New Guinea, or the islands of South East Asia for the Southern winter. Examples include <!--del_lnk--> cuckoos, the <!--del_lnk--> Satin Flycatcher, the <!--del_lnk--> Dollarbird, and the <!--del_lnk--> Rainbow Bee-eater.<p>Others again are altitudinal migrants, moving to higher country during summer, returning to warmer areas in winter such as several robins, or travel north and south with the seasons but within a relatively restricted range. The tiny 10 cm <!--del_lnk--> Silvereye is an example: most of the southernmost <!--del_lnk--> Tasmanian race crosses the 200 miles of <!--del_lnk--> Bass Strait after breeding to disperse into <!--del_lnk--> Victoria, <!--del_lnk--> South Australia, <!--del_lnk--> New South Wales and even southern <!--del_lnk--> Queensland, replacing the normal residents who fly still further north, following the band of fertile country along the coast, feeding through the day and travelling mostly at night. The northernmost populations, however, are nomadic rather than migratory, as are the <!--del_lnk--> Silvereyes of southern <!--del_lnk--> Western Australia, which is bounded by thousands of miles of desert to the north and east, and sea to the south and west.<p><a id="Study_techniques" name="Study_techniques"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Study techniques</span></h2>
<p>Bird migration has been studied by a variety of techniques of which <!--del_lnk--> ringing is the oldest. Colour marking, use of <a href="../../wp/r/Radar.htm" title="Radar">radar</a>, <!--del_lnk--> satellite tracking and stable <a href="../../wp/h/Hydrogen.htm" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> <!--del_lnk--> isotopes are some of the other techniques being used to study the migration of birds.<p><a id="Migration_conditioning" name="Migration_conditioning"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Migration conditioning</span></h2>
<p>It has been possible to teach a new migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schmes. After a trial with <a href="../../wp/c/Canada_Goose.htm" title="Canada Goose">Canada Geese</a>, microlites were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced <a href="../../wp/w/Whooping_Crane.htm" title="Whooping Crane">Whooping Cranes</a> <!--del_lnk--> .<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migration"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bird of prey</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Birds of prey</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1726.jpg.htm" title="Harris Hawk"><img alt="Harris Hawk" height="182" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Harrishawk37.jpg" src="../../images/17/1726.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Harris Hawk</small></div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center>Orders</center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Accipitriformes</b></ul>
<ul>
<li>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Pandionidae<li><!--del_lnk--> Accipitridae<li><!--del_lnk--> Sagittariidae</ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Falconiformes</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Falconidae</ul>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>A <b>bird of prey</b> or <b>raptor</b> is a <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> that hunts for food primarily using its <!--del_lnk--> talons. They display a characteristic curved tip to their <!--del_lnk--> beak and have superb vision.<br /> Diurnal birds of prey belong to the orders <!--del_lnk--> Accipitriformes and <!--del_lnk--> Falconiformes in several groups including:<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Accipitriformes</b></ul>
<ul>
<li>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Pandionidae: <a href="../../wp/o/Osprey.htm" title="Osprey">Osprey</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Accipitridae: <a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" title="Hawk">hawks</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" title="Eagle">eagles</a>, <!--del_lnk--> buzzards, <a href="../../wp/k/Kite_%2528bird%2529.htm" title="Kite (bird)">kites</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Old World vultures<li><!--del_lnk--> Sagittariidae: <!--del_lnk--> Secretary Bird</ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Falconiformes</b><ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Falconidae: <a href="../../wp/f/Falcon.htm" title="Falcon">falcons</a></ul>
</ul>
<p>For an alternative taxonomy, see also <!--del_lnk--> Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy.<p>Nocturnal birds of prey—the <a href="../../wp/o/Owl.htm" title="Owl">owls</a>—are separate from the diurnal families, and are in the order <!--del_lnk--> Strigiformes. The term "raptor" includes owls.<p>Although other bird groups may fill similar ecological roles and sometimes appear closely related at first sight, this is largely because of <!--del_lnk--> convergent evolution.<p><a id="Raptor_names" name="Raptor_names"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Raptor names</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/e/Eagle.htm" title="Eagle">Eagles</a></b> are large birds with long, broad wings and massive legs. Booted eagles have feathered legs and build large stick nests.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/k/Kite_%2528bird%2529.htm" title="Kite (bird)">Kites</a></b> have long wings and weak legs. They spend much of their time soaring. They will take live prey but mostly feed on carrion.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1727.jpg.htm" title="Bald Eagle at Combe Martin Wildlife and Dinosaur Park, North Devon, England"><img alt="Bald Eagle at Combe Martin Wildlife and Dinosaur Park, North Devon, England" height="129" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bald.eagle.closeup.arp-sh.750pix.jpg" src="../../images/17/1727.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1727.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bald Eagle at Combe Martin Wildlife and Dinosaur Park, North Devon, England</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/f/Falcon.htm" title="Falcon">Falcons</a></b> are small to medium sized birds of prey with long pointed wings. Unlike most other raptors, they belong to the <!--del_lnk--> Falconidae rather than the <!--del_lnk--> Accipitridae. Many are particularly swift flyers. Instead of building their own nests, falcons appropriate old nests of other birds but sometimes they lay their eggs on cliff ledges or in tree hollows.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/o/Owl.htm" title="Owl">Owls</a></b> are variable-sized nocturnal hunting birds. They fly soundlessly and have very acute senses of hearing and sight.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Harriers</b> are large, slender hawk-like birds with long tails and long thin legs. Most hunt by gliding and circling low over grasslands and marshes on their long broad wings.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><a href="../../wp/h/Hawk.htm" title="Hawk">Hawks</a></b> are medium-sized birds of prey that belong to the genus <!--del_lnk--> Accipiter. They are mainly woodland birds that hunt by sudden dashes from a concealed perch. They usually have long tails.</ul>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Buzzards</b> are raptors with a robust body and broad wings, or, alternatively, any bird of the genus <i>Buteo</i> (also commonly known as <b>Hawks</b> in North America).</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_of_prey"</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Bird', 'Bird', 'Osprey', 'Hawk', 'Eagle', 'Kite (bird)', 'Falcon', 'Owl', 'Eagle', 'Kite (bird)', 'Falcon', 'Owl', 'Hawk'] |
Birmingham | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Birmingham</h1>
<div id="bodyContent">
<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
<!-- start content -->
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:292px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1728.jpg.htm" title="The city from above Centenary Square."><img alt="The city from above Centenary Square." height="218" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BirminghamUK_skyline_Centenary_Square_700.jpg" src="../../images/17/1728.jpg" width="290" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1728.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The city from above <!--del_lnk--> Centenary Square.</div>
</div>
</div>
<table cellpadding="3" class="infobox bordered" width="250">
<caption style="font-size: larger;"><b>City of Birmingham</b></caption>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; background: white;"><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1729.png.htm" title="Image:EnglandBirmingham.png"><img alt="Image:EnglandBirmingham.png" height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EnglandBirmingham.png" src="../../images/17/1729.png" width="200" /></a><br /><i>Shown within the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands</i></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Geography</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Status</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Metropolitan borough, <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">City</a> (1889)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Region</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> West Midlands</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial county</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> West Midlands</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Historic county</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire<br /><small>(some suburbs from <!--del_lnk--> Staffordshire and <!--del_lnk--> Worcestershire)</small></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-weight: normal;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Area</b><br /> - Total</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 169th<br /><!--del_lnk--> 267.77 <!--del_lnk--> km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Admin HQ</th>
<td>Birmingham</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> ISO 3166-2</th>
<td>GB-BIR</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> ONS code</th>
<td>00CN</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> OS grid reference</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> SP066868</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Coordinates</th>
<td>52°29N 1°54W</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NUTS 3</th>
<td>UKG31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Demographics</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="font-weight: normal;"><b><!--del_lnk--> Population</b>:<br /> Total (2005 est.)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Density</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 1st<br /> 1,001,200<br /> 3,739 / km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Ethnicity<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> 2001 census)</th>
<td>70.4% <!--del_lnk--> Whites<br /> 2.9% <!--del_lnk--> Mixed<br /> 19.5% <!--del_lnk--> S.Asian<br /> 6.1% <!--del_lnk--> Black<br /> 0.5% <!--del_lnk--> Chinese<br /> 0.6% Other</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" style="background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;">Politics</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="The Arms of Birmingham City Council" height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Birm_1977_arms.png" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="150" /><br /> Birmingham City Council<br /><!--del_lnk--> http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><!--del_lnk--> Leadership</th>
<td>Leader & Cabinet</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>Control</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Conservative / <a href="../../wp/l/Liberal_Democrats.htm" title="Liberal Democrats">Liberal Democrats</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Birmingham</b> (pron. <!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈbɜ:mɪŋˌəm]</span>/<b>Burr</b>-ming-um) is a <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city</a> and <!--del_lnk--> metropolitan borough in the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands, <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. Birmingham is the largest of England's <!--del_lnk--> core cities, and is generally considered to be the UK's <!--del_lnk--> second city. The city's reputation was forged as a powerhouse of the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Britain, a fact which led to Birmingham being known as "the workshop of the world" or the "city of a thousand trades".<p>The City of Birmingham has a <!--del_lnk--> population of 1,001,200 (2005 estimate) . It forms part of the larger <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands conurbation, which has a population of 2,284,093 (2001 census) and includes several neighbouring towns and cities, such as <!--del_lnk--> Solihull, <!--del_lnk--> Wolverhampton and the towns of the <!--del_lnk--> Black Country.<p>The people of Birmingham are known as 'Brummies', a term derived from the city's nickname of <b><!--del_lnk--> Brum</b>. This comes in turn from the city's dialect name, <!--del_lnk--> Brummagem, which is derived from an earlier name of the city, 'Bromwicham'. There is a distinctive <!--del_lnk--> Brummie <!--del_lnk--> dialect and <!--del_lnk--> accent.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Birmingham has a recorded history going back 1,000 years. In this time, it has grown from a tiny <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon farming village into a major industrial and commercial city.<p>The Birmingham area was occupied in <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> times, with several military roads and a large <!--del_lnk--> fort. Birmingham started life as a small Anglo-Saxon <!--del_lnk--> hamlet in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>. It was first recorded in written documents by the <a href="../../wp/d/Domesday_Book.htm" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> of 1086 as a small <!--del_lnk--> village, worth only 20 <!--del_lnk--> shillings.<p>In the 12th century, Birmingham was granted a charter to hold a <a href="../../wp/m/Market.htm" title="Market">market</a>, which in time became known as the <!--del_lnk--> Bull Ring. As a convenient location for trade, Birmingham soon developed into a small but thriving <!--del_lnk--> market town.<p>By the 16th century, Birmingham's access to supplies of <a href="../../wp/i/Iron.htm" title="Iron">iron</a> ore and <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> meant that <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metalworking</a> industries became established. In the 17th century Birmingham became an important manufacturing town with a reputation for producing <!--del_lnk--> small arms. Birmingham manufacturers supplied <a href="../../wp/o/Oliver_Cromwell.htm" title="Oliver Cromwell">Oliver Cromwell</a>'s forces with much of their <!--del_lnk--> weaponry during the <!--del_lnk--> English Civil War. Arms manufacture in Birmingham became a staple trade and was concentrated in the area known as the <!--del_lnk--> Gun Quarter.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> (from the mid 18th century onwards), Birmingham grew rapidly into a major industrial centre. Unlike many other English industrial cities such as <a href="../../wp/m/Manchester.htm" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, industry in Birmingham was based upon small <!--del_lnk--> workshops rather than large <!--del_lnk--> factories or <!--del_lnk--> mills.<table align="right" border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
<caption><b>Historical population of Birmingham </b></caption>
<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Year</th>
<th colspan="1" style="background:#efefef;">Population figure</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1538</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1,300</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1650</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">5,472</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1700</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">15,032</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1731</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">23,286</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1778</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">42,250</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1785</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">52,250</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1801</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">73,670</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1811</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">85,753</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1821</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">106,722</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1831</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">146,986</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1841</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">182,922</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1851</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">232,638</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1861</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">296,076</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1871</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">343,787</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1881</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">400,774</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1891</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">478,113</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1901</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">522,204</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1911</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">840,202</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1912-1967</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">Records destroyed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">1968</td>
<td style="border-bottom:3px solid grey;">900,000</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1731.jpg.htm" title="The Birmingham Canal Navigations between the International Convention Centre (left) and Brindleyplace (right) in central Birmingham."><img alt="The Birmingham Canal Navigations between the International Convention Centre (left) and Brindleyplace (right) in central Birmingham." height="146" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Brindleyplace_Birmingham.jpg" src="../../images/17/1731.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1731.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Canal Navigations between the <!--del_lnk--> International Convention Centre (left) and <!--del_lnk--> Brindleyplace (right) in central Birmingham.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>From the 1760s onwards, a large network of <!--del_lnk--> canals were built across Birmingham and the <!--del_lnk--> Black Country, to transport raw materials and finished goods. By the 1820s an extensive canal system had been constructed; Birmingham is often described as having more miles of canals than <!--del_lnk--> Venice.<p><!--del_lnk--> Railways arrived in Birmingham in 1837, with the opening of the <!--del_lnk--> Grand Junction Railway and later the <!--del_lnk--> London and Birmingham Railway the railways soon linked Birmingham to every corner of Britain. <!--del_lnk--> New Street Station was opened as a joint station in 1854. And this was soon followed by the <!--del_lnk--> Great Western Railway's <!--del_lnk--> Snow Hill station.<p>During the <!--del_lnk--> Victorian era, the population of Birmingham grew rapidly to well over half a million and Birmingham became the second largest population centre in England and the third in Britain after <a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> and then <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>. Birmingham's importance led to it being granted <a href="../../wp/c/City_status_in_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="City status in the United Kingdom">city status</a> in 1889 by <a href="../../wp/v/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom.htm" title="Victoria of the United Kingdom">Queen Victoria</a>.<p>The city built its own university in 1900, The <!--del_lnk--> University of Birmingham, which became the first of Britain's <!--del_lnk--> Redbrick universities.<p>Birmingham was originally part of <!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire, however the city expanded in the late 19th and early 20th century, absorbing parts of <!--del_lnk--> Worcestershire to the south and <!--del_lnk--> Staffordshire to the west. The city absorbed <!--del_lnk--> Sutton Coldfield in 1974, and at the same time became part of the new <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands county.<p>Birmingham suffered heavy <!--del_lnk--> bomb damage during <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> during the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Blitz, and partly as a result of this the city centre was extensively re-developed during the 1950s and 1960s, with many <!--del_lnk--> concrete office buildings, ring-roads, and now much-derided pedestrian subways. As a result, Birmingham gained a reputation for ugliness and was frequently described as a "concrete jungle".<p>In recent years however, Birmingham has been transformed, the city centre has been extensively renovated and restored with the construction of new squares, the restoration of old streets, buildings and canals, the removal of the pedestrian subways, and the demolition and subsequent redevelopment of the <!--del_lnk--> Bull Ring shopping centre, which now includes the architecturally unique <!--del_lnk--> Selfridges building.<p>In the decades following World War II, the face of Birmingham changed dramatically, with large scale immigration from the <!--del_lnk--> Commonwealth of Nations and beyond.<p>Birmingham's transition from an industrial centre to a tourism and services economy is best illustrated by the hosting of the first official <!--del_lnk--> summit of the <!--del_lnk--> G8 at the <!--del_lnk--> International Convention Centre (<!--del_lnk--> May 15 to <!--del_lnk--> May 17, <!--del_lnk--> 1998).<p><a id="Geography" name="Geography"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geography</span></h2>
<p>Birmingham is situated just to the west of the geographical centre of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> on the <i>Birmingham Plateau</i> - an area of relatively high ground, ranging around 150-200 metres above sea level and crossed by Britain's main north-south <!--del_lnk--> watershed between the basins of the Rivers <a href="../../wp/r/River_Severn.htm" title="River Severn">Severn</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Trent.<p>To the south and west of the city lie the <!--del_lnk--> Lickey Hills, <!--del_lnk--> Clent Hills and <!--del_lnk--> Walton Hill, which reach 315 metres (1,033 ft) and have good views over the city.<p>Geologically Birmingham is dominated by the <i>Birmingham Fault</i> which runs diagonally through the city from the Lickey Hills in the south west, passing through <!--del_lnk--> Edgbaston, the <!--del_lnk--> Bull Ring and <!--del_lnk--> Erdington, to <!--del_lnk--> Sutton Coldfield in the north east. To the south and east of the fault the ground is largely softer <!--del_lnk--> Keuper <!--del_lnk--> Marl, interspersed with beds of <!--del_lnk--> Bunter pebbles and crossed by the valleys of the Rivers <!--del_lnk--> Tame, <!--del_lnk--> Rea and <!--del_lnk--> Cole and their tributaries. To the north and west of the fault, varying from 45-180 metres (150-600 ft) higher than the surrounding area and underlying much of the city centre, lies a long ridge of harder <!--del_lnk--> Keuper <!--del_lnk--> Sandstone.<p>Much of the area now occupied by the city was originally a northern reach of the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Forest of Arden, whose former presence can still be felt in the city's dense <!--del_lnk--> oak tree-cover and in the large number of districts (eg <!--del_lnk--> Moseley, <!--del_lnk--> Saltley, <!--del_lnk--> Hockley) with names ending in "-ley", an <!--del_lnk--> Anglo-Saxon word meaning "woodland clearing".<p><a id="Climate" name="Climate"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Climate</span></h3>
<p>These are the average and record temperatures as provided by <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> <a href="../../wp/w/Weather.htm" title="Weather">Weather</a>.<table align="center" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0">
<caption><b>Celsius</b></caption>
<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef;">
</th>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;">Average</th>
<th colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;">Record</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">Month</td>
<td>Min</td>
<td>Max</td>
<td>Min</td>
<td>Max</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">January</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>-12</td>
<td>13</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">February</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>-9</td>
<td>16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">March</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>-7</td>
<td>21</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">April</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>12</td>
<td>-2</td>
<td>24</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">May</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>16</td>
<td>-1</td>
<td>29</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">June</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>19</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>31</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">July</td>
<td>12</td>
<td>20</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>32</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">August</td>
<td>12</td>
<td>20</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>33</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">September</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>17</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>27</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">October</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>13</td>
<td>-2</td>
<td>25</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">November</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>-4</td>
<td>19</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#efefef;">December</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>-6</td>
<td>14</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The weather in Birmingham is quite <a href="../../wp/t/Temperate.htm" title="Temperate">temperate</a> with average maximum <!--del_lnk--> temperatures in summer (July) being around 20C (68F); and in winter (January) is around 4.5C (40F). The weather is hardly extreme but there have been a few tornadoes in the area- the most recent being in July 2005 in the South of the city tearing homes and businesses in the area..<p>Occasional summer heatwaves, such as the one experienced in July 2006 have become more common in recent years, and winters have become milder since the 1990's with snow becoming much less frequent.<p><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
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<div style="width:147px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1732.jpg.htm" title="New Street in central Birmingham"><img alt="New Street in central Birmingham" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:New_Street_Birmingham_700.jpg" src="../../images/17/1732.jpg" width="145" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1732.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> New Street in central Birmingham</div>
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<p>Although Birmingham grew to prominence as a <a href="../../wp/m/Manufacturing.htm" title="Manufacturing">manufacturing</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Engineering.htm" title="Engineering">engineering</a> centre, its economy today is dominated by the <!--del_lnk--> service sector, which in 2003 accounted for 78% of the city's economic output and 97% of its economic growth.<p>Birmingham is a major financial and administrative centre. The city's <!--del_lnk--> central business district has the largest concentration of administrative and private sector office-based employment in England outside <!--del_lnk--> Central London. Two of Britain's "<!--del_lnk--> big four" banks were founded in Birmingham - <!--del_lnk--> Lloyds Bank (now <!--del_lnk--> Lloyds TSB) in 1765 and the <!--del_lnk--> Midland Bank (now <!--del_lnk--> HSBC Bank plc) in 1836 - and today the city employs 108,000 in banking, finance and insurance - exceeded in the UK only by <!--del_lnk--> Westminster and the <!--del_lnk--> City of London. Birmingham has particular strengths in accountancy and commercial law, with the Birmingham Law Society having over 300 member firms.<p>Tourism is also an increasingly important part of the local economy. With major facilities such as the <!--del_lnk--> International Convention Centre and <!--del_lnk--> National Exhibition Centre the Birmingham area accounts for 42% of the UK conference and exhibition trade. The city's sporting and cultural venues attract large numbers of visitors, as does the nightlife district around <!--del_lnk--> Broad Street. In total the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands County attracts 1.1 million international visitors and 4.2 million domestic overnight visitors per year, making it the UK's third most-visited county after <!--del_lnk--> Greater London and <!--del_lnk--> Devon.<p>With an annual turnover of £2.2bn, Birmingham City Centre is the UK's second largest retail centre, with the country's busiest shopping centre - the <!--del_lnk--> Bull Ring with 36m visitors per year, and its third largest department store - <!--del_lnk--> House of Fraser (formerly <i>Rackhams</i>) on <!--del_lnk--> Corporation Street. Other major shopping areas include <!--del_lnk--> New Street, High Street, the Pavilions and <!--del_lnk--> Pallasades shopping centres and the upmarket <!--del_lnk--> Mailbox.<p>Birmingham's industrial heritage pre-dates the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, and up until the 20th century the city maintained a tradition of individual craftsmen, sometimes working independently in their own back yards or on piecework rates in rented workshops, alongside larger factories. During the Industrial Revolution many factories, foundries and businesses prospered in the city, including the areas known as the <!--del_lnk--> Gun Quarter and <!--del_lnk--> Jewellery Quarter. <!--del_lnk--> Pen manufacture in Birmingham helped revolutionise writing across the world with many companies based in and around the Jewellery Quarter. The <!--del_lnk--> Jewellery Quarter is still the largest concentration of dedicated jewellers in Europe, and one third of the jewellery manufactured in the UK is made within one mile of Birmingham city centre. Until 2003, <a href="../../wp/c/Coin.htm" title="Coin">coins</a> for circulation were manufactured in the Jewellery Quarter at the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Mint, the oldest independent <!--del_lnk--> mint in the world, which continues to produce <!--del_lnk--> commemorative coins and <!--del_lnk--> medals.<p><a href="../../wp/j/James_Watt.htm" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> improved the <a href="../../wp/s/Steam_engine.htm" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a> while working in the city, and historically the largest manufacturers in the city have been associated with the <!--del_lnk--> steam, <!--del_lnk--> electric and <!--del_lnk--> petrol transport and power industries. The city's workers designed and constructed <!--del_lnk--> railway <!--del_lnk--> carriages, <!--del_lnk--> steam engines, <!--del_lnk--> motorcycles, <!--del_lnk--> bicycles, <!--del_lnk--> automobiles and even – unusually for somewhere so far from the sea – <!--del_lnk--> ships, which were made as pre-fabricated sections, then assembled at the coast. Birmingham was home to two major car factories: <!--del_lnk--> MG Rover in <!--del_lnk--> Longbridge and <!--del_lnk--> Jaguar in <!--del_lnk--> Castle Bromwich. The MG Rover car works went into administration in 2005, resulting in the plant being mothballed and the loss of 6,000 jobs at the site, plus more in the <!--del_lnk--> supply chain. Things are looking more positive in 2006 with the <!--del_lnk--> Nanjing Automobile Group (MG Rover's main purchasers) hoping to restart production of MG cars at Longbridge by 2007. Another small sports car manufacturer has set up business in the Longbridge premises.<p>The city's products include motor vehicles, vehicle components and accessories, <a href="../../wp/w/Weapon.htm" title="Weapon">weapons</a>, electrical equipment, <!--del_lnk--> plastics, <!--del_lnk--> machine tools, <!--del_lnk--> chemicals, food, <a href="../../wp/j/Jewellery.htm" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a> and <a href="../../wp/g/Glass.htm" title="Glass">glass</a>. Scientific research (including research into <!--del_lnk--> nanotechnology at the <!--del_lnk--> University of Birmingham) is expanding in the city. Other famous <!--del_lnk--> brands from the city include <!--del_lnk--> Ariel Motorcycles, <!--del_lnk--> Bakelite, <!--del_lnk--> Bird's Custard, <!--del_lnk--> Brylcreem, <!--del_lnk--> BSA, <!--del_lnk--> Cadbury's chocolate, <!--del_lnk--> Chad Valley toys, <!--del_lnk--> Halfords, <!--del_lnk--> HP Sauce (but soon to be closed down by its American owners Heinz), <!--del_lnk--> Norton Motorcycles, <!--del_lnk--> Triumph Motorcycles, <!--del_lnk--> Typhoo Tea, <!--del_lnk--> Velocette Motorcycles and <!--del_lnk--> Valor, the list is extensive.<p>Although Birmingham has seen strong economic growth overall in recent years, with per capita GDP rising from 2% above the UK average in 1995 to 7% above in 2003, the benefits have not been felt evenly throughout the city. Many of the higher skilled jobs generated have gone to commuters from the surrounding area, and the two parliamentary consituencies with the highest unemployment rates in the UK - <!--del_lnk--> Ladywood and <!--del_lnk--> Sparkbrook and Small Heath - are both in inner-city Birmingham. Growth has also placed significant strain on the city's transport infrastructure, with many major roads and the central <!--del_lnk--> New Street railway station operating considerably over capacity during peak periods.<p><a id="Architecture" name="Architecture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Architecture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1733.jpg.htm" title="City of Birmingham Council House, with Dhruva Mistry's sculpture, 'The River', in the foreground (commonly known as 'the floozie in the jacuzzi')."><img alt="City of Birmingham Council House, with Dhruva Mistry's sculpture, 'The River', in the foreground (commonly known as 'the floozie in the jacuzzi')." height="363" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Birmingham_council_house.jpg" src="../../images/17/1733.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1733.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> City of Birmingham Council House, with Dhruva Mistry's sculpture, 'The River', in the foreground (commonly known as 'the floozie in the jacuzzi').</div>
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<p>Although Birmingham has existed as a settlement for over a thousand years, today's city is overwhelmingly a product of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, as the real growth of the city began with the <a href="../../wp/i/Industrial_Revolution.htm" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Consequently, relatively few buildings survive from its earlier history.<p>Traces of <!--del_lnk--> medieval Birmingham can be seen in the oldest churches, notably the original <!--del_lnk--> parish church, <!--del_lnk--> St Martin in the Bull Ring, where a church has stood since at least the 12th century. The current church (begun around 1290) was extensively re-built in the 1870s, retaining some original walls and foundations. A few other buildings from the medieval and <!--del_lnk--> Tudor periods survive, among them <i><!--del_lnk--> The Lad In The Lane</i> <!--del_lnk--> public house in <!--del_lnk--> Erdington,also <!--del_lnk--> <i>The Old Crown</i> <!--del_lnk--> public house in <!--del_lnk--> Digbeth, the 15th century <i>Saracen's Head</i> public house and Old Grammar School in <!--del_lnk--> Kings Norton and <!--del_lnk--> Blakesley Hall in <!--del_lnk--> Yardley.<p>The city grew rapidly from <!--del_lnk--> Georgian times and a number of buildings survive from this period. Among them are <!--del_lnk--> St Philip's Cathedral, originally built as a parish church, St Paul's Church in the largely <!--del_lnk--> Georgian <!--del_lnk--> St Paul's Square, <!--del_lnk--> Soho House in <!--del_lnk--> Handsworth, the home of <!--del_lnk--> Matthew Boulton, <!--del_lnk--> Perrott's Folly in <!--del_lnk--> Ladywood (which is said to have later inspired <a href="../../wp/j/J._R._R._Tolkien.htm" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>), and the <!--del_lnk--> Town Hall.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Victorian era saw extensive building across the city. Major public buildings such as the Law Courts, the <!--del_lnk--> Council House (see picture) and the <!--del_lnk--> Museum & Art Gallery were constructed, many under the auspices of <!--del_lnk--> Joseph Chamberlain's reforming mayoralty. <!--del_lnk--> Saint Chad's Cathedral, built in 1839 by <!--del_lnk--> Augustus Pugin, was the first <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Cathedral to be built in the UK since the <!--del_lnk--> Reformation. The characteristic materials of Victorian Birmingham are <!--del_lnk--> red brick and terracotta, and many fine Victorian buildings have been retained on <!--del_lnk--> New Street and <!--del_lnk--> Corporation Street in the city centre. Across the city, the need to house the industrial workers gave rise to miles of redbrick streets and terraces, many of <!--del_lnk--> back-to-back houses, some of which were later to become inner-city <!--del_lnk--> slums.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1734.jpg.htm" title="The new Selfridges building"><img alt="The new Selfridges building" height="308" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Birmingham_Selfridges_building.jpg" src="../../images/17/1734.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1734.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The new Selfridges building</div>
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<p>Continued population growth in the <!--del_lnk--> interwar period, saw vast estates of <!--del_lnk--> semi-detached houses being built on <!--del_lnk--> greenfield land in outlying parts of the city such as <!--del_lnk--> Kingstanding and <!--del_lnk--> Weoley Castle, but the coming of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/The_Blitz.htm" title="The Blitz">the Blitz</a> claimed many lives and many beautiful buildings too. However, the destruction that took place in post-war Birmingham was also extensive: dozens of fine Victorian buildings like the intricate glass-roofed <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham New Street Station, and the old Central Library, were razed in the 1950s and 1960s and replaced with <!--del_lnk--> modernist <!--del_lnk--> concrete buildings. In inner-city areas too, much Victorian housing was <!--del_lnk--> redeveloped and existing communities were relocated to <!--del_lnk--> tower block <!--del_lnk--> estates like <!--del_lnk--> Castle Vale and <!--del_lnk--> Bromford.<p>The planning decisions of the post-war years were to have a profound effect on the image of Birmingham in subsequent decades, with the mix of <!--del_lnk--> ring roads, <!--del_lnk--> shopping malls and tower blocks often referred to as a '<!--del_lnk--> concrete jungle'. In more recent years, Birmingham has learnt from what many see as the mistakes of the 1960s and instituted the largest tower block demolition and renovation programmes anywhere in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. There has been a lot of new building in the city centre in recent years, including the award-winning <!--del_lnk--> Future Systems' <!--del_lnk--> Selfridges building, an irregularly-shaped structure covered in thousands of reflective discs (see picture), the <!--del_lnk--> Brindleyplace development and the <!--del_lnk--> Millennium Point science and technology centre.<p>Highrise development has slowed since the 1970s and mainly in recent years due to enforcements on the heights of buildings as they could affect aircraft from the International Airport. <!--del_lnk--> Beetham Tower, standing on Holloway Circus was originally going to be about 190 metres tall however, the <!--del_lnk--> CAA forced the Beetham organisation to reduce the height of the tower to 122 metres. Another tower that has been forced to be reduced in height is <!--del_lnk--> Arena Central Tower which is yet to be constructed. The tower was originally going to be 245 metres in height however after the attacks on the World Trade Centers in New York City, it was shortened to 180 metres. However, these rules are now being scrapped as it has been recognised that interest in highrise architecture for the city has been reduced. One of the latest towers that has been allowed to be increased in height is the Broad Street Tower which is set to be 134 metres and will most likely be approved due to the airport removing all objections to it.<p>Some fine architects hail from the city such as <!--del_lnk--> Glenn Howells and <!--del_lnk--> Ken Shuttleworth.<p><a id="Politics" name="Politics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Politics</span></h2>
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<p><b>Birmingham City Council</b> is the largest local authority in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>. Following a reorganisation of boundaries in June 2004 it has 120 <!--del_lnk--> councillors representing just under one million people, in 40 <!--del_lnk--> wards.<p>After the election of <!--del_lnk--> 4 May 2006, there is no overall control, with the 120 seats being divided between the <!--del_lnk--> Labour, (44 councillors), <!--del_lnk--> Conservative (41) and <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrat ("Lib Dem", 33) parties, with 2 Others.<p>In the 2006 elections, when a third of the council was up for re-election, Labour lost a net total of two seats, the Conservatives made a net gain of one, the Liberal Democrats had no change, and <!--del_lnk--> Respect won a seat. It initially appeared that the <!--del_lnk--> British National Party had also gained a seat, but it soon transpired their candidate's election had been caused by a counting error and was subsequently overturned in favour of the previously third-placed Labour party candidate following an election petition.<p>There is a Conservative/Lib Dem coalition, with Conservative group leader <!--del_lnk--> Mike Whitby as Leader of the council and Lib Dem group leader Paul Tilsley as Deputy Leader.<p>Birmingham's eleven <!--del_lnk--> parliamentary constituencies are represented in the <a href="../../wp/b/British_House_of_Commons.htm" title="British House of Commons">House of Commons</a> by one <!--del_lnk--> Conservative, one <!--del_lnk--> Liberal Democrat, and 9 <!--del_lnk--> Labour <!--del_lnk--> MPs.<p>Law enforcement in Birmingham is carried out by the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands Police and fire and rescue by the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands Fire Service.<p>Birmingham is also the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> Government Office for the <!--del_lnk--> West Midlands region.<p><a id="Demographics" name="Demographics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Demographics</span></h2>
<p>Birmingham is an ethnically and culturally diverse city. Birmingham has the smallest white population by percentage of many of the major cities. 29.6% of its population is non-white, where as <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a>, commonly seen as the most diverse of British cities is 29.0% non-white. This is compared to <a href="../../wp/l/Liverpool.htm" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> which is only 5.1% non-white.<p>At the time of the 2001 census, 70.4% of the population was <!--del_lnk--> White (including 3.2% <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Irish</a> & 1.5% Other White), 19.5% <!--del_lnk--> British Asian 6.1% <!--del_lnk--> Black or <!--del_lnk--> Black British, 0.5% <!--del_lnk--> Chinese, and 3.5% of <!--del_lnk--> mixed race or other ethnic heritage.<p>The population density is 3,649 people per square km. 23.4% of people were aged under 16, 57.7% were aged between 16 and 59, while 18.9% were aged over 60. The average age was 36, compared with 38.6 years for England.<p><a id="Places_of_interest" name="Places_of_interest"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Places of interest</span></h2>
<p><a id="Museums_and_galleries" name="Museums_and_galleries"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Museums and galleries</span></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1735.jpg.htm" title="Chamberlain Square"><img alt="Chamberlain Square" height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Chamberlain_Square%2C_Birmingham.jpg" src="../../images/17/1735.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1735.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Chamberlain Square</div>
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<p>Birmingham has a rich industrial history which is now preserved in many museums located all over Birmingham city centre and outside the city centre boundaries. Many museums are preserved buildings which are restored to the time period in which they were most significant.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery looks over <!--del_lnk--> Chamberlain Square. It contains collections of <a href="../../wp/a/Archaeology.htm" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> findings, <!--del_lnk--> ethnography, <!--del_lnk--> natural history and <!--del_lnk--> social history and also hosts exhibitions in adjacent halls.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Thinktank is one of the newest museums in the city which replaced the Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery Science Museum. It is part of the <!--del_lnk--> Millennium Point complex in the <!--del_lnk--> Eastside area of Birmingham.<p><!--del_lnk--> Aston Hall is a large hall in <!--del_lnk--> Aston built between 1618 and 1635. It is now preserved, along with gardens, with free admission.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Back to Backs are the last surviving court of back-to-back houses in the city. They are decorated in different time periods to give visitors an idea of what living in each house was like during different decades.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Jewellery Quarter in <!--del_lnk--> Hockley is the largest concentration of dedicated jewellers in Europe and the <!--del_lnk--> Museum of the Jewellery Quarter shows the history of the area and the building it is situated in. The interiors are maintained to the standard to what was found when the building was first accessed after being abandoned.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1736.jpg.htm" title="Sarehole Mill"><img alt="Sarehole Mill" height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sareholemill.jpg" src="../../images/17/1736.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1736.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Sarehole Mill</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Sarehole Mill is a water mill museum in <!--del_lnk--> Hall Green. <a href="../../wp/j/J._R._R._Tolkien.htm" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a> lived within 300 metres of the mill between the ages four and eight, and would have seen it from his house. This makes the mill a favourable destination for fans of the author.<p><!--del_lnk--> Blakesley Hall is a Tudor style house in <!--del_lnk--> Yardley which has been preserved as an attraction along with the gardens and a visitor centre.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Gun Quarter was once the foremost gun manufacturing community in the UK and now contains a wide range of Victorian style buildings.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Barber Institute of Fine Arts is both an art gallery and concert hall. As well as housing some famous works by <a href="../../wp/v/Vincent_van_Gogh.htm" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Pablo_Picasso.htm" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, it also has one of the worlds most detailed and largest coin collections. In 2004, the gallery received the title, <i>Gallery of the Year</i>.<p><!--del_lnk--> Cadbury World is a museum showing visitors the stages and steps of chocolate production and the history of chocolate and the company which started on Bull Street in the city centre. However, the museum is located in <!--del_lnk--> Bournville.<p><a id="Sports_locations" name="Sports_locations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Sports locations</span></h3>
<p>Birmingham has two major football teams which play in their own parks; <!--del_lnk--> Villa Park (<!--del_lnk--> Aston Villa Football Club) and <!--del_lnk--> St Andrews (<!--del_lnk--> Birmingham City Football Club). Birmingham is also home to greyhound racing and has two tracks in Perry Barr and Hall Green, Perry Barr undergoing a major refurbishment in 2004. Major cricket competitions are often held at <!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire County Cricket Club in <!--del_lnk--> Edgbaston. Sporting events are also held at the <!--del_lnk--> National Indoor Arena (NIA).<p><a id="Parks_and_squares" name="Parks_and_squares"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Parks and squares</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1737.jpg.htm" title="'The River' in Victoria Square."><img alt="'The River' in Victoria Square." height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:The_River_aka_The_Floozie_in_the_Jacuzzi_-_Victoria_Square_-_Birmingham_-_2005-10-13.jpg" src="../../images/17/1737.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1737.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 'The River' in Victoria Square.</div>
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<p>There are over 8000 acres of parkland open spaces in Birmingham. The largest of the parks is <!--del_lnk--> Sutton Park covering 2400 acres making it the largest urban nature reserve in Europe. <p>Another major park in the city is <!--del_lnk--> Cannon Hill Park which contains a timber-framed house, a model of the Elan Valley Reservoirs and two lakes. <!--del_lnk--> BRMB, the local radio station, hosts the Party in the Park in Cannon Hill Park. <!--del_lnk--> The mac, a non profit arts centre, is located in the park not far from the model of the Elan Valley Reservoirs.<p><!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Botanical Gardens are a Victorian creation which still exist to this day with a conservatory and bandstand. The large area is a superb opportunity for recreation and relaxation and is not far from the city centre.<p>There are numerous squares in Birmingham city centre. Many contain memorials and pieces of art. Four major squares in the city centre are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Centenary Square<li><!--del_lnk--> Chamberlain Square featuring a <!--del_lnk--> BBC Big Screen<li><!--del_lnk--> Victoria Square<li>St. Martins Square in the Bullring</ul>
<p>In the Jewellery Quarter is <!--del_lnk--> St Paul's Square which is located around a Grade I listed church of Georgian architecture. The surrounding area is largely listed after restoration of the buildings in the 1970s.<p><a id="Religious_buildings" name="Religious_buildings"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religious buildings</span></h3>
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<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1738.jpg.htm" title="St Philip's Cathedral from the rear"><img alt="St Philip's Cathedral from the rear" height="224" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Birmingham_St_Philip%27s_Cathedral.jpg" src="../../images/17/1738.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1738.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> St Philip's Cathedral from the rear</div>
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<p>Birmingham was made a city in 1889. Stemming from this, the <!--del_lnk--> Diocese of Birmingham was created in 1905 and <!--del_lnk--> St Philip's was accordingly upgraded from church to cathedral status. The cathedral is surrounded by a churchyard which is a popular congregating area. The other cathedral in the city is <!--del_lnk--> Saint Chad's Cathedral, which is the seat of the <!--del_lnk--> Roman Catholic Province of Birmingham. <!--del_lnk--> St Martin in the Bull Ring is a Grade II listed church in the centre of St Martin's Square in the Bullring Shopping Centre.<p>There is also a variety of non-Christian religions in the city. In the 1960s <!--del_lnk--> Central Mosque was constructed for the Muslim community of the city. It is one of the largest mosques in Europe.<p><a id="Leisure" name="Leisure"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Leisure</span></h3>
<p>Two major developments have regenerated two parts of the city in recent years. <!--del_lnk--> Brindleyplace is a major canalside development which required the restoration of many old warehouses into restaurants and the construction of office buildings. The other development was the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Bull Ring which replaced an older shopping centre which had become disliked by the public.<p>Another modern shopping centre is <!--del_lnk--> The Mailbox which features many expensive designer stores as well as offices and apartments next to the canals.<p><!--del_lnk--> The Convention Quarter features many broadcasting companies and radio stations in the city centre. The area is modern and was developed around the same time as Brindleyplace. The <!--del_lnk--> National Sealife Centre is located alongside the canals next to the main square at Brindleyplace.<p>Outside of the city centre is <!--del_lnk--> Star City which is a major entertainment complex which houses a large cinema, casino and restaurant area.<p>Other areas of interest are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Town Hall which is located next to Victoria Square and Chamberlain Square.<li><!--del_lnk--> Birmingham University<li><!--del_lnk--> National Exhibition Centre (The NEC) which is a major music and exhibition venue near the airport.</ul>
<p><a id="Famous_residents" name="Famous_residents"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Famous residents</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Joseph Chamberlain, <!--del_lnk--> Neville Chamberlain, <a href="../../wp/j/J._R._R._Tolkien.htm" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Tony Hancock, <!--del_lnk--> Nigel Mansell and <!--del_lnk--> Ozzy Osbourne are a few of the many famous names associated with Birmingham.<p>For a larger list see <!--del_lnk--> List of famous residents of Birmingham<p>You can also browse the list of Blue Plaques erected by <!--del_lnk--> The Birmingham Civic Society to the city's eminent citizens.<p><a id="Transport" name="Transport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Transport</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1739.jpg.htm" title="A canal tunnel, looking towards Gas Street Basin, in Birmingham city centre"><img alt="A canal tunnel, looking towards Gas Street Basin, in Birmingham city centre" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Birmingham_city_centre_canal_during_rainstorm.jpg" src="../../images/17/1739.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1739.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A canal tunnel, looking towards Gas Street Basin, in Birmingham city centre</div>
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<p>Due in part to its central location in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>, Birmingham is a major transport hub on the <!--del_lnk--> motorway, <a href="../../wp/r/Rail_transport.htm" title="Rail transport">rail</a>, and <a href="../../wp/c/Canal.htm" title="Canal">canal</a> networks.<p><a id="Roads" name="Roads"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Roads</span></h3>
<p>Birmingham is served by a number of major roads, including the <!--del_lnk--> M5, <a href="../../wp/m/M6_motorway.htm" title="M6 motorway">M6</a>, <!--del_lnk--> M6 Toll, <!--del_lnk--> M40, and <!--del_lnk--> M42 motorways. Junction 6 of the M6 is also one of Birmingham's most famous landmarks, and probably the most famous motorway junction in the UK: <!--del_lnk--> Spaghetti Junction, officially called the Gravelly Hill Interchange. The city is also known for the numerous junctions with pedestrian tunnels within the city centre itself which have been redeveloped through demolition or reorganisation. One of the most significant of these redevelopments was <!--del_lnk--> Masshouse (also known as the "<i>Concrete collar</i>") which saw the demolition of an entire elevated junction. Other projects include Snow Hill <!--del_lnk--> Queensway with St Chads Circus.<p>Birmingham also forms a major hub in the <!--del_lnk--> National Express coach network, which is based in Birmingham and operates services from <!--del_lnk--> Digbeth Coach Station. This is due to be redeveloped by 2008 after plans to build a replacement coach station next to Snow Hill Station on Great Charles Street Queensway were abandoned due to a breakdown in discussions between National Express and the City Council. A temporary coach station is due to be made at the former <!--del_lnk--> Volkswagen dealership on the opposite side of the road to the coach station. Birmingham also has a Megabus service to London.<p><a id="Airports_and_aviation" name="Airports_and_aviation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Airports and aviation</span></h3>
<p>Birmingham is served by <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham International Airport, which has flights to <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <!--del_lnk--> South Asia. It is the fifth busiest airport in the UK, and handles (as of 2005) nine million passengers a year. The airport has published a master plan for its development up to 2030. The first major element is an extension to the main runway, targeted for completion in time for the <!--del_lnk--> 2012 London Olympics. The extension will increase the runway length to 3000 metres, as well as including a starter strip to provide a maximum takeoff run of 3150 metres.<p><a id="Local_transport" name="Local_transport"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Local transport</span></h3>
<p>Local public transport is by <!--del_lnk--> bus, local train and <!--del_lnk--> tram (the <!--del_lnk--> Midland Metro <!--del_lnk--> light railway system between the city centre and <!--del_lnk--> Wolverhampton).<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Midland Metro tram system is due for expansion which will see it on major streets in the city centre such as <!--del_lnk--> Broad Street which has been partially funded by the developers of <!--del_lnk--> Arena Central at a cost of £5 million.<p>The bus services in the city are run by Travel West Midlands (TWM) with the routes also adopted by smaller bus companies in different buses. Travel West Midlands are constantly introducing newer, more modern buses to replace older buses which have been frowned upon due to the pollution they create. Routes are sometimes reorganised with the most recent being the bus routes from <!--del_lnk--> Sutton Coldfield to the city centre.<p>The number 11A and 11C <!--del_lnk--> outer circle bus routes are the longest urban bus routes in Europe. In recent years, the council has tried to move bus stops out of the city centre (especially off Corporation Street) to ease congestion and move them to the boundaries of the city centre. In a notable attempt to move buses away from the city centre, the bus mall, a large area for buses to stop, was constructed next to the <!--del_lnk--> Bull Ring Shopping Centre however due to the complicated layout, the amount of buses travelling through was reduced as it caused a several accidents.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1740.jpg.htm" title="Curzon Street railway station from the front."><img alt="Curzon Street railway station from the front." height="225" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Curzon_Street_Station.jpg" src="../../images/17/1740.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1740.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Curzon Street railway station from the front.</div>
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<p>The city's main station, <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham New Street, is at the centre of the national rail network, whilst <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham International railway station serves <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham International Airport. Two other major stations are located in the city centre: <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Snow Hill Station and <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Moor Street railway station. The first railway station in the city centre was <!--del_lnk--> Curzon Street railway station which opened in 1838, however, its location on the edge of the city centre made it unsuccessful and it closed in 1966.<p>In 2005, the City Council launched a strategy to encourage <!--del_lnk--> cycling. The council developed the city-wide cycle route network by identifying and tackling hazardous locations for cyclists and creating better cycling facilities. They also took cyclists' needs into account in all road maintenance and construction. In 1995, they set a target to increase cycle use in Birmingham from 1.5% to 5% by the year 2005.<p><a id="Canals" name="Canals"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Canals</span></h3>
<p>Birmingham is also notable for its <!--del_lnk--> canal system; formerly the lifeblood of the city's industries, their use is now mainly for pleasure. There are 35 miles (60 kilometres) of canals in the city, most remaining navigable. The abundance of canals has led to the frequently made claim that "Birmingham has more canals than <!--del_lnk--> Venice". Although this is in some sense correct (Venice has 26 miles (41 kilometres)), Birmingham is far larger , and the types of <!--del_lnk--> waterway are very different. Birmingham's canals are comparatively shallow artificial channels, while those in Venice are primarily reinforced natural channels between islands of the lagoon on which the city stands.<p><a id="Education" name="Education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Education</span></h2>
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<p>The city council is England's largest <!--del_lnk--> local education authority, directly or indirectly responsible for 25 <!--del_lnk--> nursery schools, 328 <!--del_lnk--> primary schools, 77 <!--del_lnk--> secondary schools and 29 <!--del_lnk--> special schools . It also runs the <a href="../../wp/l/Library.htm" title="Library">library</a> service, with 4 million visitors annually , and provides around 4000 <!--del_lnk--> adult education courses throughout the year .<p>Birmingham has three <a href="../../wp/u/University.htm" title="University">universities</a>: the <!--del_lnk--> University of Birmingham, <!--del_lnk--> Aston University and the <!--del_lnk--> University of Central England (UCE). It also has two other <!--del_lnk--> higher education <!--del_lnk--> colleges (<!--del_lnk--> Newman College and the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham College of Food, Tourism and Creative Studies). The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Conservatoire and <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham School of Acting, both now part of UCE, offer higher education in the arts. The conservatoire planning to move from their current location in Adrian Boult Hall to a site in the Eastside which was first intended for a large library.<p>A minority of the city's children receive <!--del_lnk--> private education. <!--del_lnk--> King Edward's School is perhaps the most prestigious <!--del_lnk--> independent school in the city. The seven schools of The King Edward VI Foundation are known nationally for setting the very highest academic standards and all of the schools consistently achieve top positions in national league tables.<p><!--del_lnk--> Matthew Boulton College is also located in the city. In 2005, the <!--del_lnk--> Eastside branch of the college was completed and opened. The University of Central England opened the <!--del_lnk--> New Technology Institute facility in the same area in 2006.<p><a id="Sport" name="Sport"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sport</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1742.jpg.htm" title="The NIA has hosted many national and international sporting championships."><img alt="The NIA has hosted many national and international sporting championships." height="148" longdesc="/wiki/Image:NIA%2C_Birmingham.jpg" src="../../images/17/1742.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1742.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The NIA has hosted many national and international sporting championships.</div>
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<p>A <a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">cricket</a> club was in existence in Birmingham as early as 1745, and today the city is home to <!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire County Cricket Club whose ground at <!--del_lnk--> Edgbaston is also a venue for international <!--del_lnk--> Test matches. International <a href="../../wp/a/Athletics_%2528track_and_field%2529.htm" title="Athletics (track and field)">athletics</a> meetings take place at the open-air <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Stadium in <!--del_lnk--> Perry Barr, the home of <!--del_lnk--> Birchfield Harriers athletic club, which numbers many <!--del_lnk--> Olympic medallists among its past and present members. The <!--del_lnk--> National Indoor Arena (NIA) meanwhile is a major indoor athletics stadium and in 2003 hosted the 9th <!--del_lnk--> IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athletics. The city has also hosted the <!--del_lnk--> IBF World Championships in 1993 and 2003 which were both held in the <!--del_lnk--> National Indoor Arena. The NIA has also hosted the <!--del_lnk--> All England Open Badminton Championships from 1994 onwards and the <!--del_lnk--> British Indoor Rowing Championships since 2000.<p>The first ever game of <!--del_lnk--> lawn tennis was played in Edgbaston in 1859; international tennis is still played at Edgbaston's Priory Club .<p>The city is home to two of the UK's oldest professional <a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">football</a> teams: <!--del_lnk--> Aston Villa (1874) and <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham City (1875), until recently both played in the <!--del_lnk--> FA Premier League, however at the end of the 2005-2006 season Birmingham City were relegated to the <!--del_lnk--> Coca Cola Championship. The world's first professional <!--del_lnk--> football league was founded at a meeting in <!--del_lnk--> Aston on <!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1885 under the auspices of William McGregor, a director of Aston Villa. Aston Villa is one of only four English football clubs to have been crowned champions of Europe; they did so by winning the European Cup in 1982.<p>Birmingham also has a professional <!--del_lnk--> Rugby Union side, <!--del_lnk--> Moseley RFC, and there is professional <a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">basketball</a> team called the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Bullets as well as professional <!--del_lnk--> boxing, <!--del_lnk--> hockey, <!--del_lnk--> skateboarding, and <!--del_lnk--> greyhound racing in the city.<p>Birmingham has a large concentration of <!--del_lnk--> Martial Arts Clubs and is thought by some to have the highest concentration of Martial Artists in the UK.<p>Birmingham is also home to the sportswear manufacturer <!--del_lnk--> Epsc with the founder of the company having attended <!--del_lnk--> The University of Birmingham.<p>Birmingham was the first city to be awarded the title <b>National City of Sport</b> by the <!--del_lnk--> Sports Council. <p><a id="Sports_Teams_In_Birmingham" name="Sports_Teams_In_Birmingham"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Sports Teams In Birmingham</span></h4>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Club</th>
<th>Sport</th>
<th>Founded</th>
<th>League</th>
<th>Venue</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Bullets</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Basketball.htm" title="Basketball">Basketball</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1974</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> British Basketball League</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> North Solihull Sports Centre</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Warwickshire County Cricket Club</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Cricket.htm" title="Cricket">Cricket</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1882</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Cricket League</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> County Ground</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aston Villa</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Football</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1874</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> FA Premier League</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Villa Park</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Birmingham City</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Football</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1875</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> The Championship</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> St Andrews Stadium</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Castle Vale</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/Football_%2528soccer%2529.htm" title="Football (soccer)">Football</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Midland Football Combination Premier Division</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Moseley Rugby Club</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rugby union</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1873</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> National Division One</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Billesley Common</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Food_.26_drink" name="Food_.26_drink"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Food & drink</span></h2>
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<p>Birmingham based <!--del_lnk--> Breweries included <!--del_lnk--> Ansells, <!--del_lnk--> Davenports and <!--del_lnk--> Mitchells & Butlers. <!--del_lnk--> Aston Manor Brewery is currently the only brewery of any significant size.<p>Many fine Victorian pubs and bars can still be found across the city. The oldest inn in Birmingham is the <!--del_lnk--> Old Crown in <!--del_lnk--> Deritend (circa 1450). The <!--del_lnk--> Anchor Inn (1797), is also nearby in <!--del_lnk--> Digbeth. For a more contemporary night out the city has a plethora of nightclubs and bars. Perhaps Birmingham's most famous street for nights out is Broad Street which also has a cinema and many restaurants on it.<p>Famous food brands from Birmingham include <!--del_lnk--> Typhoo tea, <!--del_lnk--> Birds custard, <!--del_lnk--> Blue Bird Toffee, <!--del_lnk--> Bournville cocoa, <!--del_lnk--> Cadbury chocolate, and <!--del_lnk--> HP Sauce which was based within <!--del_lnk--> Aston.<p><!--del_lnk--> Alum Rock, <!--del_lnk--> Saltley contains the largest concentration of take-away businesses in Birmingham.<p>Ladypool Road, <!--del_lnk--> Sparkhill contains the largest concentration of restaurants in Birmingham and possibly the UK.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Wing Yip food empire first began in the city and now has its headquarters in the <!--del_lnk--> Chinese Quarter.<p>In 1945, Abdul Aziz opened a cafe shop selling <!--del_lnk--> curry and <a href="../../wp/r/Rice.htm" title="Rice">rice</a> in Steelhouse Lane. This later became The Darjeeling, the first Indian restaurant in Birmingham. The <!--del_lnk--> Balti was invented in the city and has since received much gastronomic acclaim for the 'Balti Belt' of restaurants in the <!--del_lnk--> Sparkhill, <!--del_lnk--> Sparkbrook, <!--del_lnk--> Balsall Heath and Ladypool areas. The Balti Belt is also known as the <!--del_lnk--> Balti Triangle among locals.<p>The city boasts two <!--del_lnk--> Michelin starred restaurants: <i>Simpson's</i> and <i>Jessica's</i>, both in <!--del_lnk--> Edgbaston.<p>The <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> <!--del_lnk--> Good Food Show takes place at The <!--del_lnk--> National Exhibition Centre, and is Britain's biggest food event.<p><a id="Culture_and_arts" name="Culture_and_arts"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture and arts</span></h2>
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<p><a id="Popular_music" name="Popular_music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Popular music</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1743.jpg.htm" title="Black Sabbath, a pioneer band in heavy-metal music, was formed in Birmingham."><img alt="Black Sabbath, a pioneer band in heavy-metal music, was formed in Birmingham." height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_Sabbath_1999-12-16_Stuttgart.jpg" src="../../images/17/1743.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1743.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Black Sabbath, a pioneer band in heavy-metal music, was formed in Birmingham.</div>
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<p>Birmingham has had a vibrant and varied musical history over the last century.<p>In the 1960s, the "<!--del_lnk--> Brum Beat" era featured <!--del_lnk--> blues and early <!--del_lnk--> progressive rock bands such as <!--del_lnk--> The Fortunes, <!--del_lnk--> Spencer Davis Group, <!--del_lnk--> Traffic, <!--del_lnk--> The Move and <!--del_lnk--> The Moody Blues.<p>The city is often described as the birthplace of <!--del_lnk--> heavy metal music, with <!--del_lnk--> Judas Priest and <!--del_lnk--> Black Sabbath coming from Birmingham. <!--del_lnk--> Robert Plant and <!--del_lnk--> John Bonham came from nearby towns, and played in local <!--del_lnk--> Brum Beat bands before forming one half of <!--del_lnk--> Led Zeppelin.<p>In the 1970s members of The Move and The <!--del_lnk--> Idle Race formed the <!--del_lnk--> Electric Light Orchestra and <!--del_lnk--> Wizzard. The 1970s also saw the rise of <a href="../../wp/r/Reggae.htm" title="Reggae">reggae</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Ska.htm" title="Ska">ska</a> in the city, with <!--del_lnk--> Steel Pulse and later on <!--del_lnk--> UB40, <!--del_lnk--> The Beat and <!--del_lnk--> Musical Youth. Singer-songwriter <!--del_lnk--> Joan Armatrading had many hits during this decade.<p>The 1980s brought <a href="../../wp/d/Duran_Duran.htm" title="Duran Duran">Duran Duran</a>, possibly the most successful <!--del_lnk--> new romantic group, and <!--del_lnk--> Dexy's Midnight Runners, and the 1990s the <!--del_lnk--> Charlatans, <!--del_lnk--> Dodgy and <!--del_lnk--> Ocean Colour Scene. Recent chart success has come from Mike Skinner (also known as <!--del_lnk--> The Streets), <a href="../../wp/r/Rhythm_and_blues.htm" title="R&B">R&B</a> singer <!--del_lnk--> Jamelia, Fyfe Dangerfield (singer/songwriter) of the <!--del_lnk--> Guillemots (band), <!--del_lnk--> Mistys Big Adventure and <!--del_lnk--> Editors.<p><a href="../../wp/j/Jazz.htm" title="Jazz">Jazz</a> is popular in the city, and the annual <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham International Jazz Festival is the largest of its kind in the UK.<p><!--del_lnk--> Party in the Park, a popular chart music event, is Birmingham's largest music festival.<p>In 1998, Birmingham was the host city for the <a href="../../wp/e/Eurovision_Song_Contest.htm" title="Eurovision Song Contest">Eurovision Song Contest</a>, which took place in the National Indoor Arena in the City Centre.<p>Birmingham has also been synonymous in the development of the British electronic music scene. <!--del_lnk--> Digbeth, near the city centre, features some of the country's top dance clubs, including Air, host to the eminent <!--del_lnk--> Godskitchen. The nearby <!--del_lnk--> National Exhibition Centre has played host to the biggest indoor dance events in the country.<p><a id="Classical_music" name="Classical_music"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Classical music</span></h3>
<p>The internationally-renowned <!--del_lnk--> City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra's home venue is <!--del_lnk--> Symphony Hall, where it gives frequent performances.<p>Birmingham is one of the few remaining cities in the UK to still have the position of City Organist. Since 1834 only 7 men have held this position, the current holder, Thomas Trotter has been in post since 1983. Weekly recitals have been given since the organ in <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Town Hall was opened. The recitals are temporarily being held in St. Philip's Cathedral, until the Town Hall organ opens again after restoration in 2006.<p>The equally world-renowned <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Royal Ballet also resides in the city as does the world's oldest vocational dance school, <!--del_lnk--> Elmhurst School for Dance.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Triennial Music Festivals took place from 1784 - 1912 and was considered the grandest of its kind throughout Britain. Music was written for the festival and conducted or performed by <a href="../../wp/f/Felix_Mendelssohn.htm" title="Felix Mendelssohn">Mendelssohn</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Gounod, <a href="../../wp/a/Arthur_Sullivan.htm" title="Arthur Sullivan">Sullivan</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Anton%25C3%25ADn_Dvo%25C5%2599%25C3%25A1k.htm" title="Antonín Dvořák">Dvořák</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Bantock and most notably <!--del_lnk--> Elgar, who wrote four of his most famous choral pieces for Birmingham.<p><!--del_lnk--> Albert William Ketèlbey was born at 41 Alma Street, Aston in 1875.<p><!--del_lnk--> Andrew Glover composer, was born in Birmingham, 1962<p>Birmingham's other city-centre music venues include The <!--del_lnk--> National Indoor Arena (NIA), the <!--del_lnk--> CBSO Centre, <!--del_lnk--> Adrian Boult Hall at <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Conservatoire and <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Town Hall (currently closed for refurbishment).<p><a id="Theatre" name="Theatre"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Theatre</span></h3>
<p>There are many theatres in Birmingham. The four largest professional theatres are the <!--del_lnk--> Alexandra Theatre ("the Alex"), <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Repertory Theatre ("The Rep"), the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Hippodrome and the <!--del_lnk--> Old Rep. The <i><!--del_lnk--> mac</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Drum Arts Centre also host many professional plays.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Fierce Festival teams with the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Repertory Theatre annually to present a series of quirky performances from local and national companies.<p><a id="Literature" name="Literature"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Literature</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Literary figures associated with Birmingham include <!--del_lnk--> Samuel Johnson , <a href="../../wp/j/J._R._R._Tolkien.htm" title="J. R. R. Tolkien">J. R. R. Tolkien</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Conan Doyle, <!--del_lnk--> Louis MacNeice, <!--del_lnk--> Washington Irving, <!--del_lnk--> David Lodge, <!--del_lnk--> W. H. Auden, <!--del_lnk--> Roi Kwabena and <!--del_lnk--> Benjamin Zephaniah. J. R. R. Tolkien is said to have been inspired by areas and buildings in the city such as <!--del_lnk--> Perrott's Folly and <!--del_lnk--> Moseley Bog for scenes in <a href="../../wp/t/The_Lord_of_the_Rings.htm" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a>.<p><a id="Libraries" name="Libraries"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Libraries</span></h4>
<p>The main library for the city is <!--del_lnk--> Central Library. The library has been redeveloped over a period of 150 years with the first Central Library opening in 1865. However, this library was destroyed in 1879. A replacement was built and in 1974, it was demolished with the new library and current library standing next to it. One of the collections was housed in the <!--del_lnk--> Shakespeare Memorial Room which houses collections of <a href="../../wp/w/William_Shakespeare.htm" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s literary pieces.<p>A replacement library was planned for the Eastside area however, it was deemed unnecessary and did not go further than the planning stage. It is now expected to be divided into two sites, one housing the special collections and the other as a reference library.<p>There are 41 libraries in Birmingham overall and a regular mobile library service serves the city too.<p><a id="Visual_art" name="Visual_art"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Visual art</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1744.jpg.htm" title="The Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery"><img alt="The Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery" height="240" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Birmingham_Art_Gallery_%26_Museum.jpg" src="../../images/17/1744.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1744.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery</div>
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<p>Birmingham has one of the largest collections of <!--del_lnk--> Pre-Raphaelite art in the world at The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery. <!--del_lnk--> Edward Burne-Jones was born in Birmingham, spent his first twenty years in the city, and later became the president of the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Society of Artists. The <!--del_lnk--> Barber Institute of Fine Arts, found in <!--del_lnk--> Edgbaston, was declared 'Gallery of the Year' by the 2004 <i>Good Britain Guide</i>. The <!--del_lnk--> Ikon Gallery off Broad Street hosts displays of modern and installation art with a more contemporary feel. For a fuller list of art galleries in Birmingham, see <!--del_lnk--> Arts in Birmingham.<p>Other famous Birmingham artists include <!--del_lnk--> David Cox, <!--del_lnk--> David Bomberg, and various Afro-Caribbean artists including <!--del_lnk--> Pogus Caesar, <!--del_lnk--> Keith Piper and <!--del_lnk--> Donald Rodney.<p><!--del_lnk--> Graffiti (or "spraycan art") culture appeared in the early 1980s, and graffiti art competitions are still regularly held.<p>The construction of the <!--del_lnk--> Bull Ring Shopping Centre allowed local and international artists to display their work. These included three <a href="../../wp/l/Light.htm" title="Light">light</a> <!--del_lnk--> wands which were erected at the main entrance, a huge mural on a glass <!--del_lnk--> facade located at the entrance facing <!--del_lnk--> New Street station and three fountains in St Martin's square in the shape of <!--del_lnk--> cubes, which are illuminated at night in different colours.<p><a id="Festivals_and_shows" name="Festivals_and_shows"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Festivals and shows</span></h3>
<p>Birmingham is home to many national, religious and spiritual festivals including a <!--del_lnk--> St. George's Day party. The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Tattoo is a military show that has taken place in the city for several years. The currently biennial <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean- style <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham International Carnival was originally the <i>Handsworth Carnival</i>, held in <!--del_lnk--> Handsworth Park from 1984, but now takes place in the August of odd- numbered years, parading through the streets of Handsworth to <!--del_lnk--> Perry Barr Park. <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Pride takes place in the 'gay village' and attracts up to 100,000 visitors each year. The city also hosts an annual arts festival <i><!--del_lnk--> ArtsFest</i> during September, where people can enjoy many of the regions' arts, free. It is the largest free arts festival in the UK.<p>The city's largest single-day event is its <!--del_lnk--> St. Patrick's Day parade (Europe's second largest, after the one in <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a>).<p><a id="Newspapers" name="Newspapers"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Newspapers</span></h3>
<p>Birmingham has two local daily newspapers - the <i><!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Post</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Mail</i> - as well as the <i><!--del_lnk--> Sunday Mercury</i>, all owned by the <!--del_lnk--> Trinity Mirror, who also produce <i><!--del_lnk--> The Birmingham News</i>, a weekly freesheet distributed to homes in the leafy suburbs along with <i>Forward</i> (formerly <i>Birmingham Voice</i>), the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham City Council's free newspaper distributed to homes and via community centres and public buildings.<p>Birmingham is also the hub for various national <!--del_lnk--> ethnic media, including <!--del_lnk--> The Voice, <!--del_lnk--> The Sikh Times, <!--del_lnk--> Desi Xpress, <!--del_lnk--> The Asian Today and <!--del_lnk--> Raj TV (based in the Mailbox).<p><a id="Film" name="Film"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Film</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Electric Cinema on Station Street is the oldest working <!--del_lnk--> cinema in the UK, and <!--del_lnk--> Oscar Deutsch opened his first <!--del_lnk--> Odeon cinema in <!--del_lnk--> Perry Barr during the 1920s. The <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Film Festival takes place annually, and the <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham School of Acting won a <!--del_lnk--> Royal Television Society award for their short film 'Soul Boy'. <!--del_lnk--> Star City is said to be Europe's largest leisure and cinema complex and is not far from the Britain's only permanent drive-in cinema maintained by <!--del_lnk--> T-Mobile; both are in <!--del_lnk--> Nechells.<p><a id="Television" name="Television"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Television</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/b/BBC.htm" title="BBC">BBC</a> has two bases in the city. <!--del_lnk--> BBC Birmingham, located in <!--del_lnk--> The Mailbox, is the headquarters of the BBC in the English Regions and has extensive news and production facilities. It is the home of programmes such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Midlands Today</i> and the world's longest running radio <!--del_lnk--> soap opera, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Archers</i>. The <!--del_lnk--> BBC Drama Village, based in <!--del_lnk--> Selly Oak, is a production facility specialising in <a href="../../wp/b/BBC_television_drama.htm" title="BBC television drama">television drama</a> and is the home of nationally networked programmes such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Dalziel & Pascoe</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Doctors</i>. Before <!--del_lnk--> 2004 the BBC's Birmingham home was at the famous <!--del_lnk--> Pebble Mill Studios.<p>The area was one of the first to receive programming from the new <!--del_lnk--> ITV network in 1955. The networks' original representatives were <!--del_lnk--> Associated TeleVision (ATV) who served the area during the week and <!--del_lnk--> ABC Weekend TV who broadcast at the weekends. In 1968 ATV won the contract to serve the area seven days a week and built new studios off Broad Street at the heart of the city featuring the landmark <!--del_lnk--> Alpha Tower. In 1982 ATV was reorganised and became <!--del_lnk--> Central Independent Television, which was rebranded as Carlton Central in 1999 and again as <!--del_lnk--> ITV Central in 2004. ITV's Birmingham studios are famous for many shows, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Tiswas</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Crossroads</i> and Bullseye.<p><a id="Radio" name="Radio"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Radio</span></h3>
<p>Local radio stations include <!--del_lnk--> BRMB, <!--del_lnk--> Galaxy, <!--del_lnk--> Heart FM, <!--del_lnk--> Kerrang! 105.2, <!--del_lnk--> New Style Radio 98.7FM, <!--del_lnk--> Saga 105.7FM, and <!--del_lnk--> BBC WM. There is also one hospital radio station, which covers 10 of the city's hospitals, called BHBN (Birmingham Hospital Broadcasting Network) Hospital Radio, which has been broadcasting since 1952.<p><a id="Nightlife" name="Nightlife"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Nightlife</span></h3>
<p>There is a large number of clubs and bars in the city centre, mainly along <!--del_lnk--> Broad Street and into <!--del_lnk--> Brindleyplace which has now become the city's centre for nighttime entertainment.<p>Preclub bars are common in varying themes and music tastes as well as clubs of varying themes which are located in the area including a <a href="../../wp/s/Sport.htm" title="Sport">sports</a> cafe, <!--del_lnk--> comedy club and <!--del_lnk--> lapdancing club. The smaller of the clubs are located in older buildings such as the former Second Church of Christ the Scientist which now is home of the 1970s themed Flares. Larger premises resulted in a large club called The Works being set up which sometimes performs a light display.<p>There are many stylish clubs and bars outside the Broad Street area. The <!--del_lnk--> Medicine Bar in the <!--del_lnk--> Custard Factory, The Sanctuary, Rainbow Pub and Air in <!--del_lnk--> Digbeth are very popular. Many bars and club nights exist in areas such as the Arcadian and <!--del_lnk--> Hurst Street by China Town, Summer Row, <!--del_lnk--> The Mailbox, and St Philips/Colmore Row and <!--del_lnk--> Jewellery Quarter. There are number of late night pubs in the <!--del_lnk--> Irish Quarter.<p><a id="Gay_and_lesbian" name="Gay_and_lesbian"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Gay and lesbian</span></h3>
<p>Birmingham features its own annual festival known as <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Pride. The three day event is located on <!--del_lnk--> Hurst Street which is generally considered the centre of the gay scene of Birmingham. A parade is also featured in the festival. The organisers say that the festival is the largest free gay and lesbian event in the United Kingdom.<p>Birmingham's first <!--del_lnk--> civil partnership was held on December 21, 2005 at the Birmingham Register Office.<p>Birmingham City Council designated February 2006, <!--del_lnk--> LBGT History Month which celebrated the history of LGBT. The success of the event prompted the planning of another event in February 2007. Birmingham Central Library then called for sources which aided a new collection of LGBT resources including books and video.<p><a id="Science_and_invention" name="Science_and_invention"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Science and invention</span></h2>
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<p>Local inventions and notable firsts include: <!--del_lnk--> gas lighting, <!--del_lnk--> roller skate wheels, the <!--del_lnk--> Baskerville <!--del_lnk--> Font, <!--del_lnk--> questionnaires, <!--del_lnk--> Custard powder, <!--del_lnk--> foam rubber, the <!--del_lnk--> magnetron (the core component in the development of <a href="../../wp/r/Radar.htm" title="Radar">radar</a> and <!--del_lnk--> microwave ovens), the UK <!--del_lnk--> electroplating industry, the first ever use of <!--del_lnk--> radiography in an <!--del_lnk--> operation, and the UK's first ever <!--del_lnk--> hole-in-the-heart operation, at <!--del_lnk--> Birmingham Children's Hospital.<p>Among the city's notable scientists and inventors are:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Matthew Boulton, proprietor of the Soho engineering works.<li><!--del_lnk--> Sir Francis Galton, originator of <!--del_lnk--> eugenics and important techniques in <a href="../../wp/s/Statistics.htm" title="Statistics">statistics</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> Alexander Parkes, inventor of <!--del_lnk--> celluloid, the first synthetic plastic.<li><!--del_lnk--> Joseph Priestley, chemist and radical.<li><a href="../../wp/j/James_Watt.htm" title="James Watt">James Watt</a>, engineer and inventor; associated with the <a href="../../wp/s/Steam_engine.htm" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>.<li><!--del_lnk--> John Wright, inventor of a type of <!--del_lnk--> electroplating.</ul>
<p><a id="Town_twinning" name="Town_twinning"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Town twinning</span></h2>
<p>Birmingham's <!--del_lnk--> town twins are:<table>
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<li><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="United States"><img alt="United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/c/Chicago.htm" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Illinois (<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>)<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/f/Frankfurt.htm" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1448.png.htm" title="South Africa"><img alt="South Africa" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_South_Africa.svg" src="../../images/14/1448.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/Johannesburg.htm" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></ul>
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<li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/538.png.htm" title="Germany"><img alt="Germany" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg" src="../../images/5/538.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Leipzig, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/526.png.htm" title="France"><img alt="France" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_France.svg" src="../../images/5/526.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/l/Lyon.htm" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a><li><a class="image" href="../../images/5/551.png.htm" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg" src="../../images/5/551.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a></ul>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Birmingham, Alabama is named after the city and shares an industrial kinship.<p><a id="Suburbs_of_the_city" name="Suburbs_of_the_city"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Suburbs of the city</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Acock's Green, <!--del_lnk--> Alum Rock, <!--del_lnk--> Aston, <!--del_lnk--> Balsall Heath, <!--del_lnk--> Bartley Green, <!--del_lnk--> Birchfield, <!--del_lnk--> Bordesley Green, <!--del_lnk--> Bournville, Bromford, <!--del_lnk--> Castle Vale, <!--del_lnk--> Cotteridge, <!--del_lnk--> Digbeth, <!--del_lnk--> Edgbaston, <!--del_lnk--> Erdington, <!--del_lnk--> Garretts Green, <!--del_lnk--> Great Barr, Greet, <!--del_lnk--> Hall Green, <!--del_lnk--> Handsworth, <!--del_lnk--> Handsworth Wood, <!--del_lnk--> Harborne, <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood, <!--del_lnk--> King's Heath, <!--del_lnk--> Kings Norton, <!--del_lnk--> Kingstanding, <!--del_lnk--> Kitt's Green, <!--del_lnk--> Ladywood, <!--del_lnk--> Longbridge, <!--del_lnk--> Lozells, <!--del_lnk--> Minworth, <!--del_lnk--> Moseley, <!--del_lnk--> New Oscott, <!--del_lnk--> Northfield, <!--del_lnk--> Perry Barr, <!--del_lnk--> Rednal, <!--del_lnk--> Rubery, <!--del_lnk--> Saltley, <!--del_lnk--> Selly Oak, <!--del_lnk--> Selly Park, <!--del_lnk--> Sheldon, <!--del_lnk--> Small Heath, <!--del_lnk--> Sparkbrook, <!--del_lnk--> Sparkhill, <!--del_lnk--> Stechford, <!--del_lnk--> Stirchley, <!--del_lnk--> Sutton Coldfield, <!--del_lnk--> Tyseley, <!--del_lnk--> Ward End, <!--del_lnk--> Washwood Heath, <!--del_lnk--> Weoley Castle, <!--del_lnk--> Witton, <!--del_lnk--> Woodgate, <!--del_lnk--> Yardley, <!--del_lnk--> Yardley Wood.<p><a id="Nearby_places" name="Nearby_places"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Nearby places</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><b>Cities</b>: <a href="../../wp/c/Coventry.htm" title="Coventry">Coventry</a>, <a href="../../wp/l/Leicester.htm" title="Leicester">Leicester</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Lichfield, <!--del_lnk--> Wolverhampton, <!--del_lnk--> Worcester<li><b>Towns</b>: <!--del_lnk--> Bedworth, <!--del_lnk--> Cannock, <!--del_lnk--> Droitwich, <!--del_lnk--> Dudley, <!--del_lnk--> Halesowen, <!--del_lnk--> Kenilworth, <!--del_lnk--> Kidderminster, <!--del_lnk--> Nuneaton, <!--del_lnk--> Redditch, <!--del_lnk--> Royal Leamington Spa, <!--del_lnk--> Rugby, <!--del_lnk--> Solihull, <!--del_lnk--> Stafford, <!--del_lnk--> Stourbridge, <a href="../../wp/s/Stratford-upon-Avon.htm" title="Stratford-upon-Avon">Stratford-upon-Avon</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Tamworth, <!--del_lnk--> Warwick, <!--del_lnk--> Walsall, <!--del_lnk--> West Bromwich<li><b>Villages</b>: <!--del_lnk--> Aldridge, <!--del_lnk--> Little Aston, <!--del_lnk--> Streetly<li>See also the <!--del_lnk--> Black Country</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Birth control</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3>
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<p><b>Birth control</b> is a regimen of one or more actions, devices, or <!--del_lnk--> medications followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of a <!--del_lnk--> woman becoming <!--del_lnk--> pregnant or giving <!--del_lnk--> birth. Methods and intentions typically termed birth control may be considered a pivotal ingredient to <!--del_lnk--> family planning. Mechanisms which are intended to reduce the likelihood of the <!--del_lnk--> fertilisation of an <!--del_lnk--> ovum by a <!--del_lnk--> spermatozoon may more specifically be referred to as <i>contraception</i>. Contraception differs from <!--del_lnk--> abortion in that the former prevents fertilization, while the latter terminates an already established pregnancy. Methods of birth control which may prevent the implantation of an <!--del_lnk--> embryo <i>if</i> fertilization occurs are medically considered to be contraception but characterized by some opponents as <!--del_lnk--> abortifacients.<p>Birth control is a controversial political and ethical issue in many <a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" title="Culture">cultures</a> and <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religions</a>, and although it is generally less controversial than abortion specifically, it is still opposed by many. There are various degrees of opposition, including those who oppose all forms of birth control short of <!--del_lnk--> sexual abstinence; those who oppose forms of birth control they deem "unnatural", while allowing <!--del_lnk--> natural birth control; and those who support most forms of birth control that prevent fertilisation, but oppose any method of birth control which prevents a fertilized embryo from attaching to the <!--del_lnk--> uterus and initiating a pregnancy.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1745.jpg.htm" title="A family planning facility in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia."><img alt="A family planning facility in Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia." height="321" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Familyplanningmalaysia.jpg" src="../../images/17/1745.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1745.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A family planning facility in Kuala Terengganu, <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.</div>
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<div style="width:212px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1746.jpg.htm" title=""And the villain still pursues her." Humorous Victorian era postcard."><img alt=""And the villain still pursues her." Humorous Victorian era postcard." height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:VictorianPostcard.jpg" src="../../images/17/1746.jpg" width="210" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1746.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "And the villain still pursues her." Humorous Victorian era postcard.</div>
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<p>Probably the oldest methods of contraception (aside from sexual abstinence) are <i><!--del_lnk--> coitus interruptus</i>, certain <!--del_lnk--> barrier methods, and herbal methods (<!--del_lnk--> emmenagogues and abortifacients).<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Coitus interruptus</i> (withdrawal of the <!--del_lnk--> penis from the <!--del_lnk--> vagina prior to <!--del_lnk--> ejaculation) probably predates any other form of birth control. Once the relationship between the emission of <!--del_lnk--> semen into the vagina and pregnancy was known or suspected, some <!--del_lnk--> men began to use this technique. This is not a particularly reliable method of contraception, as few men have the self-control to correctly practice the method at every single act of <!--del_lnk--> intercourse. Although it is commonly believed that <!--del_lnk--> pre-ejaculate fluid can cause pregnancy, modern research has shown that pre-ejaculate fluid does not contain viable sperm.<p>There are historic records of <!--del_lnk--> Egyptian women using a <!--del_lnk--> pessary (a vaginal suppository) made of various acidic substances (crocodile dung is alleged) and lubricated with honey or oil, which may have been somewhat effective at killing sperm. However, it is important to note that the sperm <a href="../../wp/c/Cell_%2528biology%2529.htm" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> was not discovered until <!--del_lnk--> Anton van Leeuwenhoek invented the <a href="../../wp/m/Microscope.htm" title="Microscope">microscope</a> in the late <!--del_lnk--> seventeenth century, so barrier methods employed prior to that time could not know of the details of conception. <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asian</a> women may have used oiled <!--del_lnk--> paper as a <!--del_lnk--> cervical cap, and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europeans</a> may have used <!--del_lnk--> beeswax for this purpose. The <!--del_lnk--> condom appeared sometime in the seventeenth century, initially made of a length of animal <!--del_lnk--> intestine. It was not particularly popular, nor as effective as modern <!--del_lnk--> latex condoms, but was employed both as a means of contraception and in the hopes of avoiding <!--del_lnk--> syphilis, which was greatly feared and devastating prior to the discovery of <!--del_lnk--> antibiotic drugs.<p>Various abortifacients have been used throughout human history, although many do not associate induced abortion with the term 'birth control'. Some of them were effective, some were not; those that were most effective also had major <!--del_lnk--> side effects. One abortifacient reported to have low levels of side effects—<!--del_lnk--> silphium—was harvested to extinction around the 1st century. The ingestion of certain <!--del_lnk--> poisons by the female can disrupt the <!--del_lnk--> reproductive system; women have drunk solutions containing <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528element%2529.htm" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, or other toxic substances for this purpose. The Greek <!--del_lnk--> gynaecologist <!--del_lnk--> Soranus in the <a href="../../wp/2/2nd_century.htm" title="2nd century">2nd century</a> suggested that women drink water that <!--del_lnk--> blacksmiths had used to cool <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metal</a>. The herbs <a href="../../wp/t/Tansy.htm" title="Tansy">tansy</a> and <!--del_lnk--> pennyroyal are well-known in folklore as abortive agents, but these also "work" by poisoning the woman. Levels of the active chemicals in these herbs that will induce a <!--del_lnk--> miscarriage are high enough to damage the <!--del_lnk--> liver, <!--del_lnk--> kidneys, and other organs, making them very dangerous. However, in those times where risk of <!--del_lnk--> maternal death from <!--del_lnk--> postpartum complications was high, the risks and side effects of toxic medicines may have seemed less onerous. Some herbalists claim that black cohosh tea will also be effective in certain cases as an abortifacient.<p>Presenters at a family planning conference told a tale of Arab traders inserting small stones into the uteruses of their camel in order to prevent pregnancy, a concept very similar to the modern <!--del_lnk--> IUD. Although the story has been repeated as truth, it has no basis in history and was meant only for entertainment purposes. The first interuterine devices (which occupied both the vagina and the uterus) were first marketed around <!--del_lnk--> 1900. The first modern intrauterine device (contained entirely in the uterus) was described in a <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> publication in <!--del_lnk--> 1909, although the author appears to have never marketed his product.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Rhythm Method (with a rather high method failure rate of 10% per year) was developed in the early twentieth century, as researchers discovered that a woman only ovulates once per <a href="../../wp/m/Menstrual_cycle.htm" title="Menstrual cycle">menstrual cycle</a>. Not until the mid-<a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>, when scientists better understood the functioning of the menstrual cycle and the <!--del_lnk--> hormones that controlled it, were <!--del_lnk--> oral contraceptives and modern methods of <!--del_lnk--> fertility awareness (also called <a href="#Fertility_awareness_methods" title="">natural family planning</a>) developed.<p><a id="Methods" name="Methods"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Methods</span></h2>
<p><a id="Physical_methods" name="Physical_methods"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Physical methods</span></h3>
<p><a id="Barrier_methods" name="Barrier_methods"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Barrier methods</span></h4>
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<div style="width:202px;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Three colored condoms" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Condoms_by_Morrhigan.jpg" src="../../images/22/2241.jpg" width="200" /><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></div> Three colored condoms</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Barrier methods place a physical impediment to the movement of sperm into the female reproductive tract.<p>The most popular barrier method is the male <!--del_lnk--> condom, a latex or polyurethane sheath placed over the penis. The condom is also available in a female version, which is made of polyurethane. The female condom has a flexible ring at each end—one secures behind the pubic bone to hold the condom in place, while the other ring stays outside the vagina.<p>Cervical barriers are devices that are contained completely within the vagina. The <!--del_lnk--> cervical cap is the smallest cervical barrier. It stays in place by suction to the <!--del_lnk--> cervix or to the vaginal walls. The <!--del_lnk--> Lea's shield is a larger cervical barrier, also held in place by suction. The <!--del_lnk--> diaphragm fits into place behind the woman's <!--del_lnk--> pubic bone and has a firm but flexible ring, which helps it press against the vaginal walls. The <!--del_lnk--> contraceptive sponge has a depression to hold it in place over the cervix.<p><a id="Hormonal_methods" name="Hormonal_methods"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Hormonal methods</span></h4>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1748.jpg.htm" title="Ortho Tri-cyclen, a brand of oral contraceptive, in a dial dispenser."><img alt="Ortho Tri-cyclen, a brand of oral contraceptive, in a dial dispenser." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ortho_tricyclen.jpg" src="../../images/17/1748.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1748.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Ortho Tri-cyclen, a brand of oral contraceptive, in a dial dispenser.</div>
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<p>There are variety of delivery methods for <!--del_lnk--> hormonal contraception.<p>Combinations of synthetic <!--del_lnk--> estrogen and <!--del_lnk--> progestins (synthetic forms of <!--del_lnk--> progesterone) are commonly used. These include the <!--del_lnk--> combined oral contraceptive pill ("The Pill"), the <!--del_lnk--> Patch, and the <!--del_lnk--> contraceptive vaginal ring ("NuvaRing"). Not currently available for sale is <!--del_lnk--> Lunelle, a monthly injection.<p>Other methods contain only progesterone, or a progestin. These include the <!--del_lnk--> progesterone only pill (the POP or 'minipill'), and <!--del_lnk--> Depo Provera (<!--del_lnk--> medroxyprogesterone acetate) given as an <!--del_lnk--> intramuscular injection every three months, and <!--del_lnk--> Noristerat (<!--del_lnk--> norethisterone acetate), which is given as an <!--del_lnk--> intramuscular injection every 8 weeks. The progesterone-only pill must be taken at more precisely remembered times each day than combined pills. A contraceptive <!--del_lnk--> implant called <!--del_lnk--> Norplant was removed from the market in 2002, though a newer implant called <!--del_lnk--> Implanon was approved for sale on <!--del_lnk--> July 17, <!--del_lnk--> 2006. The various progesterone-only methods may cause irregular bleeding for several months.<p><a id="Centchroman" name="Centchroman"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Centchroman</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Centchroman is a Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulator, or <!--del_lnk--> SERM. It causes ovulation to occur asynchronously with the formation of the uterine lining, preventing implantation of a zygote. It has been widely available as a birth control method in India since the early 90s, marketed under the trade name Saheli®. It is not legally available anywhere outside of India, and it is not in the process of becoming available in the United States.<p><a id="Intrauterine_methods" name="Intrauterine_methods"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Intrauterine methods</span></h4>
<p>These are devices that are placed in the <!--del_lnk--> uterus. They are usually shaped like a "T"—the arms of the T hold the device in place inside the uterus. In the United States, all devices which are placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy are referred to as <!--del_lnk--> IUDs. In the UK, a distinction is made between the IUDs and IUS. This is probably because there are seven different kinds of IUDs available in the UK, compared to two in the US.<p><!--del_lnk--> Intrauterine Devices ("IUDs") contain copper (which has a spermicidal effect).<p><!--del_lnk--> IntraUterine Systems ("IUS") release progesterone or a <!--del_lnk--> progestin.<p><a id="Emergency_contraception" name="Emergency_contraception"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Emergency contraception</span></h4>
<p>Most combined pills and POPs may be taken in high doses to prevent pregnancy after a birth control failure (such as a condom breaking) or after <!--del_lnk--> unprotected intercourse. Hormonal <!--del_lnk--> emergency contraception is also known as the "morning after pill," although it is licensed for use up to three days after intercourse.<p>Copper intrauterine devices may also be used as emergency contraception. For this use, they must be inserted within five days of the birth control failure or unprotected intercourse.<p><a id="Induced_abortion" name="Induced_abortion"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Induced abortion</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Abortion can be done with surgical methods, usually <!--del_lnk--> suction-aspiration abortion (in the first trimester) or <!--del_lnk--> dilation and evacuation (in the second trimester). <!--del_lnk--> Chemical abortion uses drugs to end a pregnancy and is approved for pregnancies of less than 7 weeks gestation. Later-term abortions may use <!--del_lnk--> prostaglandins to induce premature delivery. An injection to stop the fetal heart may be used prior to induction.<p>Some herbs are believed to cause abortion (<!--del_lnk--> abortifacients). No peer-reviewed research has been done on these substances.<p>The use of abortion as birth control is a controversial issue, subject to <!--del_lnk--> ethical debate.<p><a id="Sterilization" name="Sterilization"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Sterilization</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Surgical sterilization is available in the form of <!--del_lnk--> tubal ligation for women and <!--del_lnk--> vasectomy for men.<p>A non-surgical sterilization procedure, <!--del_lnk--> Essure, is also available for women.<p><a id="Behavioral_methods" name="Behavioral_methods"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Behavioural methods</span></h3>
<p><a id="Fertility_awareness_methods" name="Fertility_awareness_methods"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Fertility awareness methods</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Fertility awareness (FA) methods involve a woman's observation and charting of one or more of her body's primary fertility signs, to determine the fertile and infertile phases of her cycle. Unprotected sex is restricted to the least fertile period. During the most fertile period, barrier methods may be availed, or she may abstain from intercourse. Primary methods of determining fertility include monitoring of <!--del_lnk--> basal body temperature and of cervical mucus, while cervical position and other bodily cues including <!--del_lnk--> mittelschmerz are considered secondary indicators. A woman may chart these events on paper or with <!--del_lnk--> software. FA is versatile and may also be practiced to achieve pregnancy, by identifying the fertile period and having intercourse prior to and during that time.<p>The term <i>natural family planning</i> (NFP) is sometimes used to describe any use of FA methods. However, this term specifically refers to a set of several birth control methods approved by the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. Research by Catholics resulted in the <!--del_lnk--> Billings ovulation method and the <!--del_lnk--> Creighton Model, two types of FA which are promoted as <!--del_lnk--> natural family planning. Although the physical methods used in these kinds of NFP and those used in FA are identical, NFP involves additional behaviour restrictions defined by Catholic beliefs. These restrictions are not specific to the practice of FA.<p><a id="Statistical_methods" name="Statistical_methods"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Statistical methods</span></h4>
<p>Statistical methods such as the <!--del_lnk--> Rhythm Method and Standard Days Method are dissimilar from observational fertility awareness methods, in that they do not involve the observation or recording of bodily cues of fertility. Instead, statistical methods estimate the likelihood of fertility based on the length of past menstrual cycles. The Rhythm Method is much less accurate than fertility awareness methods, and is considered by fertility awareness teachers to have been obsolete for at least twenty years.<p><a id="Coitus_interruptus" name="Coitus_interruptus"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Coitus interruptus</span></h4>
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Coitus interruptus</i> (literally "interrupted sex"), also known as the withdrawal method, is the practice of ending sexual intercourse ("pulling out") before ejaculation. The main risk of coitus interruptus is that the man may not make the maneuver in time. Although concern has been raised about the risk of pregnancy from sperm in <!--del_lnk--> pre-ejaculate, several small studies have failed to find any viable sperm in the fluid.<p><a id="Avoiding_vaginal_intercourse" name="Avoiding_vaginal_intercourse"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Avoiding vaginal intercourse</span></h4>
<p>The risk of pregnancy from non-vaginal <!--del_lnk--> sex is low, such as <!--del_lnk--> outercourse (sex without <!--del_lnk--> penetration), <!--del_lnk--> anal sex, or <!--del_lnk--> oral sex. With this method, great discipline is required from both partners to prevent the progression to intercourse. Due to the level of discipline required while in a passionate state, this method may be considered unreliable, and the potential to progress to intercourse should be addressed with physical precautions.<p><a id="Abstinence" name="Abstinence"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Abstinence</span></h4>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Sexual abstinence (also known as <!--del_lnk--> celibacy), is the practice of avoiding all sexual activity. It is highly effective if practiced consistently. As with <a href="#Avoiding_vaginal_intercourse" title="">avoiding intercourse</a>, however, it may be unreliable due to the level of discipline required. This method cannot be considered perfect or infallible, because a fertile woman who practices abstinence alone can still become pregnant if she is <!--del_lnk--> raped.<p><a id="Lactational" name="Lactational"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Lactational</span></h4>
<p>Most breastfeeding women have a period of infertility after the birth of their child. The <!--del_lnk--> Lactational Amenorrhea Method, or LAM, gives guidelines for determining the length of a woman's period of breastfeeding infertility.<p><a id="Methods_in_development" name="Methods_in_development"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Methods in development</span></h3>
<p><a id="Experimental_contraceptives_for_males" name="Experimental_contraceptives_for_males"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Experimental contraceptives for males</span></h4>
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<p>Research is being done into a variety of substances that have potential as <!--del_lnk--> male oral contraceptives, or implants or injections that may be used as <!--del_lnk--> male hormonal contraceptives.<p><!--del_lnk--> RISUG (Reversible Inhibition of Sperm Under Guidance), is an injection into the <!--del_lnk--> vas deferens that coats the walls of the vas with a spermicidal substance. This method can be reversed by washing out the vas deferens with a second injection.<p><!--del_lnk--> Vas-occlusive contraception would be analogous to intrauterine contraception in women.<p><!--del_lnk--> Heat-based contraception involves heating the testicles to a high temperature for a short period of time.<p><a id="Myths" name="Myths"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Myths</span></h2>
<p>Modern <!--del_lnk--> myths and <!--del_lnk--> urban legends have given rise to a great deal of false claims:<ul>
<li>The suggestion that <!--del_lnk--> douching immediately following intercourse works as a contraceptive is untrue. While it may seem like a sensible idea to try to wash the ejaculate out of the vagina, it does not work. Due to the nature of the fluids and the structure of the female reproductive tract–if anything, douching spreads semen further towards the uterus. Some slight <!--del_lnk--> spermicidal effect may occur if the douche solution is particularly <!--del_lnk--> acidic, but overall it is not scientifically observed to be a reliably effective method.<li>The suggestion to shake a bottle of <!--del_lnk--> Coca-Cola and insert it into the vagina after ejaculation is not a form of birth control, it does not prevent pregnancy, and doing this can also promote <!--del_lnk--> candidiasis (yeast infections).<li>It is a myth that a female cannot get pregnant the first time she engages in sexual intercourse.<li>While women are usually less fertile for the first few days of menstruation, it is a myth that a woman cannot get pregnant if she has sex during her <a href="../../wp/m/Menstrual_cycle.htm" title="Menstrual cycle">period</a>.<li>Having sex in a hot tub does not prevent pregnancy, but may contribute to vaginal infections.<li>Although some <!--del_lnk--> sex positions may encourage pregnancy, no sexual positions prevent pregnancy. Having sex while standing up or with a woman on top will not keep the sperm from entering the uterus. The force of ejaculation and the ability of sperm to swim overrides gravity.<li>Sneezing or urinating after sex are also completely ineffective, they do not prevent pregnancy and are not forms of birth control.<li>Toothpaste cannot be used as an effective contraceptive </ul>
<p><a id="Effectiveness" name="Effectiveness"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Effectiveness</span></h2>
<p>Effectiveness is measured by how many women become pregnant using a particular birth control method in a year. Thus, if 100 women use a method that has a 12% failure rate, sometime during that year, 12 of the women will become pregnant.<p>The most effective methods in typical use are those that do not depend upon regular user action. Surgical sterilization, Depo-Provera, and intrauterine devices (IUDs) all have failure rates of less than 1% per year for perfect use. Depo-Provera, or the shot, has a typical failure rate of 3%, while sterilization and IUD's still have a typical failure use under 1%.<p>Other methods may be highly effective if used consistently and correctly, but can have typical use failure rates that are considerably lower due to incorrect or ineffective usage by the user. Hormonal contraceptives, fertility awareness methods, and <!--del_lnk--> ecological breastfeeding, if used strictly, have failure rates of less than 1% per year. Typical use failure rates of hormonal contraceptives are as high as 8% per year. Fertility awareness methods as a whole have typical-use failure rates as high as 25% per year; however, as stated above, perfect use of these methods reduces the failure rate to less than 1%.<p>Condoms and cervical barriers such as the diaphragm have similar typical use failure rates (15.0% and 16%, respectively), but perfect usage of the condom is more effective (2% failure vs 6%) and condoms have the additional feature of helping to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV. The withdrawal method, if used consistently and correctly, has a failure rate of 4%. Due to the difficulty of consistently using withdrawal correctly, it has a typical use failure rate of 27% and is not recommended by some medical professionals, although others believe it deserves more support.<p><a id="Protection_against_sexually_transmitted_infections" name="Protection_against_sexually_transmitted_infections"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Protection against sexually transmitted infections</span></h3>
<p>Not all methods of birth control offer protection against <!--del_lnk--> sexually transmitted infections. Abstinence from all forms of <!--del_lnk--> sexual behaviour will protect against the <i>sexual</i> transmission of these infections. The male latex condom offers some protection against some of these diseases with correct and consistent use, as does the female condom, although the latter has only been approved for <!--del_lnk--> vaginal sex. The female condom may offer greater protection against sexually transmitted infections that pass through skin to skin contact, as the outer ring covers more exposed skin than the male condom, and can be used during anal sex to guard against sexually transmitted infections. However, the female condom can be difficult to use. Freqently a woman can improperly insert it, even if she believes she is using it correctly.<p>The remaining methods of birth control do not offer significant protection against the sexual transmission of these diseases.<p>However, so-called sexually transmitted infections may also be transmitted <b>non-sexually</b>, and therefore, abstinence from sexual behaviour does not guarantee 100% protection against sexually transmitted infections. For example, <a href="../../wp/h/HIV.htm" title="HIV">HIV</a> may be transmitted through contaminated needles which may be used in <!--del_lnk--> tattooing, <!--del_lnk--> body piercing, or <!--del_lnk--> injections. Health-care workers have acquired HIV through occupational exposure to accidental injuries with needles.<p><a id="Religious_and_cultural_attitudes" name="Religious_and_cultural_attitudes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Religious and cultural attitudes</span></h2>
<p><a id="Religious_views_on_birth_control" name="Religious_views_on_birth_control"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religious views on birth control</span></h3>
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</dl>
<p>Religions vary widely in their views of the <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethics</a> of birth control. In <a href="../../wp/c/Christianity.htm" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> accepts only <!--del_lnk--> Natural Family Planning, while <!--del_lnk--> Protestants maintain a wide range of views from <!--del_lnk--> allowing none to very lenient. Views in <a href="../../wp/j/Judaism.htm" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> range from the stricter <!--del_lnk--> Orthodox sect to the more relaxed <!--del_lnk--> Reformed sect. In <a href="../../wp/i/Islam.htm" title="Islam">Islam</a>, contraceptives are allowed if they do not threaten health or lead to sterilty, although their use is sometimes discouraged. <a href="../../wp/h/Hinduism.htm" title="Hinduism">Hindus</a> may use both natural and artificial contraceptives.<p><a id="Birth_control_education" name="Birth_control_education"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Birth control education</span></h3>
<p>Many teenagers, most commonly in developed countries, receive some form of <!--del_lnk--> sex education in school. What information should be provided in such programs is hotly contested, especially in the United States and Great Britain. Possible topics include reproductive anatomy, human sexual behaviour, information on sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), social aspects of sexual interaction, negotiating skills intended to help teens follow through with a decision to remain abstinent or to use birth control during sex, and information on birth control methods.<p>One type of sex education program, called abstinence-only education, promotes abstinence until marriage and does not provide information on birth control, or heavily emphasizes negative information such as failure rates. Because abstinence offers better protection against pregnancy and disease than sexual activity with even the best birth control methods, advocates of abstinence-only education believe they will result in decreased rates of teenage pregnancy and STD infection. However, some studies have found that abstinence-only sex education programs actually increase the rates of pregnancy and STDs in the teenage population.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_control"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Bismuth</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Chemistry.Chemical_elements.htm">Chemical elements</a></h3>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">83</span></td>
<td align="center" style="padding-left:2em"><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a></span> ← <span style="font-size: 120%">bismuth</span> → <span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/p/Polonium.htm" title="Polonium">polonium</a></span></td>
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<td align="center"><span style="font-size:95%"><a href="../../wp/a/Antimony.htm" title="Antimony">Sb</a></span><br /> ↑<br /><span style="font-size:120%; font-weight:bold">Bi</span><br /> ↓<br /><span style="font-size: 95%"><a href="../../wp/u/Ununpentium.htm" title="Ununpentium">Uup</a></span></td>
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<div class="center">
<div class="floatnone"><span><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1750.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="75" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bi-TableImage.png" src="../../images/17/1750.png" width="250" /></a></span></div>
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<div align="center"><!--del_lnk--> Periodic Table - <!--del_lnk--> Extended Periodic Table</div>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccccc; color:black">General</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/l/List_of_elements_by_name.htm" title="List of elements by name">Name</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Symbol, <!--del_lnk--> Number</td>
<td>bismuth, Bi, 83</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Chemical series</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> poor metals</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Group, <!--del_lnk--> Period, <!--del_lnk--> Block</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 15, <!--del_lnk--> 6, <!--del_lnk--> p</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/c/Color.htm" title="Color">Appearance</a></td>
<td>lustrous reddish white<br /><a class="image" href="../../images/36/3618.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="94" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bismuth_crystal_macro.jpg" src="../../images/17/1751.jpg" width="125" /></a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic mass</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 208.98040<!--del_lnk--> (1) g/mol</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electron configuration</td>
<td>[<a href="../../wp/x/Xenon.htm" title="Xenon">Xe</a>] 4f<sup>14</sup> 5d<sup>10</sup> 6s<sup>2</sup> 6p<sup>3</sup></td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/e/Electron.htm" title="Electron">Electrons</a> per <!--del_lnk--> shell</td>
<td>2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccccc; color:black">Physical properties</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/p/Phase_%2528matter%2529.htm" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> solid</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Density (near <!--del_lnk--> r.t.)</td>
<td>9.78 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td>Liquid <!--del_lnk--> density at <!--del_lnk--> m.p.</td>
<td>10.05 g·cm<sup>−3</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Melting point</td>
<td>544.7 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (271.5 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 520.7 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Boiling point</td>
<td>1837 <!--del_lnk--> K<br /> (1564 °<!--del_lnk--> C, 2847 °<!--del_lnk--> F)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of fusion</td>
<td>11.30 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat of vaporization</td>
<td>151 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Heat capacity</td>
<td>(25 °C) 25.52 J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<caption><!--del_lnk--> Vapor pressure</caption>
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<td><i>P</i>/Pa</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>100</td>
<td>1 k</td>
<td>10 k</td>
<td>100 k</td>
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<td>at <i>T</i>/K</td>
<td>941</td>
<td>1041</td>
<td>1165</td>
<td>1325</td>
<td>1538</td>
<td>1835</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccccc; color:black">Atomic properties</th>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Crystal structure</td>
<td>rhombohedral</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Oxidation states</td>
<td><b>3</b>, 5<br /> (mildly <!--del_lnk--> acidic oxide)</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electronegativity</td>
<td>2.02 (Pauling scale)</td>
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<td rowspan="3" valign="top"><!--del_lnk--> Ionization energies<br /> (<!--del_lnk--> more)</td>
<td>1st: 703 <!--del_lnk--> kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td>2nd: 1610 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td>3rd: 2466 kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Atomic radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 160 <!--del_lnk--> pm</td>
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<td>Atomic radius (calc.)</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 143 pm</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Covalent radius</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> 146 pm</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccccc; color:black">Miscellaneous</th>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Magnetism.htm" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> diamagnetic</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Electrical resistivity</td>
<td>(20 °C) 1.29 µΩ·m</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal conductivity</td>
<td>(300 K) 7.97 W·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Thermal expansion</td>
<td>(25 °C) 13.4 µm·m<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Speed of sound (thin rod)</td>
<td>(20 °C) 1790 <!--del_lnk--> m/s</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Young's modulus</td>
<td>32 GPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Shear modulus</td>
<td>12 GPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Bulk modulus</td>
<td>31 GPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Poisson ratio</td>
<td>0.33</td>
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<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness.htm" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></td>
<td>2.25</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Brinell hardness</td>
<td>94.2 MPa</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> CAS registry number</td>
<td>7440-69-9</td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccccc; color:black">Selected isotopes</th>
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<caption>Main article: <!--del_lnk--> Isotopes of bismuth</caption>
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<th><!--del_lnk--> iso</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> NA</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> half-life</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DM</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DE <small>(<!--del_lnk--> MeV)</small></th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> DP</th>
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<td><sup>207</sup>Bi</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>31.55 <!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε, <!--del_lnk--> β<sup>+</sup></td>
<td>2.399</td>
<td><sup>207</sup><a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">Pb</a></td>
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<td><sup>208</sup>Bi</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> syn</td>
<td>3,368,000 <!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ε, <!--del_lnk--> β<sup>+</sup></td>
<td>2.880</td>
<td><sup>208</sup><a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">Pb</a></td>
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<td><sup>209</sup>Bi</td>
<td>100%</td>
<td>(19 ± 2) ×10<sup>18</sup><!--del_lnk--> y</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> α</td>
<td> </td>
<td><sup>205</sup><a href="../../wp/t/Thallium.htm" title="Thallium">Tl</a></td>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#cccccc; color:black"><!--del_lnk--> References</th>
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<p><b>Bismuth</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈbɪzməθ]</span>) is a <a href="../../wp/c/Chemical_element.htm" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a> in the <a href="../../wp/p/Periodic_table.htm" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> that has the symbol <b>Bi</b> and <!--del_lnk--> atomic number 83. This heavy, brittle, white crystalline trivalent <!--del_lnk--> poor metal has a pink tinge and chemically resembles <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Antimony.htm" title="Antimony">antimony</a>. Of all the metals, it is the most naturally <!--del_lnk--> diamagnetic, and only <a href="../../wp/m/Mercury_%2528element%2529.htm" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a> has less <!--del_lnk--> thermal conductivity. <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">Lead</a>-free bismuth compounds are used in <!--del_lnk--> cosmetics and in medical procedures.<p>
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</script><a id="Notable_characteristics" name="Notable_characteristics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable characteristics</span></h2>
<p>It is a brittle <a href="../../wp/m/Metal.htm" title="Metal">metal</a> with a pinkish hue, often occurring in its native form with an iridescent oxide tarnish showing many refractive colors from yellow to blue. Among the <!--del_lnk--> heavy metals, bismuth is unusual in that its toxicity is much lower than that of its neighbors in the periodic table such as <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Thallium.htm" title="Thallium">thallium</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/Antimony.htm" title="Antimony">antimony</a>. No other metal is more naturally <!--del_lnk--> diamagnetic (as opposed to <!--del_lnk--> superdiamagnetic) than bismuth, and it has a high <a href="../../wp/e/Electrical_resistance.htm" title="Electrical resistance">electrical resistance</a>. Of any metal, it has the second lowest <!--del_lnk--> thermal conductivity and the highest <!--del_lnk--> Hall effect. When deposited in sufficiently thin layers on a substrate, bismuth is a <a href="../../wp/s/Semiconductor.htm" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a>, rather than a poor metal . When combusted with <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, bismuth burns with a <!--del_lnk--> blue flame and <!--del_lnk--> its oxide forms <!--del_lnk--> yellow fumes. Bismuth expands on freezing, and was long an important component of low-melting <!--del_lnk--> typesetting alloys which needed to expand to fill printing molds.<p>While bismuth was traditionally regarded as the element with the heaviest stable <!--del_lnk--> isotope, it had long been thought to be unstable on theoretical grounds. Not until <!--del_lnk--> 2003 was this demonstrated when researchers at the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale in <!--del_lnk--> Orsay, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, measured the <!--del_lnk--> alpha emission <!--del_lnk--> half-life of <img alt="{}" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17623.png" /><sup>209</sup>Bi to be <!--del_lnk--> 19 x 10<sup>18</sup> years, meaning that bismuth is very slightly radioactive, with a half-life over a billion times longer than the current estimated <!--del_lnk--> age of the universe. Due to its extraordinarily long half-life, for nearly all applications bismuth can be treated as if it is stable and non-radioactive. However, the radioactivity is of academic interest because bismuth is one of few elements whose radioactivity was suspected, and indeed theoretically predicted, before being detected in the laboratory.<p><a id="Crystals" name="Crystals"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Crystals</span></h2>
<p>Though virtually unseen in nature, high-purity bismuth can form into distinctive <!--del_lnk--> hopper crystals. These colorful laboratory creations are typically sold to hobbyists.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Bismuth (<!--del_lnk--> New Latin <i>bisemutum</i> from <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> <i>Wismuth</i>, perhaps from <i>weiße Masse</i>, "white mass") was confused in early times with <a href="../../wp/t/Tin.htm" title="Tin">tin</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lead.htm" title="Lead">lead</a> due to its resemblance to those elements. <!--del_lnk--> Basilius Valentinus described some of its uses in <!--del_lnk--> 1450. <!--del_lnk--> Claude François Geoffroy showed in <!--del_lnk--> 1753 that this metal is distinct from lead.<p>Artificial bismuth was commonly used in place of the actual mineral. It was made by hammering tin into thin plates, and cementing them by a mixture of <!--del_lnk--> white tartar, <!--del_lnk--> saltpeter, and <a href="../../wp/a/Arsenic.htm" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, stratified in a crucible over an open fire. <p><a id="Occurrence" name="Occurrence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Occurrence</span></h2>
<p>In the Earth's crust, bismuth is about twice as abundant as gold. It is not usually economical to mine it as a primary product. Rather, it is usually produced as a byproduct of the processing of other metal ores, especially lead, but also tungsten or other metal alloys.<p>The most important <!--del_lnk--> ores of bismuth are <!--del_lnk--> bismuthinite and <!--del_lnk--> bismite. The <a href="../../wp/p/People%2527s_Republic_of_China.htm" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> is the world's largest producer of bismuth, followed by <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> and <a href="../../wp/p/Peru.htm" title="Peru">Peru</a>. <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bolivia.htm" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/k/Kazakhstan.htm" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> are smaller producers of bismuth.<p>The average price for bismuth in 2000 was <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_dollar.htm" title="United States dollar">US$</a> 7.70 per kilogram. It is relatively cheap, since like lead (but to a much lesser extent), it is <!--del_lnk--> radiogenic, being formed from the natural decay of <a href="../../wp/u/Uranium.htm" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Thorium.htm" title="Thorium">thorium</a> (specifically, by way of <a href="../../wp/n/Neptunium.htm" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a>-237 or <a href="../../wp/u/Uranium.htm" title="Uranium">uranium</a>-233).<p><a id="Applications" name="Applications"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>
<p>Bismuth oxychloride is sometimes used in <!--del_lnk--> cosmetics. Also bismuth subnitrate and bismuth subcarbonate are used in medicine. Bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol®) is used as an <!--del_lnk--> antidiarrheal and to treat some other gastro-intestinal diseases.<p>Some other current uses are:<ul>
<li>Strong permanent <a href="../../wp/m/Magnet.htm" title="Magnet">magnets</a> can be made from the alloy <!--del_lnk--> bismanol (Bi<a href="../../wp/m/Manganese.htm" title="Manganese">Mn</a>).<li>Many bismuth <!--del_lnk--> alloys have low <!--del_lnk--> melting points and are widely used for fire detection and suppression system safety devices.<li>Bismuth is used as an alloying agent in production of malleable irons.<li>Bismuth is finding use as a catalyst for making acrylic fibers.<li>A carrier for <a href="../../wp/u/Uranium.htm" title="Uranium">U</a>-235 or U-233 fuel in <!--del_lnk--> nuclear reactors.<li>Bismuth has also been used in <!--del_lnk--> solders. The fact that bismuth and many of its <!--del_lnk--> alloys expand slightly when they solidify make them ideal for this purpose.<li>Bismuth subnitrate is a component of <!--del_lnk--> glazes that produces an <!--del_lnk--> iridescent luster finish.<li><!--del_lnk--> Bismuth telluride is an excellent <!--del_lnk--> thermoelectric material; it is widely used.<li>As a replacement propellant for <a href="../../wp/x/Xenon.htm" title="Xenon">xenon</a> in <!--del_lnk--> Hall effect thrusters.</ul>
<p>In the early <!--del_lnk--> 1990s, research began to evaluate bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in various applications:<ul>
<li>As noted above, bismuth has been used in solders; its low toxicity will be especially important for solders to be used in food processing equipment.<li>As a pigment in artist's oil paint<li>As an ingredient of <!--del_lnk--> Ceramic glazes<li>As an ingredient in free-machining <!--del_lnk--> brasses for <!--del_lnk--> plumbing applications<li>As an ingredient in free-cutting steels for precision machining properties<li>As a catalyst for making acrylic fibres<li>In low-melting alloys used in fire detection and extinguishing systems<li>As an ingredient in <!--del_lnk--> lubricating <!--del_lnk--> greases<li>As a dense material for <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a> sinkers.<li>As the oxide, carbonite, or nitrite in crackling microstars (<!--del_lnk--> dragon's eggs) in <!--del_lnk--> pyrotechnics.<li>In 1997 an antibody conjugate with Bi-213, which has a 45 minute half-life, and decays with the emission of an alpha-particle, was used to treat patients with leukemia.<li>As a replacement for lead in <!--del_lnk--> shot and <!--del_lnk--> bullets. The <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>, <!--del_lnk--> USA, and many other countries now prohibit the use of lead shot for the hunting of wetland birds, as other creatures in the wetlands are prone to <!--del_lnk--> lead poisoning from ingestion of lead shot. Bismuth-tin alloy shot is one alternative that provides similar ballistic performance to lead (another less expensive but also poorer-performing alternative is steel shot, although some prefer it for the increased damgage it does). <p>Bismuth core bullets are also starting to appear for use in indoor shooting ranges, where particles of lead from the bullet impacting the backstop can be a problem. Due to bismuth's crystaline nature, the bismuth bullets shatter into a non-toxic powder on impact, making recovery and recycling easy. The lack of <!--del_lnk--> malleability does, however, make bismuth unsuitable for use in expanding hunting bullets.<li><!--del_lnk--> FN Herstal uses bismuth in the projectiles for their <!--del_lnk--> FN 303 <!--del_lnk--> less-lethal <!--del_lnk--> riot gun.</ul>
<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth"</div>
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| ['Lead', 'Polonium', 'Antimony', 'Ununpentium', 'List of elements by name', 'Color', 'Xenon', 'Electron', 'Phase (matter)', 'Magnetism', 'Mohs scale of mineral hardness', 'Lead', 'Lead', 'Thallium', 'Chemical element', 'Periodic table', 'Arsenic', 'Antimony', 'Mercury (element)', 'Lead', 'Metal', 'Lead', 'Thallium', 'Antimony', 'Electrical resistance', 'Semiconductor', 'Oxygen', 'France', 'German language', 'Tin', 'Lead', 'Arsenic', "People's Republic of China", 'Mexico', 'Peru', 'Canada', 'Bolivia', 'Kazakhstan', 'United States dollar', 'Uranium', 'Thorium', 'Neptunium', 'Uranium', 'Magnet', 'Manganese', 'Uranium', 'Xenon', 'Fishing', 'United Kingdom'] |
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><i><b>Bison</b></i></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1752.jpg.htm" title="European Bison, or Wisent"><img alt="European Bison, or Wisent" height="159" longdesc="/wiki/Image:%D0%97%D1%83%D0%B1%D1%80.jpg" src="../../images/17/1752.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>European Bison, or <!--del_lnk--> Wisent</small></div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
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<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovinae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Bison</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Hamilton Smith, 1827</small></td>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Species</center>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> B. antiquus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> B. bison</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> B. bonasus</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> B. latifrons</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> B. occidentalis</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> B. priscus</i><br />
</td>
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<p><b>Bison</b> is a taxonomic genus containing six species of large <!--del_lnk--> even-toed ungulates within the subfamily <!--del_lnk--> Bovinae. Only two of these species still exist: the <b><!--del_lnk--> American Bison</b>, which is commonly referred to as "buffalo" in American <!--del_lnk--> Western culture, and the <b>European Bison</b>, or <!--del_lnk--> wisent. The <a href="../../wp/g/Gaur.htm" title="Gaur">gaur</a>, a large, thick-coated <!--del_lnk--> ox found in <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a>, is also known as the <b>Indian Bison</b>. Bison are distinct from buffalo, with the only two species holding that name being the Asian <a href="../../wp/w/Water_Buffalo.htm" title="Water Buffalo">Water Buffalo</a> and <a href="../../wp/a/African_Buffalo.htm" title="African Buffalo">African Buffalo</a>.<p>The American and European Bison are the largest terrestrial <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a> in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Like their <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a> relatives, Bison are nomadic grazers and travel in <!--del_lnk--> herds, except for the non-dominant bulls, which travel alone or in small groups during most of the year. American bison are known for living in the Great Plains. Both species were hunted close to extinction by "White Hunters" during the 19th and 20th centuries but have since rebounded, although the European Bison is still <!--del_lnk--> endangered.<p>Unlike the Asian <a href="../../wp/w/Water_Buffalo.htm" title="Water Buffalo">Water Buffalo</a>, the Bison has never really been domesticated, although it does appear on farms occasionally. It is raised now mostly on large ranches in the United States and Canada for meat. Although there are wild herds in <!--del_lnk--> Yellowstone and northern central Canada, <!--del_lnk--> Wood Bison.<p>They live to be about 20 years old and are born without their trademark "hump" or horns, which both sexes have. After shedding their light faun-colored hair, and with the development of their horns, they become mature at 2 to 3 years of age, although the males continue to grow slowly to about age seven. Adult bulls express a high degree of dominance during mating season.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bison"</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Gaur', 'Asia', 'Water Buffalo', 'African Buffalo', 'Mammal', 'North America', 'Europe', 'Cattle', 'Water Buffalo'] |
Bissau | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<p><b>Bissau</b>, estimated population 355,000 (2004), is the <a href="../../wp/c/Capital.htm" title="Capital">capital</a> of <a href="../../wp/g/Guinea-Bissau.htm" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>. The city is located on the <!--del_lnk--> Geba River estuary, off the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>. It is the country's largest city, major port, and administrative and military centre. <a href="../../wp/p/Peanut.htm" title="Peanut">Peanuts</a>, <!--del_lnk--> hardwoods, <!--del_lnk--> copra, <a href="../../wp/p/Palm_oil.htm" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, and <!--del_lnk--> rubber are the chief products. The city was founded in <!--del_lnk--> 1687 by <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> as a fortified port and trading centre. In <!--del_lnk--> 1942 it became the capital of <!--del_lnk--> Portuguese Guinea but was replaced by <!--del_lnk--> Madina do Boe in <!--del_lnk--> 1973-<!--del_lnk--> 74. Bissau is located at 11°52' North, 15°36' West (11.86667, -15.60). <!--del_lnk--> <p>The city is known for its annual <!--del_lnk--> carnival. Other attractions include the <!--del_lnk--> Fortaleza d'Amura <!--del_lnk--> barracks containing <!--del_lnk--> Amílcar Cabral's <!--del_lnk--> mausoleum, the <!--del_lnk--> Pidjiguiti Memorial to the <!--del_lnk--> dockers killed in the <!--del_lnk--> Bissau Dockers' Strike on <!--del_lnk--> August 3, <!--del_lnk--> 1959, the <!--del_lnk--> Guinea-Bissau National Arts Institute, <!--del_lnk--> Bissau New Stadium and local <a href="../../wp/b/Beach.htm" title="Beach">beaches</a>. Many buildings in the city were ruined during the <!--del_lnk--> Guinea-Bissau Civil War, including the <!--del_lnk--> Guinea-Bissau Presidential Palace and the <!--del_lnk--> Bissau French Cultural Centre (now rebuilt), and the city centre is still underdeveloped.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> airport that serves Bissau is <!--del_lnk--> Osvaldo Vieira International Airport.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1755.png.htm" title="Bissau seen from Rio Gêba"><img alt="Bissau seen from Rio Gêba" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bissau_geba.png" src="../../images/17/1755.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1755.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bissau seen from Rio Gêba</div>
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| ['Capital', 'Guinea-Bissau', 'Atlantic Ocean', 'Peanut', 'Palm oil', 'Portugal', 'Beach'] |
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<td><b>Country</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/188/18803.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Sweden.svg" src="../../images/22/2232.png" width="20" /></a> <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td>
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<tr>
<td><b>Residence</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> Monte Carlo, <a href="../../wp/m/Monaco.htm" title="Monaco">Monaco</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Date of birth</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> June 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1956</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Place of birth</b></td>
<td colspan="2"><a href="../../wp/s/Stockholm.htm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Height</b></td>
<td colspan="2">180 <!--del_lnk--> cm (5 <!--del_lnk--> ft 11 <!--del_lnk--> in)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Weight</b></td>
<td colspan="2">72 <!--del_lnk--> kg (160 <!--del_lnk--> lb)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Turned Pro</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1973 (international debut in 1971)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Retired</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1984 (unsuccessful comeback from 1991 to 1993)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Plays</b></td>
<td colspan="2">Right; Two-handed backhand</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career Prize Money</b></td>
<td colspan="2">US$ 3,655,751</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #CCCCCC;"><b>Singles</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career record:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">576-124</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career titles:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">77 (including 61 listed by the ATP)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Highest ranking:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">1 (<!--del_lnk--> August 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1977)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #ffffff;"><b>Grand Slam results</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Australian Open</td>
<td colspan="2">3R (1974)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/f/French_Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="French Open (tennis)">French Open</a></td>
<td colspan="2"><b>W</b> (1974, 1975, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a></td>
<td colspan="2"><b>W</b> (1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> U.S. Open</td>
<td colspan="2">F (1976, 1978, 1980, 1981)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="3" style="background: #CCCCCC;"><b>Doubles</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career record:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">86-81</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Career titles:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">4</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b>Highest ranking:</b></td>
<td colspan="2">890 (<!--del_lnk--> March 22, <!--del_lnk--> 1993)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="3" style="font-size: 80%; font-weight: lighter; text-align: center;">
<p><span style="margin: 1em; color: #555;">Infobox last updated on: <!--del_lnk--> March 24, <!--del_lnk--> 2007.</span></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> <b>Björn Rune Borg</b></span> (born <!--del_lnk--> June 6, <!--del_lnk--> 1956, in <a href="../../wp/s/Stockholm.htm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>) is a former <!--del_lnk--> World No. 1 <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis.htm" title="Tennis">tennis</a> player from Sweden regarded by some observers and tennis players as the greatest player in the sport's history. During a 9-year career, he won 41 percent of the Grand Slam singles tournaments he entered (11 of 27) and 89.8 percent of the Grand Slam singles matches he played. Both are male open era records. In addition, Borg's six <!--del_lnk--> French Open singles titles are an all-time record. . He is the only player to have won in three consecutive years both Wimbledon and the French Open.<script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Career_overview" name="Career_overview"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Career overview</span></h2>
<p>As a child growing up in <!--del_lnk--> Södertälje, a town near Stockholm, Borg became fascinated by a golden tennis racquet that his father had won as a prize at a <!--del_lnk--> ping pong tournament. His father gave him the racquet, beginning one of the brightest careers in tennis history.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1972, at the age of 15, Borg became one of the youngest players ever to represent his country in the <a href="../../wp/d/Davis_Cup.htm" title="Davis Cup">Davis Cup</a> and won his debut singles rubber in five sets against seasoned professional <!--del_lnk--> Onny Parun of <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. Later that year, he won the <a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a> junior singles title.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 1973, Borg reached the Wimbledon quarterfinals in his first attempt.<p>In 1974, aged 17 years and 11 months, Borg won his first top-level singles title at the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Open. Two weeks later, he won his first Grand Slam title at the <!--del_lnk--> French Open, coming back from two sets down in the final to defeat <!--del_lnk--> Manuel Orantes 2-6, 6-7, 6-0, 6-1, 6-1. Barely 18 at the time, Borg was the youngest-ever male French Open champion (the record has since been lowered by <!--del_lnk--> Mats Wilander in <!--del_lnk--> 1982 and <!--del_lnk--> Michael Chang in <!--del_lnk--> 1989).<p>In early 1975, Borg played <!--del_lnk--> Rod Laver, then 36 years old, in a semifinal of the <!--del_lnk--> World Championship Tennis (WCT) finals in <a href="../../wp/d/Dallas%252C_Texas.htm" title="Dallas, Texas">Dallas, Texas</a>, which Borg won 7-6, 3-6, 5-7, 7-5, 6-2. Borg lost to <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Ashe, another veteran of the tour, in the final.<p>Borg retained his French Open title in 1975, beating <!--del_lnk--> Guillermo Vilas in the final in straight sets. Borg then reached the Wimbledon quarterfinals, where he lost in four sets to Ashe, the eventual champion.<p>Borg also helped Sweden to win its first ever Davis Cup title in 1975. He won two singles and one doubles rubber in the final as Sweden beat <!--del_lnk--> Czechoslovakia 3-2. With his two singles wins in the final, Borg had put together a run of 19 consecutive wins in Davis Cup singles rubbers going back to <!--del_lnk--> 1973. That was already a record at the time. But Borg never lost another Davis Cup singles rubber, and, by the end of his career, he had stretched that winning streak to 33 – a Davis Cup record that still stands.<p>Borg swept through Wimbledon in 1976 without losing a set, defeating the much-favoured <!--del_lnk--> Ilie Năstase in the final. Borg became the youngest male Wimbledon champion of the modern era at 20 years and 1 month (a record broken by <a href="../../wp/b/Boris_Becker.htm" title="Boris Becker">Boris Becker</a>, who won Wimbledon aged 17 in <!--del_lnk--> 1985). Some speculate that Borg's surviving the first week of Wimbledon, when the courts were slick and fast, was the key to his success. This might have been due to the unusually hot conditions that summer. The courts played slower in the second week, which suited Borg's baseline game. Borg also reached the final of the 1976 <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="U.S. Open (tennis)">U.S. Open</a>, which was now being played on clay courts. Borg lost in four sets to world #1 <!--del_lnk--> Jimmy Connors.<p>Borg repeated his Wimbledon triumph in <!--del_lnk--> 1977, although this time he was pushed much harder. He won a close match over his good friend <!--del_lnk--> Vitas Gerulaitis in a semifinal 6-4, 3-6, 6-3, 3-6, 8-6 . In the final, Borg was pushed to five sets for the third time in the tournament, this time by Connors. The win propelled Borg to the #1 ranking on the computer, albeit for just one week in August.<p>Borg was at the height of his career from <!--del_lnk--> 1978 through <!--del_lnk--> 1980, winning the French Open and Wimbledon all three years.<p>In 1978, Borg won straight-set finals over Vilas at the French Open and Connors at Wimbledon but was defeated in straight sets by Connors in the final of the U.S. Open, now held on hard courts in Flushing Meadow, New York. That autumn, Borg faced <a href="../../wp/j/John_McEnroe.htm" title="John McEnroe">John McEnroe</a> for the first time in a semifinal of the Stockholm Open (in the city of his birth) and was upset in straight sets 6-3, 6-4.<p>Borg lost to McEnroe again in four sets in the final of the <!--del_lnk--> 1979 WCT Finals but was now overtaking Connors for the top ranking. Borg established himself firmly in the top spot with his fourth French Open singles title and fourth straight Wimbledon singles title, defeating Connors in a straight-set semifinal at the latter tournament. At the French Open, Borg defeated big-serving <!--del_lnk--> Victor Pecci in a four-set final, and at Wimbledon, Borg took five sets to overcome an even bigger server, <!--del_lnk--> Roscoe Tanner. Borg was upset by Tanner at the U.S. Open, in a four-set quarterfinal played under the lights.<p>At the season-ending <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">Masters</a> tournament in January 1980, Borg survived a close semifinal against McEnroe 6-3, 6-7, 7-6 (7-3). He then beat Gerulaitis in straight sets, winning his first Masters and first title in New York. In June, he overcame Gerulaitis, again in straight sets, for his fifth French Open title.<p>Borg won his fifth consecutive Wimbledon singles title in 1980 by defeating McEnroe in a five-set match often listed among the best Wimbledon finals ever played. In the fourth-set tiebreak, McEnroe saved five match points and Borg six set points before McEnroe won the set. Borg then won 19 straight points on serve in the deciding set and prevailed after 3 hours, 53 minutes.<p>Borg lost to McEnroe in another five-set final, this one lasting 4 hours and 13 minutes, at the 1980 U.S. Open. He then defeated McEnroe in the final of the Stockholm Open, 6-3, 6-4, and faced him one more time that season, in the round-robin portion of the year-end Masters, played in January 1981. With 19,103 fans in attendance, Borg won a deciding third-set tiebreak for the second year in a row, 6-4, 6-7, 7-6(3). Borg then defeated <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Lendl for his second Masters title, 6-4, 6-2, 6-2.<div class="thumb tright">
</div>
<p>Borg won what turned out to be his last Grand Slam title at the French Open in 1981, defeating Lendl in a five-set final. Borg's six French Open singles titles remains a record for a male player.<p>In reaching the Wimbledon final in 1981, Borg stretched his winning streak at the <!--del_lnk--> All England Club to a record 41 matches. In a semifinal, Borg was down to Connors by two sets to none before coming back to win the match 0-6, 4-6, 6-3, 6-0, 6-4. Borg's streak was brought to an end by McEnroe, who beat him in four sets.<p>Borg's last Grand Slam final was a four set loss to McEnroe at the 1981 U.S. Open.<p>The spark seemed to have burned out of Borg's game by the end of 1981, and he was on the brink of burn-out. But Borg's announcement in the spring of <!--del_lnk--> 1983 that he was retiring from the game at the age of just 26 was a shock to the tennis world.<p>Borg was ranked the World No. 1 in six different stretches between 1977 and 1981, totaling 109 weeks. Tennis commentators considered him as the <!--del_lnk--> best player from 1977 through 1980. During his career, he won a total of 77 (61 listed on the <!--del_lnk--> Association of Tennis Professionals website) top-level singles and 4 doubles titles.<p>Borg won the <!--del_lnk--> BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality Award in 1979.<p>Borg was inducted into the <!--del_lnk--> International Tennis Hall of Fame in <!--del_lnk--> 1987.<p>After retiring, Borg suffered a <!--del_lnk--> drug overdose, was rumoured to have attempted <!--del_lnk--> suicide (which he has denied), and had a turbulent relationship with his then-wife, the Italian singer <!--del_lnk--> Loredana Bertè. He later bounced back as the owner of the Björn Borg fashion label, whose most noted advertising campaigns asked Swedes (from the pages of a leading national newspaper) to "Fuck for the Future."<p>In the early-<!--del_lnk--> 1990s, Borg attempted a comeback on the men's professional tennis tour. This time around, however, he was completely unsuccessful. Playing with his old wooden rackets in an attempt to regain his once-indomitable touch, he lost his first comeback match in <!--del_lnk--> 1991 to <!--del_lnk--> Jordi Arrese at the <!--del_lnk--> Monte Carlo Open. A series of first-round losses to lowly-ranked players followed over the next two years. The closest he came to winning a match was in <!--del_lnk--> 1993 in <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, when he pushed <!--del_lnk--> Alexander Volkov to three sets and lost a final-set tie-breaker 9-7. After that match, he retired from the tour for good and confined himself to playing on the senior tour, with modern rackets, where he delighted crowds by renewing his old rivalries with McEnroe, Connors, and Vilas.<p>In March <!--del_lnk--> 2006, Bonhams Auction House in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> announced that it would auction Borg's Wimbledon trophies and two of his winning rackets on June 21, 2006. Several players then called Borg wondering what he was thinking, but only McEnroe was able to make Borg reconsider. According to <!--del_lnk--> Dagens Nyheter – who had talked to Borg – McEnroe called from New York and asked, "What's up? Have you gone mad?" <!--del_lnk--> The conversation apparently persuaded Borg to buy out the trophies from <!--del_lnk--> Bonhams at an undisclosed amount.<p>On December 10, 2006, the <!--del_lnk--> British Broadcasting Corporation gave Borg a Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented by <a href="../../wp/b/Boris_Becker.htm" title="Boris Becker">Boris Becker</a>. <p><a id="Place_among_the_all-time_greats" name="Place_among_the_all-time_greats"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Place among the all-time greats</span></h2>
<p>Aside from his records, the French-Wimbledon double he achieved three times consecutively was called by Wimbledon officials "the most difficult double in tennis" and "a feat considered impossible among today's players." No player has managed to achieve his double since (and indeed <!--del_lnk--> Andre Agassi is the only male player since Borg to win both the French Open and Wimbledon men's singles titles over the course of his career).<p>The major blemishes in Borg's Grand Slam record are that he failed to win either the U.S. Open or the <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" title="Australian Open">Australian Open</a> during his career. He reached the final four times at the U.S. Open but never won. Borg chose to make the journey to the Australian Open only once, in 1974, where he lost in the third round. Borg has stated publicly that he would have attempted to complete the calendar year Grand Slam and played in the Australian Open had he succeeded in winning the first three Grand Slam tournaments of the year, which he never did. (The Australian Open was held in December from 1977 to <!--del_lnk--> 1985.)<p>In 2006, Sergio Cruz, the former Portuguese national champion who coached <!--del_lnk--> Jim Courier, explained why he believed Borg was the "undisputed best player ever."<p>In his 1979 autobiography, <!--del_lnk--> Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter and great player himself, included Borg in his list of the 21 greatest players of all time.<p>Kramer considered the best player ever to have been either <!--del_lnk--> Don Budge (for consistent play) or <!--del_lnk--> Ellsworth Vines (at the height of his game). The next four best were, chronologically, <!--del_lnk--> Bill Tilden, <!--del_lnk--> Fred Perry, <!--del_lnk--> Bobby Riggs, and <!--del_lnk--> Pancho Gonzales. After these six came the "second echelon" of <!--del_lnk--> Rod Laver, <!--del_lnk--> Lew Hoad, <!--del_lnk--> Ken Rosewall, <!--del_lnk--> Gottfried von Cramm, <!--del_lnk--> Ted Schroeder, <!--del_lnk--> Jack Crawford, <!--del_lnk--> Pancho Segura, <!--del_lnk--> Frank Sedgman, <!--del_lnk--> Tony Trabert, <!--del_lnk--> John Newcombe, <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Ashe, <!--del_lnk--> Stan Smith, <b>Björn Borg</b>, and <!--del_lnk--> Jimmy Connors. He felt unable to rank <!--del_lnk--> Henri Cochet and <!--del_lnk--> René Lacoste accurately but felt they were among the very best.<p>In 2003, <!--del_lnk--> Bud Collins chose Borg as one of his top-five male players of all time.<p><a id="Playing_style" name="Playing_style"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Playing style</span></h2>
<p>Borg played from the baseline, with powerful ground-strokes and a two-handed backhand (very rare at the time and unorthodox). His calm court demeanor earned him the nickname of the "Ice Man" or "Ice-Borg". <!--del_lnk--> He hit the ball hard and high from the back of the court and brought it down with considerable top-spin.<p>Borg is credited with developing the style of play that has come to dominate the game today.<p><a id="Grand_Slam_singles_finals" name="Grand_Slam_singles_finals"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Grand Slam singles finals</span></h2>
<p><a id="Wins_.2811.29" name="Wins_.2811.29"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Wins (11)</span></h3>
<table>
<tr>
<td width="50"><b>Year</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Championship</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Opponent in Final</b></td>
<td width="150"><b>Score in Final</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EBC2AF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1974</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> French Open</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/37/3789.png.htm" title="Flag of Spain"><img alt="Flag of Spain" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_Spain_Under_Franco.png" src="../../images/37/3789.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Manuel Orantes</td>
<td>2-6, 6-7, 6-0, 6-1, 6-1</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EBC2AF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1975</td>
<td>French Open <small>(2)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Guillermo Vilas</td>
<td>6-2, 6-3, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1976</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/7/743.png.htm" title="Flag of Romania"><img alt="Flag of Romania" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Romania.svg" src="../../images/7/743.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ilie Năstase</td>
<td>6-4, 6-2, 9-7</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1977</td>
<td>Wimbledon <small>(2)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Jimmy Connors</td>
<td>3-6, 6-2, 6-1, 5-7, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EBC2AF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td>French Open <small>(3)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/14/1447.png.htm" title="Flag of Argentina"><img alt="Flag of Argentina" height="14" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Argentina.svg" src="../../images/14/1447.png" width="22" /></a> Guillermo Vilas</td>
<td>6-1, 6-1, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td>1978</td>
<td>Wimbledon <small>(3)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> Jimmy Connors</td>
<td>6-2, 6-2, 6-3</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EBC2AF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1979</td>
<td>French Open <small>(4)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/78/7859.png.htm" title="Flag of Paraguay"><img alt="Flag of Paraguay" height="13" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Paraguay.svg" src="../../images/78/7859.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Victor Pecci</td>
<td>6-3, 6-1, 6-7, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td>1979</td>
<td>Wimbledon <small>(4)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Roscoe Tanner</td>
<td>6-7, 6-1, 3-6, 6-3, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EBC2AF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td>French Open <small>(5)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Vitas Gerulaitis</td>
<td>6-4, 6-1, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td>1980</td>
<td>Wimbledon <small>(5)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/John_McEnroe.htm" title="John McEnroe">John McEnroe</a></td>
<td>1-6, 7-5, 6-3, 6-7(16), 8-6</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#EBC2AF">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1981</td>
<td>French Open <small>(6)</small></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/525/52544.png.htm" title="Flag of Czechoslovakia"><img alt="Flag of Czechoslovakia" height="15" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia_%28bordered%29.svg" src="../../images/525/52544.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Lendl</td>
<td>6-1, 4-6, 6-2, 3-6, 6-1</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Runner-ups_.285.29" name="Runner-ups_.285.29"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Runner-ups (5)</span></h3>
<table>
<tr>
<td width="50"><b>Year</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Championship</b></td>
<td width="175"><b>Opponent in Final</b></td>
<td width="150"><b>Score in Final</b></td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1976</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="U.S. Open (tennis)">U.S. Open</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <!--del_lnk--> Jimmy Connors</td>
<td>6-4, 3-6, 7-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1978</td>
<td>U.S. Open</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> Jimmy Connors</td>
<td>6-4, 6-2, 6-2</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1980</td>
<td>U.S. Open</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> <a href="../../wp/j/John_McEnroe.htm" title="John McEnroe">John McEnroe</a></td>
<td>7-6, 6-1, 6-7, 5-7, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#CCFFCC">
<td><!--del_lnk--> 1981</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a></td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> John McEnroe</td>
<td>4-6, 7-6, 7-6, 6-4</td>
</tr>
<tr bgcolor="#FFFFCC">
<td>1981</td>
<td>U.S. Open</td>
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/6/695.png.htm" title="Flag of United States"><img alt="Flag of United States" height="12" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg" src="../../images/6/695.png" width="22" /></a> John McEnroe</td>
<td>4-6, 6-2, 6-4, 6-3</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Career_singles_titles_.2877.29" name="Career_singles_titles_.2877.29"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Career singles titles (77)</span></h2>
<p><a id="Titles_listed_by_the_Association_of_Tennis_Professionals_.2861.29" name="Titles_listed_by_the_Association_of_Tennis_Professionals_.2861.29"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline"><!--del_lnk--> Titles listed by the Association of Tennis Professionals (61)</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1974 (7) - Adelaide, Bastad, Boston, London World Championship Tennis (WCT), <!--del_lnk--> French Open, <!--del_lnk--> Italian Open, São Paulo WCT<li><!--del_lnk--> 1975 (5) - <a href="../../wp/b/Barcelona.htm" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a>, Bologna WCT, <a href="../../wp/b/Boston%252C_Massachusetts.htm" title="Boston">Boston</a>, Richmond WCT, <b>French Open</b><li><!--del_lnk--> 1976 (6) - Boston, <a href="../../wp/d/Dallas%252C_Texas.htm" title="Dallas">Dallas</a> WCT, Dusseldorf, São Paulo WCT, <a href="../../wp/t/Toronto.htm" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> Indoor WCT, <a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a><li><!--del_lnk--> 1977 (11) - Barcelona, Basel, Cologne, <!--del_lnk--> Denver, <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Memphis, <!--del_lnk--> Monte Carlo WCT, Nice, Pepsi Grand Slam, Wembley, <b>Wimbledon</b><li><!--del_lnk--> 1978 (9) - Bastad, Birmingham WCT, Las Vegas WCT, <a href="../../wp/m/Milan.htm" title="Milan">Milan</a> WCT, Pepsi Grand Slam, <b>French Open</b>, Italian Open, Tokyo Indoor, <b>Wimbledon</b><li><!--del_lnk--> 1979 (12) - Bastad, <!--del_lnk--> Las Vegas, <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">Masters</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Monte Carlo, <!--del_lnk--> Toronto, Palermo, Pepsi Grand Slam, Richmond WCT, <b>French Open</b>, Rotterdam, <a href="../../wp/t/Tokyo.htm" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> Indoor, <b>Wimbledon</b><li><!--del_lnk--> 1980 (8) - Las Vegas, <a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">Masters</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Monte Carlo, Nice, <!--del_lnk--> Pepsi Grand Slam, <b>French Open</b>, Stockholm, <b>Wimbledon</b><li><!--del_lnk--> 1981 (3) - Geneva, <b>French Open</b>, Stuttgart Outdoor</ul>
<p><a id="Other_singles_titles.2C_including_invitational_tournament_titles_.2816.29" name="Other_singles_titles.2C_including_invitational_tournament_titles_.2816.29"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Other singles titles, including invitational tournament titles (16)</span></h3>
<p>Here are Borg's tournament wins that are not included in the statistics on the Association of Tennis Professionals website. The website has some omissions for tournaments held since 1971.<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> 1973 (1) - Helsinki<li><!--del_lnk--> 1974 (2) - Auckland, Oslo<li><!--del_lnk--> 1976 (2) - Mexican Round Robin (invitational tournament), World Invitational Tennis Classic (WITC) at Hilton Head (4-man tournament)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1977 (1) - WITC at Hilton Head (4-man invitational tournament)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1978 (1) - Tokyo Suntory Cup (invitational tournament)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1979 (5) - Montreal World Championship Tennis (WCT), Marbella (invitational tournament), Rotterdam (4-man invitational tournament), Milan (invitational tournament), Frankfurt (invitational tournament)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1980 (1) - Salisbury WCT<li><!--del_lnk--> 1981 (1) - Edmonton (invitational tournament)<li><!--del_lnk--> 1982 (2) - Tokyo Suntory Cup (invitational tournament), Sydney (invitational tournament)</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Grand Slam and Masters singles tournament timeline</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable">
<tr bgcolor="#EFEFEF">
<th>Tournament</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1973</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1974</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1975</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1976</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1977</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1978</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1979</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1980</th>
<th><!--del_lnk--> 1981</th>
<th>Career SR</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" title="Australian Open">Australian Open</a></td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">3R</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>0 / 1</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><!--del_lnk--> French Open</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>6 / 8</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><!--del_lnk--> Wimbledon</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">3R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>5 / 9</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="U.S. Open (tennis)">US Open</a></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">2R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:yellow;">SF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">4R</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#ffebcd;">QF</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>0 / 9</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;">Grand Slam SR</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">0 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 4</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 2</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">2 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">2 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">2 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;">1 / 3</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>11 / 27</b></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="background:#EFEFEF;"><a href="../../wp/t/Tennis_Masters_Cup.htm" title="Tennis Masters Cup">The Masters</a><sup>1</sup></td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#afeeee;">RR</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#D8BFD8;">F</td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center" style="background:#00ff00;"><b>W</b></td>
<td align="center">A</td>
<td align="center" style="background:#EFEFEF;"><b>2 / 5</b></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>A = did not participate in the tournament<p>SR = the ratio of the number of singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played<p><sup>1</sup>The Masters tournaments for calendar years 1977, 1979, and 1980 were actually held in January of the following year. In this table, however, the year of the tournament is listed for the preceding year.<p><a id="Records_and_trivia" name="Records_and_trivia"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Records and trivia</span></h2>
<p><a id="Grand_Slam_records" name="Grand_Slam_records"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Grand Slam records</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Borg won more <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Slam_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="Grand Slam (tennis)">Grand Slam</a> singles titles in the <!--del_lnk--> open era (11) than any player until <a href="../../wp/p/Pete_Sampras.htm" title="Pete Sampras">Pete Sampras</a> (14). Borg competed in the <a href="../../wp/a/Australian_Open.htm" title="Australian Open">Australian Open</a> only once and retired after nine years.<li>Borg won more <!--del_lnk--> French Open singles titles (6) than any other male player in tennis history.<li>Borg won more <a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a> singles titles (5) than any other male player since the abolition of the Challenge Round in 1922 until Sampras (7).<li>Borg won four consecutive French Open singles championships, an all-time record. He retired while on a winning streak of 28 consecutive matches at the French Open.<li>Borg won more consecutive Wimbledon singles titles (5) than any man under modern rules. Only <a href="../../wp/w/William_Renshaw.htm" title="William Renshaw">William Renshaw</a> won more consecutive titles there (1881-86). In Renshaw's day, the defending champion played only one match, the Challenge Round. After the adoption of the current rules, <!--del_lnk--> Fred Perry established a record of three consecutive Wimbledon titles from 1934 through 1936, until Borg equalled it in 1978.<li>Borg's 41 consecutive match winning streak at Wimbledon remains an all-time record. Sampras came closest to this record with four consecutive Wimbledon titles from 1997 through 2000 (and 31 consecutive match wins). From 2003 through 2006, Federer also won 4 consecutive titles.<li>Borg played in six consecutive Wimbledon singles finals, still a record since the abolition of the Challenge Round in 1922.<li>Borg played in four consecutive French Open singles finals, a men's open era record. <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Lendl tied this mark.<li>Borg played in 16 Grand Slam singles finals, a male record for the open era (and second in tennis history only to 17 by <!--del_lnk--> Rod Laver). This record was broken by Lendl, who played in 19, and Sampras, who played in 18.<li>Borg won at least one Grand Slam singles title for eight consecutive years (1974–1981), an all-time men's record. Only Sampras has matched this (1993–2000).<li>Borg defeated more players (9) in Grand Slam singles finals than any male player in history. Sampras tied this mark.<li>Borg won 11 Grand Slam singles titles out of 27 tournaments played, giving him a male open era record 41 percent winning rate. (<!--del_lnk--> Margaret Court won 24 of the 47 Grand Slam singles tournaments she played during her career (51 percent), which spanned both the amateur and open eras. Considering just Court's performances during the open era, she won 11 of 21 Grand Slam singles events (52 percent). <!--del_lnk--> Steffi Graf won 22 of the 54 Grand Slam singles tournaments she played during her career, which was entirely during the open era, matching Borg's winning percentage.)<li>In Grand Slam singles tournaments, Borg's match record is 141–16, giving him an 89.8 winning percentage, better than any male player ever. The only other male players in the open era with winning percentages over 80 are Federer (85), John McEnroe (82), <!--del_lnk--> Jimmy Connors (81.9), and Lendl (81.8).<li>Borg's 11 Grand Slam singles titles ties him at third with Laver on the all-time list, behind Sampras (14) and <!--del_lnk--> Roy Emerson (12).</ul>
<p><a id="Youngest_to_win" name="Youngest_to_win"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Youngest to win</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>In 1972, Borg became the youngest-ever winner of a <a href="../../wp/d/Davis_Cup.htm" title="Davis Cup">Davis Cup</a> match, at age 15.<li>In 1974, one month before his 18th birthday, Borg became the youngest winner of the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Open. That record has since been broken.<li>In 1974, only days after his 18th birthday, Borg became the youngest man ever to hold a <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Slam_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="Grand Slam (tennis)">Grand Slam</a> singles title. He retained that distinction until another Swede, <!--del_lnk--> Mats Wilander, won the <!--del_lnk--> French Open in 1982.<li>At 18, he was the youngest winner of the <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Professional Championships until <!--del_lnk--> Aaron Krickstein won in 1983.<li>In 1976 at age 20, Borg became the youngest winner of <a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a> during the open era until <a href="../../wp/b/Boris_Becker.htm" title="Boris Becker">Boris Becker</a> became the youngest Grand Slam winner of all time by taking Wimbledon at age 17 years, 7 months in 1985 (a record broken by <!--del_lnk--> Michael Chang who won the French Open when he was 17 years, 3 months in 1989).<li>Borg won his 11th Grand Slam singles title in 1981 at age 25, the youngest male to reach that number of titles. By comparison, <a href="../../wp/p/Pete_Sampras.htm" title="Pete Sampras">Pete Sampras</a> won his 11th at almost age 27, <!--del_lnk--> Roy Emerson at age 30, and <!--del_lnk--> Rod Laver at age 31.</ul>
<p><a id="Match_competition" name="Match_competition"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Match competition</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Borg compiled a 576-124 win-loss singles record, winning more than 82 percent of the matches he played. By comparison, <a href="../../wp/p/Pete_Sampras.htm" title="Pete Sampras">Pete Sampras</a> won 77 percent during his career.<li>Borg won 14 consecutive five-set singles matches before losing to <a href="../../wp/j/John_McEnroe.htm" title="John McEnroe">John McEnroe</a> at the 1980 <a href="../../wp/u/U.S._Open_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="U.S. Open (tennis)">U.S. Open</a>, a record for the open era.<li>In career five-set matches, Borg was 24-4. His 85.7 winning percentage was unrivalled in the <!--del_lnk--> open era, with <!--del_lnk--> Aaron Krickstein in second place at 75.7 percent (28-9). Five of Borg's wins were in <a href="../../wp/g/Grand_Slam_%2528tennis%2529.htm" title="Grand Slam (tennis)">Grand Slam</a> finals, a mark that surpassed <!--del_lnk--> Bill Tilden (who won four) and has remained unequalled.<li>In 1980, Borg won the longest-ever <a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a> singles final to that time, 3 hours and 53 minutes (the record stood until 1982). That year, he also lost the longest-ever U.S. Open final to that time, 4 hours and 13 minutes (the record stood until 1988).<li>Borg won the longest tiebreak of the open era, 20-18 in the third set of his first round match at the 1973 Wimbledon -- a mark that has been tied four times (by <!--del_lnk--> Roger Federer, <!--del_lnk--> Goran Ivanišević, <!--del_lnk--> José Acasuso, and <!--del_lnk--> Jo-Wilfried Tsonga.<li>Borg won 19 consecutive points on serve in the fifth set on two occasions: his 1980 Wimbledon final against McEnroe and his 1980 U.S. Open quarterfinal against <!--del_lnk--> Roscoe Tanner.</ul>
<p><a id="Career_winning_streaks" name="Career_winning_streaks"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Career winning streaks</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>On the list of <!--del_lnk--> open era winning streaks, Borg is third (43 consecutive tour matches in 1978). The only other men with winning streaks of at least 40 matches are <!--del_lnk--> Guillermo Vilas (46), <!--del_lnk--> Ivan Lendl (44), <a href="../../wp/j/John_McEnroe.htm" title="John McEnroe">John McEnroe</a> (42), and <!--del_lnk--> Roger Federer (41) (ongoing as of <!--del_lnk--> March 3, <!--del_lnk--> 2007).<li>Borg previously held the record for most consecutive wins on grass, with 41 victories (all at <a href="../../wp/t/The_Championships%252C_Wimbledon.htm" title="The Championships, Wimbledon">Wimbledon</a>). Federer, who customarily plays a lesser grass tournament in <!--del_lnk--> Halle in addition to Wimbledon, has a 48 match winning streak on grass (2003 through 2006).<li>Borg holds the <a href="../../wp/d/Davis_Cup.htm" title="Davis Cup">Davis Cup</a> record singles winning streak at 33 consecutive victories.<li>Borg holds third place for most consecutive wins on clay, with 46 victories in 1977-79. Only <!--del_lnk--> Rafael Nadal with 62 (ongoing through 2006) and Vilas with 53 have won more consecutive clay court matches.</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Borg"</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17043.png.htm" title="Bjørnøya is located north of mainland Norway and south of Spitsbergen."><img alt="Bjørnøya is located north of mainland Norway and south of Spitsbergen." height="352" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bjornoya_map.png" src="../../images/170/17043.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p><b>Bjørnøya</b> (<!--del_lnk--> IPA: <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">[ˈbjøːɳøja]</span>), meaning "<b>Bear Island</b>" in <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian, is an <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic.htm" title="Arctic">arctic</a> island of <a href="../../wp/n/Norway.htm" title="Norway">Norway</a> that forms the southernmost part of <a href="../../wp/s/Svalbard.htm" title="Svalbard">Svalbard</a>. It is located in the western part of the <!--del_lnk--> Barents Sea at <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><!--del_lnk--> 74.31° N 19.01° E</span>, approximately halfway between <!--del_lnk--> Spitsbergen and the <!--del_lnk--> North Cape. It was discovered by <a href="../../wp/w/Willem_Barents.htm" title="Willem Barents">Willem Barents</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Jacob van Heemskerk on <!--del_lnk--> 10 June 1596, and it was named when a <!--del_lnk--> polar bear was seen swimming nearby. Bjørnøya was considered <!--del_lnk--> terra nullius until the <!--del_lnk--> Svalbard Treaty of 1920 placed it under Norwegian sovereignty. Despite its remote location and barren nature, the island has seen some commercial activities in past centuries, such as <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> mining, <a href="../../wp/f/Fishing.htm" title="Fishing">fishing</a> and <!--del_lnk--> whaling. However, no settlements have lasted more than a few years, and Bjørnøya is now uninhabited with the exception of the meteorological station personnel. Along with the adjacent waters, it was declared a <!--del_lnk--> nature reserve in 2002.<p>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17044.jpg.htm" title="Remnants of whalers' station at Kvalrossbukta"><img alt="Remnants of whalers' station at Kvalrossbukta" height="160" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bjoern2.jpg" src="../../images/170/17044.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Norwegian seafarers of the <!--del_lnk--> Viking era may have known Bjørnøya, but the documented history begins in 1596, when <a href="../../wp/w/Willem_Barents.htm" title="Willem Barents">Willem Barents</a> sighted the island on his third expedition . Further exploration was conducted in 1603 and 1605 by <!--del_lnk--> Steven Bennet, who noted the then rich population of walrus. Starting in the early 17th century, the island was used mainly as a base for the hunting of <a href="../../wp/w/Walrus.htm" title="Walrus">walrus</a> and other <!--del_lnk--> seal species, as well as <!--del_lnk--> whaling. Eggs of seabirds were harvested from the large bird colonies until 1971.<p>There have never been extensive settlements on Bjørnøya. The remnants of a whaling station from the early 20th century can be seen at <i>Kvalrossbukta</i> (<i>"walrus bay"</i>) in the southeast. A <a href="../../wp/c/Coal.htm" title="Coal">coal</a> mine with a small settlement named <i>Tunheim</i> on the northeastern coast existed from 1916 to 1925, but mining was given up as unprofitable. Due to the cold and dry climate, the remains of the settlement (including a half-destroyed jetty and a steam locomotive) are relatively well preserved.<p>The strategic value of Bjørnøya was recognised in the late 19th century, when <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Russia and <!--del_lnk--> Imperial Germany demonstrated their interests in the Barents Sea. The German journalist <!--del_lnk--> Theodor Lerner visited Bjørnøya in 1898 and 1899, and claimed rights of ownership there. In 1899, the German fishery association <i>Deutsche Seefischerei-Verein</i> (DSV) started investigations of whaling and fishery in the Barents Sea. The DSV was secretely in contact with the German naval command and the possibility of an occupation of Bjørnøya was considered. In reaction to these advances, the Russian Navy sent out the protected cruiser <i>Svetlana</i> for an investigation, and the Russians hoisted their flag over Bjørnøya on <!--del_lnk--> 21 July 1899, leading to protests by Lerner. However, no violence occurred and the matter was settled diplomatically with no definitive claims of sovereignty over Bjørnøya by any nation.<p>The whole island was privately owned by the coal mining <!--del_lnk--> company <i>Bjørnøen AS</i> from 1918 to 1932, when the Norwegian state took over the shares. Bjørnøen AS now exists as a state owned company and is jointly managed with <i>Kings Bay AS</i>, the company that runs the operations of <!--del_lnk--> Ny-Ålesund on <!--del_lnk--> Spitsbergen. A Norwegian radio station (<i>Bjørnøya Radio</i>, <!--del_lnk--> callsign: <i>LJB</i> ) was established in <i>Herwighamna</i> on the north coast in 1919. It was later extended to include a meteorological station.<p>As the shipping routes from the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> to <!--del_lnk--> Murmansk and the ports of the <!--del_lnk--> White Sea pass through the Barents Sea, the waters near Bjørnøya have been of great strategic importance in the <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">Second World War</a> as well as the <a href="../../wp/c/Cold_War.htm" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Although Svalbard was not occupied by Germany in the Second World War, German forces erected several weather stations there. An automated radio station was deployed on Bjørnøya in 1941. German forces attacked several <!--del_lnk--> arctic convoys with military supplies for the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in the waters surrounding Bjørnøya. They inflicted heavy losses upon <!--del_lnk--> Convoy PQ-17 in June/July 1942 but were ineffective in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of the Barents Sea on New Year's Eve 1942. The waters southeast of Bjørnøya were the scene of more naval battles in 1943. In November 1944, the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> proposed to annul the Svalbard Treaty with the intention of gaining sovereignty over Bjørnøya. Negotiations with <!--del_lnk--> Trygve Lie of the Norwegian government-in-exile had however not lead to an agreement by the end of the <!--del_lnk--> Second World War and the Soviet proposals were never implemented . The Soviet Union (and later, Russia) maintained their presence on <!--del_lnk--> Spitsbergen, however.<p>In 2002 a <!--del_lnk--> nature reserve was established that covers all of the island, except 1.2 <!--del_lnk--> km² around the meteorological station; the reserve also includes the adjacent waters to four <!--del_lnk--> nautical miles (7.4 km) from the coast . Today, the only population on the island (approximately ten persons) is the staff of the Norwegian meteorological and radio station at Herwighamna. The station conducts meteorological observations and provides logistic and telecommunication services. It also maintains a landing place for use by helicopters of the <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian Coast Guard. The <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian Polar Institute conducts annual expeditions to Bjørnøya, mostly concerned with <!--del_lnk--> ornithological research. Several other research projects, mostly pertaining to geography and climatology, are carried out less regularly. There are very few opportunities for individual travel to Bjørnøya. A few <!--del_lnk--> yachts make landfall, usually en route between the Norwegian mainland and Spitsbergen. A small number of cruising ships have visited the island, but <a href="../../wp/t/Tourism.htm" title="Tourism">tourism</a> is otherwise almost nonexistent.<p><a id="Hydrography.2C_geography_and_climate" name="Hydrography.2C_geography_and_climate"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Hydrography, geography and climate</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17045.jpg.htm" title="Stappen bird cliff at Bjørnøya"><img alt="Stappen bird cliff at Bjørnøya" height="385" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Uria_lomvia_2.jpg" src="../../images/170/17045.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17045.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Stappen bird cliff at Bjørnøya</div>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17046.jpg.htm" title="Miseryfjellet is the highest point in the mountainous southern part of Bjørnøya, about 536 metres above sea level"><img alt="Miseryfjellet is the highest point in the mountainous southern part of Bjørnøya, about 536 metres above sea level" height="167" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bjoern9.jpg" src="../../images/170/17046.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17046.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Miseryfjellet is the highest point in the mountainous southern part of Bjørnøya, about 536 <!--del_lnk--> metres <!--del_lnk--> above sea level</div>
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<p><!--del_lnk--> Hydrographic surveys of the waters of Svalbard have been conducted by agencies of the Norwegian government throughout the 20th century, namely by "Norges Svalbard- og Ishavsundersøkelser" since 1928, its successor, the Norwegian Polar Institute since 1948, and the <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian Hydrographic Service since 1984 . <!--del_lnk--> Land surveying and <!--del_lnk--> mapping falls in the responsibility of the Polar Institute.<p>Bjørnøya lies in the westernmost part of the Barents Sea on <!--del_lnk--> Spitsbergen Bank which extends southward from <!--del_lnk--> Spitsbergen and <!--del_lnk--> Edgeøya, forming a part of the <!--del_lnk--> continental shelf. Water depths near the island and to the north and east do not much exceed 100 <!--del_lnk--> metres, but become much greater to the south, and especially some thirty <!--del_lnk--> nautical miles to the west, where the continental shelf slopes into the deep water of the <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian Sea and <!--del_lnk--> Greenland Sea.<p>The island's outline is an irregular <!--del_lnk--> triangle pointing south with a greatest north-south extension of 20 <!--del_lnk--> km and a greatest east-west extension of 15.5 km; its surface area is 178 km². The southern part of Bjørnøya is mountainous, the highest top being <!--del_lnk--> Miseryfjellet on the southeast coast at about 536 metres above <!--del_lnk--> sea level. Other notable mountains are <i>Antarcticfjellet</i> in the southeast, and <i>Fuglefjellet</i>, <i>Hamburgfjellet</i>, and <i>Alfredfjellet</i> in the southwest. The northern part of the island forms a lowland plain that comprises some two thirds of the surface area. The lowland is strewn with shallow freshwater lakes which cover some 19 km² in all. Several streams flow into the sea, often as <!--del_lnk--> waterfalls in the steeper parts of the coast. There are no <a href="../../wp/g/Glacier.htm" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> on Bjørnøya.<p>The coast is mostly steep with high cliffs and notable signs of erosion, such as caverns and <!--del_lnk--> isolated rock pillars. There are also a few sandy beaches. A number of anchorages and landing points exist, as well as a small harbour at <i>Herwighamna</i> on the north coast. However, none of these are safe in all weather conditions and a ship mooring anywhere on Bjørnøya must therefore be prepared to weigh anchor at any time.<p>A branch of the <!--del_lnk--> North Atlantic current carries warm water to Svalbard, creating a climate much warmer than that of other regions at similar latitude. Bjørnøya's climate is maritime-<!--del_lnk--> polar with relatively mild temperatures during the winter. January is the coldest month, with a mean temperature of −8.1<!--del_lnk--> °C (base period 1961–1990). July and August are the warmest months, with mean temperatures of 4.4°C. There is not much precipitation, with an average of 371 <!--del_lnk--> mm per year in the northern lowland area. The weather can be quite stable during the summer months although fog is common, with a maximum at 20% of all days in July; it develops when warm air from of <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> origin passes over cold water.<p>A boundary between cold water of polar origin and warmer, Atlantic water exists in the western part of the Barents Sea. Thus, the water temperature can be quite variable within a few dozen nautical miles of Bjørnøya, sometimes reaching 10°C in summer. During the winter there is <!--del_lnk--> fast ice on the coast, but very rarely on the open sea around Bjørnøya. <!--del_lnk--> Pack ice is carried to Bjørnøya from the <!--del_lnk--> Barents Sea in every winter, sometimes as early as October, but a significant amount of ice is not common before February.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> polar night lasts from <!--del_lnk--> 8 November to <!--del_lnk--> 3 February, and the period of <!--del_lnk--> midnight sun from <!--del_lnk--> 2 May until <!--del_lnk--> 11 August.<p><a id="Flora_and_fauna" name="Flora_and_fauna"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flora and fauna</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17047.jpg.htm" title="Purple Saxifrage is well-suited to Bjørnøya's climate."><img alt="Purple Saxifrage is well-suited to Bjørnøya's climate." height="113" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bjoern12.jpg" src="../../images/170/17047.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/170/17047.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Purple Saxifrage is well-suited to Bjørnøya's climate.</div>
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<p>There is little plant growth, consisting mostly of <a href="../../wp/m/Moss.htm" title="Moss">moss</a> and some <!--del_lnk--> scurvy grass, but no trees. Despite its name, Bjørnøya is not a permanent residence of <!--del_lnk--> polar bears although many arrive with the expanding pack ice in the winter. Occasionally, a bear will stay behind when the ice retreats in spring and stay over the summer months . There are also a few <!--del_lnk--> arctic foxes but no other indigenous land <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Ringed Seal and <!--del_lnk--> Bearded Seal live in the waters near Bjørnøya, but the formerly common <a href="../../wp/w/Walrus.htm" title="Walrus">walrus</a> has nowadays become a rare guest. The only land birds are the <!--del_lnk--> snow bunting and <!--del_lnk--> ptarmigan, but the island is very rich in <!--del_lnk--> guillemot, <!--del_lnk--> puffin, <!--del_lnk--> fulmar, <!--del_lnk--> kittiwake, <!--del_lnk--> glaucous gull and other <!--del_lnk--> seabirds that inhabit the vast cliffs in the south. The <!--del_lnk--> pink-footed goose and other species visit Bjørnøya during their seasonal migration between Svalbard's northern islands and mainland Europe. Bjørnøya's freshwater lakes are home to a population of <!--del_lnk--> arctic char.<p><a id="Environmental_problems" name="Environmental_problems"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Environmental problems</span></h2>
<p>Although there are currently no industrial activities on Bjørnøya or in its immediate vicinity, pollution by toxic and radioactive substances remains a threat to the island's virtually untouched nature. Exploration in the Barents sea and the recent development of the <!--del_lnk--> Snøhvit <!--del_lnk--> gas field off the northern coast of Norway shows that the ecologically sensitive polar and subpolar sea areas of the Norwegian and Barents Sea have come into the focus of the petrol and gas industry . The environmental organisation <!--del_lnk--> Bellona has criticised the Norwegian government for licensing these activities without sufficient studies of their ecological impact. Organic toxins, specifically <!--del_lnk--> PCBs, have been found in high concentrations in biological samples from Bjørnøya, especially in arctic char of the freshwater lake <i>Ellasjøen</i> . The <!--del_lnk--> Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets sank on <!--del_lnk--> 7 April 1989 some 100 <!--del_lnk--> nautical miles southwest of Bjørnøya . Leakage of radioactive material from the reactor and nuclear warheads currently poses a minor problem, but severe pollution of the surrounding waters remains possible .<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rn%C3%B8ya"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Black-backed Jackal</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Black-backed Jackal</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1806.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black-backed_jackal_pcb.jpg" src="../../images/18/1806.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carnivora<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Canidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Canis</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>C. mesomelas</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Canis mesomelas</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Schreber, <!--del_lnk--> 1775</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Black-backed jackal</b> is an <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">African</a> canine with a <a href="../../wp/f/Fox.htm" title="Fox">fox</a>-like appearance, tan fur, and a thick stripe of black and silver running down its back. They weigh anywhere from 15 to 30 pounds and are 15 to 30 centimeters at the shoulder. Males are usually larger than females.<p><a id="Behaviour" name="Behaviour"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Behaviour</span></h3>
<p>Black-backed Jackals usually live together in pairs that last for life, but often hunt in packs to catch larger prey such as <!--del_lnk--> impala and <a href="../../wp/a/Antelope.htm" title="Antelope">antelope</a>.They are very territorial; each pair dominates a permanent territory. They are mainly nocturnal, but Black-backed Jackals come out in the day occasionally. Their predators include <!--del_lnk--> leopards, <!--del_lnk--> wolves, and humans. They sometimes are killed for livestock predation or for their furs.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h3>
<p>These jackals adapt their diets to the available food sources in their habitat. They often <!--del_lnk--> scavenge, but they are also successful hunters. Their <!--del_lnk--> omnivorous diet includes, among other things: impala, antelopes, <!--del_lnk--> fur seal cubs, <a href="../../wp/g/Gazelle.htm" title="Gazelle">gazelle</a>, <!--del_lnk--> guinea fowl, insects, rodents, <!--del_lnk--> hares, lizards, snakes, fruits and berries, domestic animals such as <!--del_lnk--> sheep and <!--del_lnk--> goats, and carrion.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h3>
<p>Black-backed Jackals have a 2-month gestation period. Each litter consists of 3-6 pups, each of which weigh 200-250 grams. At 8 months pups are old enough to leave their parents and establish territories of their own.<p><a id="Habitat" name="Habitat"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Habitat</span></h3>
<p>Black-backed Jackals occur in a wide variety of African habitats, such as open woodlands, scrubland, <!--del_lnk--> savanna, and bush. They can easily adapt to different habitats. They are quite common throughout their range, and have a low risk of endangerment.<hr />
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-backed_Jackal"</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Africa', 'Fox', 'Antelope', 'Gazelle'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Black-footed Cat</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Black-footed Cat</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1807.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="91" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_footed_cat04_sm.jpg" src="../../images/18/1807.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1808.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_VU.svg" src="../../images/18/1808.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Vulnerable (VU)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carnivora<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Felidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Felis</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>F. nigripes</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Felis nigripes</b></i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Burchell, <!--del_lnk--> 1824</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Black-footed Cat</b> (<i>Felis nigripes</i>) is a small wild <!--del_lnk--> cat distributed over <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> and marginally into <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> habitat of this cat species are <!--del_lnk--> arid semi-desert and <!--del_lnk--> savannah, like the <!--del_lnk--> Karoo and parts of the <!--del_lnk--> highveld, but it is only sparsely distributued in <!--del_lnk--> Kalahari Desert. With an average mass of 1.6 kg it is one of the smallest living species of cats. Females have an average weight of 1.3 kg, males 1.9 kg (Sliwa 2004). The head-body length is 36-52 cm, plus 13-20 cm tail, shoulder height is 25 cm. The head appears oversized relative to the rest of the body. The <!--del_lnk--> fur is cinnamon buff to tawny or off-white with distinct solid blackish spots which are joined to bands behind the shoulders and that form rings around the legs and tail. As the name implies, the soles of the feet are black. Black-footed cats live <!--del_lnk--> solitarily, are <!--del_lnk--> active at night and thus rarely seen. In the daytime they hide in <!--del_lnk--> springhaas (<i>Pedetes capensis</i>) <!--del_lnk--> burrows, under rock slabs and shrubs, and within hollow termitaria.<p>Due to its small size the black-footed cats hunts mainly small prey species like <!--del_lnk--> rodents and small <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">birds</a>, but may also take white-quilled <!--del_lnk--> bustards and <!--del_lnk--> Cape hares, the latter heavier than themselves. <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">Insects</a> and <a href="../../wp/s/Spider.htm" title="Spider">spiders</a> provide only less than 1% of the prey mass consumed (Sliwa 1994, Sliwa 2006). Black-footed cats are shy animals, that seek refuge at the slightest disturbance. However, when cornered are known to defend themselves fiercely. Due to this habit and their courage they are called <b>Miershoopdier</b> or <b>Anthill Tiger</b> in parts of the south african Karro, although they rarely use termitaria for cover and for bearing their young. In the tales of the <!--del_lnk--> San (indigenous hunter-gatherers of the Kalahari) the black-footed cats is an extremeny brave animal, that attacks even <a href="../../wp/g/Giraffe.htm" title="Giraffe">Giraffes</a> by piercing their <!--del_lnk--> jugular.<p>Some authors state that they may be relatively common in parts of their range, however, mostly they are considered rare and they were recently listed as vulnereable in the <!--del_lnk--> IUCN Red List.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> litter consists usually of two kittens, but may vary from one to four young. A female may have up to two litters during the southern hemisphere spring, summer and autumn. Kittens become independent with about 5 months of age but may still remain within their mother's range.<p>Within one year a female covers an average range of 10 km², a territorial male 22 km². The range of an adult male overlaps the ranges of 1-4 female Black-footed cats (Sliwa 2004). The animals travel 8 km per night in search of prey. <!--del_lnk--> Energetic requirements are very high, with about 250g of prey / night consumed, which is about a sixth of their average body weight.<p>There are possibly two subspecies: the smaller and paler <i>Felis nigripes nigripes</i> in the northern parts of southern Africa, and <i>Felis nigripes thomasi</i>, slightly larger and of darker colour, distributed in the south-east of South Africa. Specimens with characteristics of both subspecies are found close to Kimberley, central South Africa, where these distinctions break down.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-footed_Cat"</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'South Africa', 'Namibia', 'Botswana', 'Zimbabwe', 'Bird', 'Insect', 'Spider', 'Giraffe'] |
Black-winged_Stilt | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Black-winged Stilt</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1809.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blackwingedstilt.jpg" src="../../images/18/1809.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Aves<br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Charadriiformes<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Recurvirostridae<br />
</td>
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Himantopus</i><br />
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>H. himantopus</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Himantopus himantopus</b></i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758)</small></td>
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<center>Subspecies</center>
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<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<ul>
<li><i>H. h. himantopus</i><li><i>H. h. leucocephalus</i><li><i>H. h. knudseni</i><li><i>H. h. mexicanus</i><li><i>H. h. melanurus</i></ul>
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<p>The <b>Black-winged Stilt</b>, <i>Himantopus himantopus</i>, is a large <a href="../../wp/w/Wader.htm" title="Wader">wader</a> in the <!--del_lnk--> avocet and <!--del_lnk--> stilt family, Recurvirostridae.<p>Adults are 33-36 cm long. They have long pink legs, a long thin black bill and are mainly white with a dark cap and a dark back.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> taxonomy of this bird is still somewhat contentious: some sources believe that there are as many as five distinct species; others consider some or all of these to be subspecies. The five forms are:<ul>
<li>nominate <i>Himantopus himantopus himantopus</i>, which occurs in most of the warmer parts of southern and southeastern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>, southern <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and north <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<li>the <!--del_lnk--> Black-necked Stilt, which breeds from the US to northern <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South American</a> has a dark head with a white spot over the eye. It is recorded as <i>Himantopus mexicanus</i> in the <!--del_lnk--> Sibley-Monroe checklist.<li>the southern <a href="../../wp/s/South_America.htm" title="South America">South America</a> <i>melanurus</i> is larger than <i>mexicanus</i> and often has a white crown.<li>the rare and endangered <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian <i>knudseni</i> has more extensive black on its neck than the American forms.<li><i>leucocephalus</i> of southeastern <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and Australia has a white head.</ul>
<p>The breeding habitat of all forms is marshes, shallow lakes and ponds. The nest site is a bare spot on the ground near water. These birds often nest in small groups, sometimes with <!--del_lnk--> avocets.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1810.jpg.htm" title="The Black-necked Stilt."><img alt="The Black-necked Stilt." height="187" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black-necked_Stilt.jpg" src="../../images/18/1810.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1810.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Black-necked Stilt.</div>
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<p>Some populations are <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migratory</a> and move to the ocean coasts in winter.<p>These birds pick up their food from sand or water. They mainly eat insects and crustaceans.<p>
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</script><a id="Threats_and_conservation" name="Threats_and_conservation"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Threats and conservation</span></h2>
<p>The <b>Hawaiian Stilt</b> or <b>ae`o</b> is endangered due to habitat loss. It is the only <!--del_lnk--> shorebird to breed in the <!--del_lnk--> Hawaiian Islands.<p>The Black-winged Stilt is one of the species to which the <i>Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds</i> (<!--del_lnk--> AEWA) applies.<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 39px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1811.jpg.htm" title="Image:Black.wing.stilts.1.jpg"><img alt="" height="68" src="../../images/18/1811.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Wading in a small fresh-water lake in an industrial area in <a href="../../wp/p/Perth%252C_Western_Australia.htm" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a>, Western Australia.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 39px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1812.jpg.htm" title="Image:Black.wing.stilts.4.jpg"><img alt="" height="68" src="../../images/18/1812.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Wading in a small fresh-water lake in an industrial area in <a href="../../wp/p/Perth%252C_Western_Australia.htm" title="Perth, Western Australia">Perth</a>, Western Australia.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1813.jpg.htm" title="Image:Black-winged Stilt.jpg"><img alt="" height="119" src="../../images/18/1813.jpg" width="85" /></a></div>
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<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-winged_Stilt"</div>
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Black_Death | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.History.General_history.htm">General history</a></h3>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1758.jpg.htm" title="Illustration of the Black Death from the Toggenburg Bible (1411)."><img alt="Illustration of the Black Death from the Toggenburg Bible (1411)." height="234" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_Death.jpg" src="../../images/17/1758.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1758.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Illustration of the Black Death from the <!--del_lnk--> Toggenburg Bible (<!--del_lnk--> 1411).</div>
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<p>The <b>Black Death</b>, also known as the <b>Black Plague</b>, was a devastating <!--del_lnk--> pandemic that first struck <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> in the mid-late-14th century (<!--del_lnk--> 1347–<!--del_lnk--> 1350), killing between a third and two-thirds of <!--del_lnk--> Europe's population. Almost simultaneous <!--del_lnk--> epidemics occurred across large portions of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> and the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> during the same period, indicating that the European outbreak was actually part of a multi-regional pandemic. Including Middle Eastern lands, India and China, the Black Death killed at least 75 million people. The same disease is thought to have returned to Europe every generation with varying degrees of <!--del_lnk--> intensity and fatality until the 1700s. Notable later outbreaks include the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Plague of 1629-1631, the <!--del_lnk--> Great Plague of London (1665–1666), the <!--del_lnk--> Great Plague of Vienna (1679), the <!--del_lnk--> Great Plague of Marseilles in 1720–1722 and the 1771 plague in <a href="../../wp/m/Moscow.htm" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>. There is some controversy over the identity of the disease, but in its virulent form the disease appears to have disappeared from Europe in the 18th century. Bubonic plague survives in other parts of the world (Central and Oriental Africa, Madagascar, Asia, some parts of South America) and was responsible for a pandemic in the early 20th century.<p>The Black Death had a drastic effect on Europe's population, irrevocably changing Europe's social structure. It was a serious blow to the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Catholic_Church.htm" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, Europe's predominant religious institution at the time, and resulted in widespread persecution of minorities such as Jews, Muslims, foreigners, beggars and <!--del_lnk--> lepers. The uncertainty of daily survival created a general mood of <!--del_lnk--> morbidity influencing people to live for the moment, as illustrated by <!--del_lnk--> Giovanni Boccaccio in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Decameron</i> (1353).<p>The initial fourteenth-century European event was called the "Great Mortality" by contemporary writers and, with later outbreaks, became known as the 'Black Death'. It has been popularly thought that the name came from a striking symptom of the disease, called <!--del_lnk--> acral necrosis, in which sufferers' skin would blacken due to subdermal haemorrhages. However, the term refers in fact to the figurative sense of "black" (glum, lugubrious or dreadful). Historical records have convinced most scientists that the Black Death was an outbreak of <!--del_lnk--> bubonic plague, caused by the <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacterium">bacterium</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Yersinia pestis</i> and spread by <!--del_lnk--> fleas with the help of animals like the <!--del_lnk--> black rat (<i>Rattus rattus</i>), however, there are some scientists who question this.<p>
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</script><a id="Pattern_of_the_pandemic" name="Pattern_of_the_pandemic"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Pattern of the pandemic</span></h2>
<p>The plague disease, caused by <i><!--del_lnk--> Yersinia pestis</i>, is endemic in populations of ground <!--del_lnk--> rodents in central Asia, but it is not entirely clear where the fourteenth-century pandemic started. The most popular theory places the first cases in the <!--del_lnk--> steppes of <!--del_lnk--> Central Asia, though some speculate that it originated around northern <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. From there, supposedly, it was carried east and west by traders and <!--del_lnk--> Mongol armies along the <!--del_lnk--> Silk Road, and was first exposed to Europe at the trading city of <!--del_lnk--> Caffa in the Crimea from which it spread to <!--del_lnk--> Sicily and on to the rest of Europe.<p>Whether or not this theory is accurate, it is clear that several pre-existing conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death. A devastating civil war in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> between the established Chinese population and the Mongol hordes raged between 1205 and 1353. This war disrupted farming and trading patterns, and led to episodes of widespread famine. A so-called "<!--del_lnk--> Little Ice Age" had begun at the end of the thirteenth century. The disastrous weather reached a peak in the first half of the fourteenth century with severe results worldwide.<p>In the years <!--del_lnk--> 1315 to <!--del_lnk--> 1322 a catastrophic famine, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Great Famine, struck all of <!--del_lnk--> Northern Europe. Food shortages and sky-rocketing prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. <a href="../../wp/w/Wheat.htm" title="Wheat">Wheat</a>, <a href="../../wp/o/Oat.htm" title="Oat">oats</a>, <!--del_lnk--> hay and consequently <!--del_lnk--> livestock were all in short supply; and their scarcity resulted in <a href="../../wp/h/Hunger.htm" title="Hunger">hunger</a> and <!--del_lnk--> malnutrition. The result was a mounting human vulnerability to disease due to weakened <!--del_lnk--> immune systems. The European <!--del_lnk--> economy entered a <!--del_lnk--> vicious circle in which hunger and chronic, low-level debilitating disease reduced the <!--del_lnk--> productivity of labourers, and so the grain <!--del_lnk--> output suffered, causing the grain prices to increase. The famine was self-perpetuating, impacting life in places like <a href="../../wp/f/Flanders.htm" title="Flanders">Flanders</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Burgundy as much as the Black Death was later to impact all of Europe.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> typhoid epidemic was to be a predictor of the coming disaster. Many thousands died in populated urban centres, most significantly <!--del_lnk--> Ypres. In <!--del_lnk--> 1318 a pestilence of unknown origin, sometimes identified as <!--del_lnk--> anthrax, hit the animals of Europe. The disease targeted <!--del_lnk--> sheep and <a href="../../wp/c/Cattle.htm" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, further reducing the food supply and <!--del_lnk--> income of the <!--del_lnk--> peasantry and putting another strain on the economy. The increasingly international nature of the European economies meant that the <!--del_lnk--> depression was felt across <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Due to pestilence, the failure of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> wool <!--del_lnk--> exports led to the destruction of the Flemish weaving industry. Unemployment bred crime and poverty.<p><a id="Asian_outbreak" name="Asian_outbreak"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Asian outbreak</span></h3>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> Central Asian scenario agrees with the first reports of outbreaks in China in the early 1330s. The plague struck the Chinese province of <!--del_lnk--> Hubei in 1334. During 1353–1354, more widespread disaster occurred. Chinese accounts of this wave of the disease record a spread to eight distinct areas: Hubei, Jiangxi, Shanxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Henan and Suiyuan (a historical Chinese province that now forms part of Hebei and Inner Mongolia), throughout the Mongol and Chinese empires. Historian <!--del_lnk--> William McNeill noted that voluminous Chinese records on disease and social disruption survive from this period, but no one has studied these sources in depth.<p>It is probable that the Mongols and merchant caravans inadvertently brought the plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The plague was reported in the trading cities of <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople and <!--del_lnk--> Trebizond in <!--del_lnk--> 1347. In that same year, the <!--del_lnk--> Genoese possession of <!--del_lnk--> Caffa, a great trade emporium on the <!--del_lnk--> Crimean peninsula, came under siege by an army of <!--del_lnk--> Mongol warriors under the command of <!--del_lnk--> Janibeg, backed by <!--del_lnk--> Venetian forces. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they might have decided to use the infected corpses as a <!--del_lnk--> biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, from whence it rapidly spread. According to accounts, so many died in Caffa that the survivors had little time to bury them and bodies were stacked like cords of firewood against the city walls.<p><a id="European_outbreak" name="European_outbreak"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">European outbreak</span></h3>
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<div style="width:452px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1759.png.htm" title="The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes."><img alt="The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes." height="472" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Bubonic_plague_map_2.png" src="../../images/17/1759.png" width="450" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1759.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes.</div>
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<p>In October 1347, a fleet of Genovese trading ships fleeing Caffa reached the port of <!--del_lnk--> Messina. By the time the fleet reached Messina, all the crew members were either infected or dead. It is presumed that the ships also carried infected rats and/or fleas. Some ships were found grounded on shorelines, with no one aboard remaining alive. Looting of these lost ships also helped spread the disease. From there, the plague spread to Genoa and <!--del_lnk--> Venice by the turn of <!--del_lnk--> 1347–<!--del_lnk--> 1348.<p>From <a href="../../wp/i/Italy.htm" title="Italy">Italy</a> the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> and <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> by June <!--del_lnk--> 1348, then turned and spread east through <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Scandinavia from <!--del_lnk--> 1348 to <!--del_lnk--> 1350, and finally to north-western <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1351; however, the plague largely spared some parts of Europe, including the <!--del_lnk--> Kingdom of Poland and parts of <a href="../../wp/b/Belgium.htm" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> and <!--del_lnk--> the Netherlands.<p><a id="Middle_Eastern_outbreak" name="Middle_Eastern_outbreak"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Middle Eastern outbreak</span></h3>
<p>The plague struck various countries in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. The disease first entered the region from southern Russia. By autumn <!--del_lnk--> 1347, the plague reached <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria in <a href="../../wp/e/Egypt.htm" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, probably through the port's trade with <!--del_lnk--> Constantinople and ports on the <a href="../../wp/b/Black_Sea.htm" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. During 1348, the disease travelled eastward to <!--del_lnk--> Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in <a href="../../wp/l/Lebanon.htm" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Palestine, including <!--del_lnk--> Asqalan, <!--del_lnk--> Acre, <a href="../../wp/j/Jerusalem.htm" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Sidon, <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Homs, and <!--del_lnk--> Aleppo. In <!--del_lnk--> 1348–49, the disease reached <!--del_lnk--> Antioch. The city's residents fled to the north, most of them dying during the journey, but the infection had been spread to the people of Asia Minor.<p><a href="../../wp/m/Mecca.htm" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> became infected in <!--del_lnk--> 1349. The people of Mecca blamed the disease on non-believers entering the city, but it is more likely to have arrived with Muslim pilgrims from surrounding infected areas. During the same year, records show the city of <!--del_lnk--> Mawsil (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease. In <!--del_lnk--> 1351, Yemen experienced an outbreak of the plague. This coincided with the return of King Mujahid of <a href="../../wp/y/Yemen.htm" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> from imprisonment in <a href="../../wp/c/Cairo.htm" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>. His party may have brought the disease with them from Egypt.<p><a id="Recurrence" name="Recurrence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Recurrence</span></h3>
<p>The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, and although the bubonic plague still exists with isolated cases today, the <!--del_lnk--> Great Plague of London in <!--del_lnk--> 1665–<!--del_lnk--> 1666 is generally recognized as one of the last major outbreaks. The <!--del_lnk--> Great Fire of London in <!--del_lnk--> 1666 may have killed off any remaining plague bearing rats and fleas, which led to a decline in the plague. The destruction of <!--del_lnk--> black rats in the Great Fire may also have contributed to the ascendancy of <!--del_lnk--> brown rats in England. According to the bubonic plague theory, one possible explanation for the disappearance of plague from Europe may be that the <!--del_lnk--> black rat (<i>Rattus rattus</i>) <!--del_lnk--> infection reservoir and its disease vector was subsequently displaced and succeeded by the bigger <!--del_lnk--> Norwegian, or brown, rat (<i>Rattus norvegicus</i>), which is not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large rat die-offs (see Appleby and Slack references below).<p>Late outbreaks in central Europe include the <!--del_lnk--> Italian Plague of 1629-1631, which is associated with troop movements during the <!--del_lnk--> Thirty Years' War, and the <!--del_lnk--> Great Plague of Vienna in 1679, which may have been due to a reintroduction of the plague from eastern trading ports.<p><a id="Causes" name="Causes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Causes</span></h2>
<p><a id="Bubonic_plague_theory" name="Bubonic_plague_theory"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Bubonic plague theory</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1760.jpg.htm" title="Yersinia pestis seen at 2000x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths."><img alt="Yersinia pestis seen at 2000x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths." height="178" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg" src="../../images/17/1760.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1760.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><!--del_lnk--> Yersinia pestis</i> seen at 2000x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths.</div>
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<p>Bubonic and septicaemic plague are transmitted by direct contact with <!--del_lnk--> fleas. The bacteria multiply inside a flea, blocking its stomach and causing it to become very hungry. The flea then voraciously bites a host and continues to feed because it is unable to satisfy its hunger. During the feeding process, infected blood carrying the plague bacteria flows from the fleas' stomachs into the open wound. The plague bacteria then has a new host, and the flea eventually dies from starvation.<p>The human <!--del_lnk--> pneumonic plague has a different form of transmission. It is transmitted through bacteria in droplets of saliva coughed up by persons with bloodstream infection (sepsis) or pneumonia, which may have started as the bubonic form of disease. The airborne bacteria may be inhaled by a nearby susceptible person, and a new infection starts directly in the lungs or throat of the other, bypassing the bubonic form of disease.<p>The ecology of <!--del_lnk--> Yersinia pestis in soil, rodent and (possibly & importantly) human ectoparasites are reviewed and summarized by Michel Drancourt in a model of sporadic, limited and large plague outbreaks <!--del_lnk--> . Modelling of epizootic plague observed in prairie dogs suggests that occasional reservoirs of infection such as an infectious carcass, rather than 'blocked fleas' are a better explanation for the observed epizootic behaviour of the disease in nature <!--del_lnk--> .<p>An interesting hypothesis about the appearance, spread and especially disappearance of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The <!--del_lnk--> black rat (<i>Rattus rattus</i>) was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger Norwegian or <!--del_lnk--> brown rat (<i>Rattus norvegicus</i>). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology (see Appleby and Slack, secondary references below). The dynamic complexities of rat ecology, <!--del_lnk--> herd immunity in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its (even more) unexplained disappearance.<p><a id="Signs_and_symptoms" name="Signs_and_symptoms"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Signs and symptoms</span></h4>
<p>The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. Bubonic plague refers to the painful lymph node swellings called buboes. The septicaemic plague is a form of blood poisoning, and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that forms a first attack on the lungs. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck and armpits, which ooze pus and blood. Victims underwent damage to the skin and underlying tissue until they were covered in dark blotches. This symptom is called acral necrosis. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When the plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms including <!--del_lnk--> fever of 38 - 41 °<!--del_lnk--> C (101-105 <!--del_lnk--> °F), <!--del_lnk--> headaches, aching joints, <!--del_lnk--> nausea and <!--del_lnk--> vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. The pneumonic plague was the second most commonly seen form during the Black Death, with a mortality rate of ninety to ninety-five percent. Symptoms included slimy <!--del_lnk--> sputum tinted with blood. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red. Septicaemic plague was the most rare of the three forms, with mortality close to one hundred percent. Symptoms were high fevers and skin turning deep shades of purple due to DIC (<!--del_lnk--> Disseminated intravascular coagulation).<p><a id="Alternative_explanations" name="Alternative_explanations"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Alternative explanations</span></h3>
<p>Recent scientific and historical investigations have led some researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague. For example, in 2000, Gunnar Karlsson (<i>Iceland's 1100 Years: The History of a Marginal Society</i>) pointed out that the Black Death killed between half and two-thirds of the population of <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>, although there were no rats in Iceland at this time. Rats were accidentally introduced in the nineteenth century, and have never spread beyond a small number of urban areas attached to seaports. In the fourteenth century there were no urban settlements in Iceland. Iceland was unaffected by the later plagues which are known to have been spread by rats.<p>In addition, it was previously argued that tooth pulp tissue from a fourteenth-century plague <!--del_lnk--> cemetery in <!--del_lnk--> Montpellier tested positive for molecules associated with <i><!--del_lnk--> Y. pestis</i>. However, such a finding was never confirmed in any other cemetery, nor were any DNA samples recovered. In September <!--del_lnk--> 2003, a team of researchers from <!--del_lnk--> Oxford University tested 121 teeth from sixty-six skeletons found in fourteenth-century mass graves. The remains showed no genetic trace of <i>Y. pestis</i>, and the researchers suspect that the Montpellier study was flawed.<p>In 1984, <!--del_lnk--> Graham Twigg published <i>The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal</i>, where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of <i><!--del_lnk--> Rattus rattus</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Rattus norvegicus</i>, and the common fleas <i><!--del_lnk--> Xenopsylla cheopis</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Pulex irritans</i> with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the <i>R. rattus</i> is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concludes that it would have been nearly impossible for <i><!--del_lnk--> Y. pestis</i> to have been the causative agent of the beginning of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across all of Europe. Twigg also shows that the common theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not hold up. He proposes, based on a re-examination of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary <!--del_lnk--> anthrax caused by <i><!--del_lnk--> Bacillus anthracis</i>.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2001, <!--del_lnk--> epidemiologists <!--del_lnk--> Susan Scott and <!--del_lnk--> Christopher Duncan from <!--del_lnk--> Liverpool University proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an <!--del_lnk--> Ebola-like <!--del_lnk--> virus, not a bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague spread much faster and the incubation period was much longer than other confirmed <i><!--del_lnk--> Yersinia pestis</i> plagues. A longer period of incubation will allow carriers of the infection to travel farther and infect more people than a shorter one. When the primary <!--del_lnk--> vector is humans, as opposed to birds, this is of great importance. Studies of English church records indicate an unusually long incubation period in excess of thirty days, which could account for the rapid spread, topping at 5 km/day. The plague also appeared in areas of Europe where rats were uncommon like <a href="../../wp/i/Iceland.htm" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>. Epidemiological studies suggest the disease was transferred between humans (which happens rarely with <i>Yersinia pestis</i> and very rarely for <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>), and some <!--del_lnk--> genes that determine immunity to Ebola-like viruses are much more widespread in <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> than in other parts of the world. Their research and findings are thoroughly documented in <i>Return of the Black Death: The World's Greatest Serial Killer.</i> More recently the researchers have published computer modeling (Journal of Medical Genetics: March 2005) demonstrating how the Black Death has made around 10% of Europeans resistant to HIV.<p>In a similar vein, historian <!--del_lnk--> Norman F. Cantor, in his <!--del_lnk--> 2001 book <i>In the Wake of the Plague</i>, suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of <!--del_lnk--> anthrax, a cattle <!--del_lnk--> murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including: reported disease symptoms not in keeping with the known effects of either bubonic or <!--del_lnk--> pneumonic plague, the discovery of anthrax spores in a <!--del_lnk--> plague pit in <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, and the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. It is notable that the means of infection varied widely, from human-to-human contact as in Iceland (rare for plague and cutaneous <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>) to infection in the absence of living or recently-dead humans, as in Sicily (which speaks against most viruses). Also, diseases with similar symptoms were generally not distinguished between in that period (see <i>murrain</i> above), at least not in the Christian world; Chinese and Muslim medical records can be expected to yield better information which however only pertains to the specific disease(s) which affected these areas. <i>See <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-06-001434-2</i><p><a id="Counter-arguments" name="Counter-arguments"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Counter-arguments</span></h4>
<p>The majority of historians support the theory that the bubonic plague caused the black death. Nevertheless, counterarguments have developed.<p>The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to respiratory droplet transmission, and low levels of immunity in the European population at that period. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as <a href="../../wp/s/Smallpox.htm" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> transmitted by aerosol amongst <!--del_lnk--> Native Americans, show that the low levels of inherited adaptation to the disease cause the first epidemic to spread faster and to be far more virulent than later epidemics among the descendants of survivors. Moreover, the plague returned again and again and was regarded as the same disease through succeeding centuries into modern times when the <i><!--del_lnk--> Yersinia</i> bacterium was identified.<p><a id="Consequences" name="Consequences"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Consequences</span></h2>
<p><a id="Depopulation" name="Depopulation"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Depopulation</span></h3>
<p>Information about the <!--del_lnk--> death toll varies widely by area and from source to source.<p><a id="Asia" name="Asia"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Asia</span></h4>
<p>Estimates of the demographic impact of the plague in Asia are based on both population figures during this time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centres. The initial outbreak of plague in the <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">Chinese</a> <!--del_lnk--> province of <!--del_lnk--> Hubei in 1334 claimed up to ninety percent of the population, an estimated five million people. During 1353–54, outbreaks in eight distinct areas throughout the <a href="../../wp/m/Mongol_Empire.htm" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol/Chinese empires</a> may have caused the death of two-thirds of China's population, often yielding an estimate of twenty-five million deaths. Japan had no outbreak of plague most likely due to the lack of host rodents.<p><a id="Europe_and_Middle_East" name="Europe_and_Middle_East"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Europe and Middle East</span></h4>
<p>It is estimated that between one-third and two-thirds of the European population died from the outbreak between 1348 and 1350. Contemporary observers estimated the toll to be one-third (e.g. <!--del_lnk--> Froissart), but modern estimates range from one-half to two-thirds of the population. As many as 25% of all villages were depopulated, mostly the smaller communities, as the few survivors fled to larger towns and cities . The Black Death hit the <a href="../../wp/c/Culture.htm" title="Culture">culture</a> of towns and cities disproportionately hard, although rural areas (where 90% of the population lived) were also significantly affected. A few rural areas, such as <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Eastern Poland</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lithuania.htm" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, had such low populations and were so isolated that the plague made little progress. Parts of <a href="../../wp/h/Hungary.htm" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> and, in modern Belgium, the <!--del_lnk--> Brabant region, <!--del_lnk--> Hainaut and <!--del_lnk--> Limbourg, as well as <!--del_lnk--> Santiago de Compostella, were unaffected for unknown reasons (some historians have assumed that the presence of sanguine groups in the local population helped them resist the disease, although these regions would be touched by the second plague burst in 1360-1363 and later during the numerous resurgences of the plague). Other areas which escaped the plague were isolated mountainous regions (e.g. the <!--del_lnk--> Pyrenees). Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas and rats, and subject to diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. According to journalist John Kelly, "[w]oefully inadequate sanitation made medieval urban Europe so disease-ridden, no city of any size could maintain its population without a constant influx of immigrants from the countryside." (p. 68) The influx of new citizens facilitated the movement of the plague between communities, and contributed to the longevity of the plague within larger communities.<p>In Italy, <!--del_lnk--> Florence's population passed from 110,000 or 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. Between 60 to 70% of <a href="../../wp/h/Hamburg.htm" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> or <!--del_lnk--> Bremen's population died. In <!--del_lnk--> Provence, <!--del_lnk--> Dauphiné or <!--del_lnk--> Normandy, historians observe a decrease of 60% of fiscal hearths. In some regions, two thirds of the population was annihilated. In the town of <!--del_lnk--> Givry, in the <!--del_lnk--> Bourgogne region in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, the friar, who used to note 28 to 29 funerals a year, recorded 649 deaths in 1348, half of them in September. About half of <!--del_lnk--> Perpignan's population died in several months (only two of the eight physicians survived the plague). England lost 70% of its population, which passed from 7 million to 2 million in 1400.<p>All social classes were affected, although the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were most vulnerable. <!--del_lnk--> Alfonso XI of Castile was the only royal victim of the plague, but <!--del_lnk--> Peter IV of Aragon lost his wife, his daughter and a niece in six months. The <!--del_lnk--> Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the <!--del_lnk--> kingdom of France, <!--del_lnk--> Joan of Navarre, daughter of <!--del_lnk--> Louis X <i>le Hutin</i> and of <!--del_lnk--> Margaret of Burgundy, was killed by the plague, as well as <!--del_lnk--> Bonne of Luxembourg, the wife of the future <!--del_lnk--> John II of France.<p>Furthermore, resurgences of the plague in later years must also be counted: in 1360-62 (the "little mortality"), in 1366-1369, 1374-1375, 1400, 1407, etc. The plague was not eradicated until the 19th century.<p>The precise demographic impact of the disease in the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_East.htm" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> is very difficult to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Palestine and <a href="../../wp/s/Syria.htm" title="Syria">Syria</a>. Many surviving rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in <!--del_lnk--> Gaza left an estimated 10,000 people dead, while <!--del_lnk--> Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 a day during the same year. In <a href="../../wp/d/Damascus.htm" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between twenty-five and thirty-eight percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the time the epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars such as John Fields of <!--del_lnk--> Trinity College in Dublin believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was less than one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.<p><a id="Socio-economic_effects" name="Socio-economic_effects"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Socio-economic effects</span></h3>
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<div style="width:272px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1761.jpg.htm" title="Monks, disfigured by the plague, being blessed by a priest. England, 1360–75."><img alt="Monks, disfigured by the plague, being blessed by a priest. England, 1360–75." height="302" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Plague_victims_blessed_by_priest.jpg" src="../../images/17/1761.jpg" width="270" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1761.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Monks, disfigured by the plague, being blessed by a priest. England, <!--del_lnk--> 1360–<!--del_lnk--> 75.</div>
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<p>The <a href="../../wp/g/Government.htm" title="Government">governments</a> of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. Most <!--del_lnk--> monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned <!--del_lnk--> black market <!--del_lnk--> speculators, set <!--del_lnk--> price controls on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable, and at worst they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad: from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by <!--del_lnk--> pirates or <!--del_lnk--> looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, had been at war, using up much of their <!--del_lnk--> treasury and exacerbating <!--del_lnk--> inflation. In <!--del_lnk--> 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the <a href="../../wp/h/Hundred_Years%2527_War.htm" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, further depleting their treasuries, population, and <a href="../../wp/i/Infrastructure.htm" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe for tragedy.<p>The plague did more than just devastate the medieval population; it caused a substantial change in economy and society in all areas of the world. Economic historians like <!--del_lnk--> Fernand Braudel have concluded that Black Death exacerbated a <!--del_lnk--> recession in the European economy that had been under way since the beginning of the century. As a consequence, social and economic change greatly accelerated during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The church's power was weakened, and in some cases, the social roles it had played were replaced by secular ones. Also the plague led to <!--del_lnk--> peasant uprisings in many parts of Europe, such as France (the <!--del_lnk--> Jacquerie rebellion), Italy (the <!--del_lnk--> Ciompi rebellion, which swept the city of <!--del_lnk--> Florence), and in England (the <a href="../../wp/e/English_peasants%2527_revolt_of_1381.htm" title="English Peasant Revolt">English Peasant Revolt</a>).<p>Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30% to 50% of the population could have resulted in higher wages and more available land and food for peasants because of less competition for resources. However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels in fact continued to decline until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See <!--del_lnk--> Medieval demography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve.<p>The great population loss brought economic changes based on increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. In Western Europe, the sudden scarcity of cheap labour provided an incentive for landlords to compete for peasants with wages and freedoms, an innovation that, some argue, represents the roots of <a href="../../wp/c/Capitalism.htm" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, and the resulting social upheaval <i>caused</i> the <a href="../../wp/r/Renaissance.htm" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and even <!--del_lnk--> Reformation. In many ways the Black Death improved the situation of surviving peasants. In Western Europe, because of the shortage of labour they were in more demand and had more power, and because of the reduced population, there was more fertile land available; however, the benefits would not be fully realized until 1470, nearly 120 years later, when overall population levels finally began to rise again.<p>Social mobility as result of the Black Death has been postulated as most likely cause of the <!--del_lnk--> Great Vowel Shift, which is the principal reason why the spelling system in English today no longer reflects its pronunciation.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightly to the land than ever before through <!--del_lnk--> serfdom. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the Black Death and so peasant revolts were less common in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, not occurring in the east until the sixteenth through nineteenth centuries. Since it is believed to have in part caused the social upheavals of fourteenth- and fifteenth-century Western Europe, some see the Black Death as a factor in the Renaissance and even the Reformation in Western Europe. Therefore, historians have cited the smaller impact of the plague as a contributing factor in Eastern Europe's <i>failure</i> to experience either of these movements on a similar scale. Extrapolating from this, the Black Death may be seen as partly responsible for Eastern Europe's considerable lag in scientific and philosophical advances as well as in the move to liberalise government by restricting the power of the monarch and aristocracy. A common example is that England is seen to have effectively ended <!--del_lnk--> serfdom by <!--del_lnk--> 1550 while moving towards more <!--del_lnk--> representative government; meanwhile, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a> did not abolish serfdom until an autocratic <!--del_lnk--> tsar decreed so in 1861.<p>On top of all this, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the average peasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century. However, the upper class often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting laws which barred the peasantry from certain actions or material goods. A good example of this is the <!--del_lnk--> Sumptuary laws which were passed throughout Europe which regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> 1381 <a href="../../wp/e/English_peasants%2527_revolt_of_1381.htm" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a>.<p><a id="Persecutions" name="Persecutions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Persecutions</span></h3>
<p>Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of Black Death. This spelled trouble for minority populations of all sorts, as Christians targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims and Muslims", and lepers, thinking that they were somehow to blame for the crisis.<p><!--del_lnk--> Lepers, and other individuals with skin diseases such as <!--del_lnk--> acne or <!--del_lnk--> psoriasis, were singled out and exterminated throughout Europe. Anyone with leprosy was believed to show an outward sign of a defect of the soul.<p>Traditionally a lightning rod for Christian anger and unease, Jews were charged with having provoked the Plague through their unbelief and sinfulness. Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices between Jews and Christians also led to persecution. Because Jews had a religious obligation to be clean, they did not use water from public wells. Thus Jews were suspected of causing the plague by deliberately poisoning wells. Typically, comparatively fewer Jews died from the Black Death, in part due to <!--del_lnk--> rabbinical laws that promoted habits that were generally cleaner than that of a typical medieval villager. Jews were also socially isolated, often living in Jewish ghettos. This isolation may have caused differences in mortality rates which raised suspicions of people who had no concept of bacterial transmission.<p>Christian mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, sixty major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred. This persecution reflected more than religious hatred. In many places, attacking Jews was a way to criticize the monarchs who protected them (Jews were under the protection of the king, and often called the "royal treasure"), and monarchic fiscal policies, which were often administered by Jews. An important legacy of the Black Death was to cause the eastward movement of what was left of north European Jewry to Poland and Russia, where it remained until the twentieth century.<p><a id="Religion" name="Religion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religion</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1762.png.htm" title="Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone for sins. The movement became popular after general disillusionment with the church's reaction to the Black Death."><img alt="Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone for sins. The movement became popular after general disillusionment with the church's reaction to the Black Death." height="143" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Flagellants.png" src="../../images/17/1762.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1762.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone for sins. The movement became popular after general disillusionment with the church's reaction to the Black Death.</div>
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<p>The Black Death led to cynicism toward religious officials who could not keep their promises of curing plague victims and banishing the disease. No one, the Church included, was able to cure or accurately explain the reasons for the plague outbreaks. One theory of transmission was that it spread through air, and was referred to as <i><!--del_lnk--> miasma</i>, or 'bad air'. This increased doubt in the <!--del_lnk--> clergy's abilities. Extreme alienation with the Church culminated in either support for different religious groups such as the <!--del_lnk--> flagellants, which grew tremendously during the opening years of the Black Death, or to an increase in interest for more secular alternatives to problems facing European society and an increase of secular <!--del_lnk--> politicians.<p>The Black Death hit the <!--del_lnk--> monasteries very hard because of their close quarters with the sick, who had come to the monasteries seeking aid, so that there was a severe shortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle. This resulted in a mass influx of new clergy members, most of whom did not share the life-long convictions and experiences of the veterans they replaced. This resulted in abuses by the clergy in years afterwards and a further deterioration of the position of the Church in the eyes of the people.<p><a id="Other_effects" name="Other_effects"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other effects</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1763.png.htm" title="Inspired by Black Death, Danse Macabre is an allegory on the universality of death and a common painting motif in late-medieval periods."><img alt="Inspired by Black Death, Danse Macabre is an allegory on the universality of death and a common painting motif in late-medieval periods." height="165" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Holbein-death.png" src="../../images/17/1763.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1763.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Inspired by Black Death, <i><!--del_lnk--> Danse Macabre</i> is an allegory on the universality of death and a common painting motif in late-medieval periods.</div>
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<p>After 1350, <!--del_lnk--> European culture in general turned very morbid. The general mood was one of pessimism, and the art turned dark with representations of death. The <i><!--del_lnk--> Dies Irae</i> was created in this period as was the popular poem <i><!--del_lnk--> La Danse Macabre</i> and the instructive and popular <i><a href="../../wp/a/Ars_moriendi.htm" title="Ars moriendi">Ars moriendi</a></i> ("the art of dying"). See also <i><!--del_lnk--> The Decameron</i>.<p>The practice of <a href="../../wp/a/Alchemy.htm" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> as <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, previously considered the norm for most doctors, slowly began to wane as the citizenry began to realize that it seldom affected the progress of the epidemic and that some of the potions and "cures" used by many alchemists only served to worsen the condition of the sick. <!--del_lnk--> Liquor (distilled alcohol), originally made by alchemists, was commonly applied as a remedy for the Black Death, and, as a result, the consumption of liquor in Europe rose dramatically after the plague.<p>In <!--del_lnk--> 2006 a scientific study by Dr <!--del_lnk--> Thomas van Hoof of <!--del_lnk--> Utrecht University suggests that the Black Death contributed to the <!--del_lnk--> Little Ice Age. Pollen and leaf data, collected from lake-bed sediments in the southeast <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, supports the idea that millions of <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">trees</a> sprang up on abandoned <!--del_lnk--> farmland soaking up <a href="../../wp/c/Carbon_dioxide.htm" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from the <!--del_lnk--> atmosphere and thus cooling the planet. The line of research is new and there are questions and further research is needed, but it does pose an interesting theory that man-caused climate change is older than current theories suggest. <!--del_lnk--> <p>A theory put forth by Stephen O'Brien says the Black Death is likely responsible, through <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, for the high frequency of the <!--del_lnk--> CCR5-Δ32 genetic defect in people of European descent. The gene affects T cell function and provides protection against HIV, smallpox, and possibly plague <!--del_lnk--> , though for the latter, no explanation as to how it would do that exists.<p><a id="Black_Death_in_literature" name="Black_Death_in_literature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Black Death in literature</span></h2>
<p><a id="Contemporary" name="Contemporary"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Contemporary</span></h3>
<p>The spectre of the Black Death dominated art and literature throughout the generation that experienced it. Much of the most useful manifestations of the Black Death in literature, to historians, comes from the accounts of its chroniclers, often the only real way to get a sense of the horror of living through a disaster on such a scale. A few were famous writers, philosophers and rulers (like <!--del_lnk--> Boccaccio and <!--del_lnk--> Petrarch), but most were quite ordinary people who happened to work in a job requiring literacy, a rare talent. For example, Agnolo di Tura, of <!--del_lnk--> Siena, records his experience:<blockquote>
<p>Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. And so they died. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died by the hundreds both day and night... And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug ... And I, Agnolo di Tura, called the Fat, buried my five children with my own hands. And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city. There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death. And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world. This situation continued [from May] until September.</blockquote>
<p>The scene Di Tura describes is repeated over and over again all across Europe. In <!--del_lnk--> Sicily, <!--del_lnk--> Gabriele de'Mussi, a <!--del_lnk--> notary, tells of the early spread from <!--del_lnk--> Crimea:<blockquote>
<p>Alas! our ships enter the port, but of a thousand sailors hardly ten are spared. We reach our homes; our kindred…come from all parts to visit us. Woe to us for we cast at them the darts of death! …Going back to their homes, they in turn soon infected their whole families, who in three days succumbed, and were buried in one common grave. Priests and doctors visiting…from their duties ill, and soon were…dead. O death! cruel, bitter, impious death! …Lamenting our misery, we feared to fly, yet we dared not remain.</blockquote>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Henry Knighton tells of the plague’s coming to England:<blockquote>
<p>Then the grievous plague came to the sea coasts from Southampton, and came to Bristol, and it was as if all the strength of the town had died, as if they had been hit with sudden death, for there were few who stayed in their beds more than three days, or two days, or even one half a day.</blockquote>
<p>In addition to these personal accounts, many presentations of the Black Death have entered the general consciousness as great <a href="../../wp/l/Literature.htm" title="Literature">literature</a>. For example, the major works of Boccaccio (<i>The Decameron</i>), Petrarch, <!--del_lnk--> Geoffrey Chaucer (<i><!--del_lnk--> The Canterbury Tales</i>), and <!--del_lnk--> William Langland (<i><!--del_lnk--> Piers Plowman</i>), which all discuss the Black Death, are generally recognized as some of the best works of their era.<p><i>La <!--del_lnk--> Danse Macabre</i>, or the <i>Dance of death</i>, is an <!--del_lnk--> allegory on the universality of <!--del_lnk--> death, expressing the common wisdom of the time: that no matter one's station in life, the dance of death united all. It consists of the <!--del_lnk--> personified Death leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the <!--del_lnk--> grave — typically with an <!--del_lnk--> emperor, <!--del_lnk--> king, <a href="../../wp/p/Pope.htm" title="Pope">pope</a>, <!--del_lnk--> monk, youngster, beautiful girl, all in <!--del_lnk--> skeleton-state. They were produced under the impact of the Black Death, reminding people of how fragile their lives were and how vain the glories of <!--del_lnk--> earthly life. The earliest artistic example is from the <!--del_lnk--> frescoed cemetery of the <!--del_lnk--> Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris (1424). There are also works by <!--del_lnk--> Konrad Witz in <a href="../../wp/b/Basel.htm" title="Basel">Basel</a> (1440), <!--del_lnk--> Bernt Notke in <!--del_lnk--> Lübeck (1463) and woodcuts by <!--del_lnk--> Hans Holbein the Younger (1538). <!--del_lnk--> Israil Bercovici claims that the <i>Danse Macabre</i> originated among <!--del_lnk--> Sephardic Jews in fourteenth century <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a> (Bercovici, 1992, p. 27).<p>Additionally see <a href="../../wp/a/Aleksandr_Pushkin.htm" title="Aleksandr Pushkin">Aleksandr Pushkin</a>'s verse play, "<!--del_lnk--> Feast in the Time of the Plague", and <!--del_lnk--> Daniel Defoe's <i><!--del_lnk--> Journal of a Plague Year</i> (1722)—some consider this possibly fictional because it was published nearly fifty years after the event, others argue that books took a long time to get to press in those days and he could have used a lot of firsthand source material in its writing.<p>The poem "The Rattle Bag" by the Welsh poet <!--del_lnk--> Dafydd ap Gwilym (1315-1350 or 1340-1370) has many elements that suggest that it was written as a reflection of the hardships he endured during the Black Death. It also reflects his personal belief that the Black Death was the end of humanity, the Apocalypse, as suggested by his multiple biblical references, particularly the events described in Revelations.<p><a id="Modern" name="Modern"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Modern</span></h3>
<p>The Black Death has been used as a subject or as a <!--del_lnk--> setting in modern literature and media. This may be due to the era's resounding impact on ancient and modern history, and its <!--del_lnk--> symbolism and connotations.<p><a href="../../wp/e/Edgar_Allan_Poe.htm" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Edgar Allan Poe</a>'s short story <!--del_lnk--> The Masque of the Red Death (<!--del_lnk--> 1842) is set in an unnamed country during a fictional plague that bears strong resemblance to the Black Death.<p><!--del_lnk--> Connie Willis's <!--del_lnk--> Hugo Award-winning science fiction <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Doomsday Book</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 1993, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-553-35167-2) imagines a future in which historians do field work by travelling into the past as observers. The protagonist, a historian, is sent to the wrong year, arriving in England just as the Black Death is starting. Likewise, <!--del_lnk--> Kim Stanley Robinson's <!--del_lnk--> alternate history novel <i><!--del_lnk--> The Years of Rice and Salt</i> (<!--del_lnk--> 2002, <!--del_lnk--> ISBN 0-553-58007-8) presents a future dramatically changed by the Black Death, in which Christian Europe was almost completely destroyed and played no major role in future history. Also in <!--del_lnk--> Michael Crichton's book <i><!--del_lnk--> Timeline</i>, a character is transported through time to a city that is apparently affected by the Black Death.<p>It has been alleged (since 1961) that the Black Death inspired one of the most enduring <!--del_lnk--> nursery rhymes in the English language, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ring a Ring O'Roses, a pocket full of posies, / Ashes, ashes (or ah-tishoo ah-tishoo), we all fall down.</i> However, this seems to be a myth. There are no written records of the rhyme before the late <a href="../../wp/1/19th_century.htm" title="19th century">19th century</a> and not all of its many variants refer to ashes, sneezing, falling down or anything else that could be connected to the Black Death<!--del_lnk--> .<p>The relatively new medium of film has given writers and film producers an opportunity to portray the plague with more visual realism. One of the best known and most expansive depictions of the black plague as art is the movie classic <i><!--del_lnk--> The Seventh Seal</i>, a <!--del_lnk--> 1957 film directed by <!--del_lnk--> Ingmar Bergman. The knight returns from the <!--del_lnk--> Crusades and finds that his home country is ravaged by Black Death. To his dismay, he discovers that Death has come for him too. The final scene of <i>The Seventh Seal</i> depicts a kind of <i>Danse Macabre</i>. The <!--del_lnk--> 1988 <!--del_lnk--> science fiction film <i><!--del_lnk--> The Navigator: A Medieval Odyssey</i> portrayed a group of <!--del_lnk--> 14th-century <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a> <!--del_lnk--> villagers who dig a tunnel to <!--del_lnk--> 20th-century <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, with the aid of a boy's vision, to escape the Black Death.<p>Black Metal band <!--del_lnk--> 1349 are named after the year Black Death spread through Norway.<p><a id="Selected_sources_and_further_reading" name="Selected_sources_and_further_reading"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Black Rhinoceros</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Black Rhinoceros</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1764.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlackRhino-USFWS.jpg" src="../../images/17/1764.jpg" width="225" /></a><br />
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/2/221.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_CR.svg" src="../../images/2/221.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Critically endangered (CR)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Perissodactyla<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Rhinocerotidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><b>Diceros</b></i><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>D. bicornis</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Diceros bicornis</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758</small></td>
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<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Subspecies</center>
</th>
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<tr>
<td style="padding: 0 .5em;">
<p><i><!--del_lnk--> Diceros bicornis michaeli</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Diceros bicornis longipes</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Diceros bicornis minor</i><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> Diceros bicornis bicornis</i></td>
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</table>
<p>The <b>Black Rhinoceros</b>, <i>Diceros bicornis</i> also colloquially <b>Black Rhino</b> is a <a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">mammal</a> in the order <!--del_lnk--> Perissodactyla, native to the eastern and central areas of Africa including <a href="../../wp/k/Kenya.htm" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="../../wp/t/Tanzania.htm" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, <a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> and <a href="../../wp/z/Zimbabwe.htm" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>. Although the Rhino is referred to as a "Black" creature, it is actually more of a grey-white colour in appearance.<p>Like all species of <!--del_lnk--> rhinoceros, it is on the endangered species list due to excessive poaching for their <!--del_lnk--> horns, which are mostly used in dagger handles as a symbol of wealth in many countries, and as a <!--del_lnk--> febrifuge in <!--del_lnk--> Chinese traditional medicine. Contrary to popular opinion, only small amounts of the horns are consumed as an <!--del_lnk--> aphrodisiac. A poaching wave in the 1970's and 1980's wiped out over 96% of the Black Rhino populations across Africa.<p>The name of the species was chosen to distinguish it from the <!--del_lnk--> White Rhinoceros (<i>Ceratotherium simum</i>). This is very misleading, as those two species are not really distinguishable by colour. The word "White" in the name "White Rhinoceros" deriving from the Afrikaans word for "wide" rather than the colour white.<p>The World Conservation Union (IUCN) announced on <!--del_lnk--> 7 July <!--del_lnk--> 2006 that the West African Black Rhinoceros <!--del_lnk--> subspecies (<i>Diceros bicornis longipes</i>) has been tentatively declared as extinct.<p>
<script type="text/javascript">
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</script><a id="Anatomy" name="Anatomy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Anatomy</span></h2>
<p>An adult Black Rhinoceros stands 143 – 160 cm (56-63 inches) high at the shoulder and is 2.86-3.05 m (9.3-10 feet) in length. An adult weighs from 800 to 1400 kg (1,760 to 3,080 lb), exceptionally to 1820 kg (4,000 lb), with the females being smaller than the males. Two <!--del_lnk--> horns on the skull are made of <!--del_lnk--> keratin with the larger front horn typically 50 cm long, exceptionally up to 140 cm. Occasionally, a third smaller horn may develop. Skin color depends more on local soil conditions and their wallowing behavior than anything else, so many black rhinos are typically not truly black in colour.<p>The Black Rhinoceros is much smaller than the <!--del_lnk--> White Rhinoceros, and has a pointed, prehensile upper lip, which they use to grasp leaves and twigs when feeding. White Rhinoceros have square lips used for grazing grass. The Black Rhinoceros can also be recognized from the White Rhinoceros by its smaller skull and ears and its more pronounced forehead. Black Rhinoceros also do not have a distinguishing shoulder hump like the White Rhinoceros.<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<p>The adults are solitary in nature, coming together only for mating. Mating does not have a seasonal pattern but births tend to be towards the end of the rainy season in drier environments. The gestation period is 15 – 16 months; the single calf weighs about 35 – 50 kg at birth, and can follow its mother around after just three days. The mother and calf stay together for 2 – 3 years until the next calf is born; female calves may stay longer, forming small groups. The young are occasionally taken by <a href="../../wp/h/Hyena.htm" title="Hyena">hyenas</a> and <a href="../../wp/l/Lion.htm" title="Lion">lions</a>. Sexual maturity is reached from 5 years old for females, from 7 years for males, and the life expectancy in natural conditions (without poaching pressure) is from 35 – 50 years.<p><a id="Ecology" name="Ecology"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Ecology</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1765.jpg.htm" title="A black rhinoceros in the Natural Bridge Wildlife Park."><img alt="A black rhinoceros in the Natural Bridge Wildlife Park." height="150" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlackRhinoceros.jpg" src="../../images/17/1765.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1765.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A black rhinoceros in the <!--del_lnk--> Natural Bridge Wildlife Park.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The Black Rhinoceros has adapted to its <!--del_lnk--> habitat using the following characteristics:<ul>
<li>A thick, layered skin protects the rhino from <!--del_lnk--> thorns and sharp <!--del_lnk--> grasses.<li>The soles of their feet are thickly padded to cushion the legs and absorb shock.<li>The upper <!--del_lnk--> lip has been adapted for seizing and grasping (prehensile) objects which helps in browsing and foraging.<li>The large ears rotate to give directional information on sound<li>The large nose has an excellent sense of smell to detect <!--del_lnk--> predators.<li>Two formidable horns are used for defense and intimidation.<li>An aggressive disposition discourages predators. The animal's nearsightedness seems to urge the rhino to charge first and investigate later.</ul>
<p>The Black Rhinoceros is a <a href="../../wp/h/Herbivore.htm" title="Herbivore">herbivorous</a> browser that eats leafy plants, branches, shoots, thorny wood bushes and fruit. Their diet helps to reduce the amount of woody plants which results in more grasses growing for the benefit of other animals.<p>Their skin harbours many external <!--del_lnk--> parasites, which are eaten by <!--del_lnk--> oxpeckers and <!--del_lnk--> egrets that live with the rhino.<p><a id="Subspecies" name="Subspecies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Subspecies</span></h2>
<p>There are four subspecies of the black rhinoceros:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> South-central (<i>Diceros bicornis minor</i>) which are the most numerous, and once ranged from central Tanzania south through Zambia, Zimbabwe and <a href="../../wp/m/Mozambique.htm" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a> to northern and eastern South Africa.<li><!--del_lnk--> South-western (<i>Diceros bicornis bicornis</i>) which are better adapted to the arid and semi-arid savannas of Namibia, southern <a href="../../wp/a/Angola.htm" title="Angola">Angola</a>, western <a href="../../wp/b/Botswana.htm" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> and western South Africa.<li><!--del_lnk--> East African (<i>Diceros bicornis michaeli</i>) which had a historic distribution from south <a href="../../wp/s/Sudan.htm" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Somalia.htm" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> down through Kenya into north-central Tanzania. Today, its range is limited primarily to Tanzania.<li><!--del_lnk--> West African (<i>Diceros bicornis longipes</i>) is the rarest and most endangered subspecies. Historically, it once occurred across most of the west African savanna. Until recently, only a few individuals survived in northern <a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>, but on <!--del_lnk--> July 8, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 the <!--del_lnk--> World Conservation Union declared the subspecies to be tentatively extinct.</ul>
<p><a id="Population" name="Population"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population</span></h2>
<p>For most of the 20th century the continental black rhino was the most numerous of all rhino species. Around <!--del_lnk--> 1900 there were probably several hundred thousand living in Africa. During the latter half of the 20th century their number severely reduced from an estimated 70,000 in the late 1960s to only 10,000 to 15,000 in 1981. In the early 1990s the number dipped below 2500, and in 1995 it was reported that only 2,410 black rhinos remained. According to the <!--del_lnk--> International Rhino Foundation, the total African population has since then slightly recovered to 3,610 by 2003. According to a July 2006 report by the World Conservation Union, a recent survey of the West African Black Rhino, which once ranged across the savannahs of western Africa but had dropped to just 10, concluded the subspecies to be extinct. The northern white is soon to join the western black rhino on the extinction list as its last noted numbers were as few as 4. The only rhino that has recovered somewhat from the brink of extinction is the southern white whose numbers now are estimated around 14,500, up from only 50 a century ago.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1766.jpg.htm" title="Black rhino grazing."><img alt="Black rhino grazing." height="140" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_rhino.jpg" src="../../images/17/1766.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1766.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Black rhino grazing.</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Black Robin</b></th>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_EN.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Endangered (EN)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Petroicidae<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Petroica</i><br />
</td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>P. traversi</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Petroica traversi</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Buller, 1872)</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Black Robin</b> or <b>Chatham Island Robin</b> <i>Petroica traversi</i> is an endangered <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> from the <!--del_lnk--> Chatham Islands off the east coast of <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>. It is closely related to the <!--del_lnk--> New Zealand Robin.<p><i>Petroica traversi</i> is a <a href="../../wp/h/House_Sparrow.htm" title="House Sparrow">sparrow</a>-sized bird. Its plumage is almost entirely brownish-black, unlike its mainland counterparts, and as it evolved in the absence of <!--del_lnk--> predators, its flight capacity is somewhat reduced. In the early <!--del_lnk--> 1980s only five Black Robins survived but were saved from extinction by <!--del_lnk--> Don Merton and his team, and by "Old Blue", the last remaining female.<p>All of the surviving black robins are descended from "Old Blue", unfortunately giving little genetic variation among the population and creating an extreme <!--del_lnk--> population bottleneck. Interestingly, this seems to have caused no <!--del_lnk--> inbreeding problems, leading to speculation that the species has passed through several such population reductions in its evolutionary past and thus losing any <!--del_lnk--> alleles that could cause deleterious inbreeding effects. It was generally assumed that the <!--del_lnk--> minimum viable population protecting from <!--del_lnk--> inbreeding depression was around 50 individuals, but this is now known to be an inexact average, with the actual numbers being below 10 in rapidly-reproducing small-island species such as the Black Robin, to several hundred in long-lived continental species with a wide distribution (such as <a href="../../wp/e/Elephant.htm" title="Elephant">elephants</a> or <a href="../../wp/t/Tiger.htm" title="Tiger">tigers</a>).<p>The species is still <!--del_lnk--> endangered, but now numbers around 250 individuals in a single population on tiny <!--del_lnk--> Little Mangere Island. Ongoing restoration of habitat and eradication of introduced predators is being undertaken so that the population of this and other endangered Chatham <!--del_lnk--> endemics can be spread to several populations, decreasing the risk of extinction by natural disasters or similar <!--del_lnk--> stochastic events.<p>The binomial commemorates the New Zealand botanist <!--del_lnk--> Henry H. Travers (1844–1928).<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Robin"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Black Sea</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.General_Geography.htm">General Geography</a></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1768.png.htm" title="Map of the Black Sea"><img alt="Map of the Black Sea" height="137" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_Sea_map.png" src="../../images/17/1768.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1768.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Map of the Black Sea</div>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1769.jpg.htm" title="Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by NASA MODIS"><img alt="Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by NASA MODIS" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ev25334_BlackSea.A2003105.1035.1km.jpg" src="../../images/17/1769.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1769.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by <!--del_lnk--> NASA <!--del_lnk--> MODIS</div>
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<p>The <b>Black Sea</b> is an inland <a href="../../wp/s/Sea.htm" title="Sea">sea</a> between southeastern <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia that is actually a distant arm of the <a href="../../wp/a/Atlantic_Ocean.htm" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> by way of the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. It is connected to the Mediterranean by the <!--del_lnk--> Bosporus and the <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Marmara, and to the <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Azov by the <!--del_lnk--> Strait of Kerch.<p>There is a net inflow of seawater through the Bosporus, 200 km³ per year. There is an inflow of freshwater from the surrounding areas, especially central and middle-eastern Europe, totalling 320 km³ per year. The most important river entering the Black Sea is the <a href="../../wp/d/Danube.htm" title="Danube">Danube</a>. The Black Sea has an area of <!--del_lnk--> 422,000 km² and a maximum depth of 2210 m.<p>Countries bordering on the Black Sea are <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Romania.htm" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="../../wp/u/Ukraine.htm" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russia.htm" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>. The <!--del_lnk--> Crimean <!--del_lnk--> peninsula is a Ukrainian autonomous republic.<p>Important cities along the coast include: <a href="../../wp/i/Istanbul.htm" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Burgas, <!--del_lnk--> Varna, <!--del_lnk--> Constanţa, <!--del_lnk--> Yalta, <!--del_lnk--> Odessa, <!--del_lnk--> Sevastopol, <!--del_lnk--> Kerch, <!--del_lnk--> Novorossiysk, <!--del_lnk--> Sochi, <!--del_lnk--> Sukhumi, <!--del_lnk--> Poti, <!--del_lnk--> Batumi, <!--del_lnk--> Trabzon, <!--del_lnk--> Samsun and <!--del_lnk--> Zonguldak.<p>
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</script><a id="Name" name="Name"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Name</span></h2>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1770.jpg.htm" title="The Black Sea near Burgas in Bulgaria"><img alt="The Black Sea near Burgas in Bulgaria" height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Lake-mandrensko-dinev.jpg" src="../../images/17/1770.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1770.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Black Sea near <!--del_lnk--> Burgas in Bulgaria</div>
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<p>Modern names of the Sea are universally translations of Black Sea, including <!--del_lnk--> Greek Μαύρη θάλασσα, <!--del_lnk--> Bulgarian <i>Cherno more</i> (Черно море), <!--del_lnk--> Georgian <i>Shavi zghva</i> (შავი ზღვა), <!--del_lnk--> Laz <i>Ucha Zuğa</i>, or simply <i>Zuğa</i> 'Sea', <!--del_lnk--> Romanian <i>Marea Neagră</i>, <a href="../../wp/r/Russian_language.htm" title="Russian language">Russian</a> <i>Chyornoye More</i> (Чёрное море), <!--del_lnk--> Turkish <i>Karadeniz</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Ukrainian <i>Chorne More</i> (Чорне море), <!--del_lnk--> Ubykh <span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">/ʃʷaʤa/</span>. This name cannot be traced to an earlier date than the <!--del_lnk--> thirteenth century, but there are indications that it may be considerably older, cf. below.<p><!--del_lnk--> Strabo's Geography (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity the Black Sea was often just called "the Sea" (<i>pontos</i>), just like <a href="../../wp/h/Homer.htm" title="Homer">Homer</a> was often simply called "the Poet". For the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the 'Hospitable sea' <i>Euxeinos Pontos</i> (<span class="polytonic" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc">Εὔξεινος Πόντος</span>). This is a <!--del_lnk--> euphemism replacing an earlier 'Inhospitable Sea' <i>Pontos Axeinos</i>, first attested in <!--del_lnk--> Pindar (early fifth century BCE). Strabo (7.3.6) thinks that the Black Sea was called inhospitable before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes, and that the name was changed to hospitable after the <!--del_lnk--> Milesians had colonized, as it were making it part of the Greek civilization. It is, however, likely that the name <i>Axeinos</i> arose by <!--del_lnk--> popular etymology from an Iranian <i>axšaina-</i> 'dark'; the designation Black Sea would, after all, go back to Antiquity. The motive for the name may be an ancient assignment of colors to the direction of the compass, black referring to the north, and red referring to the south. <a href="../../wp/h/Herodotus.htm" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> on one occasion uses <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> and Southern Sea interchangeably. Cf. Schmitt 1996.<p>Another possible explanation comes from the colour of the Black Sea's deep waters. Being further north than the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> and much less saline, the <!--del_lnk--> microalgae concentration is much more rich, hence the dark colour. Visibility in the Black Sea is on average approximately five meters (5.5 yd), as compared to up to thirty-five meters (38 yd) in the Mediterranean. The water however is as blue as any other sea on bright, clear days.<p>One <a href="../../wp/b/Bulgaria.htm" title="Bulgaria">Bulgarian</a> understanding of the name is that the sea used to be quite stormy. Some sources stipulate that that goes back to the time of <!--del_lnk--> Noah's Ark. The <!--del_lnk--> Black Sea deluge theory is based on that idea.<p><a id="Geology_and_bathymetry" name="Geology_and_bathymetry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Geology and bathymetry</span></h2>
<p>The Black Sea forms an enclosed basin, located between south-eastern Europe and <!--del_lnk--> Asia Minor. The basin was formed during the <a href="../../wp/m/Miocene.htm" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> <!--del_lnk--> orogenies which uplifted the mountain ranges and divided the ancient <!--del_lnk--> Tethys Ocean into several brackish basins, including the <!--del_lnk--> Sarmatic Sea. The <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Azov, <a href="../../wp/a/Aral_Sea.htm" title="Aral Sea">Aral</a> and Black Seas are the remnants of this evaporated basin.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1771.gif.htm" title="The Bulgarian coastline of the Black Sea has only a few small, barren islands."><img alt="The Bulgarian coastline of the Black Sea has only a few small, barren islands." height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Ostrvo.gif" src="../../images/17/1771.gif" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1771.gif.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The <!--del_lnk--> Bulgarian coastline of the Black Sea has only a few small, barren islands.</div>
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<p>The basin is divided into two sub-basins by a convexity extending south from the <!--del_lnk--> Crimean peninsula. The north-west of the basin is characterized by a relatively large shelf up to 190 km wide, which has a relatively shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and the eastern edge around <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> however, are typified by a shelf that rarely exceeds 20km in width and an apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in the centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,206m just south of <!--del_lnk--> Yalta on the Crimean peninsula. The basin is connected to the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> via the Turkish Straits System (TSS) in the south-west, which includes the <!--del_lnk--> Bosporus and <!--del_lnk--> Dardanelles straits and the <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Marmara. The Black Sea is connected to the <!--del_lnk--> Sea of Azov in the north-east via the <!--del_lnk--> Kerch straits.<p><a id="Hydrology_and_hydrochemistry" name="Hydrology_and_hydrochemistry"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Hydrology and hydrochemistry</span></h2>
<p>The Black Sea is the world’s largest <!--del_lnk--> meromictic basin, with 90% of its volume occupied by <!--del_lnk--> anoxic waters. The current hydrochemical configuration is primarily controlled by basin topography and <!--del_lnk--> fluvial inputs, which result in a strongly stratified vertical structure and a positive water balance. The upper layers are generally cooler, less dense and less salty than the deeper waters, as they are fed by large fluvial systems, whereas the deep waters originate from the warm, salty waters of the Mediterranean. This influx of dense water from Mediterranean is balanced by an outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Marmara Sea, maintaining the stratification and <!--del_lnk--> salinity levels.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1772.jpg.htm" title="Bay of Sudak"><img alt="Bay of Sudak" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sudak_vlasenko.jpg" src="../../images/17/1772.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1772.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Bay of <!--del_lnk--> Sudak</div>
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<p>The surface water has an average salinity of 18-18.5 ppt and contains <a href="../../wp/o/Oxygen.htm" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and other nutrients required to sustain biotic activity. These waters circulate in a basin-wide anti-cyclonic shelfbreak <!--del_lnk--> gyre known as the Rim Current which transports water round the perimeter of the Black Sea. Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. Outside the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed due to upwelling around the coastal apron and ‘wind curl’ mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. Sea Surface Temperature of the surface waters varies seasonally from 8°C to 30°C.<p>Directly beneath the surface waters the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL) is found. This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localised atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. The production of this water is focussed in the centre of the major gyres and on the NW shelf and as the water is not dense enough to penetrate the deep waters, <!--del_lnk--> isopycnal <!--del_lnk--> advection occurs, dispersing the water across the entire basin. The base of the CIL is marked by a major <!--del_lnk--> thermocline, <!--del_lnk--> halocline and <!--del_lnk--> pycnocline at ~100-200m and this density disparity is the major cause of deep-water isolation.<p>Below the pycnocline, salinity increases to 22-22.5 ppt and temperatures rise to ~8.5°C. The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilises all of the free oxygen. Certain species of <!--del_lnk--> extremophile bacteria are capable of using <!--del_lnk--> sulfate (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2−</sup>) in the <!--del_lnk--> oxidation of organic material, which leads to the creation of hydrogen sulphide (H<sub>2</sub>S). This reacts with seawater to produce <a href="../../wp/s/Sulfuric_acid.htm" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). This enables the precipitation of <!--del_lnk--> sulfides such as iron-sulphides like <a href="../../wp/p/Pyrite.htm" title="Pyrite">pyrite</a>, <!--del_lnk--> greigite and iron-monosulphide as well as the dissolution of carbonate matter such as <!--del_lnk--> Calcium carbonate (CaCO<sub>3</sub>) found in shells. Organic matter, including anthropogenic artefacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms cause organic rich layer known as <!--del_lnk--> sapropels to occur. Another danger to people posed by the anoxic layer could come from a small asteroid's impact into the Black Sea. Recently modelling shows there is a significant threat to life for people living on the sea's shore. SEE: R.D. Schuiling, R.B. Cathcart, V. Badescu, D. Isvoranu and E. Pelinovsky, "Asteroid impact in the Black Sea. Death by drowning or asphyxiation?", Natural Hazards (October 2006) DOI: 10.1007/s11069-006-0017-7.<p><a id="Mediterranean_connection_during_the_Holocene" name="Mediterranean_connection_during_the_Holocene"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Mediterranean connection during the Holocene</span></h2>
<p>While it is agreed that the Black Sea has been a freshwater <!--del_lnk--> lake (at least in upper layers) with a considerably lower level during the <!--del_lnk--> last glaciation, its postglacial development into a marine sea is still a subject of intensive study and debate. There are catastrophic scenarios such as put forward by <!--del_lnk--> William Ryan and <!--del_lnk--> Walter Pitman as well as models emphasizing a more gradual transition to saline conditions and transgression in the Black Sea.<p>They are based on different theories about the level the freshwater lake had reached by the time the Mediterranean Sea was high enough to flow over the <!--del_lnk--> Dardanelles and the <!--del_lnk--> Bosporus. On the other hand, a study of the sea floor on the Aegean side shows that in the 8th millennium BC there was a large flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea (<!--del_lnk--> New Scientist, <!--del_lnk--> 4 May <!--del_lnk--> 2002, p. 13).<p>In a series of expeditions, a team of marine archeologists led by Robert Ballard identified what appeared to be ancient shorelines, freshwater snail shells, drowned river valleys, tool-worked timbers, and man-made structures in roughly 300 feet (100 m) of water off the Black Sea coast of modern <a href="../../wp/t/Turkey.htm" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Radiocarbon dating of freshwater mollusk remains indicated an age of about 7,000 years.<p><a id="Deluge_theory" name="Deluge_theory"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Deluge theory</span></h2>
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<p>In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman from <!--del_lnk--> Columbia University published a theory that a massive flood through the <!--del_lnk--> Bosporus occurred in ancient times. They claim that the Black and <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Seas</a> were vast freshwater lakes, but that about <!--del_lnk--> 5600 BC, the <a href="../../wp/m/Mediterranean_Sea.htm" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus, creating the current communication between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Subsequent work has been done both to support and to discredit this theory, and archaeologists still debate it. This has led some to associate this catastrophe with prehistoric <a href="../../wp/d/Deluge_%2528mythology%2529.htm" title="Deluge (mythology)">flood myths</a>.<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland (<i><!--del_lnk--> Urheimat</i>) of the speakers of the <!--del_lnk--> Proto-Indo-European language, (PIE) the progenitor of the <!--del_lnk--> Indo-European language family, by some scholars (see <!--del_lnk--> Kurgan; others move the heartland further east towards the <a href="../../wp/c/Caspian_Sea.htm" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a>, yet others to <!--del_lnk--> Anatolia).<p>The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, <!--del_lnk--> Colchis (now <a href="../../wp/g/Georgia_%2528country%2529.htm" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>), marked for the Greeks an edge of the known world.<p><a id="Holiday_resorts_and_spas" name="Holiday_resorts_and_spas"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Holiday resorts and spas</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1773.jpg.htm" title="Photo of the Black Sea near Sochi, taken in 1915"><img alt="Photo of the Black Sea near Sochi, taken in 1915" height="161" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sochi_edited.jpg" src="../../images/17/1773.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1773.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Photo of the Black Sea near Sochi, taken in 1915</div>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Ahtopol (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Anapa (Russia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Albena (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Alupka (Crimea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Alushta (Crimea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Balchik (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Batumi (Georgia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Chakvi (Georgia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Costineşti (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Emona (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Eupatoria (Crimea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Theodosia (Crimea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Giresun (Turkey)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gagra (Abkhazia, Georgia<sup>1</sup>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Golden Sands (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gonio (Georgia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Gurzuf (Crimea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Jupiter (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kiten (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kobuleti (Georgia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Koktebel (Crimea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Kvariati (Georgia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mamaia (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Mangalia (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Neptun (Romania)</ul>
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<td width="50%">
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Nesebar (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Novorossiysk (Russia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Obzor (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Odessa (Ukraine)<li><!--del_lnk--> Olimp (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pitsunda (Abkhazia, Georgia<sup>1</sup>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Pomorie (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Primorsko (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rize (Turkey)<li><!--del_lnk--> Rusalka (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Samsun(Turkey)<li><!--del_lnk--> Saturn (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sinop(Turkey)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sochi (Russia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sozopol (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sudak (Crimea)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sunny Beach (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Şile (Turkey)<li><!--del_lnk--> Sveti Vlas (Bulgaria)<li><!--del_lnk--> Trabzon (Turkey)<li><!--del_lnk--> Tuapse (Russia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ureki (Georgia)<li><!--del_lnk--> Vama Veche (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Venus (Romania)<li><!--del_lnk--> Yalta (Crimea)</ul>
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<p><sup>1</sup> <a href="../../wp/a/Abkhazia.htm" title="Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a> has been a <i><!--del_lnk--> de facto</i> independent republic since 1992, although remains a <i><!--del_lnk--> de jure</i> autonomous republic of Georgia.<p><a id="Regional_organizations" name="Regional_organizations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Regional organizations</span></h2>
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<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1774.png.htm" title="Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) ██ members ██ observers"><img alt="Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) ██ members ██ observers" height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BSEC_members.png" src="../../images/17/1774.png" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1774.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#ff7f40; color:#ff7f40;">██</span> members</span> <span style="margin:0px; font-size:90%; display:block;"><span style="border:none; background-color:#00ff00; color:#00ff00;">██</span> observers</span></div>
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<div style="width:282px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1775.png.htm" title="GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development"><img alt="GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development" height="223" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GUAM_members.png" src="../../images/17/1775.png" width="280" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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Black_Seminoles | <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Black Seminoles</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Peoples.htm">Peoples</a></h3>
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<div style="width:162px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23788.jpg.htm" title="19th-century engraving depicting a Black Seminole warrior of the First Seminole War (1817–8)."><img alt="19th-century engraving depicting a Black Seminole warrior of the First Seminole War (1817–8)." height="307" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black-sem-detail-1st-war.jpg" src="../../images/237/23788.jpg" width="160" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23788.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> 19th-century engraving depicting a Black Seminole warrior of the First Seminole War (1817–8).</div>
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<p>The <b>Black Seminoles</b> are descendants of runaway slaves who escaped from coastal South Carolina and Georgia into the Florida wilderness beginning as early as the late 1600s. The runaway slaves joined with various Indian groups escaping into Florida at the same period. Together, the two groups formed the <!--del_lnk--> Seminole tribe, a multi-ethnic and bi-racial alliance. Today, Black Seminole descendants still live in rural communities in <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma and <!--del_lnk--> Texas and in <a href="../../wp/t/The_Bahamas.htm" title="The Bahamas">the Bahamas</a> and Northern <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. In the 19th century the Florida "Black Seminoles" were called "Seminole <!--del_lnk--> Negroes" by their white American enemies and Estelusti, or "Black People," by their Indian allies. Modern Black Seminoles are known as "Seminole Freedmen" in Oklahoma, "Seminole Scouts" in Texas, "Black Indians" in the Bahamas, and "Mascogos" in Mexico.<p>
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</script><a id="Origins" name="Origins"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Origins</span></h2>
<p>The Spanish strategy for defending Florida was based, at first, on organizing the indigenous Indians into a mission system with the mission Indians serving as militia to protect the colony from English incursions from the north. But a combination of raids by South Carolina colonists and tropical diseases coming via the slave trade from West Africa decimated Florida's native population. After the local Indians had all but died out, Spanish authorities encouraged renegade Indians and runaway slaves from England's North American colonies to move south. The Spanish were hoping that these traditional enemies of the English would prove effective in holding off English expansion.<p>As early as 1689, <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">African slaves</a> fled from the South Carolina lowcountry to <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Florida seeking freedom. Under an edict from <!--del_lnk--> Philip V of Spain, the black fugitives received liberty in exchange for defending the Spanish settlers at <!--del_lnk--> St. Augustine. The Spanish organized the black volunteers into a <!--del_lnk--> militia; their settlement at <!--del_lnk--> Fort Mose, founded in 1738, was the first legally sanctioned free black town in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>.<p>But not all the slaves escaping south found military service in St. Augustine to their liking. It is likely that many more runaway slaves sought refuge in wilderness areas in Northern Florida where their knowledge of tropical agriculture -- and resistance to tropical diseases -- served them well. Most of the blacks who pioneered Florida were <!--del_lnk--> Gullah people who had escaped from the rice plantations in South Carolina (and later Georgia). As Gullahs, they had preserved much of their African language and culture heritage and their African leadership structure. These Gullah pioneers built their own settlements based on rice and corn agriculture, and they proved to be effective allies to the Indians escaping into Florida at the same time.<p>A new influx of freedom-seeking blacks reached Florida during the <!--del_lnk--> American Revolution (1775–83), when several thousand American slaves agreed to fight for the British in exchange for liberty - the <!--del_lnk--> black Loyalists. (Florida was under British control throughout the conflict.) During the Revolution, Seminole Indians also allied with the British, and as a result, Africans and Seminoles came into increased contact with each other. Members of both communities sided again with the British during the <!--del_lnk--> War of 1812, solidifying ties and earning the wrath of the war's American hero, General <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Jackson.htm" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a>.<p>When Africans and Seminoles first started to interact, the Seminoles were themselves recent immigrants to Florida. Their community evolved over the late 18th century and early 19th century as waves of <!--del_lnk--> Creek Indians left present-day <!--del_lnk--> Georgia and <!--del_lnk--> Alabama. By the time the American naturalist <!--del_lnk--> William Bartram visited them in 1773, the Seminoles had their own tribal name, derived from <i>cimarron</i>, the Spanish word for runaway, which connoted the tribe's breakaway status from the Creeks. Interestingly, <i>cimarron</i> was also the source of the English word <!--del_lnk--> maroon, used to describe the runaway slave communities of Florida, the <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean, and other parts of the <!--del_lnk--> New World.<p><a id="African-Seminole_relations" name="African-Seminole_relations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">African-Seminole relations</span></h2>
<p>By the early 19th century, maroons (free blacks and runaway slaves) and Seminole Indians were in regular contact in Florida, where they evolved a system of relations unique among <!--del_lnk--> North American Indians and blacks. In exchange for paying an annual tribute of livestock and crops, maroons found sanctuary among the Indians. Indians, in turn, acquired an important strategic ally in a sparsely populated region.<p>Typically, many or all members of the Seminole maroon communities were identified as slaves of individual Indian chiefs. Seminole slavery, however, bore little relation to the system of <!--del_lnk--> chattel slavery practiced in the American South. Historians have compared the practice to a <!--del_lnk--> feudal arrangement. Maroons lived in their own independent communities, elected their own black leaders, and could amass moderate wealth in cattle and crops. Most importantly, they bore arms for self-defense.<p>Under the comparatively free conditions, the Black Seminoles flourished. <!--del_lnk--> U.S. Army Lieutenant George McCall recorded his impressions of a Black Seminole community in 1826:<blockquote>
<p>We found these negroes in possession of large fields of the finest land, producing large crops of corn, beans, melons, pumpkins, and other esculent vegetables. [I] saw, while riding along the borders of the ponds, fine rice growing; and in the village large corn-cribs were filled, while the houses were larger and more comfortable than those of the Indians themselves.</blockquote>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23789.jpg.htm" title=""An Indian town, residence of a chief," from Lithographs of Events in the Seminole War in Florida in 1835, published by Gray and James in 1837."><img alt=""An Indian town, residence of a chief," from Lithographs of Events in the Seminole War in Florida in 1835, published by Gray and James in 1837." height="136" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Seminole-town1836.jpg" src="../../images/237/23789.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23789.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> "An Indian town, residence of a chief," from <i>Lithographs of Events in the Seminole War in Florida in 1835</i>, published by Gray and James in 1837.</div>
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<p>An 1822 census estimated that 800 blacks were living with the Seminoles, constituting by far the largest maroon community in North American history. The black settlements were overall highly militarized, which was hardly the condition of America's southern slaves. The military nature of the African-Seminole relationship led General <!--del_lnk--> Edmund Pendleton Gaines, who visited several flourishing Black Seminole settlements in the 1820s, to describe the maroons as "vassals and allies" of the Indians.<p>While Seminole <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slavery</a> was benevolent compared to southern slavery, it remained a relationship of inequality. Seminole chiefs won prestige and wealth from their association with black warriors and slaves. Neither Seminoles nor whites considered the Black Seminoles to be members of the Indian tribe. Black headmen were occasionally admitted into Seminole bands through marriage or recognition of service, but this was the exception, not the rule.<p><a id="Culture" name="Culture"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Culture</span></h2>
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<div style="width:202px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23790.jpg.htm" title="Abraham, a Black Seminole leader, from N. Orr's engraving published in 1848 in The Origin, Progress, and Conclusion of the Florida War by John T. Sprague."><img alt="Abraham, a Black Seminole leader, from N. Orr's engraving published in 1848 in The Origin, Progress, and Conclusion of the Florida War by John T. Sprague." height="228" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Abraham-black-sem.jpg" src="../../images/237/23790.jpg" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23790.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Abraham, a Black Seminole leader, from N. Orr's engraving published in 1848 in <i>The Origin, Progress, and Conclusion of the Florida War</i> by John T. Sprague.</div>
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<p>The Black Seminole culture that took shape after 1800 was a dynamic mixture of African, Indian, Spanish, and slave traditions. In the tradition of the Indians, maroons wore Seminole clothing, strained <!--del_lnk--> koonti, a native root, and made sofkee, a paste created by mashing corn with a mortar and pestle.<p>Living apart from the Indians, however, the maroons developed their own unique African American culture. Black Seminoles inclined toward a <!--del_lnk--> syncretic form of Christianity inherited from the plantations. Certain cultural practices, such as <!--del_lnk--> jumping the broom to celebrate marriage, hailed from the plantations; other customs, such as the names used for blacks' towns, clearly echoed Africa.<p>Language especially showed the Black Seminoles' distinct culture. <!--del_lnk--> Afro-Seminole Creole was strongly related to <!--del_lnk--> Gullah, the dialect of <!--del_lnk--> Sea Islanders along the Carolina and Georgia coast. Like <!--del_lnk--> Gullah, Afro-Seminole was a <!--del_lnk--> creole language that incorporated words from Spanish, English, and <!--del_lnk--> Muskogee, as well as <a href="../../wp/b/Bantu.htm" title="Bantu">Bantu</a> and other African languages.<p><a id="Blacks_in_the_Seminole_Wars" name="Blacks_in_the_Seminole_Wars"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Blacks in the Seminole Wars</span></h2>
<p>From the time of the founding of the United States, the existence of armed black communities in Florida was a major concern for American slave owners. Slaveholders sought return of Florida's black fugitives in the <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of New York (1790), the first treaty ratified after the adoption of the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States_Constitution.htm" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>. General <a href="../../wp/a/Andrew_Jackson.htm" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> targeted Florida's maroon communities in 1816 by orchestrating an attack on the Negro Fort, a Black Seminole stronghold. Breaking up the maroon communities was one of Jackson's major objectives in the subsequent First <!--del_lnk--> Seminole War (1817–18).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23791.jpg.htm" title="Massacre of the Whites by the Indians and Blacks in Florida, engraving by D.F. Blanchard for an 1836 account of events at the outset of the Second Seminole War (1835–42)."><img alt="Massacre of the Whites by the Indians and Blacks in Florida, engraving by D.F. Blanchard for an 1836 account of events at the outset of the Second Seminole War (1835–42)." height="133" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Massacre-whites-fla.jpg" src="../../images/237/23791.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23791.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Massacre of the Whites by the Indians and Blacks in Florida, engraving by D.F. Blanchard for an 1836 account of events at the outset of the Second Seminole War (1835–42).</div>
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<p>The Second <!--del_lnk--> Seminole War (1835–42) marked the height of tension between the U.S. and the Black Seminoles and also the historical peak of the African-Seminole alliance. The war resulted from U.S. efforts, under the policy of <!--del_lnk--> Indian Removal, to relocate to the western <!--del_lnk--> Indian Territory Florida's 4,000 <!--del_lnk--> Seminole Indians and a portion of their 800 Black Seminole allies—a portion, because during the year before the war, at least 100 Black Seminoles were being claimed by prominent white citizens as runaway slaves. Fearing the direct attempt to enslave these 100, and anticipating attempts to enslave more members of the community, the Black Seminoles became staunch opponents of relocation. In councils before the war, they stoked efforts to resist removal and threw their support behind the most militant Seminole faction, led by <!--del_lnk--> Osceola. After war broke out, individual black leaders John Caesar, Abraham, and <!--del_lnk--> John Horse played key roles. In addition to aiding the Indians in their fight, Black Seminoles conspired in the rebellion of at least 385 plantation slaves at the commencement of the war. The slaves joined Indians and maroons in the destruction of 21 sugar plantations from December 25, 1835, through the summer of 1836. Some scholars have described this as the largest <!--del_lnk--> slave rebellion in U.S. history.<p>By 1838, U.S. General <!--del_lnk--> Thomas Sydney Jesup succeeded in separating the interests of the black and Seminole warriors by offering security and promises of freedom to the blacks. His act was the only emancipation of rebellious African Americans prior to the <!--del_lnk--> emancipation of the southern slaves by President <a href="../../wp/a/Abraham_Lincoln.htm" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> in 1863.<p><a id="Black_Seminoles_in_the_West" name="Black_Seminoles_in_the_West"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Black Seminoles in the West</span></h2>
<p>After 1838, 500 Black Seminoles emigrated with Seminole Indians to the <!--del_lnk--> Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma. Despite Army promises of freedom, however, out west the Black Seminoles found themselves threatened by slave raiders, including pro-slavery <!--del_lnk--> Creek Indians and even some former <!--del_lnk--> Seminole Indian allies, whose allegiance to the maroons diminished after the war. Officers of the federal army tried to protect the Black Seminoles, but in 1848 the U.S. Attorney General bowed to pro-slavery lobbyists and ordered the army to disarm the maroons.<p>Facing possible enslavement, in 1849 the maroon leader John Horse and about 100 Black Seminoles staged a mass escape from the Indian Territory to <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, where slavery had long been outlawed. The black fugitives crossed to freedom in July 1850. They rode with a faction of traditionalist Seminoles under the Indian chief Coacochee, who led the expedition. The Mexican government welcomed the Seminole allies as border guards on the frontier.<p>For the next 20 years, Black Seminoles served as militiamen and Indian fighters in Mexico, where they became known as <i>los mascogos</i>. Slave raiders from Texas continued to threaten the community, but with arms and reinforcements from the Mexican army, the black warriors ably defended themselves.<p>Throughout the period, several hundred Black Seminoles remained in the Oklahoma Indian Territory as allies of the Seminole Indians. With the end of slavery in the U.S., these maroons became known as Seminole Freedmen. They lived—as their descendants still do—in and around <!--del_lnk--> Wewoka, Oklahoma, the community that John Horse founded as a black settlement in 1849 and that is presently home of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma.<div class="center">
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<div style="width:502px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/237/23792.png.htm" title="Key locations in the 19th-century odyssey of the Black Seminoles, from Florida to Mexico. For more detail, the copyright holder at www.johnhorse.com freely offers an interactive version of this map."><img alt="Key locations in the 19th-century odyssey of the Black Seminoles, from Florida to Mexico. For more detail, the copyright holder at www.johnhorse.com freely offers an interactive version of this map." height="276" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Map-black-sem-odyssey.png" src="../../images/237/23792.png" width="500" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">Key locations in the 19th-century odyssey of the Black Seminoles, from Florida to Mexico. For more detail, the copyright holder at www.johnhorse.com freely offers an <!--del_lnk--> interactive version of this map.</div>
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<p>In 1870, the U.S. Army invited the Mexican-based Black Seminoles to return to the U.S. and serve as army scouts. The Seminole Negro Indian Scouts (originally a black unit despite the name) played a lead role in the Texas Indian wars of the 1870s. The scouts became famous for their tracking abilities and feats of endurance. Four of them won Congressional Medals of Honour. They served as advance scouts for the commanding white officers and the all-black units known as the <!--del_lnk--> Buffalo Soldiers, with whom they were closely associated. After the close of the Texas Indian wars, the scouts remained stationed at Fort Clark in <!--del_lnk--> Brackettville, Texas, until the army disbanded them in 1914. Family members settled in and around Brackettville, which houses a cemetery for the scouts and remains the spiritual centre of the Texas-based Black Seminoles.<p>The community in Nacimiento, Coahuila, persists on lands adjacent to the <!--del_lnk--> Kickapoo Indians. Yet another Black Seminole community resides half a continent away on <!--del_lnk--> Andros Island in the Bahamas, where refugees from the 19th-century Florida wars found a sanctuary from American slavery.<p>In 2003 and 2004, Seminole Freedmen in Oklahoma were in the national news because of a legal dispute with the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma over membership and rights within the tribe. Freedmen were trying to gain access to services provided by a $56 million settlement awarded to the Seminole Nation. The dispute developed after Seminole Indians voted to exclude some Freedmen from inclusion in the settlement and membership in the tribe. In June 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to allow the Seminole Freedmen to sue the federal government for inclusion in the settlement unless they could obtain the Seminole Nation's consent.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Seminoles"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Black Wildebeest</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1778.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="202" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Gnu_%28Catoblepas_Gnu%29.png" src="../../images/17/1778.png" width="240" /></a><br />
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
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<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/m/Mammal.htm" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a><br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Artiodactyla<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Bovidae<br />
</td>
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<td>Subfamily:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Alcelaphinae<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Connochaetes</i><br />
</td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>C. gnou</b></i></span><br />
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<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Connochaetes gnou</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Zimmermann, 1780)</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Black <a href="../../wp/w/Wildebeest.htm" title="Wildebeest">Wildebeest</a> or White-tailed gnu</b> (<i>Connochaetes gnou</i>) is one of two gnu <!--del_lnk--> species. The natural populations of this species, endemic to the southern region of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, have been almost completely exterminated, but the species has been reintroduced widely, both in private areas and nature reserves throughout most of <a href="../../wp/l/Lesotho.htm" title="Lesotho">Lesotho</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/Swaziland.htm" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a>, <a href="../../wp/s/South_Africa.htm" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/Namibia.htm" title="Namibia">Namibia</a>, also introduced outside its natural range (Wilson & Reeder, 1993; East, 1989, 1996).<p>The primal herds were exterminated, being seen as pests, with the secondary advantage of using the hides and meat. Thus this animal exists primarly in herds derived from captive specimens.<p>The one other species of genus <i>Connochaetes</i> is the <a href="../../wp/b/Blue_Wildebeest.htm" title="Blue Wildebeest">Blue Wildebeest</a>, which tended to have a more northerly range.<p>Its preferred habitat types are grassveld savanna and <!--del_lnk--> Karoo of the central South Africa plateau (Lynch, 1983; von Richter, 1974).<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Wildebeest"</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Mammal', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Wildebeest', 'Africa', 'Lesotho', 'Swaziland', 'South Africa', 'Namibia', 'Blue Wildebeest'] |
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Physics.Space_Astronomy.htm">Space (Astronomy)</a></h3>
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<td style="border-bottom: 2px solid #ccf"><b><!--del_lnk--> General relativity</b></td>
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<li><!--del_lnk--> Overview of GR<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> History<li><!--del_lnk--> Mathematics<li><!--del_lnk--> Resources<li><!--del_lnk--> Tests</ul>
<li><strong class="selflink">Black hole</strong><li><!--del_lnk--> Einstein equation<li><!--del_lnk--> Equivalence principle<li><!--del_lnk--> Event horizon<li><!--del_lnk--> Exact solutions<li><!--del_lnk--> FLRW metric<li><!--del_lnk--> Gravitational lens<li><!--del_lnk--> Gravitational waves<li><!--del_lnk--> Kerr metric<li><!--del_lnk--> Quantum gravity<li><!--del_lnk--> Schwarzschild metric<li><!--del_lnk--> Singularity</ul>
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<li><a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a><li><a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Astrophysics<li><a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravitation">Gravitation</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Cosmology<li><a href="../../wp/s/Special_relativity.htm" title="Special relativity">Special relativity</a><li><!--del_lnk--> Riemannian geometry<li><!--del_lnk--> Einstein-Cartan theory</ul>
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<p>A <b>black hole</b> is an object predicted by <!--del_lnk--> general relativity with a gravitational field so strong that nothing can escape it — not even light.<p>A black hole is <i>defined</i> to be a region of <!--del_lnk--> space-time where escape to the outside universe is impossible. The <!--del_lnk--> boundary of this region is a surface called the <!--del_lnk--> event horizon. This surface is not a physically tangible one, but merely a figurative concept of an imaginary boundary. Nothing can move from inside the event horizon to the outside, even briefly.<p>Theoretically, a black hole can be any size. Astrophysicists expect to find black holes with masses ranging between roughly the mass of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a> ("stellar-mass" black holes) to many millions of times the mass of the Sun (<!--del_lnk--> supermassive black holes).<p>The existence of black holes in the universe is well supported by <!--del_lnk--> astronomical observation, particularly from studying <!--del_lnk--> X-ray emission from <!--del_lnk--> X-ray binaries and <!--del_lnk--> active galactic nuclei. It has also been hypothesized that black holes radiate energy due to <!--del_lnk--> quantum mechanical effects known as <a href="../../wp/h/Hawking_radiation.htm" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>The concept of a body so massive that even light could not escape was put forward by the English <!--del_lnk--> geologist <!--del_lnk--> John Michell in a 1784 paper sent to <!--del_lnk--> Henry Cavendish and published by the <!--del_lnk--> Royal Society. At that time, the <a href="../../wp/i/Isaac_Newton.htm" title="Isaac Newton">Newtonian</a> theory of <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravitation">gravity</a> and the concept of <!--del_lnk--> escape velocity were well known. Michell computed that a body with 500 times the radius of the Sun and of the same <!--del_lnk--> density would have, at its surface, an escape velocity equal to the <a href="../../wp/s/Speed_of_light.htm" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, and therefore would be invisible. In his words:<table align="center" cellpadding="10" class="cquote" style="border-collapse:collapse; background-color:transparent; border-style:none;">
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</td>
<td><i>If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun were to exceed that of the Sun in the proportion of 500 to 1, a body falling from an infinite height towards it would have acquired at its surface greater velocity than that of light, and consequently supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae (inertial mass), with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity.</i></td>
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<p>Michell considered the possibility that many such objects that cannot be seen might be present in the cosmos.<p>In 1796, the French mathematician <!--del_lnk--> Pierre-Simon Laplace promoted the same idea in the first and second editions of his book <i>Exposition du système du Monde</i> (it was removed from later editions). The idea gained little attention in the nineteenth century, since light was thought to be a massless wave, hence not influenced by gravity.<p>In 1915, <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> developed the theory of gravity called <!--del_lnk--> General Relativity, having earlier shown that gravity does influence light. A few months later, <!--del_lnk--> Karl Schwarzschild gave the <!--del_lnk--> solution for the gravitational field of a point mass and a spherical mass, showing that a black hole could theoretically exist. The <!--del_lnk--> Schwarzschild radius is now known to be the radius of the <!--del_lnk--> event horizon of a non-rotating black hole, but this was not well understood at that time. Schwarzschild himself thought it was not physical. A few months after Schwarzschild, a student of <!--del_lnk--> Lorentz, Johannes Droste, independently gave the same solution for the point mass and wrote more extensively about its properties.<p>In 1930, <!--del_lnk--> Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar argued that special relativity demonstrated that a non-radiating body above 1.44 solar masses, now known as the <!--del_lnk--> Chandrasekhar limit, would collapse since there was nothing known at that time that could stop it from doing so. His arguments were opposed by <!--del_lnk--> Arthur Eddington, who believed that something would inevitably stop the collapse. Both were correct, since a <!--del_lnk--> white dwarf more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a <!--del_lnk--> neutron star. However, a neutron star above about three solar masses (the <!--del_lnk--> Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit) will itself become unstable against collapse due to similar physics.<p>In 1939, <a href="../../wp/r/Robert_Oppenheimer.htm" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a> and H. Snyder predicted that massive stars could undergo a dramatic <!--del_lnk--> gravitational collapse. Black holes could, in principle, be formed in nature. Such objects for a while were called <b>frozen stars</b> since the collapse would be observed to rapidly slow down and become heavily <a href="../../wp/r/Redshift.htm" title="Redshift">redshifted</a> near the Schwarzschild radius. The mathematics showed that an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where it crosses that radius. These hypothetical objects were not the topic of much interest until the late 1960s. Most physicists believed that they were a peculiar feature of the highly symmetric solution found by Schwarzschild, and that objects collapsing in nature would not form black holes.<p>Interest in black holes was rekindled in 1967 because of theoretical and experimental progress. In 1970, <a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Roger Penrose proved that black holes are a generic feature in Einstein's theory of gravity, and cannot be avoided in some collapsing objects. Interest was renewed in the astronomical community with the discovery of <!--del_lnk--> pulsars. Shortly thereafter, the expression "black hole" was coined by theoretical physicist <!--del_lnk--> John Wheeler, being first used in his public lecture <i>Our Universe: the Known and Unknown</i> on <!--del_lnk--> 29 December <!--del_lnk--> 1967. The older Newtonian objects of Michell and Laplace are often referred to as "<!--del_lnk--> dark stars" to distinguish them from the "black holes" of general relativity.<p><a id="Evidence" name="Evidence"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Evidence</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1780.jpg.htm" title="A (simulated) Black Hole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600 km with the Milky Way in the background (horizontal camera opening angle: 90°)."><img alt="A (simulated) Black Hole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600 km with the Milky Way in the background (horizontal camera opening angle: 90°)." height="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_Hole_Milkyway.jpg" src="../../images/17/1780.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1780.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A (simulated) Black Hole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600 km with the Milky Way in the background (horizontal camera opening angle: 90°).</div>
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<p><a id="Formation" name="Formation"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Formation</span></h3>
<p><!--del_lnk--> General relativity (as well as most other metric theories of gravity) not only says that black holes <i>can</i> exist, but in fact predicts that they will be formed in nature whenever a sufficient amount of mass gets packed in a given region of space, through a process called <!--del_lnk--> gravitational collapse; as the mass inside the given region of space increases, its gravity becomes stronger and (in the language of relativity) increasingly deforms the space around it, ultimately until nothing (not even light) can escape the gravity; at this point an <!--del_lnk--> event horizon is formed, and matter and energy must inevitably collapse to a density beyond the limits of known physics. For example, if the Sun was compressed to a radius of roughly three kilometers (about 1/232,000 its present size), the resulting gravitational field would create an event horizon around it, and thus a black hole.<p>A quantitative analysis of this idea led to the prediction that a stellar remnant above about three to five times the mass of the Sun (the <!--del_lnk--> Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit) would be unable to support itself as a <!--del_lnk--> neutron star via <!--del_lnk--> degeneracy pressure, and would inevitably collapse into a black hole. Stellar remnants with this mass are expected to be produced immediately at the end of the lives of stars that are more than 25 to 50 times the mass of the Sun, or by accretion of matter onto an existing <!--del_lnk--> neutron star.<p>Stellar collapse will generate black holes containing at least three <!--del_lnk--> solar masses. Black holes smaller than this limit can only be created if their matter is subjected to sufficient pressure from some source other than self-gravitation. The enormous pressures needed for this are thought to have existed in the very early stages of the universe, possibly creating <!--del_lnk--> primordial black holes which could have masses smaller than that of the Sun.<p><!--del_lnk--> Supermassive black holes are believed to exist in the centre of most <a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" title="Galaxy">galaxies</a>, including our own <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. This type of black hole contains millions to billions of solar masses, and there are several models of how they might have been formed. The first is via gravitational collapse of a dense cluster of stars. A second is by large amounts of mass accreting onto a "seed" black hole of stellar mass. A third is by repeated fusion of smaller black holes. Effects of such supermassive black holes on spacetime may be observed in regions as the Virgo cluster of galaxies, for example, the location of M87 (see image below) and its neighbors.<p><!--del_lnk--> Intermediate-mass black holes have a mass between that of stellar and supermassive black holes, typically in the range of thousands of solar masses. Intermediate-mass black holes have been proposed as a possible power source for <!--del_lnk--> ultra-luminous X ray sources, and in 2004 detection was claimed of an intermediate-mass black hole orbiting the <!--del_lnk--> Sagittarius A* supermassive black hole candidate at the core of the Milky Way galaxy. This detection is disputed.<p>Certain models of <!--del_lnk--> unification of the <!--del_lnk--> four fundamental forces allow the formation of <!--del_lnk--> micro black holes under laboratory conditions. These postulate that the energy at which <a href="../../wp/g/Gravitation.htm" title="Gravity">gravity</a> is unified with the other forces is comparable to the energy at which the other three are <!--del_lnk--> unified, as opposed to being the <!--del_lnk--> Planck energy (which is much higher). This would allow production of extremely short-lived black holes in terrestrial <!--del_lnk--> particle accelerators. No conclusive evidence of this type of black hole production has been presented, though even a negative result improves constraints on <!--del_lnk--> compactification of extra dimensions from <a href="../../wp/s/String_theory.htm" title="String theory">string theory</a> or other models of physics.<p><a id="Observation" name="Observation"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Observation</span></h3>
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<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1781.jpg.htm" title="Formation of extragalactic jets from a black hole's accretion disk"><img alt="Formation of extragalactic jets from a black hole's accretion disk" height="309" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_hole_jet_diagram.jpg" src="../../images/17/1781.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1781.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Formation of extragalactic jets from a black hole's accretion disk</div>
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<p>In theory, no object within the event <!--del_lnk--> horizon of a black hole can ever escape, including light. However, black holes can be inductively detected from observation of <!--del_lnk--> phenomena near them, such as <!--del_lnk--> gravitational lensing, <!--del_lnk--> galactic jets, and stars that appear to be in <!--del_lnk--> orbit around <!--del_lnk--> space where there is no visible matter.<p>The most conspicuous effects are believed to come from matter accreting onto a black hole, which is predicted to collect into an extremely hot and fast-spinning <!--del_lnk--> accretion disk. The internal <!--del_lnk--> viscosity of the disk causes it to become extremely hot, and emit large amounts of <!--del_lnk--> X-ray and <a href="../../wp/u/Ultraviolet.htm" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> <!--del_lnk--> radiation. This process is extremely efficient and can convert about 10% of the <!--del_lnk--> rest mass <a href="../../wp/e/Energy.htm" title="Energy">energy</a> of an object into <!--del_lnk--> radiation, as opposed to <!--del_lnk--> nuclear fusion which can only convert a few percent of the <!--del_lnk--> mass to energy. Other observed effects are narrow <!--del_lnk--> jets of particles at relativistic speeds heading along the disk's axis.<p>However, accretion disks, jets, and orbiting objects are found not only around black holes, but also around other objects such as <!--del_lnk--> neutron stars and <!--del_lnk--> white dwarfs; and the dynamics of bodies near these non-black hole attractors is largely similar to that of bodies around black holes. It is currently a very complex and active field of research involving <!--del_lnk--> magnetic fields and <!--del_lnk--> plasma physics to disentangle what is going on. Hence, for the most part, observations of accretion disks and orbital motions merely indicate that there is a compact object of a certain mass, and says very little about the nature of that object. The identification of an object as a black hole requires the further assumption that no other object (or bound system of objects) could be so massive and compact. Most astrophysicists accept that this is the case, since according to general relativity, any concentration of matter of sufficient density must necessarily collapse into a black hole.<p>One important observable difference between black holes and other compact massive objects is that any infalling matter will eventually collide with the latter at relativistic speeds, leading to emission as the kinetic energy of the matter is thermalized. In addition <!--del_lnk--> thermonuclear "burning" may occur on the surface as material builds up. These processes produce irregular intense flares of <!--del_lnk--> X-rays and other hard radiation. Thus the lack of such flare-ups around a compact concentration of mass is taken as evidence that the object is a black hole, with no surface onto which matter can collect.<p><a id="Suspected_black_holes" name="Suspected_black_holes"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Suspected black holes</span></h3>
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<div style="width:242px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1783.jpg.htm" title="An artist depiction of two black holes merging."><img alt="An artist depiction of two black holes merging." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_Hole_Merger.jpg" src="../../images/17/1783.jpg" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1783.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An artist depiction of two black holes merging.</div>
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<p>There is now a great deal of indirect astronomical observational evidence for black holes in two mass ranges:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> stellar mass black holes with masses of a typical <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> (4–15 times the mass of our Sun), and<li><!--del_lnk--> supermassive black holes with masses ranging from on the order of <span class="texhtml">10<sup>5</sup></span> to <span class="texhtml">10<sup>10</sup></span> solar masses.</ul>
<p>Additionally, there is some evidence for <!--del_lnk--> intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs), those with masses of a few hundred to a few thousand times that of the Sun. These black holes may be responsible for the emission from <!--del_lnk--> ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs).<p>Candidates for stellar-mass black holes were identified mainly by the presence of accretion disks of the right size and speed, without the irregular flare-ups that are expected from disks around other compact objects. Stellar-mass black holes may be involved in <!--del_lnk--> gamma ray bursts (GRBs); short duration GRBs are believed to be caused by colliding <!--del_lnk--> neutron stars, which form a black hole on merging. Observations of long GRBs in association with <!--del_lnk--> supernovae suggest that long GRBs are caused by <!--del_lnk--> collapsars; a massive star whose core collapses to form a black hole, drawing in the surrounding material. Therefore, a GRB could possibly signal the birth of a new black hole, aiding efforts to search for them.<p>Candidates for more massive black holes were first provided by the <!--del_lnk--> active galactic nuclei and <!--del_lnk--> quasars, discovered by <!--del_lnk--> radioastronomers in the 1960s. The efficient conversion of mass into energy by friction in the accretion disk of a black hole seems to be the only explanation for the copious amounts of energy generated by such objects. Indeed the introduction of this theory in the 1970s removed a major objection to the belief that quasars were distant galaxies — namely, that no physical mechanism could generate that much energy.<p>From observations in the 1980s of motions of stars around the galactic centre, it is now believed that such supermassive black holes exist in the centre of most galaxies, including our own <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Sagittarius A* is now generally agreed to be the location of a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way galaxy. The orbits of stars within a few <!--del_lnk--> AU of Sagittarius A* rule out any object other than a black hole at the centre of the Milky Way assuming the current standard laws of physics are correct.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1784.jpg.htm" title="The jet emitted by the galaxy M87 in this image is thought to be caused by a supermassive black hole at the galaxy's centre"><img alt="The jet emitted by the galaxy M87 in this image is thought to be caused by a supermassive black hole at the galaxy's centre" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:M87_jet.jpg" src="../../images/17/1784.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1784.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The jet emitted by the galaxy <!--del_lnk--> M87 in this image is thought to be caused by a <!--del_lnk--> supermassive black hole at the galaxy's centre</div>
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<p>The current picture is that all galaxies may have a supermassive black hole in their centre, and that this black hole accretes gas and dust in the middle of the galaxies generating huge amounts of radiation — until all the nearby mass has been swallowed and the process shuts off. This picture may also explain why there are no nearby <!--del_lnk--> quasars.<p>Although the details are still not clear, it seems that the growth of the black hole is intimately related to the growth of the spheroidal component — an <!--del_lnk--> elliptical galaxy, or the <!--del_lnk--> bulge of a <!--del_lnk--> spiral galaxy — in which it lives.<p>In 2002, the Hubble Telescope identified evidence indicating that intermediate size black holes exist in <!--del_lnk--> globular clusters named M15 and G1. The evidence for the black holes stemmed from the orbital velocity of the stars in the globular clusters; however, a group of <!--del_lnk--> neutron stars could cause similar observations.<p><a id="Recent_discoveries" name="Recent_discoveries"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Recent discoveries</span></h3>
<p>In 2004, astronomers found 31 candidate supermassive black holes from searching obscured <!--del_lnk--> quasars. The lead scientist said that there are from two to five times as many supermassive black holes as previously predicted.<p>In June 2004 astronomers found a super-massive black hole, <!--del_lnk--> Q0906+6930, at the centre of a distant <a href="../../wp/g/Galaxy.htm" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a> about 12.7 billion light years away. This observation indicated rapid creation of super-massive black holes in the early universe.<p>In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of the first <!--del_lnk--> intermediate-mass black hole in our Galaxy, orbiting three light-years from Sagittarius A*. This medium black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars, possibly the remnant of a massive star cluster that has been stripped down by the Galactic Centre. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars.<p>In February 2005, a <!--del_lnk--> blue giant <a href="../../wp/s/Star.htm" title="Star">star</a> <!--del_lnk--> SDSS J090745.0+24507 was found to be leaving the <a href="../../wp/m/Milky_Way.htm" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> at twice the escape velocity (0.0022 of the speed of light), having been catapulted out of the galactic core which its path can be traced back to. The high velocity of this star supports the hypothesis of a super-massive black hole in the centre of the galaxy.<p>The formation of <!--del_lnk--> micro black holes on Earth in <!--del_lnk--> particle accelerators has been tentatively reported, but not yet confirmed. So far there are no observed candidates for <!--del_lnk--> primordial black holes.<p><a id="Features_and_theories" name="Features_and_theories"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Features and theories</span></h2>
<p>Black holes require the <!--del_lnk--> general relativistic concept of a curved <!--del_lnk--> spacetime: their most striking properties rely on a distortion of the geometry of the space surrounding them.<p><a id="Gravitational_field" name="Gravitational_field"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Gravitational field</span></h3>
<p>The gravitational field outside a black hole is identical to the field produced by any other <!--del_lnk--> spherically symmetric object of the same mass. The popular conception of black holes as "sucking" things in is false: objects can orbit around black holes indefinitely without getting any closer. The strange properties of spacetime only become noticeable closer to the black hole.<p><a id="Event_horizon" name="Event_horizon"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Event horizon</span></h3>
<p>The "surface" of a black hole is the so-called <i><!--del_lnk--> event horizon,</i> an imaginary surface surrounding the mass of the black hole. <a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> proved that the topology of the event horizon of a non-spinning black hole is a sphere. At the event horizon, the <!--del_lnk--> escape velocity is more than the speed of light. This is why anything inside the event horizon, including a <a href="../../wp/p/Photon.htm" title="Photon">photon</a>, is prevented from escaping across the event horizon by the extremely strong gravitational field. Particles from outside this region can fall in, cross the event horizon, and will never be able to leave.<p>Since external observers cannot probe the interior of a black hole, according to classical general relativity, black holes can be entirely characterised according to three parameters: <!--del_lnk--> mass, <!--del_lnk--> angular momentum, and <a href="../../wp/e/Electric_charge.htm" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a>. This principle is summarised by the saying, coined by <!--del_lnk--> John Archibald Wheeler, "<!--del_lnk--> black holes have no hair" meaning that there are no features that distinguish one black hole from another, other than mass, charge, and angular momentum.<p><a id="Space-time_distortion_and_frame_of_reference" name="Space-time_distortion_and_frame_of_reference"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Inside the event horizon</span></h3>
<p>Spacetime inside the event horizon of an uncharged non-rotating black hole is peculiar in that the singularity is in every observer's future, so all particles within the event horizon move inexorably towards it (<!--del_lnk--> Penrose and <a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" title="Stephen Hawking">Hawking</a>). This means that there is a conceptual inaccuracy in the non-relativistic concept of a black hole as originally proposed by <!--del_lnk--> John Michell in 1783. In Michell's theory, the escape velocity equals the speed of light, but it would still, for example, be theoretically possible to hoist an object out of a black hole using a rope. General relativity eliminates such loopholes, because once an object is inside the event horizon, its time-line contains an end-point to time itself, and no possible <!--del_lnk--> world-lines come back out through the event horizon. A consequence of this is that a pilot in a powerful rocket ship that had just crossed the event horizon who tried to accelerate away from the singularity would reach it sooner in his frame, since <!--del_lnk--> geodesics (unaccelerated paths) are paths that maximise proper time.<p>As the object continues to approach the singularity, it will be stretched radially with respect to the black hole and compressed in directions perpendicular to this axis. This phenomenon, called <!--del_lnk--> spaghettification, occurs as a result of <!--del_lnk--> tidal forces: the parts of the object closer to the singularity feel a stronger pull towards it (causing stretching along the axis), and all parts are pulled in the direction of the singularity, which is only aligned with the object's average motion along the axis of the object (causing compression towards the axis).<p><a id="Singularity" name="Singularity"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Singularity</span></h3>
<p>At the centre of the black hole, well inside the event horizon, general relativity predicts a <!--del_lnk--> singularity, a place where the curvature of spacetime becomes infinite and gravitational forces become infinitely strong.<p>It is expected that future refinements or generalisations of general relativity (in particular <!--del_lnk--> quantum gravity) will change what is thought about the nature of black hole interiors. Most theorists interpret the mathematical singularity of the equations as indicating that the current theory is not complete, and that new phenomena must come into play as one approaches the singularity.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that there are no <!--del_lnk--> naked singularities in general relativity. This hypothesis is that every singularity is hidden behind an event horizon and cannot be probed. Whether this hypothesis is true remains an active area of theoretical research.<p><a id="Rotating_black_holes" name="Rotating_black_holes"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Rotating black holes</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1785.jpg.htm" title="An artist's impression of a black hole with a closely orbiting companion star that exceeds its Roche limit. In-falling matter forms an accretion disk, with some of the matter being ejected in highly energetic polar jets."><img alt="An artist's impression of a black hole with a closely orbiting companion star that exceeds its Roche limit. In-falling matter forms an accretion disk, with some of the matter being ejected in highly energetic polar jets." height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Accretion_disk.jpg" src="../../images/17/1785.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1785.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> An artist's impression of a black hole with a closely orbiting companion star that exceeds its <a href="../../wp/r/Roche_limit.htm" title="Roche limit">Roche limit</a>. In-falling matter forms an <!--del_lnk--> accretion disk, with some of the matter being ejected in highly energetic polar jets.</div>
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<p>According to theory, the event horizon of a black hole that is not spinning is spherical, and its singularity is expected to be a single point where the curvature becomes infinite. If the black hole carries angular momentum (inherited from a star that is spinning at the time of its collapse), it begins to drag space-time surrounding the event horizon in an effect known as <!--del_lnk--> frame-dragging. This spinning area surrounding the event horizon is called the <!--del_lnk--> ergosphere and has an <!--del_lnk--> ellipsoidal shape. Since the ergosphere is located outside the event horizon, objects can exist within the ergosphere without falling into the hole. However, because space-time itself is moving in the ergosphere, it is impossible for objects to remain in a fixed position. Objects grazing the ergosphere could in some circumstances be catapulted outwards at great speed, extracting energy (and angular momentum) from the hole, hence the Greek name <i>ergosphere</i> ("sphere of work") because it is capable of doing work.<p>The singularity inside a rotating black hole is expected to be a ring, rather than a point, though the interior geometry of a rotating black hole is currently not well understood. While the fate of an observer falling into a non-rotating black hole is <!--del_lnk--> spaghettification, the fate of an observer falling into a rotating black hole is much less clear. For instance, in the Kerr geometry, an infalling observer can potentially escape <!--del_lnk--> spaghettification by passing through an <!--del_lnk--> inner horizon. However, it is unlikely that the actual interior geometry of a rotating black hole is the Kerr geometry due to stability issues, and the ultimate fate of an observer falling into a rotating black hole is currently not known.<p><a id="Entropy_and_Hawking_radiation" name="Entropy_and_Hawking_radiation"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Entropy and Hawking radiation</span></h3>
<p>In 1971, <a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> showed that the total area of the event horizons of any collection of classical black holes can never decrease. This sounded remarkably similar to the Second Law of <a href="../../wp/t/Thermodynamics.htm" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a>, with area playing the role of <a href="../../wp/e/Entropy.htm" title="Entropy">entropy</a>. Classically, one could violate the second law of thermodynamics by material entering a black hole disappearing from our universe and resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of the universe. Therefore, <!--del_lnk--> Jacob Bekenstein proposed that a black hole should have an entropy and that it should be proportional to its horizon area. Since black holes do not classically emit radiation, the thermodynamic viewpoint was simply an analogy. However, in 1974, Hawking applied <!--del_lnk--> quantum field theory to the curved spacetime around the event horizon and discovered that black holes can emit <a href="../../wp/h/Hawking_radiation.htm" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a>, a form of <!--del_lnk--> thermal radiation. Using the <!--del_lnk--> first law of black hole mechanics, it follows that the entropy of a black hole is one quarter of the area of the horizon. This is a universal result and can be extended to apply to cosmological horizons such as in <!--del_lnk--> de Sitter space. It was later suggested that black holes are maximum-entropy objects, meaning that the maximum entropy of a region of space is the entropy of the largest black hole that can fit into it. This led to the <!--del_lnk--> holographic principle.<p>The Hawking radiation reflects a characteristic <!--del_lnk--> temperature of the black hole, which can be calculated from its entropy. This temperature in fact falls the more massive a black hole becomes: the more energy a black hole absorbs, the colder it gets. A black hole with roughly the <!--del_lnk--> mass of the planet Mercury would have a temperature in equilibrium with the <!--del_lnk--> cosmic microwave background radiation (about 2.73 K). More massive than this, a black hole will be colder than the background radiation, and it will gain energy from the background faster than it gives energy up through Hawking radiation, becoming even colder still. However, for a less massive black hole the effect implies that the mass of the black hole will slowly evaporate with time, with the black hole becoming hotter and hotter as it does so. Although these effects are negligible for black holes massive enough to have been formed astronomically, they would rapidly become significant for hypothetical <!--del_lnk--> smaller black holes, where quantum-mechanical effects dominate. Indeed, small black holes are predicted to undergo runaway evaporation and eventually vanish in a burst of radiation.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10519.jpg.htm" title="If ultra-high-energy collisions of particles in a particle accelerator can create microscopic black holes, it is expected that all types of particles will be emitted by black hole evaporation, providing key evidence for any grand unified theory. Above are the high energy particles produced in a gold ion collision on the RHIC."><img alt="If ultra-high-energy collisions of particles in a particle accelerator can create microscopic black holes, it is expected that all types of particles will be emitted by black hole evaporation, providing key evidence for any grand unified theory. Above are the high energy particles produced in a gold ion collision on the RHIC." height="309" longdesc="/wiki/Image:First_Gold_Beam-Beam_Collision_Events_at_RHIC_at_100_100_GeV_c_per_beam_recorded_by_STAR.jpg" src="../../images/17/1786.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/105/10519.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> If ultra-high-energy collisions of particles in a <!--del_lnk--> particle accelerator can create microscopic black holes, it is expected that all types of particles will be emitted by black hole evaporation, providing key evidence for any <!--del_lnk--> grand unified theory. Above are the high energy particles produced in a gold ion collision on the <!--del_lnk--> RHIC.</div>
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<p>Although general relativity can be used to perform a semi-classical calculation of black hole entropy, this situation is theoretically unsatisfying. In <!--del_lnk--> statistical mechanics, entropy is understood as counting the number of microscopic configurations of a system which have the same macroscopic qualities(such as <!--del_lnk--> mass, <!--del_lnk--> charge, <!--del_lnk--> pressure, etc.). But without a satisfactory theory of <!--del_lnk--> quantum gravity, one cannot perform such a computation for black holes. Some promise has been shown by <a href="../../wp/s/String_theory.htm" title="String theory">string theory</a>, however. There one posits that the microscopic degrees of freedom of the black hole are <!--del_lnk--> D-branes. By counting the states of D-branes with given charges and energy, the entropy for certain <!--del_lnk--> supersymmetric black holes has been reproduced. Extending the region of validity of these calculations is an ongoing area of research.<p><a id="Black_hole_unitarity" name="Black_hole_unitarity"></a><h3><span class="mw-headline">Black hole unitarity</span></h3>
<p>An open question in fundamental physics is the so-called information loss paradox, or <!--del_lnk--> black hole unitarity paradox. Classically, the laws of physics are the same run forward or in reverse. That is, if the position and velocity of every particle in the universe were measured, we could (disregarding <!--del_lnk--> chaos) work backwards to discover the history of the universe arbitrarily far in the past. In quantum mechanics, this corresponds to a vital property called <!--del_lnk--> unitarity which has to do with the conservation of probability.<p>Black holes, however, might violate this rule. The position under classical general relativity is subtle but straightforward: because of the classical <!--del_lnk--> no hair theorem, we can never determine what went into the black hole. However, as seen from the outside, information is never actually destroyed, as matter falling into the black hole appears from the outside to become more and more red-shifted as it approaches (but never ultimately appears to reach) the event horizon.<p>Ideas of <!--del_lnk--> quantum gravity, on the other hand, suggest that there can only be a limited finite entropy (ie a maximum finite amount of information) associated with the space near the horizon; but the change in the entropy of the horizon plus the entropy of the Hawking radiation is always sufficient to take up all of the entropy of matter and energy falling into the black hole.<p>Many physicists are concerned however that this is still not sufficiently well understood. In particular, at a quantum level, is the quantum state of the Hawking radiation uniquely determined by the history of what has fallen into the black hole; and is the history of what has fallen into the black hole uniquely determined by the quantum state of the black hole and the radiation? This is what determinism, and unitarity, would require.<p>For a long time <a href="../../wp/s/Stephen_Hawking.htm" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> had opposed such ideas, holding to his original 1975 position that the Hawking radiation is entirely thermal and therefore entirely random, representing new nondeterministically created information. However, on <!--del_lnk--> 21 July <!--del_lnk--> 2004 he presented a new argument, reversing his previous position. On this new calculation, the entropy associated with the black hole itself would still be inaccessible to external observers; and in the absence of this information, it is impossible to relate in a 1:1 way the information in the Hawking radiation (embodied in its detailed internal correlations) to the initial state of the system. However, if the black hole evaporates completely, then such an identification can be made, and unitarity is preserved. It is not clear how far even the specialist scientific community is yet persuaded by the mathematical machinery Hawking has used (indeed many regard <i>all</i> work on quantum gravity so far as highly speculative); but Hawking himself found it sufficiently convincing to pay out on a <!--del_lnk--> bet he had made in 1997 with Caltech physicist <!--del_lnk--> John Preskill, to considerable media interest.<p><a id="Mathematical_theory" name="Mathematical_theory"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Mathematical theory</span></h2>
<p>Black holes are predictions of <a href="../../wp/a/Albert_Einstein.htm" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>'s theory of <!--del_lnk--> general relativity. There are many known solutions to the <!--del_lnk--> Einstein field equations which describe black holes, and they are also thought to be an inevitable part of the evolution of any star of a certain size. In particular, they occur in the <!--del_lnk--> Schwarzschild metric, one of the earliest and simplest solutions to Einstein's equations, found by <!--del_lnk--> Karl Schwarzschild in 1915. This solution describes the <!--del_lnk--> curvature of <!--del_lnk--> spacetime in the vicinity of a static and <a href="../../wp/s/Sphere.htm" title="Sphere">spherically</a> <a href="../../wp/s/Symmetry.htm" title="Symmetry">symmetric</a> object, where the <!--del_lnk--> metric is,<dl>
<dd><img alt="ds^2 = - c^2 \left( 1 - {2Gm \over c^2 r} \right) dt^2 + \left( 1 - {2Gm \over c^2 r} \right)^{-1} dr^2 + r^2 d\Omega^2" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17667.png" />,</dl>
<p>where <img alt="d\Omega^2 = d\theta^2 + \sin^2\theta\; d\phi^2" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17668.png" /> is a standard element of solid angle.<p>According to general relativity, a gravitating object will collapse into a black hole if its radius is smaller than a characteristic distance, known as the <!--del_lnk--> Schwarzschild radius. (Indeed, <!--del_lnk--> Buchdahl's theorem in general relativity shows that in the case of a <!--del_lnk--> perfect fluid model of a compact object, the true lower limit is somewhat larger than the Schwarzschild radius.) Below this radius, spacetime is so strongly curved that any light ray emitted in this region, regardless of the direction in which it is emitted, will travel towards the centre of the system. Because <a href="../../wp/s/Special_relativity.htm" title="Special relativity">relativity</a> forbids anything from traveling <!--del_lnk--> faster than light, anything below the Schwarzschild radius – including the constituent particles of the gravitating object – will collapse into the centre. A <!--del_lnk--> gravitational singularity, a region of theoretically infinite density, forms at this point. Because not even light can escape from within the Schwarzschild radius, a classical black hole would truly appear <!--del_lnk--> black.<p>The Schwarzschild radius is given by<dl>
<dd><img alt="r_{\rm S} = {2\,Gm \over c^2}" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17669.png" /></dl>
<p>where <i>G</i> is the <!--del_lnk--> gravitational constant, <i>m</i> is the <!--del_lnk--> mass of the object, and <i>c</i> is the <a href="../../wp/s/Speed_of_light.htm" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. For an object with the mass of the <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>, the Schwarzschild radius is a mere 9 <!--del_lnk--> millimeters — about the size of a <!--del_lnk--> marble.<p>The mean density inside the Schwarzschild radius decreases as the mass of the black hole increases, so while an earth-mass black hole would have a density of 2 × 10<sup>30</sup> kg/m<sup>3</sup>, a supermassive black hole of 10<sup>9</sup> <!--del_lnk--> solar masses has a density of around 20 kg/m<sup>3</sup>, less than water! The mean density is given by<dl>
<dd><img alt="\rho=\frac{3\,c^6}{32\pi m^2G^3}" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17670.png" /></dl>
<p>Since the Earth has a mean radius of 6371 km, its volume would have to be reduced 4 × 10<sup>26</sup> times to collapse into a black hole. For an object with the mass of the <a href="../../wp/s/Sun.htm" title="Sun">Sun</a>, the Schwarzschild radius is approximately 3 km, much smaller than the Sun's current radius of about 696,000 km. It is also significantly smaller than the radius to which the Sun will ultimately shrink after exhausting its nuclear fuel, which is several thousand kilometers. More massive stars can collapse into black holes at the end of their lifetimes.<p>The formula also implies that any object with a given mean density is a black hole if its radius is large enough. The same formula applies for <!--del_lnk--> white holes as well. For example, if the <!--del_lnk--> visible universe has a mean density equal to the <!--del_lnk--> critical density, then it is a <!--del_lnk--> white hole, since its <!--del_lnk--> singularity is in the past and not in the future as should be for a black hole.<p>More general black holes are also predicted by other solutions to Einstein's equations, such as the <!--del_lnk--> Kerr metric for a rotating black hole, which possesses a <!--del_lnk--> ring singularity. Then we have the <!--del_lnk--> Reissner-Nordström metric for charged black holes. Last the <!--del_lnk--> Kerr-Newman metric is for the case of a charged and rotating black hole.<p>There is also the Black Hole Entropy formula:<dl>
<dd><img alt="S = \frac{Akc^3}{4\hbar G}" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17671.png" /></dl>
<p>Where <b>A</b> is the area of the event horizon of the black hole, <b><img alt="\hbar" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17672.png" /></b> is <!--del_lnk--> Dirac's constant (the "reduced Planck constant"), <b>k</b> is the <!--del_lnk--> Boltzmann constant, <b>G</b> is the <!--del_lnk--> gravitational constant, <b>c</b> is the <a href="../../wp/s/Speed_of_light.htm" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> and <b>S</b> is the entropy.<p>A convenient length scale to measure black hole processes is the "gravitational radius", which is equal to<dl>
<dd><img alt="r_{\rm G} = {Gm \over c^2}" class="tex" src="../../images/176/17675.png" /></dl>
<p>When expressed in terms of this length scale, many phenomena appear at integer radii. For example, the radius of a Schwarzschild black hole is two gravitational radii and the radius of a maximally rotating Kerr black hole is one gravitational radius. The location of the light circularization radius around a Schwarzschild black hole (where light may orbit the hole in an unstable circular orbit) is <span class="texhtml">3<i>r</i><sub>G</sub></span>. The location of the marginally stable orbit, thought to be close to the inner edge of an accretion disk, is at <span class="texhtml">6<i>r</i><sub>G</sub></span> for a Schwarzschild black hole.<p><a id="Alternative_models" name="Alternative_models"></a><h2><span class="mw-headline">Alternative models</span></h2>
<p>Several alternative models, which behave like a black hole but avoid the singularity, have been proposed. But most researchers judge these concepts artificial, as they are more complicated but do not give near term observable differences from black holes (see <!--del_lnk--> Occam's razor). The most prominent alternative theory is the <!--del_lnk--> Gravastar.<p>In March 2005, physicist <!--del_lnk--> George Chapline at the <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> proposed that black holes do not exist, and that objects currently thought to be black holes are actually <!--del_lnk--> dark-energy stars. He draws this conclusion from some quantum mechanical analyses. Although his proposal currently has little support in the physics community, it was widely reported by the media.<p>Among the alternate models are <!--del_lnk--> Magnetospheric eternally collapsing objects, clusters of elementary particles (e.g., boson stars), fermion balls, self-gravitating, degenerate heavy neutrinos and even clusters of very low mass (~0.04 Msolar) black holes.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Mammals.htm">Mammals</a></h3>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1787.jpg.htm" title="Black jaguar"><img alt="Black jaguar" height="201" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black_jaguar.jpg" src="../../images/17/1787.jpg" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>The <b>black panther</b> is the common name for a black specimen (a <!--del_lnk--> melanistic variant) of any of several <!--del_lnk--> species of <a href="../../wp/c/Cat.htm" title="Cat">cats</a>. Zoologically speaking, the term <i>panther</i> is synonymous with <i>leopard</i>. The <!--del_lnk--> genus name <i>Panthera</i> is a <!--del_lnk--> taxonomic category that contains all the species of a particular group of <!--del_lnk--> felids. In <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, the term <i>panther</i> is commonly used for the <!--del_lnk--> puma; in <a href="../../wp/l/Latin_America.htm" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> it is most often used to mean a <!--del_lnk--> jaguar. Elsewhere in the world it refers to the <!--del_lnk--> leopard (originally individual animals with longer tails were deemed panthers and others were leopards; it is a common misconception that the term panther necessarily refers a melanistic individual).<p><!--del_lnk--> Melanism is most common in jaguars (<i>Panthera onca</i>) - where it is due to a dominant gene mutation - and <!--del_lnk--> leopards (<i>Panthera pardus</i>) - where it is due to a <!--del_lnk--> recessive gene mutation. Close examination of one of these black cats will show that the typical markings are still there, and are simply hidden by the surplus of the <!--del_lnk--> black pigment <!--del_lnk--> melanin. Cats with <!--del_lnk--> melanism can co-exist with litter mates that do not have this condition. In cats that hunt mainly at night the condition is not detrimental. <!--del_lnk--> White panthers also exist, these being <!--del_lnk--> albino or <!--del_lnk--> leucistic individuals of the same three species.<p>It is probable that melanism is a favorable evolutionary <!--del_lnk--> mutation with a <a href="../../wp/n/Natural_selection.htm" title="Natural selection">selective advantage</a> under certain conditions for its possessor, since it is more commonly found in regions of dense forest, where light levels are lower. Melanism can also be linked to beneficial mutations in the immune system.<p>
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</script><a id="Black_Panther:_a_Melanistic_Leopard" name="Black_Panther:_a_Melanistic_Leopard"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Black Panther: a Melanistic Leopard</span></h2>
<p>These are the most common form of black panther in captivity and have been selectively bred for decades as exhibits or exotic pets (this inbreeding for the sake of appearance has adversely affected temperament). They are smaller and more lightly built than leopards. The spotted pattern is still visible on black leopards, especially from certain angles where the effect is that of printed <!--del_lnk--> silk. Skin colour is a mixture of blue black gray and purple with rosettes. A black panther (leopard) is able to hunt and kill animals outweighing them by more than 1,350 pounds but this is rare because of competition from tigers and lions.<p>Black leopards are reported from most densely-forested areas in south-western <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Myanmar.htm" title="Burma">Burma</a>, <!--del_lnk--> Assam and <a href="../../wp/n/Nepal.htm" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>; from <!--del_lnk--> Travancore and other parts of southern <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a> and are said to be common in <!--del_lnk--> Java and the southern part of the <!--del_lnk--> Malay Peninsula where they may be more numerous than spotted leopards. They are less common in tropical <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a>, but have been reported from <a href="../../wp/e/Ethiopia.htm" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> (formerly Abyssinia), the forests of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares. One was recorded by Peter Turnbull-Kemp in the equatorial forest of <a href="../../wp/c/Cameroon.htm" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>.<p>Adult black panthers (leopards) are more temperamental (nervous or vicious) than their spotted counterparts. It is a myth that their mothers often reject them at a young age because of their colour. In actuality, they are more temperamental because they have been inbred (e.g. brother/sister, father/daughter, mother/son matings) to preserve the coloration. The poor temperament has been bred into the strain as a side-effect of inbreeding. It is this poor temperament that leads to problems of maternal care in captivity as the proximity of humans stresses the mother. According to <!--del_lnk--> Funk And Wagnalls' Wildlife Encyclopedia, black leopards are less fertile than normal leopards having average litters of 1.8, compared to 2.1. This may be due to their high-strung nature.<p>In the early 1980s, <a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> Zoo, <a href="../../wp/s/Scotland.htm" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> acquired a 10 year old black leopard from <a href="../../wp/d/Dublin.htm" title="Dublin">Dublin</a> Zoo, <a href="../../wp/i/Ireland.htm" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>. She was exhibited for several years before moving to <a href="../../wp/m/Madrid.htm" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> Zoo, <a href="../../wp/s/Spain.htm" title="Spain">Spain</a>. This leopard had a uniformly black coat profusely sprinkled with white hairs as though draped with spider webs. She was therefore nicknamed the Cobweb Panther. The condition appeared to be <!--del_lnk--> vitiligo and as she aged, the white became more extensive. Since then, other Cobweb Panthers have been reported and photographed in zoos.<p><a id="Black_Panther:_a_Melanistic_Jaguar" name="Black_Panther:_a_Melanistic_Jaguar"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Black Panther: a Melanistic Jaguar</span></h2>
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<p>In <!--del_lnk--> jaguars, the mutation is dominant hence black jaguars can produce both black and spotted cubs, but spotted jaguars only produce spotted cubs when bred together. In leopards, the mutation is recessive and some spotted leopards can produce black cubs (if both parents carry the gene in hidden form) while black leopards always breed true when mated together. In stuffed mounted specimens, black leopards often fade to a rusty colour, but black jaguars fade to chocolate brown. The black jaguar was considered a separate species by indigenous peoples.<p>In Harmsworth Natural History (1910), WH Hudson writes:<blockquote>
<p>The jaguar is a beautiful creature, the ground-colour of the fur a rich golden-red tan, abundantly marked with black rings, enclosing one or two small spots within. This is the typical colouring, and it varies little in the temperate regions; in the hot region the Indians recognise three strongly marked varieties, which they regard as distinct species - the one described; the smaller jaguar, less aquatic in his habits and marked with spots, not rings; and, thirdly, the black variety. They scout the notion that their terrible "black tiger" is a mere melanic variation, like the black leopard of the Old World and the wild black rabbit. They regard it as wholly distinct, and affirm that it is larger and much more dangerous than the spotted jaguar; that they recognise it by its cry; that it belongs to the terra firma rather than to the water-side; finally, that black pairs with black, and that the cubs are invariably black. Nevertheless, naturalists have been obliged to make it specifically one with Felis onca, the familiar spotted jaguar, since, when stripped of its hide, it is found to be anatomically as much like that beast as the black is like the spotted leopard.</blockquote>
<p>The gene is incompletely dominant. Individuals with two copies of the gene are darker (the black background colour is more dense) than individuals with just one copy whose background colour may appear to be dark charcoal rather than black.<p>A black jaguar called Diablo has been accidentally crossed with a lioness named Lola at Bear Creek Sanctuary, Barrie, <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> resulting in a charcoal coloured "black <!--del_lnk--> jaglion" female as well as a tan coloured spotted jaglion male. It therefore cannot be said that the melanistic gene is dominant over lion colouration.<p><a id="Black_Panther:_a_Melanistic_Puma" name="Black_Panther:_a_Melanistic_Puma"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Black Panther: a Melanistic Puma</span></h2>
<p>There are no authenticated cases of truly melanistic <!--del_lnk--> pumas. Black pumas have been reported in <!--del_lnk--> Kentucky, one of which had a paler belly. There have also been reports of glossy black pumas from <!--del_lnk--> Kansas and eastern <!--del_lnk--> Nebraska. These are known as the North American Black Panther (NABP). None have ever been photographed or shot in the wild, and none have been bred. There is wide conensus among breeders and biologists that the animal does not exist and is a <!--del_lnk--> cryptid. Sightings are current attributed to mistaken species identification by non feline experts, and memetic exaggeration of size.<p>In his "Histoire Naturelle" (1749), <!--del_lnk--> Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, wrote of the "Black Cougar": "M. de la Borde, King’s physician at Cayenne, informs me, that in the [South American] Continent there are three species of rapacious animals; that the first is the jaguar, which is called the tiger; that the second is the couguar [sic], called the red tiger, on account of the uniform redness of his hair; that the jaguar is of the size of a large bull-dog, and weighs about 200 pounds (90 kg); that the couguar is smaller, less dangerous, and not so frequent in the neighbourhood of Cayenne as the jaguar; and that both these animals take six years in acquiring their full growth. He adds, that there is a third species in these countries, called the black tiger, of which we have given a figure under the appellation of the black couguar."<p>"The head," says M. de la Borde, "is pretty similar to that of the common couguar; but the animal has long black hair, and likewise a long tail, with strong whiskers. He weighs not much above forty pounds. The female brings forth her young in the hollows of old trees." This black couguar is most likely a margay or ocelot, which are under forty pounds, live in trees, and do occur in a melanistic phase.<p>Another description of a black cougar was provided by Mr Pennant: "Black tiger, or cat, with the head black, sides, fore part of the legs, and the tail, covered with short and very glossy hairs, of a dusky colour, sometimes spotted with black, but generally plain: Upper lips white: At the corner of the mouth a black spot: Long hairs above each eye, and long whiskers on the upper lip: Lower lip, throat, belly, and the inside of the legs, whitish, or very pale ash-colour: Paws white: Ears pointed: Grows to the size of a heifer of a year old: Has vast strength in its limbs.-- Inhabits Brasil and Guiana: Is a cruel and fierce beast; much dreaded by the Indians; but happily is a scarce species;" (<i>Pennant's Synops. of quad.</i>, p 180). According to his translator Smellie (1781), the description was taken from two black cougars exhibited in London some years previously.<p><a id="Black_Pumas_In_the_United_States.3F_Mistaken_Identity_Candidates" name="Black_Pumas_In_the_United_States.3F_Mistaken_Identity_Candidates"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Black Pumas In the United States? Mistaken Identity Candidates</span></h4>
<p>In Florida, a few melanistic <a href="../../wp/b/Bobcat.htm" title="Bobcat">bobcats</a> exist. They have been caught, and have also apparently been mistaken for panthers. Ulmer (1941) presents photographs and descriptions of two animals captured in Martin County in 1939 and 1940. In the photographs, they appear black, and one of the hunters called them black. However,<blockquote>
<p>The Academy specimen, upon close examination, is far from black. The most heavily pigmented portions are the crown and dorsal area. In most lights these areas appear black, but at certain angles the dorsal strip has a decidedly mahogany tint. The mahogany coloring becomes lighter and richer on the sides. The underparts are lightest, being almost ferruginous in colour. The chin, throat and cheeks are dark chocolate-brown, but the facial stripes can be seen clearly. The limbs are dark mahogany. In certain lights the typical spot-pattern of the Florida bobcat can be distinctly seen on the side, underparts and limbs. The Bronx Park animal appears darker and the spots are not visible, although the poor light in the quarantine cage may have been the reason.</blockquote>
<p>Adult male bobcats are between 28 to 47" long (with a a short bobbed tail), and are between 18 to 24" high at shoulder height. (Females are slightly smaller.) Florida pumas are between 23 to 32" at shoulder height, and between 5 to 7' <i>including tail</i>. Bobcats weight between 16 to 30 pounds, whereas Florida pumas are between 50 to 154 pounds.<p>Another explanation for black puma sightings is the <!--del_lnk--> jaguarundi, a cat very similar genetically to the puma, which grows around 30" of body and 20" of tail. Their coat goes through a reddish-brown phase and a dark grey phase. While their acknowledged natural range ends in southern Texas, a small breeding population was introduced to Florida in the 1940's, and there are rumors of people breeding them as pets there as well - in Central America they are known as relatively docile pets, as far as non-domesticated animals go. Jaguarundis hunting territory can extend to 100km wide for males, and it's quite possible that very small populations which rarely venture out of deep forests are responsible for many or most of the sightings. While they are significantly smaller than a puma, differently colored, and much lower to the ground (many note a resemblence to the weasel), a little <!--del_lnk--> memory bias combined with their secretive nature could explain many of the sightings in the southeastern US.<p>Another possibility are black <!--del_lnk--> jaguars, who are believed to have ranged North America in historical memory. Melanistic jaguars aren't common in nature, and more importantly, jaguars themselves were hunted to near extinction in the '60's. However, while they do not look exactly like pumas, but they have the requisite size, and it's conceivable that there could be, for example, a breeding population hidden in the Louisiana bayou. The jaguar has had several photographically confirmed and many unconfirmed sightings in Arizona, New Mexico, and southwest Texas, but not outside that region.<p><a id="Citations" name="Citations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Citations</span></h2>
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<li id="_note-0"><b>^</b> Ulmer, Jr., Fred A. 1941. <!--del_lnk--> Melanism in the Felidae, with Special Reference to the Genus Lynx. Journal of Mammalogy, Vol. 22, No. 3. pp. 285-288.</ol>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/17/1790.jpg.htm" title="Pepper plant with immature peppercorns"><img alt="Pepper plant with immature peppercorns" height="268" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Koeh-107.jpg" src="../../images/17/1790.jpg" width="210" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Pepper plant with immature peppercorns</small></div>
</td>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: lightgreen;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/p/Plant.htm" title="Plant">Plantae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Division:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliophyta<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Magnoliopsida<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Piperales<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Piperaceae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Piper</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>P. nigrum</b></i></span><br />
</td>
</tr>
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</td>
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<tr bgcolor="lightgreen">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
</th>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Piper nigrum</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">L.</a></small></td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><b>Black pepper</b> (<i>Piper nigrum</i>) is a <!--del_lnk--> flowering <!--del_lnk--> vine in the family <!--del_lnk--> Piperaceae, cultivated for its <a href="../../wp/f/Fruit.htm" title="Fruit">fruit</a>, which is usually dried and used as a <!--del_lnk--> spice and <!--del_lnk--> seasoning. The same fruit is also used to produce <b>white pepper</b> and <b>green pepper</b>. Black pepper is native to <!--del_lnk--> South India and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. The fruit, known as a <b>peppercorn</b> when dried, is a small <!--del_lnk--> drupe five millimetres in diameter, dark red when fully mature, containing a single <a href="../../wp/s/Seed.htm" title="Seed">seed</a>.<p>Dried, ground pepper is one of the most common spices in European <!--del_lnk--> cuisine and its descendants, having been known and prized since antiquity for both its flavour and its use as a <a href="../../wp/m/Medicine.htm" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical <!--del_lnk--> piperine. Ground black peppercorn, usually referred to simply as "pepper", may be found on nearly every dinner table in some parts of the world, often alongside <a href="../../wp/e/Edible_salt.htm" title="Edible salt">table salt</a>.<p>The word <i>pepper</i> is derived from the <!--del_lnk--> Sanskrit <i>pippali</i>, via the <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>piper</i> and <a href="../../wp/o/Old_English_language.htm" title="Old English language">Old English</a> <i>pipor</i>. The Latin word is also the source of <a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a> <i>pfeffer</i>, <a href="../../wp/f/French_language.htm" title="French language">French</a> <i>poivre</i>, <a href="../../wp/d/Dutch_language.htm" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> <i>peper</i>, and other similar forms. In the 16th century, <i>pepper</i> started referring to the unrelated <!--del_lnk--> New World <!--del_lnk--> chile peppers as well. <i>Pepper</i> was used in a figurative sense meaning "spirit" or "energy" at least as far back as the 1840s; in the early 20th century, this was shortened to <i>pep</i>.<p>
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</script><a id="Varieties_of_pepper" name="Varieties_of_pepper"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Varieties of pepper</span></h2>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1791.jpg.htm" title="Black and white peppercorns"><img alt="Black and white peppercorns" height="196" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Dried_Peppercorns.jpg" src="../../images/17/1791.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1791.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Black and white peppercorns</div>
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<p>Black pepper is produced from the still-green unripe <!--del_lnk--> berries of the pepper plant. The berries are cooked briefly in hot water, both to clean them and to prepare them for drying. The heat ruptures <!--del_lnk--> cell walls in the fruit, speeding the work of browning <!--del_lnk--> enzymes during drying. The berries are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the fruit around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, wrinkled black layer around the seed. Once dried, the fruits are called black peppercorns.<p>White pepper consists of the seed only, with the fruit removed. This is usually accomplished by allowing fully ripe berries to soak in water for about a week, during which time the flesh of the fruit softens and <!--del_lnk--> decomposes. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the naked seed is dried. Alternative processes are used for removing the outer fruit from the seed, including removal of the outer layer from black pepper produced from unripe berries.<p>Black pepper is the most common, while white pepper is mainly used in dishes like light-coloured <!--del_lnk--> sauces or <!--del_lnk--> mashed potatoes, where ground black pepper would visibly stand out. There is disagreement regarding which is generally spicier. They do have differing flavours due to the presence of certain compounds in the outer fruit layer of the berry that are not found in the seed.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1792.jpg.htm" title="Black, green, pink, and white peppercorns"><img alt="Black, green, pink, and white peppercorns" height="164" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Peppercorn-varieties.jpg" src="../../images/17/1792.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1792.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Black, green, pink, and white peppercorns</div>
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<p>Green pepper, like black, is made from the unripe berries. Dried green peppercorns are treated in a manner that retains the green colour, such as treatment with <!--del_lnk--> sulphur dioxide or <!--del_lnk--> freeze-drying. Pickled peppercorns, also green, are unripe berries preserved in <!--del_lnk--> brine or <!--del_lnk--> vinegar. Fresh, unpreserved green pepper berries, largely unknown in the West, are used in some <!--del_lnk--> Asian cuisines, particularly <!--del_lnk--> Thai cuisine. Their flavour has been described as piquant and fresh, with a bright aroma. They decay quickly if not dried or preserved.<p>A rarely seen product called pink pepper or red pepper consists of ripe red pepper berries preserved in brine and vinegar. Even more rarely seen, the ripe red peppercorns can also be dried using the same colour-preserving techniques used to produce green pepper. Pink pepper from <i>Piper nigrum</i> is distinct from the more-common dried "pink peppercorns", which are the fruits of a plant from a different family, the Peruvian pepper tree, <i><!--del_lnk--> Schinus molle</i>, and its relative the <!--del_lnk--> Brazilian pepper tree, <i>Schinus terebinthifolius</i>. <a href="../../wp/s/Sichuan_Pepper.htm" title="Sichuan Pepper">Sichuan peppercorn</a> is another "pepper" that is botanically unrelated to black pepper.<p>Peppercorns are often categorised under a label describing their region or port of origin. Two well-known types come from <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>'s <!--del_lnk--> Malabar Coast: Malabar pepper and <!--del_lnk--> Tellicherry pepper. Tellicherry is a higher-grade pepper, made from the largest, ripest 10% of berries from Malabar plants grown on Mount Tellicherry. <!--del_lnk--> Sarawak pepper is produced in the <a href="../../wp/m/Malaysia.htm" title="Malaysia">Malaysian</a> portion of <!--del_lnk--> Borneo, and <!--del_lnk--> Lampong pepper on <a href="../../wp/i/Indonesia.htm" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>'s island of <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>. White <!--del_lnk--> Muntok pepper is another Indonesian product, from <!--del_lnk--> Bangka Island.<p><a id="The_pepper_plant" name="The_pepper_plant"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The pepper plant</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1793.jpg.htm" title="Piper nigrum from an 1832 print"><img alt="Piper nigrum from an 1832 print" height="287" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Piper_nigrum_drawing_1832.jpg" src="../../images/17/1793.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1793.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><i>Piper nigrum</i> from an 1832 print</div>
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<p>The pepper plant is a <!--del_lnk--> perennial <!--del_lnk--> woody <!--del_lnk--> vine growing to four metres in height on supporting <a href="../../wp/t/Tree.htm" title="Tree">trees</a>, poles, or trellises. It is a spreading vine, <!--del_lnk--> rooting readily where trailing stems touch the ground. The <!--del_lnk--> leaves are alternate, entire, five to ten centimetres long and three to six centimetres broad. The <a href="../../wp/f/Flower.htm" title="Flower">flowers</a> are small, produced on pendulous spikes four to eight centimetres long at the leaf nodes, the spikes lengthening to seven to 15 centimetres as the fruit matures.<p>Black pepper is grown in soil that is neither too dry nor susceptible to <a href="../../wp/f/Flood.htm" title="Flood">flooding</a>, is moist, well-drained and rich in organic matter. The plants are propagated by cuttings about 40 to 50 centimetres long, tied up to neighbouring trees or climbing frames at distances of about two metres apart; trees with rough bark are favoured over those with smooth bark, as the pepper plants climb rough bark more readily. Competing plants are cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are covered in leaf <!--del_lnk--> mulch and <!--del_lnk--> manure, and the shoots are trimmed twice a year. On dry soils the young plants require watering every other day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants bear fruit from the fourth or fifth year, and typically continue to bear fruit for seven years. The cuttings are usually <a href="../../wp/c/Cultivar.htm" title="Cultivar">cultivars</a>, selected both for yield and quality of fruit.<p>A single stem will bear 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. The harvest begins as soon as one or two berries at the base of the spikes begin to turn red, and before the fruit is mature, but when full grown and still hard; if allowed to ripen, the berries lose pungency, and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected and spread out to dry in the sun, then the peppercorns are stripped off the spikes.<div style="clear:both">
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<p><a id="History" name="History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">History</span></h2>
<p>Pepper has been used as a spice in India since <!--del_lnk--> prehistoric times. It was probably first cultivated on the <!--del_lnk--> Malabar Coast of <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>, in what is now the state of <a href="../../wp/k/Kerala.htm" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>. Peppercorns were a much prized trade good, often referred to as <i>black gold</i> and used as a form of <!--del_lnk--> commodity money. The term <i><!--del_lnk--> peppercorn rent</i> still exists today.<p>The ancient history of black pepper is often interlinked with (and confused with) that of <a href="../../wp/l/Long_pepper.htm" title="Long pepper">long pepper</a>, the dried fruit of closely related <i>Piper longum</i>. The Romans knew of both and often referred to either as just "piper". In fact, it was not until the discovery of the New World and of <!--del_lnk--> chile peppers that the popularity of long pepper entirely declined. Chile peppers, some of which when dried are similar in shape and taste to long pepper, were easier to grow in a variety of locations more convenient to Europe.<p>Until well after the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, virtually all of the black pepper found in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa travelled there from India's Malabar region. By the 16th century, pepper was also being grown in <!--del_lnk--> Java, <!--del_lnk--> Sunda, <a href="../../wp/s/Sumatra.htm" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Madagascar.htm" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, Malaysia, and elsewhere in Southeast Asia, but these areas traded mainly with China, or used the pepper locally. Ports in the Malabar area also served as a stop-off point for much of the trade in other spices from farther east in the Indian Ocean.<p>Black pepper, along with other spices from India and lands farther east, changed the course of world history. It was in some part the preciousness of these spices that led to the European efforts to find a sea route to India and consequently to the European colonial occupation of that country, as well as the European discovery and colonization of the Americas.<p><a id="Ancient_times" name="Ancient_times"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Ancient times</span></h3>
<p>Black peppercorns were found lodged in the nostrils of <a href="../../wp/r/Ramesses_II.htm" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a>, placed there as part of his <a href="../../wp/m/Mummy.htm" title="Mummy">mummification</a> rituals shortly after his death in 1213 <!--del_lnk--> BCE. Little else is known about the use of pepper in <a href="../../wp/a/Ancient_Egypt.htm" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, nor how it reached the <a href="../../wp/n/Nile.htm" title="Nile">Nile</a> from India.<p>Pepper (both long and black) was known in Greece at least as early as the 4th century BCE, though it was probably an uncommon and expensive item that only the very rich could afford. Trade routes of the time were by land, or in ships which hugged the coastlines of the <!--del_lnk--> Arabian Sea. Long pepper, growing in the north-western part of India, was more accessible than the black pepper from further south; this trade advantage, plus long pepper's greater spiciness, probably made black pepper less popular at the time.<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:316px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/53/5368.png.htm" title="A possible trade route from Italy to south-west India"><img alt="A possible trade route from Italy to south-west India" height="185" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Italy_to_India_Route.PNG" src="../../images/6/669.png" width="314" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">A possible trade route from Italy to south-west India</div>
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<p>By the time of the early <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, especially after Rome's conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, open-ocean crossing of the Arabian Sea directly to <!--del_lnk--> southern India's <!--del_lnk--> Malabar Coast was near routine. Details of this trading across the Indian Ocean have been passed down in the <!--del_lnk--> Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. According to the Roman geographer <!--del_lnk--> Strabo, the early Empire sent a fleet of around 120 ships on an annual one-year trip to India and back. The fleet timed its travel across the Arabian Sea to take advantage of the predictable <!--del_lnk--> monsoon winds. Returning from India, the ships travelled up the <a href="../../wp/r/Red_Sea.htm" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, from where the cargo was carried overland or via the <!--del_lnk--> Nile Canal to the Nile River, barged to <!--del_lnk--> Alexandria, and shipped from there to Italy and Rome. The rough geographical outlines of this same trade route would dominate the pepper trade into Europe for a millennium and a half to come.<p>With ships sailing directly to the Malabar coast, black pepper was now travelling a shorter trade route than long pepper, and the prices reflected it. <!--del_lnk--> Pliny the Elder's <i><!--del_lnk--> Natural History</i> tells us the prices in Rome around 77 <!--del_lnk--> CE: "Long pepper ... is fifteen <!--del_lnk--> denarii per pound, while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four." Pliny also complains "there is no year in which India does not drain the Roman Empire of fifty million <!--del_lnk--> sesterces," and further moralises on pepper:<blockquote>
<p><i>It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite?</i></blockquote>
<p>Black pepper was a well-known and widespread, if expensive, seasoning in the <a href="../../wp/r/Roman_Empire.htm" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. <!--del_lnk--> Apicius' <!--del_lnk--> De re coquinaria, a 3rd-century cookbook probably based at least partly on one from the 1st century CE, includes pepper in a majority of its recipes. <a href="../../wp/e/Edward_Gibbon.htm" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> wrote, in <i><!--del_lnk--> The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, that pepper was "a favourite ingredient of the most expensive Roman cookery".<p><a id="Postclassical_Europe" name="Postclassical_Europe"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Postclassical Europe</span></h3>
<p>Pepper was so valuable that it was often used as <!--del_lnk--> collateral or even currency. The taste for pepper (or the appreciation of its monetary value) was passed on to those who would see Rome fall. It is said that both <a href="../../wp/a/Attila_the_Hun.htm" title="Attila the Hun">Attila the Hun</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Alaric the <!--del_lnk--> Visigoth demanded from <a href="../../wp/r/Rome.htm" title="Rome">Rome</a> a ransom of more than a ton of pepper when they besieged the city in 5th century A.D. After the fall of Rome, others took over the middle legs of the <!--del_lnk--> spice trade, first <!--del_lnk--> Byzantium and then the <!--del_lnk--> Arabs. By the end of the <a href="../../wp/d/Dark_Ages.htm" title="Dark Ages">Dark Ages</a>, the central portions of the <!--del_lnk--> spice trade were firmly under <!--del_lnk--> Islamic control. Once into the Mediterranean, the trade was largely monopolised by Italian powers, especially <!--del_lnk--> Venice and <!--del_lnk--> Genoa. The rise of these <!--del_lnk--> city-states was funded in large part by the spice trade.<p>A <!--del_lnk--> riddle authored by <!--del_lnk--> Saint Aldhelm, a 7th-century <!--del_lnk--> Bishop of Sherborne, sheds some light on black pepper's role in <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a> at that time:<dl>
<dd><i>I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover,</i><dd><i>Yet within I bear a burning marrow.</i><dd><i>I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table,</i><dd><i>Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen.</i><dd><i>But you will find in me no quality of any worth,</i><dd><i>Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.</i></dl>
<p>It is commonly believed that during the <a href="../../wp/m/Middle_Ages.htm" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, pepper was used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat. There is no evidence to support this claim, and historians view it as highly unlikely: in the Middle Ages, pepper was a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy, who certainly had unspoiled meat available as well. Similarly, the belief that pepper was widely used as a preservative is questionable: it is true that piperine, the compound that gives pepper its spiciness, has some antimicrobial properties, but at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the effect is small. Salt is a much more effective preservative, and <!--del_lnk--> salt-cured meats were common fare, especially in winter. However, pepper and other spices probably did play a role in improving the taste of long-preserved meats.<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:352px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1795.jpg.htm" title="A depiction of Calicut, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade"><img alt="A depiction of Calicut, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade" height="138" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Calicut_1572.jpg" src="../../images/17/1795.jpg" width="350" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1795.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A depiction of <!--del_lnk--> Calicut, India published in 1572 during Portugal's control of the pepper trade</div>
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<p>Its exorbitant price during the Middle Ages—and the monopoly on the trade held by Italy—was one of the inducements which led the <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> to seek a sea route to India. In 1498, <a href="../../wp/v/Vasco_da_Gama.htm" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> became the first European to reach India by sea; asked by Arabs in <!--del_lnk--> Calicut (who spoke Spanish and Italian) why they had come, his representative replied, "we seek Christians and spices." Though this first trip to India by way of the southern tip of <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> was only a modest success, the Portuguese quickly returned in greater numbers and used their superior naval firepower to eventually gain complete control of trade on the Arabian sea. This was the start of the first European empire in Asia, given additional legitimacy (at least from a European perspective) by the 1494 <!--del_lnk--> Treaty of Tordesillas, which granted Portugal exclusive rights to the half of the world where black pepper originated.<p>The Portuguese proved unable to maintain their stranglehold on the spice trade for long. The old Arab and Venetian trade networks successfully smuggled enormous quantities of spices through the patchy Portuguese blockade, and pepper once again flowed through Alexandria and Italy, as well as around Africa. In the 17th century, the Portuguese lost almost all of their valuable Indian Ocean possessions to the <a href="../../wp/n/Netherlands.htm" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> and the <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">English</a>. The pepper ports of Malabar fell to the Dutch in the period 1661–1663.<p>As pepper supplies into Europe increased, the price of pepper declined (though the total value of the import trade generally did not). Pepper, which in the early Middle Ages had been an item exclusively for the rich, started to become more of an everyday seasoning among those of more average means. Today, pepper accounts for one-fifth of the world's spice trade.<p><a id="China" name="China"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">China</span></h3>
<p>It is possible that black pepper was known in <a href="../../wp/c/China.htm" title="China">China</a> in the 2nd century BCE, if poetic reports regarding an explorer named Tang Meng (唐蒙) are correct. Sent by <!--del_lnk--> Emperor Wu to what is now south-west China, Tang Meng is said to have come across something called <i>jujiang</i> or "sauce-betel". He was told it came from the markets of <!--del_lnk--> Shu, an area in what is now the <!--del_lnk--> Sichuan province. The traditional view among historians is that "sauce-betel" is a sauce made from <!--del_lnk--> betel leaves, but arguments have been made that it actually refers to pepper, either long or black.<p>In the 3rd century CE, black pepper made its first definite appearance in Chinese texts, as <i>hujiao</i> or "foreign pepper". It does not appear to have been widely known at the time, failing to appear in a 4th-century work describing a wide variety of spices from beyond China's southern border, including long pepper. By the 12th century, however, black pepper had become a popular ingredient in the cuisine of the wealthy and powerful, sometimes taking the place of China's native <a href="../../wp/s/Sichuan_Pepper.htm" title="Sichuan Pepper">Sichuan pepper</a> (the tongue-numbing dried fruit of an unrelated plant).<p><a href="../../wp/m/Marco_Polo.htm" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> testifies to pepper's popularity in 13th-century China when he relates what he is told of its consumption in the city of Kinsay (<!--del_lnk--> Zhejiang): "... Messer Marco heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being equal to 223 lbs." Marco Polo is not considered a very reliable source regarding China, and this second-hand data may be even more suspect, but if this estimated 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) a day for one city is anywhere near the truth, China's pepper imports may have dwarfed Europe's.<p><a id="Pepper_as_a_medicine" name="Pepper_as_a_medicine"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pepper as a medicine</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1796.png.htm" title="'There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!' Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing. — Alice in Wonderland (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill."><img alt="'There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!' Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing. — Alice in Wonderland (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill." height="207" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Alice_pig_and_pepper.png" src="../../images/17/1796.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1796.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> '<i>There's certainly too much pepper in that soup!' Alice said to herself, as well as she could for sneezing.</i> — <i><!--del_lnk--> Alice in Wonderland</i> (1865). Chapter VI: Pig and Pepper. Note the cook's pepper mill.</div>
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<p>Like all eastern spices, pepper was historically both a seasoning and a medicine. Long pepper, being stronger, was often the preferred medication, but both were used.<p>Black peppercorns figure in remedies in <!--del_lnk--> Ayurveda, <!--del_lnk--> Siddha and <!--del_lnk--> Unani medicine in <a href="../../wp/i/India.htm" title="India">India</a>. The 5th century <i>Syriac Book of Medicines</i> prescribes pepper (or perhaps long pepper) for such illnesses as <!--del_lnk--> constipation, <!--del_lnk--> diarrhoea, <!--del_lnk--> earache, <!--del_lnk--> gangrene, <!--del_lnk--> heart disease, <!--del_lnk--> hernia, hoarseness, <!--del_lnk--> indigestion, insect bites, <!--del_lnk--> insomnia, joint pain, <!--del_lnk--> liver problems, <!--del_lnk--> lung disease, oral <!--del_lnk--> abscesses, <!--del_lnk--> sunburn, <!--del_lnk--> tooth decay, and <!--del_lnk--> toothaches. Various sources from the 5th century onward also recommend pepper to treat eye problems, often by applying salves or poultices made with pepper directly to the eye. There is no current medical evidence that any of these treatments has any benefit; pepper applied directly to the eye would be quite uncomfortable and possibly damaging.<p>Pepper has long been believed to cause <!--del_lnk--> sneezing; this is still believed true today. Some sources say that piperine irritates the nostrils, causing the sneezing ; some say that it is just the effect of the fine dust in ground pepper, and some say that pepper is not in fact a very effective sneeze-producer at all. Few if any controlled studies have been carried out to answer the question.<p>Pepper is eliminated from the diet of patients having abdominal surgery and ulcers because of its irritating effect upon the intestines, being replaced by what is referred to as a bland diet.<p><a id="Flavour" name="Flavour"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Flavour</span></h2>
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<div style="width:82px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1797.jpg.htm" title="A handheld pepper mill"><img alt="A handheld pepper mill" height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pfefferm%C3%BChle.jpg" src="../../images/17/1797.jpg" width="80" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1797.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A handheld pepper mill</div>
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<p>Pepper gets its spicy heat mostly from the <!--del_lnk--> piperine compound, which is found both in the outer fruit and in the seed. Refined piperine, milligram-for-milligram, is about one per cent as hot as the <!--del_lnk--> capsaicin in chile peppers. The outer fruit layer, left on black pepper, also contains important odour-contributing <!--del_lnk--> terpenes including <!--del_lnk--> pinene, <!--del_lnk--> sabinene, <!--del_lnk--> limonene, <!--del_lnk--> caryophyllene, and <!--del_lnk--> linalool, which give citrusy, woody, and floral notes. These scents are mostly missing in white pepper, which is stripped of the fruit layer. White pepper can gain some different odours (including musty notes) from its longer fermentation stage.<p>Pepper loses flavour and aroma through evaporation, so airtight storage helps preserve pepper's original spiciness longer. Pepper can also lose flavour when exposed to light, which can transform piperine into nearly tasteless <!--del_lnk--> isochavicine. Once ground, pepper's aromatics can evaporate quickly; most culinary sources recommend grinding whole peppercorns immediately before use for this reason. Handheld <b>pepper mills</b> (or <i>pepper grinders</i>), which mechanically grind or crush whole peppercorns, are used for this, sometimes instead of <b>pepper shakers</b>, dispensers of pre-ground pepper. Spice mills such as pepper mills were found in European kitchens as early as the 14th century, but the <!--del_lnk--> mortar and pestle used earlier for crushing pepper remained a popular method for centuries after as well.<div style="clear:both">
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<p><a id="World_trade" name="World_trade"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">World trade</span></h2>
<p>Peppercorns are, by monetary value, the most widely traded spice in the world, accounting for 20 percent of all spice imports in 2002. The price of pepper can be volatile, and this figure fluctuates a great deal year to year; for example, pepper made up 39 percent of all spice imports in 1998. By weight, slightly more chile peppers are traded worldwide than peppercorns. The <!--del_lnk--> International Pepper Exchange is located in <!--del_lnk--> Kochi, India.<p><a href="../../wp/v/Vietnam.htm" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a> has recently become the world's largest producer and exporter of pepper (85,000 <!--del_lnk--> long tons in 2003). Other major producers include Indonesia (67,000 tons), India (65,000 tons), <a href="../../wp/b/Brazil.htm" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> (35,000 tons), Malaysia (22,000 tons), Sri Lanka (12,750 tons), Thailand, and China. Vietnam dominates the export market, using almost none of its production domestically. In 2003, Vietnam exported 82,000 tons of pepper, Indonesia 57,000 tons, Brazil 37,940 tons, Malaysia 18,500 tons, and India 17,200 tons.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Black widow spider</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Black widow</b></th>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">Arthropoda</a><br />
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Arachnida<br />
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Araneae<br />
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Theridiidae<br />
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Latrodectus</i><br /><small><!--del_lnk--> Walckenaer, <!--del_lnk--> 1805</small></td>
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Species</center>
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<p><i><!--del_lnk--> L. mactans</i> <small><!--del_lnk--> Fabricius, 1775</small><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> L. hesperus</i> <small><!--del_lnk--> Chamberlin & <!--del_lnk--> Ivie, 1935</small><br /><i><!--del_lnk--> L. variolus</i> <small>Walckenaer, 1837</small><br />
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<p>The <b>black widow spider</b> (<i><b>Latrodectus spp.</b></i>) is a <a href="../../wp/s/Spider.htm" title="Spider">spider</a> notorious for its <!--del_lnk--> neurotoxic <!--del_lnk--> venom. It is a large <!--del_lnk--> widow spider found throughout the world and commonly associated with urban habitats or agricultural areas. Although the common name 'black widow spider' is most commonly used to refer to the three <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North American</a> species best known for their dark coloration and red <!--del_lnk--> hourglass pattern, it is occasionally also applied to several other members of the <i><!--del_lnk--> Latrodectus</i> (widow spider) genus in which there are 31 recognized <!--del_lnk--> species including the Australian <!--del_lnk--> red-back, <!--del_lnk--> brown widow spider (sometimes called the gray widow), and the <!--del_lnk--> red widow spider. In South Africa, widow spiders are also known as the <!--del_lnk--> button spiders.<p>Currently, there are three recognized species of black widow found in North America: The <b>southern black widow</b> (<i>L. mactans</i>), the <b>northern black widow</b> (<i>L. variolus</i>), and the <b>western black widow</b> (<i>L. hesperus</i>). As the name indicates, the southern widow is primarily found (and is indigenous to) the southeastern <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a>, ranging from <a href="../../wp/f/Florida.htm" title="Florida">Florida</a> to <!--del_lnk--> New York, and west to <!--del_lnk--> Texas and <!--del_lnk--> Oklahoma. Specimens have been found in <a href="../../wp/c/California.htm" title="California">California</a> as well. The northern widow is found primarily in the northeastern US and southeastern <a href="../../wp/c/Canada.htm" title="Canada">Canada</a> (only on the Bruce Peninsula), though its ranges overlap that of <i>L. mactans</i> quite a bit. The western widow is found in the western half of the United States, as well as in southwestern Canada and much of <a href="../../wp/m/Mexico.htm" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. Prior to 1970, when the current taxonomic divisions for North American black widows were set forth by Kaston, all three varieties were classified as a single species, <i>L. mactans</i>. As a result, there exist numerous references which claim that "black widow" (without any geographic modifier) applies to <i>L. mactans</i> alone. As common usage of the term "black widow" makes no distinction between the three species (and many laypersons are unaware of the differences between them), and as the three species have much in common, this article treats all three species of black widow equally. Except where otherwise indicated, the remainder of the article applies to all three of the above species.<p>
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</script><a id="Description" name="Description"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<p>Adult female black widow spiders are shiny black with an hourglass shaped marking on the underside of its abdomen which, although most commonly red, may range in colour from white to yellow to various shades of orange and red. They also bear a small, usually red (colors vary) dot near the spinerettes, which is separate from the hourglass. In <i>L. variolus</i>, the two halves of the hourglass shape may be separated into two separate patches. A large female black widow spider can grow to 5.0 inches (51 mm), counting legspan. The body is about 1.75 inches (20 mm). Male black widow spiders are half the size of the female or smaller. They have longer legs and a smaller abdomen in relation to their body size. They are also usually dark brown with varying colors of stripes/dots, with no hourglass mark. Adult males can be distinguished from juvenile females by their more-slender body, longer legs and large <!--del_lnk--> pedipalps typical of most other male spiders. Juvenile black widow spiders start white, molting to dark brown to black exoskeletons with white, yellow, orange and red stripes and/or dots on their backs.<p>As with many venomous creatures, the brightly colored markings serve as a warning to predators. Eating a black widow will normally not kill a small predator (birds, et cetera), but the sickness that follows digestion is enough for the creature to remember that the bright red means not to eat. Because the adult female black widow typically hangs and moves about its web upside down, its hourglass is on its front. However, juvenile widows (female) spend a large quantity of time in search of an optimal environment. Once an optimal location is found, adult female widows often spend their entire lives in one place. However, because juvenile females must first find this optimal location, they bear brightly colored marks upon their backs, so that they may be seen by predators when the widow is traveling upon its legs. Males bear similar marks to the females to serve as warning while they are searching for mates, however, the marks are not as prominent (not as brightly colored, or as large). Males, being less venomous, are less of a threat to predators, so having similar marks not as prominent helps predators to better judge their prey (some large birds can eat male widows without adverse effect, and so only avoid female widows. Those who cannot eat any widow without adverse effect eat nothing with the marks). Female juveniles develop an hourglass before the dorsal markings are shed. As is characteristic of all <a href="../../wp/a/Arthropod.htm" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a>, black widow spiders have a hard exoskeleton composed of <!--del_lnk--> chitin and <a href="../../wp/p/Protein.htm" title="Protein">protein</a> (5). {The Unknown.}<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1799.jpg.htm" title="Black Widow with a fly."><img alt="Black Widow with a fly." height="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Black-widow-with-prey.jpg" src="../../images/17/1799.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/17/1799.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Black Widow with a fly.</div>
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<p><a id="Prey" name="Prey"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Prey</span></h2>
<p>Black widow spiders typically prey on a variety of insects, but occasionally they do feed upon <!--del_lnk--> woodlice, <!--del_lnk--> diplopods, <!--del_lnk--> chilopods and other <!--del_lnk--> arachnids (McCorkle, 2002). When the prey is entangled by the web, L. mactans quickly comes out of its retreat, wraps the prey securely in its strong web, then punctures and poisons its prey (Foelix, 1982). The venom takes about ten minutes to take effect; in the mean time, the prey is held tightly by the spider (Foelix, 1982). When movements of the prey cease, digestive enzymes are released into the wound (Foelix, 1982). The black widow spider then carries its prey back to its retreat before feeding (Foelix, 1982).<p><a id="Reproduction" name="Reproduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction</span></h2>
<p>When a male is mature, he spins a sperm web, deposits semen on it, and charges his <!--del_lnk--> palpi with the sperm (3). Black widow spiders reproduce sexually when the male inserts his palpus into the female's spermathecal openings (3). The female deposits her eggs in a globular silken container in which they remain camouflaged and guarded (3). A female black widow spider can produce four to nine egg sacs in one summer, each containing about 100-400 eggs (1). Usually, eggs incubate for twenty to thirty days. Rarely do more than one hundred survive through this process, due to <!--del_lnk--> cannibalism. On average, thirty will survive through the first molting, due to cannibalism, lack of food, or lack of proper shelter. It takes two to four months for black widow spiders to mature enough to breed, however full maturation typically takes six to nine months. The females can live for up to five years, while a male's lifespan is much shorter. Very rarely after mating does the female eat the male. Usually if that happens it's because she mistakes him for the prey. Lifespans depend upon environment, with shelter being the greatest determining factor and food the second greatest.<p><a id="Natural_Enemies" name="Natural_Enemies"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Natural Enemies</span></h2>
<p>There are various <!--del_lnk--> parasites and <!--del_lnk--> predators of widow spiders in <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North America</a>, though apparently none of these have ever been evaluated in terms of augmentation programs for improved <!--del_lnk--> biocontrol. Parasites of the egg sacs include the flightless <!--del_lnk--> scelionid wasp <i><!--del_lnk--> Baeus latrodecti</i>, and members of the <!--del_lnk--> chloropid fly genus <i><!--del_lnk--> Pseudogaurax</i>. Predators of the adult spiders include a few wasps, most notably the <!--del_lnk--> blue mud dauber <i><!--del_lnk--> Chalybion californicum</i>, and the <!--del_lnk--> spider wasp <i><!--del_lnk--> Tastiotenia festiva</i>. Other species will occasionally and opportunistically take widows as prey, but the preceding all exhibit some significant specific preference for <i><!--del_lnk--> Latrodectus</i>.<p><a id="The_Venom" name="The_Venom"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">The Venom</span></h2>
<p><a id="Components_and_effects" name="Components_and_effects"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Components and effects</span></h3>
<p>Although their venom is <b>extremely potent</b>, these spiders are not especially large. Compared to many other species of spiders, their <!--del_lnk--> chelicerae are not very large or powerful. In the case of a mature female, the hollow, needle shaped part of each chelicera, the part that penetrates the skin, is approximately 1.0 mm (around .04 inch) long, sufficiently long to inject the venom to a dangerous depth. The males, being much smaller, can inject far less venom and inject it far less deeply. The actual amount injected, even by a mature female, is very small in physical volume. When this small amount of venom is diffused throughout the body of a healthy, mature human, it usually does not amount to a fatal dose (though it can produce the very unpleasant symptoms of <!--del_lnk--> Latrodectism). Deaths in healthy adults from <i>Latrodectus</i> bites are relatively rare in terms of the number of bites per thousand people. Only 63 deaths were reported in the United States between 1950 and 1989 (Miller, 1992). On the other hand, the geographical range of the widow spiders is very great. As a result, far more people are exposed, world-wide, to widow bites than are exposed to bites of more dangerous spiders, so the highest number of deaths world-wide are caused by members of their genus. Widow spiders have more potent venom than most spiders, and prior to the development of <!--del_lnk--> antivenom, 5% of reported bites result in fatalities.<p>Improvements in plumbing have greatly reduced the incidence of bites and fatalities in areas where outdoor privies have been replaced by flush toilets. "Nearly ninety percent of the black widow bites reported in the medical literature of the first 4 decades of [the twentieth] century were inflicted on the male genitalia by spiders lurking underneath the seats of outdoor toilets." <sup>1</sup> In Sweden there have been incidents with black widow spiders being found in cars imported from southern USA. Old cars standing unused are an attractive habitat for the spider.<p>For more information on toxicity, etc., see <!--del_lnk--> Venomous spiders.<p>There are a number of active components in the venom:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Latrotoxins<li>A number of smaller <!--del_lnk--> polypeptides - toxins interacting with <!--del_lnk--> cation channels which display spatial structure homology - which can affect the functioning of calcium, sodium, or potassium channels.<li><!--del_lnk--> Adenosine (1)<li><!--del_lnk--> Guanosine (2)<li><!--del_lnk--> Inosine (3)<li>2,4,6-trihydroxypurine (4).</ul>
<p>Notes: 1. James A. Wilkerson, M.D., <i>Medicine for Mountaineering,</i> p. 149.<p><a id="More_photos" name="More_photos"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">More photos</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 25px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1800.jpg.htm" title="Image:Black widow post dorsal 1370.jpg"><img alt="" height="95" src="../../images/18/1800.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Female black widow from the upper rear, showing pattern</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 16px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1801.jpg.htm" title="Image:Black widow ventral 1370.jpg"><img alt="" height="114" src="../../images/18/1801.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Female black widow showing red "hourglass" marker</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 18px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1802.jpg.htm" title="Image:Black widow ant dorsal 1370.jpg"><img alt="" height="110" src="../../images/18/1802.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Female black widow showing mouthparts</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1803.jpg.htm" title="Image:L mactans v1.jpg"><img alt="" height="92" src="../../images/18/1803.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Dorsal view. Note that the red dot is formed by this spider's spinneretes.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 27px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1804.jpg.htm" title="Image:Latrodectus mactans eating.JPG"><img alt="" height="92" src="../../images/18/1804.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Black widow spider with its prey.</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 33px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1805.jpg.htm" title="Image:Latrodectus hesperus black widow spider immature female.jpg"><img alt="" height="80" src="../../images/18/1805.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Immature female black widow - brownish coloring (near black to the eye) with yellowish markings</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Birds.htm">Birds</a></h3>
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blackbird</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1814.jpg.htm" title="An adult male BlackbirdBirdsong (help·info)"><img alt="An adult male BlackbirdBirdsong (help·info)" height="192" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Kos_Turdus_merulaRB.jpg" src="../../images/18/1814.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>An adult male Blackbird<br /><span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> Birdsong</span> </small></div>
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<tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>
<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
<tr valign="top">
<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/t/Thrush_%2528bird%2529.htm" title="Thrush (bird)">Turdidae</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Turdus</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>T. merula</b></i></span><br />
</td>
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<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Turdus merula</b></i><br /><small><a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, <!--del_lnk--> 1758</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Blackbird</b> or <b>Common Blackbird</b> (<i>Turdus merula</i>) is a <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> member of the <a href="../../wp/t/Thrush_%2528bird%2529.htm" title="Thrush (bird)">thrush</a> family Turdidae.<p>It is common in woods and gardens over all of Europe and much of <a href="../../wp/a/Asia.htm" title="Asia">Asia</a> south of the <a href="../../wp/a/Arctic_Circle.htm" title="Arctic Circle">Arctic Circle</a>. Populations are resident except for northern birds which move south in winter.<p>Blackbirds are 23.5 to 29 cm in length. They are <!--del_lnk--> omnivorous, eating a wide range of <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insects</a>, <!--del_lnk--> earthworms, seeds and berries. They nest in bushes or similar, laying several (usually 4) bluish- green-grey <!--del_lnk--> eggs with brown reddish marks in a neat cup-shaped <!--del_lnk--> nest.<p>They do not form flocks, although several birds, especially migrants, may be loosely associated in a suitable habitat. Female blackbirds are especially fierce in the spring when they compete and fight with each other for a good nesting territory. Male birds are also competitive and will protect their territory by chasing away other males. If a fight between male Blackbirds does occur it is usually short and the intruder is soon chased away.<p>Adult males are all black except for a yellow eye-ring and bill. Adult female birds and juvenile birds have brown <!--del_lnk--> plumage and brown beaks and do not have a yellow eye-ring. Overall, juvenile birds are a slightly lighter brown than female birds and very young juvenile birds have somewhat speckled chests.<p>The male sings its varied and melodious song from trees, rooftops or other elevated perches.<p>The Blackbird has been introduced to many parts of the world outside its native range. In <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="../../wp/n/New_Zealand.htm" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> it is considered a pest and has an effect on natural <!--del_lnk--> ecosystems.<p>The blackbird is also the <!--del_lnk--> national bird of <a href="../../wp/s/Sweden.htm" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>.<p>
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</script><a id="Vocalisations" name="Vocalisations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Vocalisations</span></h2>
<p>The Blackbird has a number of distinct calls:<ul>
<li>a thin high-pitched 'peeeeeeee'<li>contact call, 'sriii'<li>a low 'tuc tuc tuc'</ul>
<p><a id="Other_blackbirds" name="Other_blackbirds"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other blackbirds</span></h2>
<p>Two Asian <i>Turdus</i> thrushes, the <!--del_lnk--> White-collared and <!--del_lnk--> Grey-winged Blackbirds are named as blackbirds.<p>The Blackbird and the two Asian species are not related to the New World blackbirds, such as <!--del_lnk--> Red-winged Blackbird or <!--del_lnk--> Red-breasted Blackbird, which are <!--del_lnk--> icterids, family Icteridae. The Blackbird's New World relatives are larger thrushes such as the <!--del_lnk--> American Robin, <i>Turdus migratorius</i>, and the <!--del_lnk--> Mountain Robin, <i>T. plebejus</i>.<p><a id="Gallery" name="Gallery"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gallery</span></h2>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1815.jpg.htm" title="Image:Blackbird and Kestrel.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/18/1815.jpg" width="98" /></a></div>
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<p>A male attempts to distract a male <!--del_lnk--> Kestrel that is too close to its nest</div>
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<div class="gallerybox">
<div class="thumb" style="padding: 26px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1816.jpg.htm" title="Image:Turdus merula.jpg"><img alt="" height="94" src="../../images/18/1816.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>A female</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1817.jpg.htm" title="Image:Amselkueken.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/18/1817.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Chicks in a nest</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 31px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1818.jpg.htm" title="Image:20060413-Blackbird-MrBlackInFlight.jpg"><img alt="" height="84" src="../../images/18/1818.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>Male leaving the nest while the female inspects the eggs</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 13px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1819.jpg.htm" title="Image:Blackbird tree.jpg"><img alt="" height="120" src="../../images/18/1819.jpg" width="80" /></a></div>
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<p>Male in mid-song</div>
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<div class="gallerytext">
<p>Blackbird nest</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Bird', 'Thrush (bird)', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Europe', 'Thrush (bird)', 'Asia', 'Arctic Circle', 'Insect', 'Australia', 'New Zealand', 'Sweden'] |
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blackcap</b></th>
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<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1821.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="151" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sylvia_atricapilla_male.jpg" src="../../images/18/1821.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
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<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /><!--del_lnk--> Least Concern (LC)</div>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">Aves</a><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Passeriformes<br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Sylviidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Sylvia</i><br />
</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top">
<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>S. atricapilla</b></i></span><br />
</td>
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<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<td><i><b>Sylvia atricapilla</b></i><br /><small>(<a href="../../wp/c/Carolus_Linnaeus.htm" title="Carolus Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758)</small></td>
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<p>The <b>Blackcap</b>, <i>Sylvia atricapilla</i>, is a common and widespread <!--del_lnk--> Old World warbler which breeds throughout northern and temperate <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<p>This small <!--del_lnk--> passerine <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> is <a href="../../wp/b/Bird_migration.htm" title="Bird migration">migratory</a>, and northern and central European breeders winter in southern Europe and north <a href="../../wp/a/Africa.htm" title="Africa">Africa</a> where the local populations are resident. It is hardier than most warblers, partly because it will readily eat small berries as well as the more typical warbler <a href="../../wp/i/Insect.htm" title="Insect">insect</a> diet. An interesting development in recent years is for substantial numbers of central European birds to winter in gardens in southern <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. Presumably the ready availability of food, particularly from <!--del_lnk--> bird tables, and the avoidance of migration over the <!--del_lnk--> Alps, compensate for the sub-optimal climate. Bearhop <i>et al</i>. (2005) have recently reported that the birds wintering in England tend to mate only with each other, because they arrive back from the wintering grounds earlier than those wintering in the Mediterranean. The authors suggest that the division of the population into different migration routes may be the first step in the evolution of distinct species.<p>This is a <a href="../../wp/b/Bird.htm" title="Bird">bird</a> of shady woodlands with ground cover for nesting. The nest is built in low shrub, and 3-6 <!--del_lnk--> eggs are laid.<p>This is a robust warbler, mainly grey in <!--del_lnk--> plumage. Although most warblers have the sexes identical, several <i>Sylvia</i> species have distinct male and female plumages. The Blackcap is an example: the male has the small black cap from which the species gets its name, whereas in the female the cap is light brown.<p>The song is a pleasant chattering with some clearer notes like a <a href="../../wp/b/Blackbird.htm" title="Blackbird">Blackbird</a>. The song can be confused with that of the <!--del_lnk--> Garden Warbler.<p>A separate race of the Blackcap, <i>heineken</i>, occurs on the <!--del_lnk--> Macaronesian islands.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="gallery">
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<p>male</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="padding: 28px 0;"><a href="../../images/18/1823.jpg.htm" title="Image:Sylvia atricapilla female.jpg"><img alt="" height="90" src="../../images/18/1823.jpg" width="120" /></a></div>
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<p>female</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Bird', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Carolus Linnaeus', 'Europe', 'Bird', 'Bird migration', 'Africa', 'Insect', 'England', 'Bird', 'Blackbird'] |
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<p><b>Blackjack</b>, also known as <b>twenty-one</b> or <b>Pontoon</b>, is one of the most popular <!--del_lnk--> casino <a href="../../wp/c/Card_game.htm" title="Card game">card games</a> in the world. Much of blackjack's popularity is due to the mix of chance with elements of skill, and the publicity that surrounds <!--del_lnk--> card counting (keeping track of which cards have been played since the last shuffle). Blackjack's precursor was <i>vingt-et-un</i> ("twenty-one"), which originated in French casinos around 1700, and did not offer the 3:2 bonus for a two-card 21.<p>When blackjack was first introduced in the United States it was not very popular, so <!--del_lnk--> gambling houses tried offering various bonus payouts to get the players to the tables. One such bonus was a 10-to-1 payout if the player's hand consisted of the ace of spades and a black Jack (either the Jack of clubs or the Jack of spades). This hand was called a "blackjack" and the name stuck to the game even though the bonus payout was soon abolished. As the game is currently played, a "blackjack" may not necessarily contain a jack at all.<p>
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</script><a id="Rules" name="Rules"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Rules</span></h2>
<p>Blackjack hands are scored by their point total. The hand with the highest total wins as long as it doesn't exceed 21; a hand with a higher total than 21 is said to <i>bust</i>. Cards 2 through 10 are worth their face value, and face cards (jack, queen, king) are also worth 10. An ace's value is 11 unless this would cause the player to bust, in which case it is worth 1. A hand in which an ace's value is counted as 11 is called a <i>soft</i> hand, because it cannot be busted if the player draws another card.<p>The goal of each player is to beat the dealer by having the higher, unbusted hand. Note that if the player busts he loses, even if the dealer also busts (therefore Blackjack favors the dealer). If both the player and the dealer have the same point value, it is called a "push", and neither player nor dealer wins the hand. Each player has an independent game with the dealer, so it is possible for the dealer to lose to one player, but still beat the other players in the same round.<div class="thumb tright">
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<p>The minimum bet is printed on a sign on the table and varies from casino to casino, and even table to table. The most common minimum in the U.S. is $5 although these games can be difficult to find on the <!--del_lnk--> Strip in <!--del_lnk--> Las Vegas, especially on weekends. The Barbary Coast has $3 minimums on weekdays. After initial <!--del_lnk--> bets are placed, the dealer deals the cards, either from one or two hand-held <!--del_lnk--> decks of cards, known as a "pitch" game, or more commonly from a <!--del_lnk--> shoe containing four or more decks. The dealer gives two cards to each player, including himself. One of the dealer's two cards is face-up so all the players can see it, and the other is face down. (The face-down card is known as the "hole card". In <a href="../../wp/e/Europe.htm" title="Europe">European</a> blackjack, the hole card is not actually dealt until the players all play their hands.) The cards are dealt face up from a shoe, or face down if it is a pitch game.<p>A two-card hand of 21 (an ace plus a ten-value card) is called a "blackjack" or a "natural", and is an automatic winner. A player with a natural is usually paid 3:2 on his bet. In 2003 some casinos started paying only 6:5 on blackjacks; although this reduced payout has generally been restricted to single-deck games where <!--del_lnk--> card counting would otherwise be a viable strategy, the move was decried by longtime blackjack players. <!--del_lnk--> <p>The play goes as follows:<ul>
<li>If the dealer has blackjack and the player doesn't, the player automatically loses.<li>If the player has blackjack and the dealer doesn't, the player automatically wins.<li>If both the player and dealer have blackjack then it's a push.<li>If neither side has blackjack, then each player plays out his hand, one at a time.<li>When all the players have finished the dealer plays his hand.</ul>
<p>The player's options for playing his or her hand are:<ul>
<li><b>Hit</b>: Take another card.<li><b>Stand</b>: Take no more cards.<li><b>Double down</b>: Double the wager, take exactly one more card, and then stand.<li><b>Split</b>: Double the wager and have each card be the first card in a new hand. This option is available only when both cards have the same value. Sometimes two face cards will be considered acceptable for splitting, as each is 10 points.<li><b>Surrender</b>: Forfeit half the bet and give up the hand. Surrender was common during the early- and mid-20th century, but is no longer offered at most casinos.</ul>
<p>The player's turn is over after deciding to stand, doubling down to take a single card, or busting. If the player busts, he or she loses the bet even if the dealer goes on to bust.<p>After all the players have finished making their decisions, the dealer then reveals his or her hidden hole card and plays the hand. House rules say that the dealer must hit until he or she has at least 17, regardless of what the players have. In most casinos a dealer must also hit a soft 17 (such as an ace and a 6). The felt of the table will indicate whether or not the house hits or stands on a soft 17.<p>If the dealer busts then all remaining players win. Bets are normally paid out at the odds of 1:1.<p>Some common rules variations include:<ul>
<li>one card split aces: a single new card is added to each Ace and the turn ends. They are thus regarded as 11-point cards. No other denomination is subject to this process.<li>early surrender: player has the option to surrender before dealer checks for Blackjack.<li>late surrender: player has the option to surrender after dealer checks for Blackjack.<li>double-down restrictions: double-down allowed only on certain combinations.<li>dealer hits a soft seventeen (ace-six, which can play as seven or seventeen)<li><i>European No-Hole-Card Rule</i>: the dealer receives only one card, dealt face-up, and does not receive a second card (and thus does not check for blackjack) until players have acted. This means players lose not only their original bet, but also any additional money invested from splitting and doubling down. A game that has no-hole-card doesn't necessarily mean you will lose additional bets as well as original bets. In <a href="../../wp/a/Australia.htm" title="Australia">Australia</a> for example, a player beaten by a dealer blackjack may keep all split and double bets and lose only the original bet, thus the game plays the same as it would if there were a hole card.</ul>
<p>There are more than a few blackjack variations which can be found in the casinos, each has its own set of rules, strategies and odds. It is advised to take a look at the rules of the specific variation before playing.<p>In the <a href="../../wp/u/United_Kingdom.htm" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, for example, the rules of a legal game in a licensed <!--del_lnk--> casino are established by The Gaming Clubs (Bankers' Games) Regulations 1994 (<!--del_lnk--> Statutory Instrument 1994/2899), as later amended by <!--del_lnk--> S.I. 2000/597 and <!--del_lnk--> S.I. 2002/1130. The amendment effective 1 April 2000 allows the game to be played by a single player playing only one hand; previously, a game had to involve (in addition to the banker) more than one person, or one person playing more than one hand. The amendment effective 13 May 2002 allowed, for the first time, the banker to draw on a "soft" 17. The rules specify that the cards must be dealt from a shoe containing either four or six packs of cards. The odds payable for a blackjack must be 3 to 2. A player can take insurance (see below) at odds of 2 to 1, if the dealer has a blackjack. A player can double down, but only on an initial score of 9, 10 or 11. A split is allowed (unless the two cards score 8, 10 or 20) but only one further card is allowed in the case of split aces. The casino is allowed to offer "Under 13" or "Over 13" side wagers, based on the value of the first two cards; for that purpose, an ace has the value 1. The "Under 13" wager must be at odds of 1 to 1 except in the case of two aces, which must pay out at 7 to 1. The "Over 13" wager must be at odds of 1 to 1.<p><a id="Insurance" name="Insurance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Insurance</span></h2>
<p>If the dealer's upcard is an Ace, the player is offered the option of taking <i>Insurance</i> before the dealer checks his 'hole card'.<p>The player who wishes to take Insurance can bet an amount up to half his original bet. The Insurance bet is placed separately on a special portion of the table, which usually carries the words "Insurance Pays 2:1". The player who is taking Insurance is betting that the dealer's 'hole card' is a 10-value card, i.e. a 10, a Jack, a Queen or a King. Because the dealer's upcard is an Ace, this means that the player who takes Insurance is essentially betting that the dealer was dealt a <i>natural</i>, i.e. a two-card 21 (a blackjack), and this bet by the player pays off 2:1 if it wins.<p>Example: The player bets $10, the cards are dealt, the player's hand is 19, and the dealer shows an Ace. The player takes Insurance by betting an additional amount of $5. The dealer checks her hole card and sees that it's a 10-valued card. The player loses his $10 bet on his blackjack hand, but he wins the insurance bet, so the player gets 2:1 on his $5 Insurance wager and receives $10 (on top of the $5 which is returned to him). Note that the player came out even on that round (i.e. did not lose any money).<p>Conversely, a player may win his original bet and lose his Insurance bet. Let's say we have the same situation as above except this time the dealer's hole card is not a ten, but rather a seven. In this case the player instantly loses his $5 Insurance wager. (All Insurance wagers are settled as soon as the dealer turns over her 'hole card', before all else.) But the player wins his $10 bet. Note that the player made a net profit on that round.<p>Of course, a player may lose both his original bet and his Insurance bet.<p>Insurance is a bad bet for the player who has no direct knowledge nor estimation (e.g. through <!--del_lnk--> card counting) of the dealer's 'hole card' because Insurance has a negative <!--del_lnk--> expected value for the player. Insurance always pays 2:1, while the actual odds of a dealer having a blackjack are usually very close to 9:4 (2.25:1) depending on the amount of decks being used. Even for the player who has been dealt a natural (a two-card 21) it is unwise to take <i>Insurance</i>. In such a case, the dealer usually asks the player "Even money?" This means that instead of 3:2, the player with the natural accepts to be paid off at 1:1. Thus it is exactly the same thing as buying Insurance, losing the Insurance bet and getting paid 3:2 on the natural. (If the player with the natural refuses the offer of "even money", and the dealer turns over his hole card to make a natural (a blackjack), it is a tie and the player's bet is returned to him.). Even the most basic card counting can make insurance a profitable bet. For example in a seven player game, if no player is holding any ten card, it is actually correct to make the insurance bet, since the chance of the dealer drawing a ten card are increased significantly to pass the 2:1 odds paid.<p>In casinos where a hole card is dealt, a dealer who is showing a card with a value of Ace or 10 may slide the corner of his or her facedown card over a small mirror or electronic sensor on the tabletop in order to check whether he has a natural. This practice minimizes the risk of inadvertently revealing the hole card, which would give the sharp-eyed player a considerable advantage. In countries, such as Australia, no face down card is dealt to the dealer until it is his turn to play his hand. This makes the game more complicated since the dealer must keep track of busted split bets since if the dealer ends up drawing a BlackJack the players lose only their original bets and do not lose double or busted split bets.<p><a id="Basic_strategy" name="Basic_strategy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Basic strategy</span></h2>
<p>As in all <!--del_lnk--> casino games, the house generally has a statistical advantage over the players that will play itself out in the long run. But because blackjack, unlike other games, has an element of player choice, players can actually reduce the casino advantage to a small percentage by playing what is known as <i>basic strategy</i>. This strategy determines when to hit and when to stand, and also determines when doubling down or splitting is the correct action. Basic strategy is based on the player's point total and the dealer's visible card. There are slight variations in basic strategy depending on the exact house rules and the number of decks used. Under the most favorable conditions (single deck, downtown <a href="../../wp/l/Las_Vegas%252C_Nevada.htm" title="Las Vegas, Nevada">Las Vegas</a> rules), the house advantage over a basic strategy player can be as low as 0.16%. Indeed, casinos offering special rules like surrender and double-after-split may actually be offering a positive expectation to basic strategy players; they are counting on players making mistakes to make money.<p>It is important to remember, however, that the small house edge only applies over long period of play. This is because most of the time a player has cards, he will always be in a position where he is most likely to lose. Doubling and splitting when in a profitable position are absolutely essential to maximizing returns. Without doubling or splitting at the correct times, the house edge increases dramatically.<p>The following rules are beneficial to the player:<ol>
<li>Doubles are permitted on any two-card hand except a blackjack. This allows the player to choose to double when he is most likely to win, and not double when he is not likely to win.<li>Doubles are permitted after splitting. This allows a player to potentially get many bets out in a situation that he is likely to win, such as against a dealer card of 6, the worst card the dealer can have.<li>Early surrender; the ability to forfeit half your wager against a face or ace before the dealer checks for blackjack. This is beneficial because some hands a player has are so unlikely to win that its better to just surrender half the bet.<li>Normal (aka "late") surrender.<li>Resplitting Aces. Obviously this avoids a player getting a miserable total of 12.<li>Drawing more than one card against a split Ace. This allows a player to draw a weak soft total if the dealers is showing a high card.<li>Five or more cards with the total still no more than 21 as an automatic win (a "<!--del_lnk--> Charlie"). This is not a commonly seen rule.</ol>
<p>The following rules are detrimental to the player and a game that uses these rules should be avoided at all costs:<ol>
<li>Less than 3:2 payout on blackjacks (6:5 and even 1:1 payouts have become common, especially in single-deck games, in Las Vegas since about 2003). This is the worst rule for the player, the house edge is increased over eight fold, a player loses money over eight times more quickly at this game.<li>Player losing ties. This is just as bad as having a low blackjack pay out, since a tie will occur almost 8% of the time. A player will lose money up to and over twenty times faster at this game. Note that even in cases where the casino shows both dealer cards face up, allowing the players to see the dealer's full hand, the rule is more detrimental to the player.</ol>
<p>The following rules increase the house edge, but only slightly:<ol>
<li>Dealer hits on soft seventeen (ace, six). Makes the house more likely to land a higher total.<li>Splitting a maximum of once (to two hands). This can nullify the effect of splitting altogether since a player could end up with the exact hand they started with. The effect is very little, but when this rule is applied eights should be split less often against tens or aces).<li>Double down restricted to certain totals, such as 9-11 or 10,11. The player cannot hit on soft totals that he may have an advantage at.<li>Aces may not be resplit.<li>No-Peek (European) blackjack—player loses splits and doubles to a dealer blackjack, as opposed to only losing original bets. When playing this game a player splits and doubles against a dealer ten and ace less often.</ol>
<p><a id="Basic_strategy_table" name="Basic_strategy_table"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Basic strategy table</span></h3>
<center>
<table border="1" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center">
<tr>
<th rowspan="2">Your hand</th>
<th colspan="10">Dealer's face-up card</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>8</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="11">Hard totals</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>18-20</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>17</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">Rs</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>16</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">Rh</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">Rh</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">Rh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>15</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">Rh</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">Rh</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>13-14</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>12</th>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>11</th>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>10</th>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>9</th>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>5-8</th>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="11">Soft totals</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>8</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A,9</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A,8</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A,7</th>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A,6</th>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A,4-5</th>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A,2-3</th>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th colspan="11">Pairs</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>3</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>5</td>
<td>6</td>
<td>7</td>
<td>8</td>
<td>9</td>
<td>10</td>
<td>A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>A,A</th>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>10,10</th>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>9,9</th>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
<td style="background:red; color:black">S</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>8,8</th>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">Rsp</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>7,7</th>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>6,6</th>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>5,5</th>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:cyan; color:black">D</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>4,4</th>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>2,2 3,3</th>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:yellow; color:black">SP</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
<td style="background:lime; color:black">H</td>
</tr>
</table>
</center>
<p>The above is a basic strategy table for the most common 6- to 8-deck, Las Vegas Strip rules. Specifically: dealer hits on soft 17, double after split allowed, multiple split aces, one card to split aces, blackjack pays 3:2, and (optionally) late surrender. Key:<dl>
<dd><span style="background:red; color:black"><b>S</b></span> = Stand<dd><span style="background:lime; color:black"><b>H</b></span> = Hit<dd><span style="background:cyan; color:black"><b>D</b></span> = Double<dd><span style="background:yellow; color:black"><b>SP</b></span> = SPlit<dd><span style="background:lime; color:black"><b>Rh</b></span> = suRrender if allowed, otherwise Hit<dd><span style="background:red; color:black"><b>Rs</b></span> = suRrender if allowed, otherwise Stand<dd><span style="background:yellow; color:black"><b>Rsp</b></span> = suRrender if allowed, otherwise SPlit</dl>
<p>In some LV Strip casinos you may still be able to find the older version of the multi-deck shoe game, where dealer stands on soft 17; those are usually high minimum ($50 or more) tables. This version is much more advantageous to the player, but requires a slightly modified basic strategy table (such tables can be generated using the external links). <a id="Card_counting" name="Card_counting"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Card counting</span></h2>
<p>Basic strategy provides the player with the optimal play for any blackjack situation, based on millions of hands played in the long run. However in the short run, as the cards are dealt from the deck, the remaining deck is no longer complete. By keeping track of the cards that have already been played, it is possible to know when the cards remaining in the deck are advantageous for the player.<p>Card counting creates two opportunities:<ul>
<li>The player can make larger bets when they have the advantage.<li>The player can use information about the remaining cards to improve upon the basic strategy rules for specific hands played.</ul>
<p>There are several card counting systems which do not require that the player remembers which cards have been played. Rather, a point system is established for the cards, and then the player keeps track of a simple point count as the cards are played out from the dealer.<p>Depending on the particular blackjack rules in a given casino, basic strategy reduces the house advantage to less than one percent. Card counting typically gives the player an advantage of 0.5 to 1.5% over the house.<p><a id="Advanced_strategy" name="Advanced_strategy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Advanced strategy</span></h2>
<p>Because basic strategy is based on a player's point total, and the dealer's visible card, basic strategy plays can often be incorrect. This is because a player may achieve different point totals with different cards, and a different number of cards. A more complete strategy would require a much more complex table, which is why the table above is named 'basic.'<p>Advanced strategies take into account a player's hand composition (number of cards and their individual values). For example, the basic strategy is to hit a total of 16 against a dealer 10 card. However if a player's total of 16 contains a 4 or a 5 card (such as a three card hand of 9 5 2), the correct strategy is actually to stand. Another example is a player's total of 12 against a dealer 4. Basic strategy says to stand, but if the player's total of 12 contains a 10 card (such as 10 2) then the correct action is actually to hit.<p>Advanced strategy can also include information from other players' hands. For example, if you have 10 3 and the dealer is showing a 2, the correct strategy is to stand, even with the ten you do have. But if other players are showing many tens, the correct strategy may actually be to hit. This is only evident in hindsight, however.<p>Belief that observations of these slight variations in play may help reduce the house edge leads to the ruin of gamblers on a daily basis. Seeing which cards are currently out does not give a player enough information to make decisions based on deck composition, which requires card counting.<p><a id="Using_other_players_for_extra_profit" name="Using_other_players_for_extra_profit"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Using other players for extra profit</span></h2>
<p>Many players do not realize when they have profitable hands, or are not willing to double or split because of the cost of an extra bet. Other players will overestimate the value of a hand because they do not understand the mathematics behind the basic strategy. Because of this, a cunning player may be able to play another player's double or splits by paying the bet himself, or even getting another player to pay to play one of the player's own split cards.<p>Consider a pair of sevens against a dealer 3. This hand favors the house whether the sevens are split or not, but the proper strategy is to split because 14 loses twice as often as a 7. Now if a smart player is able to offer one of the sevens to someone else, he is actually getting rid of a bad hand, and only having to play one hand of 7 against a 3, instead of two.<p>This can also be applied backwards. A person may be tempted not to split a pair of 2s against a dealer 5 or 6 card. In this situation a cunning player would offer to pay the bet and play one of the split hands, because 2 versus a 6 actually favors the player. Sometimes a player won't have enough money to split a pair of eights against a 7 or 6, and this is also a good situation to offer to bank the bet, since an 8 is favored to win against a 7 or 6. A cunning player will often 'team up' with other players so they feel obligated to split pairs, even tens.<p>A smart player can also get in on other players' doubles. Most casinos offer the player the ability to 'double for less.' That is, they are allowed to double down without matching their full original bet. If a player does this on a winning hand (any basic strategy double down hand is always a winning hand), a smart player can 'get in' on the double by offering to pay the rest of the double amount. A common situation is 11 versus a dealer 10. Most people prefer to only double for a small amount, a long term player should always offer to front the rest of the double bet, because in the long run a profit will be made.<p>If a player prefers to hit instead of double (because he is worried about receiving a low card) in some rare situations it is actually correct to offer not only to pay the double, but to also pay the player back their bet should the hand lose. This is most common with 11 versus a 6. When a player doubles on 11 versus a dealer 6 they win over twice as often as they lose, so it is okay to lose the double bet and pay out the player his original bet. This strategy works extremely well because from the other player's point of view, they cannot lose. And from the cunning player's point of view he is prepared to lose two bets because he has the knowledge that he will win a single bet over twice as often, in the long run.<p><a id="Shuffle_tracking" name="Shuffle_tracking"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Shuffle tracking</span></h2>
<p>There are well-established techniques other than card counting that can swing the advantage of casino 21 towards the player. All such techniques are based on the value of the cards to the player and the casino, as originally conceived by <!--del_lnk--> Edward O. Thorp. One such technique, mainly applicable in multi-deck games (aka shoes), involves tracking groups of cards (aka slugs, clumps, packs) during the play of the shoe, following them through the shuffle and then playing and betting accordingly when those cards come into play from the new shoe. This technique, which is admittedly much more difficult than straight card counting and requires excellent eyesight and powers of visual estimation, has the additional benefit of fooling the casino people who are monitoring the player's actions and the count, since the shuffle tracker could be, at times, betting and/or playing opposite to how a straightforward card counter would.<p>Arnold Snyder's articles in <i>Blackjack Forum</i> magazine were the first to bring shuffle tracking to the general public. His book, <i>The Shuffle Tracker's Cookbook,</i> was the first to mathematically analyze the player edge available from shuffle tracking based on the actual size of the tracked slug.<p>Other legal methods of gaining a player advantage at blackjack include a wide variety of techniques for gaining information about the dealer hole-card or the next card to be dealt.<p>Card tracking is restricted when the casino uses a half-cut, or what is known inside houses as 'The Big C'. This is when the shoe is cut halfway, meaning that only half of the shoe will be played, so on an 8-deck shoe, only 4 decks will be played and thereafter shuffled. As card tracking relies on the principles of elimination, the half-cut makes it virtually impossible to eliminate or predict the remaining cards. Another exception to card tracking is the introduction of automatic shuffler machines, thereby making it impossible to track cards because the shoe is non-stop.<p><a id="Variants" name="Variants"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Variants</span></h2>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Spanish 21 provides players with many liberal blackjack rules, such as doubling down any number of cards (with the option to 'rescue', or surrender only one wager to the house), payout bonuses for five or more card 21's, 6-7-8 21's, 7-7-7 21's, late surrender, and player blackjacks always winning and player 21's always winning, at the cost of having no 10 cards in the deck (though there are jacks, queens, and kings). With correct basic strategy, a Spanish 21 almost always has a higher house edge than a comparable BlackJack game. Another casino game similar to blackjack is Pontoon.<p>Certain rules changes are employed to create new variant games. These changes, while attracting the novice player, actually increase the house edge in these games. <!--del_lnk--> Double Exposure Blackjack is a variant in which the dealer's cards are both face-up. This game increases house edge by paying even-money on blackjacks and players losing ties. <!--del_lnk--> Double Attack Blackjack has very liberal blackjack rules and the option of increasing one's wager after seeing the dealer's up card. This game is dealt from a Spanish shoe, and blackjacks only pay even money.<p>The French and German variant "Vingt-et-un" (Twenty-one) and "Siebzehn und Vier" (Seventeen and Four) don't include splitting. An ace can only count as eleven, but two aces count as a Blackjack. This variant is seldom found in casinos, but in private circles and barracks.<p><!--del_lnk--> Chinese Blackjack is played by many in Asia, having no splitting of cards, but with other card combination regulations.<p>Another variant is Blackjack Switch, a version of blackjack in which a player is dealt two hands and is allowed to switch cards. For example, if the player is dealt 10-6 and 10-5, then the player can switch two cards to make hands of 10-10 and 6-5. Natural blackjacks are paid 1:1 instead of the standard 3:2, and a dealer 22 is a push.<p>Most recently, thanks to the popularity of poker, <!--del_lnk--> Elimination Blackjack has begun to gain a following. Elimination Blackjack, is the tournament format of Blackjack.<p><a id="Blackjack_Hall_of_Fame" name="Blackjack_Hall_of_Fame"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Blackjack Hall of Fame</span></h2>
<p>The greatest blackjack players have been honored with admission into the Blackjack Hall of Fame.<p>In the Winter of 2002 a diverse selection of 21 blackjack experts, authors, and professional players were nominated by the top professional gamblers in the world to the Blackjack Hall of Fame. Voting for the Blackjack Hall of Fame was open to the public for about one month on the Internet, and the final voting was completed at the 2003 Blackjack Ball in January, an event open only to the top professional players and hosted by blackjack author <!--del_lnk--> Max Rubin. The primary voting for the Blackjack Hall of Fame is done by professional players.<p>The founders of the Hall of Fame structured the selection process in this manner because they felt that only professional players know the full accomplishments, at and away from the tables, of fellow professional players because many of these achievements must be hidden from the public in order to protect sensitive information from reaching the casinos. The founders also felt that it is professional players, whose survival depends on such knowledge, who best know which authors and theories have truly been original and truly had the an impact on the game.<p>Currently there are 12 members of the Blackjack Hall of Fame. The first seven members were elected to the Hall of Fame in the winter of 2002. The members of the Blackjack Hall of Fame are:<ul>
<li>Julian Braun -- 2005<li>Al Francesco -- 2002<li>Peter Griffin -- 2002<li><!--del_lnk--> James Grosjean -- 2006<li><!--del_lnk--> Tommy Hyland -- 2002<li><!--del_lnk--> Lawrence Revere -- 2005<li>Max Rubin -- 2004<li><!--del_lnk--> Arnold Snyder -- 2002<li>Ken Taft -- 2004<li><!--del_lnk--> Edward O. Thorp --2002<li><!--del_lnk--> Ken Uston -- 2002<li><!--del_lnk--> Stanford Wong -- 2002</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackjack"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blackpool</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Geography.Geography_of_Great_Britain.htm">Geography of Great Britain</a></h3>
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<table class="infobox" width="300">
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<th align="center" bgcolor="#FF9999" colspan="2">Borough of Blackpool</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1824.png.htm" title="Image:EnglandBlackpool.png"><img alt="Image:EnglandBlackpool.png" height="247" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EnglandBlackpool.png" src="../../images/18/1824.png" width="200" /></a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#FF9999" colspan="2">Geography</th>
</tr>
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<td width="45%">Status:</td>
<td>Unitary, Borough</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Region:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> North West England</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ceremonial County:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Lancashire</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Area:<br /> - Total</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 330th<br /><!--del_lnk--> 34.92 <!--del_lnk--> km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Admin. HQ:</td>
<td>Blackpool</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Grid reference:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> SD305365</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> ONS code:</td>
<td>00EY</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#FF9999" colspan="2">Demographics</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Population:<br /> - Total (2005 est.)<br /> - <!--del_lnk--> Density</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ranked 119th<br /> 142,900<br /> 4,092 / km²</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Ethnicity:</td>
<td>98.4% White</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th bgcolor="#FF9999" colspan="2">Politics</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td align="center" colspan="2"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="Arms of Blackpool Borough Council" height="222" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Arms-blackpool.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /><br /> Blackpool Council<br /> www.blackpool.gov.uk</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> Leadership:</td>
<td>Leader & Cabinet</td>
</tr>
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<td>Executive:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Labour</td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> MPs:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Joan Humble, <!--del_lnk--> Gordon Marsden</td>
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<p><b>Blackpool</b> is a <!--del_lnk--> seaside town in north-western <a href="../../wp/e/England.htm" title="England">England</a>. It is traditionally part of <!--del_lnk--> Lancashire. On <!--del_lnk--> April 1, <!--del_lnk--> 1998 the town was made into an independent <!--del_lnk--> unitary authority.<p>It is believed to get its name from a long gone drainage channel which ran over a <a href="../../wp/b/Bog.htm" title="Bog">peat bog</a>.<!--del_lnk--> The water which ran into the sea at Blackpool was black from the <!--del_lnk--> peat and formed a "black pool" in waters of the <a href="../../wp/i/Irish_Sea.htm" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a>. (In Irish, <i>Black Pool</i> is <i>Dubh Linn</i>, which in turn became <i><!--del_lnk--> Dublin</i>.)<p>It is generally believed locally that people originating from Blackpool are called "Sand Grown" or "Sandgrown'uns," but these terms may be applied to natives of any <!--del_lnk--> littoral settlement.<p>The town boundaries are drawn very tightly, and exclude the nearby settlements of <!--del_lnk--> Fleetwood, <!--del_lnk--> Cleveleys, <!--del_lnk--> Thornton, <!--del_lnk--> Poulton-le-Fylde and <!--del_lnk--> Lytham St Anne's. Blackpool Borough, unlike its neighbours, is almost completely urbanised.<p>
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</script><a id="Economy" name="Economy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Economy</span></h2>
<p>This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Blackpool at current basic prices <!--del_lnk--> published (pp.240-253) by <i>Office for National Statistics</i> with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling.<table class="wikitable">
<tr>
<th>Year</th>
<th>Regional Gross Value Added<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_1"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></th>
<th>Agriculture<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_2"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></th>
<th>Industry<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_3"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></th>
<th>Services<span class="reference plainlinksneverexpand" id="ref_4"><sup><!--del_lnk--> </sup></span></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1995</td>
<td><b>1,276</b></td>
<td>9</td>
<td>276</td>
<td>992</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2000</td>
<td><b>1,444</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>210</td>
<td>1,234</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>2003</td>
<td><b>1,598</b></td>
<td>1</td>
<td>220</td>
<td>1,377</td>
</tr>
</table>
<ol>
<li><cite id="endnote_1" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="#ref_1" title=""><b>↑</b></a></cite> Components may not sum to totals due to rounding<li><cite id="endnote_2" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="#ref_2" title=""><b>↑</b></a></cite> includes hunting and forestry<li><cite id="endnote_3" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="#ref_3" title=""><b>↑</b></a></cite> includes energy and construction<li><cite id="endnote_4" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="#ref_4" title=""><b>↑</b></a></cite> includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured</ol>
<p><a id="Tourism" name="Tourism"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Tourism</span></h3>
<p>Blackpool is heavily dependent on tourism. Major attractions include:<ul>
<li>The three <!--del_lnk--> piers: the <!--del_lnk--> North (built in <!--del_lnk--> 1863), <!--del_lnk--> Central (<!--del_lnk--> 1868) and South (<!--del_lnk--> 1893).<li><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Tower, built in May <!--del_lnk--> 1894, is a 518-foot-tall copy of the <!--del_lnk--> Eiffel Tower.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Pleasure Beach <!--del_lnk--> amusement park, near to the South Pier.<li><!--del_lnk--> Sandcastle Waterworld is the premier indoor uk waterpark opposite the Pleasure Beach.</ul>
<p>In what is often regarded as its heyday (1900-1950), Blackpool thrived as the factory workers of northern England took their annual holidays there en masse. Any photograph from that era shows crowds of tourists on the beach and promenade. Blackpool was also a preferred destination of visitors from <a href="../../wp/g/Glasgow.htm" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> and remains so to this day<!--del_lnk--> . Reputedly, the town still has more hotel beds than the whole of <a href="../../wp/p/Portugal.htm" title="Portugal">Portugal</a><!--del_lnk--> . The town went into decline when cheap air travel arrived in the 1960s and the same workers decamped to the Mediterranean coast resorts due to competitive prices and the more reliable weather. Today, many visitors stay for the weekend rather than for a week at a time. Blackpool is continually striving to improve its position within today's tourist industry. One controversial proposal, which has the involvement of the local council, is to transform Blackpool into a casino resort along the lines of <!--del_lnk--> Las Vegas and <!--del_lnk--> Atlantic City, making it the centre point of <!--del_lnk--> gambling in the UK. This plan is dependent on the selection of Blackpool as the location of Britain's first "super-casino", following the slight liberalisation of Britain's gambling laws.<p>A controversial aspect of Blackpool's night-life is its hen and stag parties. Brides or bridegrooms-to-be respectively, along with their friends, often dressed alike in absurd or risqué attire, roam the town's many bars and clubs getting increasingly drunk. Their rowdy behaviour is claimed to discourage family visitors and has led to complaints from hotel and guest house owners keen to attract a more upmarket clientele.<!--del_lnk--> <p>Blackpool has gained renown as a lesbian and gay destination, with clubs such as the <!--del_lnk--> Flamingo, <!--del_lnk--> Mardi Gras, the <!--del_lnk--> Flying Handbag pub, and many gay-only hotels and guest-houses. These tend to be inland, nearer to the North station than the sea front.<!--del_lnk--> <div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1826.jpg.htm" title="The Tower and Illuminations"><img alt="The Tower and Illuminations" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blackpool_Illuminations_and_Tower.jpg" src="../../images/18/1826.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1826.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Tower and Illuminations</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>There is a transvestite show bar, <!--del_lnk--> Funny Girls, alongside the Flamingo in the building that was formerly the Odeon Cinema; the building retains many of its <!--del_lnk--> Art Deco features.<p>Blackpool remains a summer entertainment venue, specialising in variety shows featuring entertainers such as <!--del_lnk--> Ken Dodd. Outside the main holiday season, Blackpool's <!--del_lnk--> Winter Gardens routinely hosts major political and <a href="../../wp/t/Trade_union.htm" title="Trade union">trade union</a> conferences, ranging from that of the <!--del_lnk--> Conservative Party and the <!--del_lnk--> TGWU with thousands of delegates and visitors, to substantially smaller gatherings such as the <!--del_lnk--> CWU or <!--del_lnk--> NUS conferences.<p><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Illuminations in September and October, consisting of a series of lighted displays and collages arranged along the entire length of the sea front (11 km/7 miles), attract many visitors at a time when some resorts' holiday seasons have begun to end.<p><a id="Non-tourist_industry" name="Non-tourist_industry"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Non-tourist industry</span></h3>
<p>Major employers include:<ul>
<li>The government-owned <!--del_lnk--> National Savings and Investments, based at Marton, together with their random number generating computer <i><!--del_lnk--> ERNIE</i> which picks the <!--del_lnk--> Premium Bond numbers.<li>Other Government Agencies based at Warbreck and Norcross.<li>The sports car manufacturer <!--del_lnk--> TVR. However, TVR has recently announced that it is moving production away from Blackpool to another European location. (Blackpool was also the original site of <!--del_lnk--> Swallow Sidecar Company forerunner of <!--del_lnk--> Jaguar Cars.)<li><b>Burtons Foods</b>, producing biscuits and other bakery products.<li><b>Arvin Meritor</b>, which manufactures automotive components.<li>The <b>Glasdon Group</b>, known for its plastic products including litter bins, park benches and reflective road signs.</ul>
<p>Many Blackpool residents work in the retail sector, either in the town centre or the retail parks on the edge of town.<p><a id="Transport_infrastructure" name="Transport_infrastructure"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Transport infrastructure</span></h4>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1827.jpg.htm" title="A double-decker balloon tram on the promenade at Bispham"><img alt="A double-decker balloon tram on the promenade at Bispham" height="205" longdesc="/wiki/Image:712_at_Bispham.jpg" src="../../images/18/1827.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1827.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> A double-decker balloon tram on the promenade at Bispham</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tleft">
<div style="width:117px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1828.png.htm" title="Tramway route"><img alt="Tramway route" height="325" longdesc="/wiki/Image:GleisplanBlackpool1998.png" src="../../images/18/1828.png" width="115" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1828.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Tramway route</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The town's <!--del_lnk--> tramway was for a long time Britain's only working tramway outside of museums. However, other cities, including <!--del_lnk--> Manchester and <!--del_lnk--> Sheffield have been rebuilding their networks since the late <a href="../../wp/2/20th_century.htm" title="20th century">20th century</a>.<p>Blackpool had two railway termini with a total of over 30 platforms, mainly used by excursion traffic in the summer. <!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Central, close to the <!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Tower, was closed in 1964, whilst <!--del_lnk--> Blackpool North was largely demolished and rebuilt as a smaller facility. The route of the former excursion line into Blackpool Central is now used as a link road from the M55 motorway to the town centre. The original 'main line' into Blackpool via <!--del_lnk--> Lytham St Annes now has a station serving <!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Pleasure Beach but terminates at <!--del_lnk--> Blackpool South station. The line into North station is now the more important.<p><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool International Airport operates regular charter and scheduled flights throughout the UK and Europe. The airport is actually in St Annes although a proposal to reorganise Blackpool's borders would see the airport incorporated into Blackpool Borough.<p>The <!--del_lnk--> M55 motorway links the town to the national <!--del_lnk--> motorway network.<p><a id="Blackpool_in_film" name="Blackpool_in_film"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Blackpool in film</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:277px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1829.jpg.htm" title="View from the tower, looking south"><img alt="View from the tower, looking south" height="206" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlackpoolTN.JPG" src="../../images/18/1829.jpg" width="275" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1829.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> View from the tower, looking south</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>The resort is featured in the 1934 film <i><!--del_lnk--> Sing as We Go</i>, starring <!--del_lnk--> Gracie Fields, as well as other cinema and TV productions, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Funny Bones</i> (1995) starring <!--del_lnk--> Lee Evans and <!--del_lnk--> Oliver Platt and directed by St. Annes born Peter Chelsom, as well as <i><!--del_lnk--> The Parole Officer</i> (2001) starring <!--del_lnk--> Steve Coogan.<p>The Japanese film <i><!--del_lnk--> Shall We Dance</i> (1996) closes with a scene at the World Ballroom Dancing Championships in Blackpool. All the hair styling for the film was completed by Blackpool born and bred hairstylist Eileen Clough, who has been in the trade since the 1960's. In the <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood <!--del_lnk--> remake of the film (2004) Blackpool is mentioned but not shown. The remake was also directed by Peter Chelsom.<p>Blackpool is the setting for <i><!--del_lnk--> Bhaji on the Beach</i> (1993) directed by <!--del_lnk--> Gurinder Chadha.<p>The film <i><!--del_lnk--> Like It Is</i> <!--del_lnk--> (<i>IMDB</i>) (1998) directed by <!--del_lnk--> Paul Oremland was also partly filmed in Blackpool. The opening scenes were filmed in the <!--del_lnk--> Flamingo.<p>The 2005 television comedy/thriller series <i><!--del_lnk--> Funland</i> revolved around the fictionalized, seedier aspects of Blackpool.<p>The town of Blackpool also features heavily in the BBC television serial <i><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool</i> starring <!--del_lnk--> David Morrissey and first broadcast in 2005 along with the one-off follow-up <i><!--del_lnk--> Viva Blackpool</i>, broadcast in June 2006.<h2> <span class="mw-headline">Local attractions, culture, and facilities</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1830.jpg.htm" title="Central Pier, Blackpool"><img alt="Central Pier, Blackpool" height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Central_pier.jpg" src="../../images/18/1830.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1830.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Central Pier, Blackpool</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1831.jpg.htm" title="Blackpool Sands, with Blackpool Tower and North Pier in the distance"><img alt="Blackpool Sands, with Blackpool Tower and North Pier in the distance" height="168" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sands_tower.JPG" src="../../images/18/1831.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1831.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Blackpool Sands, with Blackpool Tower and North Pier in the distance</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1832.jpg.htm" title="North Pier, Blackpool"><img alt="North Pier, Blackpool" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlackpoolNorPie.JPG" src="../../images/18/1832.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1832.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> North Pier, Blackpool</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:227px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1833.jpg.htm" title="The Winter Gardens, Blackpool"><img alt="The Winter Gardens, Blackpool" height="169" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlackpoolWinGar.JPG" src="../../images/18/1833.jpg" width="225" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1833.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The Winter Gardens, Blackpool</div>
</div>
</div>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Football Club, winners of the FA Cup in 1953.<li><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Panthers (founded in 2004) are a <!--del_lnk--> rugby league team competing in National league two.<li><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Zoo - provides a home to over 1500 animals from all over the world.<li><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Dance Festival - World famous annual <!--del_lnk--> ballroom dance competition of international significance: <!--del_lnk--> home page<li><!--del_lnk--> The Great Promenade Show - Series of modern artwork installations along Blackpools south promenade. Includes the <!--del_lnk--> Blackpool High Tide Organ an unusual musical monument which uses the movements of the sea to make music.<li><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Pleasure Beach - Theme park with lots of different attractions including the second tallest rollercoaster in Europe.<li><!--del_lnk--> Sandcastle Waterworld - A indoor Swimming Pool with Slides and Waves. Next to the South Pier.<li><!--del_lnk--> Blackpool Tower & Circus - A huge complex of leisure facilities, entertainment venues and restaurants. Included is the famous Blackpool Tower, Tower Ballroom and Tower Circus.<li><!--del_lnk--> Grand Theatre - Victorian theatre designed by <!--del_lnk--> Frank Matcham.<li><!--del_lnk--> Winter Gardens - Large entertainment and conference venue in the town centre. Includes the Opera House (<i>one of the largest theatres in Europe</i>), Pavilion Theatre, Empress Ballroom, Spanish Hall, Arena and Olympia.<li><!--del_lnk--> North Pier - The northernmost of Blackpool's three piers. It includes a small shopping arcade, a small tramway and a theatre at the end. It was damaged by a 1997 Christmas windstorm<li><!--del_lnk--> Central Pier - The middle pier. It includes a large theme park and shopping.<li><!--del_lnk--> South Pier - The southernmost pier. Almost directly opposite the Pleasure Beach, it houses a large theme park.<li><!--del_lnk--> Louis Tussaud's Waxworks - Similar to the famous Madame Tussauds, featuring wax models of celebrities, musicians, sports personalities and the famous Chamber of Horrors<li><a href="../../wp/b/Beach.htm" title="Beach">The beach</a> - Stretching from the North Pier to the South Pier. One of the main natural attractions for tourists.</ul>
<p><a id="Notable_people_from_Blackpool" name="Notable_people_from_Blackpool"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Notable people from Blackpool</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Ian Anderson - musician (Jethro Tull)<li><!--del_lnk--> David Ball - musician (<!--del_lnk--> Soft Cell)<li><!--del_lnk--> Zoë Ball - British TV and radio presenter<li><!--del_lnk--> Roy Harper - musician<li><!--del_lnk--> Matty Kay - The youngest player to make Blackpool F.C.'s first team.<li><!--del_lnk--> Jethro Tull - rock band<li><!--del_lnk--> Chris Lowe - musician - (<!--del_lnk--> Pet Shop Boys) (attended <!--del_lnk--> Arnold School)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Mahoney - actor (<i><!--del_lnk--> Frasier</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Graham Nash (<!--del_lnk--> The Hollies, <!--del_lnk--> Crosby, Stills & Nash (and Young))<li><!--del_lnk--> Coleen Nolan - singer and TV presenter<li><!--del_lnk--> Chris Patten - politician and former <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> governor<li><!--del_lnk--> Maddy Prior - singer (<!--del_lnk--> Steeleye Span)<li><!--del_lnk--> Peter Purves - TV presenter<li><!--del_lnk--> Alistair Cooke - journalist and commentator (educated at Blackpool Grammar School)<li><!--del_lnk--> William Regal - (<!--del_lnk--> World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) wrestler)<li><!--del_lnk--> John Robb - TV presenter, musician<li><!--del_lnk--> Michael Smith - <!--del_lnk--> Nobel Prize-winning chemist<li><!--del_lnk--> Robert Smith - musician (<!--del_lnk--> The Cure)<li><!--del_lnk--> Andy Summers - musician - (<!--del_lnk--> The Police)<li><!--del_lnk--> David Thewlis - actor (Professor Lupin in <i><!--del_lnk--> Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Ricky Tomlinson - actor (Jim Royle in <i><!--del_lnk--> The Royle Family</i>)<li><!--del_lnk--> Shelly Woods - elite wheelchair athlete</ul>
<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blacktip reef shark</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Insects_Reptiles_and_Fish.htm">Insects, Reptiles and Fish</a></h3>
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<dl>
<dd><span class="dablink"><i>Not to be confused with <!--del_lnk--> blacktip shark.</i></span></dl>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; float:right; background:white; clear:right; width:200px;">
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<th style="background: pink;"><span style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:70%;"><!--del_lnk--> i</span><b>Blacktip reef shark</b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1834.jpg.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="107" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Schwarzspitzen-Riffhai_%28Carcharhinus_melanopterus%29.jpg" src="../../images/18/1834.jpg" width="250" /></a><br />
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<tr style="text-align:center; background:pink;">
<th>
<center><!--del_lnk--> Conservation status</center>
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</tr>
<tr>
<td style="">
<div style="text-align:center"><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1835.png.htm" title=""><img alt="" height="53" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Status_iucn2.3_NT.svg" src="../../images/18/1835.png" width="200" /></a><br /><!--del_lnk--> Near Threatened (LR/nt)</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="text-align:center;">
<th style="background: pink;"><b><a href="../../wp/s/Scientific_classification.htm" title="Scientific classification">Scientific classification</a></b></th>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
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<table cellpadding="2" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:white;">
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<td>Kingdom:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/a/Animal.htm" title="Animal">Animalia</a><br />
</td>
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<td>Phylum:</td>
<td><a href="../../wp/c/Chordate.htm" title="Chordate">Chordata</a><br />
</td>
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<tr valign="top">
<td>Class:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Chondrichthyes<br />
</td>
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<td>Subclass:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Elasmobranchii<br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Order:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carcharhiniformes<br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Family:</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Carcharhinidae<br />
</td>
</tr>
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<td>Genus:</td>
<td><i><!--del_lnk--> Carcharhinus</i><br />
</td>
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<td>Species:</td>
<td><span style="white-space: nowrap"><i><b>C. melanopterus</b></i></span><br />
</td>
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</table>
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<tr bgcolor="pink">
<th>
<center><a href="../../wp/b/Binomial_nomenclature.htm" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a></center>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><i><b>Carcharhinus melanopterus</b></i><br /><small>(<!--del_lnk--> Quoy & <!--del_lnk--> Gaimard, <!--del_lnk--> 1824)</small></td>
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<tr style="text-align:center;">
<td><a class="image" href="../../images/18/1836.png.htm" title="Range of blacktip reef shark"><img alt="Range of blacktip reef shark" height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blacktip_reef_shark_distmap.png" src="../../images/18/1836.png" width="250" /></a><br />
<div style="text-align:center"><small>Range of blacktip reef shark</small></div>
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<p>The <b>blacktip reef shark</b>, <i>Carcharhinus melanopterus</i>, is a <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">shark</a> of tropical and warm temperate seas. It is often confused with the <!--del_lnk--> blacktip shark, <i>Carcharhinus limbatus</i>.<p>
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</script><a id="Distribution" name="Distribution"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Distribution</span></h2>
<p>One of the most common <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">sharks</a> found in shallow (sometimes as shallow as 30 cm) water around <!--del_lnk--> coral reefs of <!--del_lnk--> Indo-Pacific and <!--del_lnk--> Caribbean waters. The water they swim in is usually 20–27° <!--del_lnk--> C (70–80º <!--del_lnk--> F). Blacktip reef sharks do not venture into tropical lakes and rivers far from the <a href="../../wp/o/Ocean.htm" title="Ocean">ocean</a>.<p><a id="Appearance" name="Appearance"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Appearance</span></h2>
<p>As its name suggests, the tips of the shark's <!--del_lnk--> pectoral fins and <!--del_lnk--> dorsal fin are black, with a white underside. Their skin is brownish in colour on the top-half of their bodies. It has been recorded at up to 190 cm (6 <!--del_lnk--> ft) in length. Its snout is blunt and rounded. The <a href="../../wp/g/Gray_reef_shark.htm" title="Gray reef shark">gray reef shark</a> looks similar, and is also common, but is distinguished by its stockier and gray body and its lack of black tip on the dorsal fin. Blacktip reef sharks are not considered a real threat because they are usually small.<p><a id="Diet" name="Diet"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Diet</span></h2>
<p>A blacktip reef shark's diet consists mainly of reef fish, but they will also feed on <!--del_lnk--> sturgeon and <!--del_lnk--> mullet.<p><a id="Reproduction.2C_behavior.2C_and_interaction_with_humans" name="Reproduction.2C_behavior.2C_and_interaction_with_humans"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reproduction, behaviour, and interaction with humans</span></h2>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/120/12086.jpg.htm" title="Snorkeler with blacktip reef shark"><img alt="Snorkeler with blacktip reef shark" height="93" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Snorkeler_with_blacktip_reef_shark.jpg" src="../../images/18/1837.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/120/12086.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Snorkeler with blacktip reef shark</div>
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<p>Reproduction is <!--del_lnk--> viviparous, with 2 to 4 pups in a litter. Before giving birth, female blacktip reef sharks will incubate their young for 16 months. The shark's size at birth ranges from 33–52 cm.<p>This species is not considered social, but can been seen in small groups. While generally shy, they often are curious about <!--del_lnk--> snorkelers and <!--del_lnk--> scuba divers. As with most sharks, the body is bent into a sort of "S" shape when the shark feels threatened. Blacktip reef sharks are harmless unless provoked. Incidents generally involve hand feeding or <!--del_lnk--> spear fishing, possibly in combination with low visibility.<p>The blacktip is one of only a few sharks that can jump fully out of the water, a behaviour called <!--del_lnk--> breaching. They have also been observed surfacing to look around (spy-hopping).<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1838.jpg.htm" title="Black tip reef shark"><img alt="Black tip reef shark" height="135" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blacktip_Reef_Shark.jpg" src="../../images/18/1838.jpg" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1838.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Black tip reef shark</div>
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<p><a id="Population_decline" name="Population_decline"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Population decline</span></h2>
<p>Blacktip reef sharks are often the <!--del_lnk--> bycatch from other fisheries and are often wasted. The blacktip populations are declining, and so are the population of many other <a href="../../wp/s/Shark.htm" title="Shark">shark</a> species. Their fins are used for <!--del_lnk--> shark fin soup - when caught the shark's fin is cut off and the shark is thrown back into the water to die. This is done by the thousands, which may be a big factor in why the population is declining. The numbers of blacktip reef sharks have declined in recent years.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacktip_reef_shark"</div>
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| ['Scientific classification', 'Animal', 'Chordate', 'Binomial nomenclature', 'Shark', 'Shark', 'Ocean', 'Gray reef shark', 'Shark'] |
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blade Runner</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Films.htm">Films</a></h3>
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<table cellspacing="2" class="infobox" style="width: 20em; text-align: left; font-size: 90%;">
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 110%; text-align: center;"><i>Blade Runner</i></th>
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<th colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%; text-align: center;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="301" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blade_Runner_poster.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></th>
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<th>Directed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Ridley Scott</td>
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<th>Produced by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Michael Deeley</td>
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<th>Written by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Philip K. Dick (novel)<br /><!--del_lnk--> Hampton Fancher<br /><!--del_lnk--> David Peoples</td>
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<th>Starring</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Harrison Ford<br /><!--del_lnk--> Rutger Hauer<br /><!--del_lnk--> Sean Young<br /><!--del_lnk--> Edward James Olmos<br /><!--del_lnk--> Daryl Hannah</td>
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<th>Music by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Vangelis</td>
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<th>Cinematography</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Jordan Cronenweth</td>
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<th>Distributed by</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Warner Bros.</td>
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<th>Release date(s)</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1982 (<a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">USA</a>)</td>
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<th>Running time</th>
<td>117 min. <i>(intl. cut)</i><br /> 115 min. <i>(director's cut)</i></td>
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<th>Country</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a></td>
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<th>Language</th>
<td><a href="../../wp/e/English_language.htm" title="English language">English</a></td>
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<th>Budget</th>
<td>$28,000,000</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> All Movie Guide profile</b></th>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 100%;"><b><!--del_lnk--> IMDb profile</b></th>
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<p><i><b>Blade Runner</b></i> is an influential <!--del_lnk--> 1982 <!--del_lnk--> science fiction film directed by <!--del_lnk--> Ridley Scott from a <!--del_lnk--> screenplay written by <!--del_lnk--> Hampton Fancher and <!--del_lnk--> David Peoples, loosely based on the <a href="../../wp/n/Novel.htm" title="Novel">novel</a> <i><!--del_lnk--> Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Philip K. Dick. The film features <!--del_lnk--> Harrison Ford, <!--del_lnk--> Rutger Hauer, <!--del_lnk--> Sean Young, <!--del_lnk--> Edward James Olmos and <!--del_lnk--> Daryl Hannah.<p>The film depicts a <!--del_lnk--> dystopian <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a> in November 2019 in which genetically manufactured beings called <!--del_lnk--> replicants, physically identical to adult humans, are used for dangerous and degrading work in <a href="../../wp/e/Earth.htm" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s "<!--del_lnk--> off-world colonies." Replicants became illegal on Earth after a bloody <!--del_lnk--> mutiny. Specialist police units — blade runners — hunt down and "retire" (i.e. kill) escaped replicants on Earth. The plot primarily focuses on a particularly brutal and cunning group of replicants hiding in Los Angeles and a semi-retired blade runner, named Rick Deckard, who reluctantly agrees to take on one more assignment.<p><i>Blade Runner</i> initially polarized <!--del_lnk--> critics; some were displeased with the pacing, while others enjoyed its thematic complexity. The film performed poorly in North American theaters but achieved success overseas. Despite poor early ticket sales, it has since become a <!--del_lnk--> cult classic. <i>Blade Runner</i> has been hailed for its production design, one said to depict a "retrofitted future". The film is credited with prefiguring important concerns of the 21st century, such as <a href="../../wp/g/Globalization.htm" title="Globalization">globalization</a> and <!--del_lnk--> genetic engineering. It remains a leading example of <a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> and <!--del_lnk--> neo-noir. <i>Blade Runner</i> brought author <!--del_lnk--> Philip K. Dick to the attention of <a href="../../wp/c/Cinema_of_the_United_States.htm" title="Cinema of the United States">Hollywood</a>, and several films have since been made from his writings.<p>Seven versions of the film have been created for various markets and as a result of controversial changes made by film executives. A rushed <!--del_lnk--> Director's Cut was released in 1992 after a strong response to workprint screenings. This in conjunction with its popularity as a video rental made it one of the first films to see a <a href="../../wp/d/DVD.htm" title="DVD">DVD</a> release. <!--del_lnk--> Warner Bros. announced in January 2006 the upcoming 25th anniversary theatrical and DVD release in 2007 of the long-awaited remastered definitive Final Cut by Scott.<p>
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</script><a id="Production" name="Production"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Production</span></h2>
<p>Producer <!--del_lnk--> Michael Deeley became interested in <!--del_lnk--> Hampton Fancher's <!--del_lnk--> screenplay entitled <i>Android</i> (subsequently it was changed to <i>Dangerous Days</i>). Deeley convinced director <!--del_lnk--> Ridley Scott to create his first American film using Fancher's screenplay. Scott had previously passed on the project, but after leaving the slow production of <i><!--del_lnk--> Dune</i>, Scott decided to take it on. He joined the project on <!--del_lnk--> February 21, <!--del_lnk--> 1980, and went on to push <!--del_lnk--> Filmways promised financing on April 9th of $13 million up to $15 million.<p>When Scott noted Deckard's line of work needed a new name, Fancher found a cinema treatment by <!--del_lnk--> William S. Burroughs for <!--del_lnk--> Alan E. Nourse's novel <i><!--del_lnk--> The Bladerunner</i> (1974), entitled <i><!--del_lnk--> Blade Runner, a movie</i>. Scott liked it and Deeley obtained the rights to the titles, but Scott soon considered <i>Blade Runner</i> a working title for the film and wanted to find something more "commercial". (Note: Some editions of Nourse's novel use the two-word spacing <i>Blade Runner</i>, as does the Burroughs book.)<p>Scott became unhappy with the direction of the script and had <!--del_lnk--> David Peoples rewrite it. Fancher subsequently resigned on <!--del_lnk--> December 20, <!--del_lnk--> 1980 over the issue, although he later returned to contribute additional rewrites and was pleasantly surprised Peoples had done a good job incorporating Scott's ideas into the script. Subsequently Fancher and Peoples became good friends.<p>Having invested over $2.5 million in pre-production, as the date of commencement of prinicpal photography neared Filmways withdrew their financial backing. In ten days, Deeley secured $21.5 million in financing through a three way deal between <!--del_lnk--> The Ladd Company (through <!--del_lnk--> Warner Bros.), the <a href="../../wp/h/Hong_Kong.htm" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>-based producer <!--del_lnk--> Sir Run Run Shaw, and <!--del_lnk--> Tandem Productions. This would later prove problematic as the release of the film's Special Edition (Final Cut) was delayed due to legal wrangling over distribution rights.<p><!--del_lnk--> Philip K. Dick became concerned that no one had informed him about the film's production. After Dick criticized an early version of the script in an article in the Los Angeles <i><!--del_lnk--> Select TV Guide</i>, the studio sent Dick the Peoples rewrite. Although Dick died before the film's release, he was pleased with a forty-minute special effects test reel that he viewed.<p><i>Blade Runner</i> owes much to <!--del_lnk--> Fritz Lang's <i><!--del_lnk--> Metropolis</i>. Ridley Scott credits <!--del_lnk--> Edward Hopper's painting <i><!--del_lnk--> Nighthawks</i> and the proto-<a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> short story comic <i><!--del_lnk--> The Long Tomorrow</i> (by <!--del_lnk--> Dan O'Bannon, art by <!--del_lnk--> Moebius) as stylistic mood sources. In addition, he drew on the industrial night time landscape of his hometown of <!--del_lnk--> Hartlepool. Scott hired as his conceptual artist <!--del_lnk--> Syd Mead, who, like Scott, was influenced by the French science fiction comic magazine <i><!--del_lnk--> Métal Hurlant</i> (<!--del_lnk--> Heavy Metal), to which Moebius contributed. Moebius was offered the opportunity to assist in the pre-production of <i>Blade Runner</i>, but he declined so that he could work on <!--del_lnk--> René Laloux's animated film <i><!--del_lnk--> Les Maîtres du temps</i> -- a decision he later regretted. <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence G. Paull (production designer) and <!--del_lnk--> David Snyder (art director) realised Scott's and Mead's sketches. <!--del_lnk--> Jim Burns briefly worked designing the <!--del_lnk--> Spinner hovercars; <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Trumbull and <!--del_lnk--> Richard Yuricich supervised the <!--del_lnk--> special effects for the film. Principal photography of Blade Runner began on <!--del_lnk--> March 9, <!--del_lnk--> 1981.<p>Prior to <!--del_lnk--> principal photography, <!--del_lnk--> Paul M. Sammon was commissioned by <i><!--del_lnk--> Cinefantastique</i> magazine to do a special article on the making of <i>Blade Runner</i>. His detailed observations and research later became the book <i><!--del_lnk--> Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner</i>, which is commonly referred to as the "Blade Runner Bible" by many of the film's fans. The book outlines not only the evolution of <i>Blade Runner</i> but also the politics and difficulties on set. It focuses particularly on the British director's experiences with his first American crew. It also sheds light on Scott's directing style, which caused friction with the cast and likely contributed to Harrison Ford's subsequent reluctance to discuss the film.<p><a id="Synopsis" name="Synopsis"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Synopsis</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd><i>Note: The following synopsis refers to the "<!--del_lnk--> Director's Cut" version of the film.</i></dl>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>In <a href="../../wp/l/Los_Angeles%252C_California.htm" title="Los Angeles, California">Los Angeles</a>, November 2019, <!--del_lnk--> Rick Deckard (<!--del_lnk--> Harrison Ford) is called out of retirement when a fellow Blade Runner — <!--del_lnk--> Holden (<!--del_lnk--> Morgan Paull) — is shot during a <!--del_lnk--> Voight-Kampff test by <!--del_lnk--> Leon (<!--del_lnk--> Brion James), an escaped replicant. A reluctant Deckard is brought to his old boss <!--del_lnk--> Bryant (<!--del_lnk--> M. Emmet Walsh), who informs him that the recent escape of Nexus-6 replicants is the worst yet. Deckard agrees to help after Bryant threatens him enigmatically.<p>Bryant briefs Deckard on the replicants: <!--del_lnk--> Roy Batty (<!--del_lnk--> Rutger Hauer) is a commando, Leon a soldier and manual laborer, <!--del_lnk--> Zhora (<!--del_lnk--> Joanna Cassidy) a <!--del_lnk--> sex worker retrained as an assassin, and <!--del_lnk--> Pris (<!--del_lnk--> Daryl Hannah) a "basic pleasure model." Bryant also explains that the Nexus-6 model has a four-year lifespan as a failsafe against their developing unstable emotions. Deckard is teamed up with <!--del_lnk--> Gaff (<!--del_lnk--> Edward James Olmos) and sent to the <!--del_lnk--> Tyrell Corporation to ensure that the Voight-Kampff test works on Nexus-6 models. While there, Deckard discovers that <!--del_lnk--> Tyrell's (<!--del_lnk--> Joe Turkel) young secretary <!--del_lnk--> Rachael (<!--del_lnk--> Sean Young) is an experimental replicant (who believes she is a human) with implanted memories from Tyrell's niece.<p>Deckard and Gaff search Leon's apartment as Roy and Leon force <!--del_lnk--> Chew (<!--del_lnk--> James Hong), an eye designer, to direct them to <!--del_lnk--> J.F. Sebastian (<!--del_lnk--> William Sanderson) who can lead them to Tyrell. Later, Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity to him, but leaves in tears after Deckard tells her that her memories are in fact implants. Clues lead Deckard to <!--del_lnk--> Taffy Lewis' (<!--del_lnk--> Hy Pyke) Zhora, who Deckard shoots and "retires". Deckard is told to "retire" Rachael. However, after Rachael saves Deckard's life, they become close and begin to fall in love. Meanwhile, Roy arrives at Tyrell's apartment and demands an extension to his lifespan and absolution for his sins; upon receiving neither he kills Tyrell.<p>Deckard is sent to Sebastian's apartment and is ambushed by Pris. Roy returns and traps Deckard in the apartment, hunting him throughout the dilapidated <!--del_lnk--> Bradbury Building and forcing him to the roof. As Deckard attempts to escape from the roof, he ends up hanging from a beam. Just as Deckard is about to fall, Roy saves his life. Roy is quickly deteriorating, as his 4-year lifespan is up, and he "dies" up on the rooftop. Deckard returns to his apartment and finds Rachael alive. Deckard also finds an <!--del_lnk--> origami <!--del_lnk--> calling card left by Gaff, which suggests that he has allowed them to escape.<p><a id="Themes" name="Themes"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Themes</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
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<p>Despite the initial appearance of an action film, <i>Blade Runner</i> operates on an unusually rich number of dramatic levels. As with much of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> genre, it owes a large debt to <!--del_lnk--> film noir, containing and exploring such conventions as the <!--del_lnk--> femme fatale, a <!--del_lnk--> Chandleresque first-person narration (removed in later versions), and the questionable moral outlook of the <!--del_lnk--> Hero — extended here to include even the humanity of the hero, as well as the usual dark and shadowy <!--del_lnk--> cinematography.<p>It is one of the most literate science fiction films, both thematically — enfolding the <!--del_lnk--> philosophy of religion and <!--del_lnk--> moral implications of the increasing human mastery of <!--del_lnk--> genetic engineering, within the context of <!--del_lnk--> classical Greek drama and its notions of <!--del_lnk--> hubris — and linguistically, drawing on the poetry of <!--del_lnk--> William Blake and the <a href="../../wp/b/Bible.htm" title="Bible">Bible</a>. <i>Blade Runner</i> also features a <a href="../../wp/c/Chess.htm" title="Chess">chess</a> game based on the famous <!--del_lnk--> Immortal Game of 1851. (The king and queen are interposed on Tyrell's side, a position which a <!--del_lnk--> grandmaster would never attempt.)<p><i>Blade Runner</i> delves into the future implications of <a href="../../wp/t/Technology.htm" title="Technology">technology</a> on the <!--del_lnk--> environment and society by reaching into the past using literature, <!--del_lnk--> religious symbolism, classical dramatic themes and <!--del_lnk--> film noir. This tension between past, present and future is apparent in the retrofitted future of Blade Runner, which is <!--del_lnk--> high-tech and gleaming in places but elsewhere decayed and old.<p>A high level of <!--del_lnk--> paranoia is present throughout the film with the visual manifestation of <a href="../../wp/c/Corporation.htm" title="Corporation">corporate</a> power, omnipresent police, probing lights, and in the power over the individual represented particularly by genetic programming of the replicants. Control over the environment is seen on a large scale, hand in hand with the seeming absence of any natural life, with artificial animals being created as a substitute for the extinct originals. This oppressive backdrop clarifies why many people are going to the off-world colonies, which clearly parallels the migration to the <!--del_lnk--> Americas. The popular 1980s prediction of America being economically surpassed by <a href="../../wp/j/Japan.htm" title="Japan">Japan</a> is reflected in the domination of Japanese culture and advertising in LA 2019. The film also makes extensive use of eyes and manipulated images to call into question reality and our ability to perceive it.<p>These thematic elements provide an atmosphere of uncertainty for <i>Blade Runner's</i> central theme of examining humanity. In order to discover replicants, an empathy test is used with a number of questions focused on the treatment of animals, thus making it the essential indicator of someone's "humanity". The replicants are juxtaposed with human characters who are unempathetic, while the replicants appear to show passion and concern for one another at the same time as the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal. The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is a replicant, and forces the audience to reevaluate what it means to be <a href="../../wp/h/Human.htm" title="Human">human</a>.<p><a id="Deckard:_replicant_or_human.3F" name="Deckard:_replicant_or_human.3F"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Deckard: replicant or human?</span></h3>
<div class="notice metadata spoiler" id="spoiler"><b><!--del_lnk--> Spoiler warning: <i>Plot and/or ending details follow.</i></b></div>
<p>The question of whether Deckard is intended to be a human or a replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film's release. Ridley Scott, after remaining coy for twenty years, stated in 2000 that Deckard is a replicant. Hampton Fancher and Harrison Ford have stated that Deckard is human. The rough consensus of the debate is that in the original version of the film Deckard is probably human, whereas the Director's Cut deliberately hints that he may be another replicant. Specifically, the Director's Cut includes a short sequence in which Deckard dreams about a <!--del_lnk--> unicorn. This sequence alters the significance of the <!--del_lnk--> origami unicorn that Gaff leaves in Deckard's apartment, suggesting to the viewer (and to Deckard) that Gaff knows about Deckard's dream in the same manner that Deckard knows about Rachael's implanted memories. An answer to Deckard's nature is not given – as such it provides additional layers of ambiguity to the film's questions about humanity and reality.<p><a id="Cast" name="Cast"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Cast</span></h2>
<p>With the exception of Harrison Ford, <i>Blade Runner</i> had a significant number of then-unknown actors in its cast:<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Harrison Ford</b> as <b>Rick Deckard</b>. Coming off some success with <i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars_Episode_IV__A_New_Hope.htm" title="Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope">Star Wars</a></i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Empire Strikes Back</i>, but still a year before <i><!--del_lnk--> Raiders of the Lost Ark</i> was released, Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth. After <!--del_lnk--> Steven Spielberg praised Ford and showed some <i>Raiders</i> rushes to <!--del_lnk--> Deeley and <!--del_lnk--> Scott they hired Ford. Due to the initially poor reception of <i>Blade Runner</i> and friction with Scott, Ford has usually avoided discussing the film.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Rutger Hauer</b> as <b>Roy Batty</b>. Hauer gave a brief but effective performance as the violent yet thoughtful leader of <!--del_lnk--> replicants; and was regarded by Philip K. Dick as "the perfect Batty — cold, Aryan, flawless." Of the many films Hauer has done, <i>Blade Runner</i> is his favorite. As he explains:</ul>
<dl>
<dd>
<dl>
<dd>"Blade Runner <i>needs no explanation. It just IZZ. All of the best. There is nothing like it. To be part of a real MASTERPIECE which changed the world's thinking. It's awesome."</i></dl>
</dl>
<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Sean Young</b> as <b>Rachael</b>. Young still counts <i>Blade Runner</i> among her favorite films, despite friction with Ford and Scott.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Edward James Olmos</b> as <b>Gaff</b>. Olmos used his diverse ethnic background, and some in depth personal research, to help create the fictional "Cityspeak" language his character uses in the film. It later turned out that what he addresses to the sitting and eating Rick Deckard is partly in <!--del_lnk--> Hungarian and means "Horse dick! So you say. You are the Blade... Blade Runner."<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Daryl Hannah</b> as <b>Pris</b>. Hannah managed to bring out the dangerous innocence of a replicant in love with Roy Batty.</ul>
<p>Supporting roles:<ul>
<li><b><!--del_lnk--> M. Emmet Walsh</b> as <b>Captain Bryant</b>. Walsh lived up to his reputation as a great character actor with the role of a hard drinking police veteran.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Joe Turkel</b> as <b>Dr. Eldon Tyrell</b>. With a confident penetrating voice and a penchant for self-aggrandizement, this corporate mogul has built an empire on <a href="../../wp/s/Slavery.htm" title="Slavery">slavery</a>.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> William Sanderson</b> as <b>J.F. Sebastian</b>, a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity. This led to more varied work for Sanderson.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Brion James</b> as <b>Leon</b>. Although at first glance a dumb <!--del_lnk--> replicant used for muscle, Leon did have an undertone of intuitive intelligence.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Joanna Cassidy</b> as <b>Zhora</b>. Cassidy portrays a strong woman who has seen the worst humanity has to offer.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Morgan Paull</b> as <b>Holden</b>.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> James Hong</b> as <b>Hannibal Chew</b>. An elder geneticist who loves his work, especially with synthesizing <a href="../../wp/e/Eye.htm" title="Eye">eyes</a>.<li><b><!--del_lnk--> Hy Pyke</b> as <b>Taffey Lewis</b>. Pyke conveys Lewis' sleaziness with ease and apparently with one take; something almost unheard of with Scott's drive for perfection resulting at times in double digit takes.<li><b>Unknown</b> as <b>Abdul Hassan</b>. It remains a mystery as to who played the snake dealer Deckard interrogates.</ul>
<p><a id="Music" name="Music"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Music</span></h2>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <i>Blade Runner</i> soundtrack by <!--del_lnk--> Vangelis is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film-noir retro-future envisioned by <!--del_lnk--> Ridley Scott. Vangelis, fresh off of his <!--del_lnk--> Academy Award winning score from <!--del_lnk--> Chariots of Fire, composed and performed the music on his <a href="../../wp/s/Synthesizer.htm" title="Synthesizer">synthesizers</a>. The musicscape of 2019 was created in Vangelis' "space" mode of <!--del_lnk--> new age music, as heard on such albums of his as <i><!--del_lnk--> Heaven and Hell</i>. He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator <!--del_lnk--> Demis Roussos. Ridley Scott also used "Memories of Green" from Vangelis' album <i><!--del_lnk--> See You Later</i> (an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film <i><!--del_lnk--> Someone To Watch Over Me</i>).<dl>
<dd><i>"Both emotional and unsettling, the Blade Runner score plays off conflict (discord versus harmony, light against dark) for a rich, textured tapestry of sound."</i> — <!--del_lnk--> musicoutfitter.com</dl>
<p>Despite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed — nominated in 1983 for a <!--del_lnk--> BAFTA and <!--del_lnk--> Golden Globe as best original score — and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film, the release of the original soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade. There are two official releases of the music from <i>Blade Runner</i>. In light of the lack of a release of an album, The New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original. Some of the film tracks would in 1989 surface on the compilation <i>Themes</i>, but not until the 1992 release of the Director's Cut version would a substantial amount of the film's score see the light of day. However, while most of the tracks on the album are from the film, there were a few that Vangelis composed but were ultimately not used and some new pieces. Many do not consider this to be a satisfying representation of the score.<p>These delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many <!--del_lnk--> bootleg recordings over the years. A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings, and in 1993 "Off World Music, Ltd." created a bootleg <a href="../../wp/c/Compact_Disc.htm" title="Compact disc">CD</a> that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis' official CD in 1994. A disc from "Gongo Records" features most of the same material, but with slightly better sound quality. In 2003, two other bootlegs surfaced, the "Esper Edition," closely preceded by "Los Angeles — November 2019." The double disc "Esper Edition" combined tracks from the official release, the Gongo boot and the film itself. Finally "2019" provided a single disc compilation almost wholly consisting of ambient sound from the film, padded out with some sounds from the Westwood game <i>Blade Runner</i>. The Gongo release is considered the best presentation of the music, while Los Angeles — November 2019 and the Esper Edition are excellent mementos of the film.<dl>
<dd><i>"Dreamy, evocative, beautiful and essential."</i> — <!--del_lnk--> moviegrooves.com</dl>
<p><a id="Reception" name="Reception"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Reception</span></h2>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="toccolours" style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;clear:right;font-size: 90%;text-align: left;">
<tr>
<th colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 110%; margin-left: inherit;"><!--del_lnk--> Ratings</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Australia:</b> </th>
<td>M</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Canada (Manitoba):</b> </th>
<td>PA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Canada (<!--del_lnk--> Ontario):</b> </th>
<td>AA</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Canada (<!--del_lnk--> Maritime):</b> </th>
<td>A</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Canada (Quebec):</b> </th>
<td>13+</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Canada (<!--del_lnk--> Home Vid.):</b> </th>
<td>14A (director's cut)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Iceland:</b> </th>
<td>16</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> Ireland:</b> </th>
<td>15</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> United Kingdom:</b> </th>
<td>AA (original rating);<br /> 15 (1986 video rating)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th><b><!--del_lnk--> United States:</b> </th>
<td>R</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><i>Blade Runner</i> was released in 1,290 theaters on <!--del_lnk--> June 25, <!--del_lnk--> 1982. That date was chosen by producer <!--del_lnk--> Alan Ladd, Jr. because his previous highest-grossing films (<i><a href="../../wp/s/Star_Wars_Episode_IV__A_New_Hope.htm" title="Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope">Star Wars</a></i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Alien</i>) had a similar opening date (<!--del_lnk--> May 25) in 1977 and 1979, making the date his "lucky day." However, the gross for the opening weekend was a disappointing $6.15 million. A significant factor in the film's rather poor box office performance was that its release coincided with another science fiction film, <i><!--del_lnk--> E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial</i>, which was released in the U.S. on June 11, 1982, and dominated box office revenues at the time.<p>Film critics were polarized as some felt the story had taken a back seat to special effects and that it was not the action/adventure the studio had advertised. Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time.<p>A general criticism was its slow pacing that detracts from other strengths; one film critic went so far as to call it "Blade Crawler." <!--del_lnk--> Roger Ebert praised <i>Blade Runner</i>'s visuals, but found the human story a little thin. Ebert thought Tyrell's character unconvincing and the apparent lack of security measures allowing Roy to murder him problematic. Also he believed the relationship between Deckard and Rachael seemed "to exist more for the plot than for them."<p>Other critics have countered that the strong visuals serve to create a dehumanized world where human elements stand out, and that the relationship between Deckard and Rachael could be essential in reaffirming their respective humanity. In a later episode of their show, Ebert and <!--del_lnk--> Gene Siskel admit they were wrong about their early negative reviews and that they consider the film to be a modern classic.<p><a id="Awards_and_nominations" name="Awards_and_nominations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Awards and nominations</span></h2>
<p><i>Blade Runner</i> has both won, and been nominated for, many awards.<p>It has won the following accolades:<table border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;">
<tr>
<th>Year</th>
<th>Award</th>
<th>Category — Recipient(s)</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1982</td>
<td>Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award</td>
<td>Best Cinematography — <!--del_lnk--> Jordan Cronenweth</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td rowspan="3">1983</td>
<td rowspan="3"><!--del_lnk--> BAFTA Film Award</td>
<td>Best Cinematography — Jordan Cronenweth</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Best Costume Design — <!--del_lnk--> Charles Knode, <!--del_lnk--> Michael Kaplan</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Best Production Design/Art Direction — <!--del_lnk--> Lawrence G. Paull</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1983</td>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Hugo Award</td>
<td>Best Dramatic Presentation</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1983</td>
<td>London Critics Circle Film Awards — Special Achievement Award</td>
<td>Lawrence G. Paull, Douglas Trumbull, Syd Mead — For their visual concept (technical prize).</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>It was nominated for the following awards:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> BAFTA (1983) <ul>
<li>Best Film Editing — <!--del_lnk--> Terry Rawlings<li>Best Make Up Artist — <!--del_lnk--> Marvin G. Westmore<li>Best Score — <!--del_lnk--> Vangelis<li>Best Sound — Peter Pennell, Bud Alper, Graham V. Hartstone, Gerry Humphreys<li>Best Special Visual Effects — <!--del_lnk--> Douglas Trumbull, <!--del_lnk--> Richard Yuricich, <!--del_lnk--> David Dryer</ul>
<li>British Society of Cinematographers: Best Cinematography Award (1982) — <!--del_lnk--> Jordan Cronenweth<li><!--del_lnk--> Fantasporto<ul>
<li>International Fantasy Film Award (1983) — Best Film — <!--del_lnk--> Ridley Scott<li>International Fantasy Film Award (1993) — Best Film — Ridley Scott (Director's cut)</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Golden Globe: Best Original Score (1983) — Motion Picture — Vangelis<li><!--del_lnk--> Academy Award (1983) <ul>
<li>Best Art Direction-Set Decoration — Lawrence G. Paull, <!--del_lnk--> David L. Snyder, <!--del_lnk--> Linda DeScenna<li>Best Effects, Visual Effects — Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, David Dryer</ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Saturn Award (1983) <ul>
<li>Best Science Fiction Film<li>Best Director — Ridley Scott<li>Best Special Effects — Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich<li>Best Supporting Actor — <!--del_lnk--> Rutger Hauer<li>Best Genre Video Release (1994) — Director's cut</ul>
</ul>
<p><a id="Influence" name="Influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Influence</span></h2>
<p>Although it initially gained a small <a href="../../wp/n/North_America.htm" title="North America">North American</a> audience, the film was popular internationally and became a <!--del_lnk--> cult classic which has been often referenced in other media. <i>Blade Runner's</i> dark <a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> style and futuristic design have served as a benchmark and its inspiration can be seen in many subsequent science fiction films and television programs, such as <i><!--del_lnk--> Max Headroom</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Batman</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> RoboCop</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> The Fifth Element</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Brazil</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Dark Angel</i>, <i><a href="../../wp/f/Firefly_%2528TV_series%2529.htm" title="Firefly (TV series)">Firefly</a></i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Battlestar Galactica</i>, and <i><!--del_lnk--> The Matrix</i>, and in <!--del_lnk--> anime, including <i><!--del_lnk--> Akira</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Ghost in the Shell</i>, Armitage III, <i><!--del_lnk--> Silent Möbius</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Cowboy Bebop</i>, <i><!--del_lnk--> Bubblegum Crisis</i>, <!--del_lnk--> AD Police Files, <!--del_lnk--> Parasite Dolls, and <i><!--del_lnk--> Ergo Proxy</i>.<p>The film arguably marks the introduction of the <a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> genre into popular culture. <i>Blade Runner</i> continues to reflect modern trends and concerns, and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time. The film was selected for preservation in the <a href="../../wp/u/United_States.htm" title="United States">United States</a> <!--del_lnk--> National Film Registry in 1993 and is frequently used in <a href="../../wp/u/University.htm" title="University">university</a> courses. It is one of the most musically <!--del_lnk--> sampled films of the 20th century. The character Roy Batty served as the apparent inspiration of several <!--del_lnk--> rock songs by <!--del_lnk--> Audioslave <i>"Show Me How To Live"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> White Zombie <i>"Electric Head"</i> and <i>"<!--del_lnk--> More Human Than Human"</i> (a <!--del_lnk--> Tyrell Corporation slogan), <!--del_lnk--> Gary Numan <i>"Time To Die"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Covenant <i>"Like Tears In Rain"</i> and <i>"Replicant"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Diesel Christ <i>"Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Sigue Sigue Sputnik <i>"Love Missile F1-11"</i> and <!--del_lnk--> Kent <i>"OWC"</i>.<p>Other Rock songs influenced by the film (and the book it is based upon) include <!--del_lnk--> Blind Guardian's <i>"Time What Is Time"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Fear Factory's <i>"Replica"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Gary Numan's <i>"Are 'Friends' Electric?"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Incubus' <i>"Talk Shows On Mute"</i>, <!--del_lnk--> Kim Wilde <i>"Bladerunner"</i>, and <!--del_lnk--> Tan-Hauser Gate's <i>"Little piece of you"</i>.<dl>
<dd><i>"Ridley Scott's film remains the defining vision of futuristic science fiction."</i> — <!--del_lnk--> Steve Biodrowski</dl>
<p><i>Blade Runner</i> also influenced the <a href="../../wp/c/Cyberpunk.htm" title="Cyberpunk">cyberpunk</a> <!--del_lnk--> adventure game <i><!--del_lnk--> Snatcher</i>, the <!--del_lnk--> role-playing game <i><!--del_lnk--> Shadowrun</i>, the computer game <i><!--del_lnk--> System Shock</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Syndicate</i> games. The fictional language Cityspeak has been used in many cyberpunk genre role-playing games.<p>The memorable <!--del_lnk--> Scrap Brain Zone level from the original <!--del_lnk--> Sonic the Hedgehog features an almost identical score to the Blade Runner 'End Title' theme, and is clearly a direct tribute.<p><a id="Versions" name="Versions"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Versions</span></h2>
<p>Seven versions of the film exist, but only the Director's Cut and International Cut are widely known and seen:<ul>
<li>The original 1982 International Cut (also known as Criterion Edition), which included more graphic violence than the U.S. theatrical release, and which was released on <!--del_lnk--> VHS and on <!--del_lnk--> Criterion Collection <!--del_lnk--> Laserdisc.<li>The U.S. theatrical version (also known as Original Version), also called the <i>domestic cut</i>.<li>Two workprint versions, shown only as audience test previews and occasionally at film festivals; one of these was distributed in 1991, as a <i>Director's Cut</i> without Scott's approval.<li>The Ridley Scott-approved 1992 Director's Cut; prompted by the unauthorized 1991 release, it is to date the only version officially released on DVD.<li>The broadcast version, edited for <!--del_lnk--> profanity.<li>Warner Home Video has scheduled both theatrical and DVD releases of Ridley Scott's final cut of the film for 2007.</ul>
<p><a id="Theatrical_versions" name="Theatrical_versions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Theatrical versions</span></h3>
<p>The 1982 American and European theatrical versions released by the studio included a "happy ending" (using stock footage from <!--del_lnk--> Stanley Kubrick's <i><!--del_lnk--> The Shining</i>) and a <!--del_lnk--> voice-over added at the request of studio executives during <!--del_lnk--> post-production after test audience members indicated difficulty understanding the film. Although several different versions of the script had included a narration of some sort, both Ridley Scott and Harrison Ford disliked the studio voice-over and resisted having it added to the film. It has been suggested that Ford intentionally performed the voice-over poorly in the hope it wouldn't be used, but recent interviews contradict this.<p><a id="Director.27s_Cut" name="Director.27s_Cut"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Director's Cut</span></h3>
<p>In 1990, Warner Bros briefly allowed theatrical screenings of a 70 mm copy of the workprint version of the film, advertising it as a Director's Cut. However, Ridley Scott publicly disowned the workprint version of the film as his definitive Director's Cut, citing that it was roughly edited and lacked the score composed for the film by <!--del_lnk--> Vangelis. In response to Scott's dissatisfaction (and in part because of the film's resurgent cult popularity in the early 90s) Warner Brothers decided to assemble a definitive Director's Cut of the film with direction from Scott to be released in 1992.<p>They hired film-restorationist Michael Arick, who had rediscovered the workprint of Blade Runner and who was already doing consultation work for them, to head the project with Scott. He started by spending several months in <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> with Les Healey, who had been the assistant editor on Blade Runner, attempting to compile a list of the changes that Scott wanted made to the film. He also got a number of suggestions/directions directly from the director himself. Arick made several changes to the film, most of them fairly minor editing changes, including the reinsertion of Deckard finding Gaff's origami unicorn in the hallway near his apartment at the film's closing. However, three major changes were made to the film which most would agree significantly changed the feel of the film: the removal of Deckard's explanatory voice-over, the re-insertion of a dream sequence of a unicorn running through a forest, and the removal of the studio imposed happy ending, including some associated visuals which had originally run under the film's end-credits. The original sequence of Deckard's unicorn dream wasn't found in a sufficiently high quality print; the original scene shows Deckard intercut with the running unicorn. So Arick used a different print that just shows the unicorn running without any cut to Deckard.<p>Scott has since complained that time and money constraints and his obligation to <i><!--del_lnk--> Thelma and Louise</i> kept him from retooling the film in a completely satisfactory manner, and that while he's happier than before with the 1992 release of the film, he's never felt entirely comfortable with it as his definitive Director's Cut.<p>Originally released as a single-disc DVD in 1997, the Director's Cut was one of the first DVDs on the market. However, it is of low quality compared to DVDs of today due to it being produced in the early days of the format.<p><a id="Special_Edition" name="Special_Edition"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Special Edition</span></h3>
<p>Partly as the result of those complaints, Scott was invited back in mid-2000 to help put together a final and definitive version of the film, which was completed in mid-2001. During the process, a new digital print of the film was created from the original negatives, special effects were updated and cleaned, and the sound was remastered in 5.1 <!--del_lnk--> Dolby Digital surround sound. Unlike the rushed 1992 Director's Cut, Scott personally oversaw the new cut as it was being made. The Special Edition DVD was slated for a Christmas time 2001 release, and was originally rumored to be a three-disc set including the full international theatrical cut, an early workprint with additional scenes, and the newly enhanced version in addition to deleted scenes, extensive cast and crew interviews, and the documentary "On the Edge of Blade Runner". But <!--del_lnk--> Warner Bros indefinitely delayed the "Special Edition" release after legal disputes began with the film's original <!--del_lnk--> completion bond guarantors (specifically <!--del_lnk--> Jerry Perenchio), who were ceded ownership of the film when the shooting ran over budget from $21.5 to $28 million.<p>After years of legal disputes, Warner Brothers announced in 2006 that it had finally secured full distribution rights to the film. They planned for three stages of releases for the film. First, a digitally remastered single-disc limited re-release of the 1992 Director's Cut was released on <!--del_lnk--> September 5, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 and on <!--del_lnk--> October 9, <!--del_lnk--> 2006 in Ireland and the UK. Second, Ridley Scott's new "Final Cut" of the film is scheduled for theatrical release in 2007. The third and final phase, a multi-disc box set including the two previously mentioned cuts, the U.S. and International cuts, and bonus features, is also scheduled for 2007. Warner Bros. has plans to release this box set not only on DVD, but also on the <!--del_lnk--> HD DVD and <!--del_lnk--> Blu-ray disc formats.<p><a id="Documentaries" name="Documentaries"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Documentaries</span></h2>
<p><i>On the Edge of Blade Runner</i> (55 minutes), produced in 2000 by Nobles Gate Ltd. (for <!--del_lnk--> Channel 4), was directed by <!--del_lnk--> Andrew Abbott and hosted/written by <!--del_lnk--> Mark Kermode. Interviews with production staff, including Scott, give details of the creative process and the turmoil during preproduction. Stories from <!--del_lnk--> Paul M. Sammon and Fancher provide insight into <!--del_lnk--> Philip K. Dick and the origins of <i><!--del_lnk--> Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</i><p>Interweaved are cast interviews (with the notable exceptions of <!--del_lnk--> Harrison Ford and <!--del_lnk--> Sean Young), which convey some of the difficulties of making the film (including an exacting director and humid, smoggy weather). There is also a tour of some locations, most notably the <!--del_lnk--> Bradbury Building and the <!--del_lnk--> Warner Brothers backlot that became the LA 2019 streets, and which look very different from Scott's dark vision.<p>The documentary then details the test screenings and the resulting changes (the voice over, the happy ending, and the deleted Holden hospital scene), the special effects, the soundtrack by <!--del_lnk--> Vangelis, and the unhappy relationship between the filmmakers and the investors which culminated in Deeley and Scott being fired but still working on the film. The question of whether or not <!--del_lnk--> Deckard is a replicant surfaces.<p><i>Future Shocks</i> (27 minutes) is a more recent documentary from 2003 by <!--del_lnk--> TVOntario (part of their <!--del_lnk--> Film 101 series using footage compiled over the years for <!--del_lnk--> Saturday Night at the Movies). It includes interviews with executive producer <!--del_lnk--> Bud Yorkin, <!--del_lnk--> Syd Mead, and the cast, this time with Sean Young, but still without Harrison Ford. There is extensive commentary by science fiction author <!--del_lnk--> Robert J. Sawyer and from film critics, as the documentary focuses on the themes, visual impact and influence of the film. Edward James Olmos describes Ford's participation and personal experiences during filming are related by Young, Walsh, Cassidy and Sanderson. They also relate a story about crew members creating t-shirts that took pot shots at Scott. The different versions of the film are critiqued and the accuracy of its predictions of the future are discussed.<p><a id="Novel" name="Novel"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Novel</span></h2>
<p>The original screenplay by <!--del_lnk--> Hampton Fancher was based loosely on <!--del_lnk--> Philip K. Dick's <i><!--del_lnk--> Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</i>, which he optioned in 1980 after an unsuccessful previous attempt. However, Fancher's script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and faith, which weighed heavily in the novel. When <!--del_lnk--> Ridley Scott became involved with the film, he wanted changes to the script made, and eventually hired <!--del_lnk--> David Peoples to perform the re-writes after Fancher refused. The film's title also changed several times during the writing process, it was to be called <i>Dangerous Days</i> in Fancher's last draft before eventually taking the name Blade Runner, actually borrowed (with permission) from a <!--del_lnk--> William S. Burroughs treatment of <!--del_lnk--> Alan E. Nourse's science fiction novel <i>The Bladerunner</i> (1974).<p>As a result of Fancher's divergence from the novel, numerous re-writes before and throughout shooting the film, and the fact that Ridley Scott never entirely read the novel it was based on, the film diverged significantly from its original inspiration. The changes have led many critics and fans to consider them as independent works of fiction, despite the fact that the novel <i>Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</i> was reprinted for a time with the title <i>Blade Runner</i> with the intention of promoting sales. Some of the themes in the novel that were minimized or entirely removed include: fertility/sterility of the population, <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="../../wp/m/Mass_media.htm" title="Mass media">mass media</a>, Deckard's uncertainty that he is human, and real versus synthetic <!--del_lnk--> pets and <a href="../../wp/e/Emotion.htm" title="Emotion">emotions</a>.<p>The producers of the film arranged for a screening of some rough cuts for Philip K. Dick shortly before he died in early 1982. Despite the fact that the movie deviated significantly from his book and his well known skepticism of <!--del_lnk--> Hollywood in principle, he became quite enthusiastic about the film. He predicted that: "This will change the way we look at movies."<p>The film also draws upon <i><!--del_lnk--> We Can Build You</i>, another of Dick's novels. In chapter 3 of <i>We Can Build You</i>, another character named Pris is described as wearing "odd make-up, eyes outlined in black, a harlequin effect, and almost purple lipstick; the whole colour scheme made her appear unreal and doll-like". This description inspired the make-up worn by Pris in <i>Blade Runner</i>.<p><a id="Sequels" name="Sequels"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Sequels</span></h2>
<p>Three official and authorized <i>Blade Runner</i> novels have been written by <!--del_lnk--> Philip K. Dick's friend <!--del_lnk--> K. W. Jeter that continue the story of <!--del_lnk--> Rick Deckard and attempt to resolve many of the differences between <i>Blade Runner</i> and <i><!--del_lnk--> Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</i>.<ul>
<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human</i> (1995)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night</i> (1996)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon</i> (2000)</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> David Peoples, who co-wrote <i>Blade Runner</i> and wrote the <!--del_lnk--> 1998 film <!--del_lnk--> <i>Soldier</i>, has said that <i>Soldier</i> is intended to be what he calls a "<!--del_lnk--> sidequel" to <i>Blade Runner</i>. <i>Soldier</i> takes place in the same <!--del_lnk--> fictional universe, and the <!--del_lnk--> spinners used in <i>Blade Runner</i> are also used in <i>Soldier</i>. However, <i>Soldier</i> is an <!--del_lnk--> informal sequel as it was never formally approved by the <i>Blade Runner</i> partnership, which owns the rights to the <i>Blade Runner</i> universe.<p>Though not an official sequel to <i>Blade Runner</i>, many fans have noted similarities between the 1999 <!--del_lnk--> television series <i><!--del_lnk--> Total Recall 2070</i> and the <i>Blade Runner</i> universe. <i>Total Recall 2070</i> was based on two works by Phillip K. Dick: "<!--del_lnk--> We Can Remember It for You Wholesale" (the basis for <i><!--del_lnk--> Total Recall</i>), and <i><!--del_lnk--> Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?</i> (the basis for <i>Blade Runner</i>), so many consider the series a sequel to (or at least a spin-off of) <i>Blade Runner</i>.<p><a id="Games_and_comics" name="Games_and_comics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Games and comics</span></h2>
<p>There are two <a href="../../wp/c/Computer_and_video_games.htm" title="Computer and video games">computer games</a> based on the film, one for <a href="../../wp/c/Commodore_64.htm" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a>, <a href="../../wp/z/ZX_Spectrum.htm" title="ZX Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Amstrad CPC 6128 by CRL Group PLC (1985) based on the music by <!--del_lnk--> Vangelis (due to licensing issues), and another action adventure <!--del_lnk--> PC game by <!--del_lnk--> Westwood Studios (1997). The <!--del_lnk--> latter game featured new characters and branching storylines based on the <i>Blade Runner</i> world, coupled with voice work from some of the original cast from the film and some recurring locations from the film. It is noteworthy that the events portrayed in the 1997 game occur not after, but in parallel to those in the film — the player assumes the role of another replicant-hunter working at the same time as Deckard, though of course they never meet, so as to remain consistent with the film. The game was highly advanced for its time, featuring a non linear plot, and advanced non player characters that each ran in their own independent AI. Unfortunately, the game was hobbled by an unusual 3D engine that was credible when the game went into production, but outclassed by the time the game was finally released.<p>A prototype board game was also created in California (1982) that had game play similar to <!--del_lnk--> Scotland Yard.<p>The cult computer game <i><!--del_lnk--> Snatcher</i> was heavily influenced by <i>Blade Runner</i>, so much so that websites exist detailing the numerous similarities between the two.<p><!--del_lnk--> Archie Goodwin scripted the comic book adaptation, <i>A Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner</i>, published September, 1982. The <!--del_lnk--> Jim Steranko cover leads into a 45-page adaptation illustrated by the team of <!--del_lnk--> Al Williamson, Carlos Garzon, Dan Green and <!--del_lnk--> Ralph Reese. This adaptation was poorly received and widely ridiculed because of poor writing and misquoted dialogue taken from the film. (This adaptation includes one possible explanation of the title's significance in story context: the narrative line, "Blade runner. You're always movin' on the edge.") Also there was a parody comic of <i>Blade Runner</i> called <i>Blade Bummer</i> by <!--del_lnk--> Crazy comics.<p><!--del_lnk--> Steve Gallacci wrote and illustrated an <!--del_lnk--> anthropomorphic <!--del_lnk--> parody of the film as <i>Bad Rubber</i> in the prototype issue (Number 0) of his comic book title <i><!--del_lnk--> Albedo Anthropomorphics</i>. The character based on Rick Deckard was a duck named "Rick Duckard".<p><a id="Curse" name="Curse"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Curse</span></h2>
<p>Among the folklore that has grown up around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a <!--del_lnk--> curse to the companies whose <!--del_lnk--> logos were displayed prominently in some scenes. While they were market leaders at the time, many of them experienced disastrous setbacks over the next decade and hardly exist today:<ul>
<li><!--del_lnk--> Atari, which dominated the <!--del_lnk--> home video game market when the film came out, never recovered from <!--del_lnk--> the next year's downturn in the industry, and by the 1990s had ceased to exist as anything more than a brand, a back catalog of games and some legacy computers. The Atari of today is an entirely different firm, usurping the former company's name.<li>The <!--del_lnk--> Bell System <!--del_lnk--> monopoly was broken up that same year, and all of the resulting <!--del_lnk--> Regional Bell operating companies have since changed their names and <!--del_lnk--> merged with each other or other companies.<li><!--del_lnk--> Pan Am suffered the destruction of <a href="../../wp/p/Pan_Am_Flight_103.htm" title="Pan Am Flight 103">Pan Am Flight 103</a> and went <!--del_lnk--> bankrupt in 1991, after a decade of mounting losses.<li><!--del_lnk--> Cuisinart similarly went bankrupt in 1989, though it lives on under new ownership.</ul>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Coca-Cola almost joined this list in the wake of its failed introduction of <!--del_lnk--> New Coke <!--del_lnk--> three years later, but has since experienced a thirty-fold increase in share price.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blade_Runner"</div>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.People.Mathematicians.htm">Mathematicians</a></h3>
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<div style="line-height:1.25em;">Blaise Pascal</div>
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<th align="right">Born</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> June 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1623<br /><!--del_lnk--> Clermont-Ferrand, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
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<td><!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1662<br /><a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a></td>
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<td>mathematician, physicist, philosopher</td>
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<p><b>Blaise Pascal</b> (pronounced [<span class="IPA" title="Pronunciation in IPA">blez pɑskɑl</span>]), (<!--del_lnk--> June 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1623 – <!--del_lnk--> August 19, <!--del_lnk--> 1662) was a <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">French</a> <!--del_lnk--> mathematician, <!--del_lnk--> physicist, and <a href="../../wp/r/Religion.htm" title="Religion">religious</a> <a href="../../wp/p/Philosophy.htm" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>. He was a <!--del_lnk--> child prodigy who was educated by his father. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied <a href="../../wp/s/Science.htm" title="Science">sciences</a> where he made important contributions to the construction of mechanical <!--del_lnk--> calculators, the study of <!--del_lnk--> fluids, and clarified the concepts of <!--del_lnk--> pressure and <!--del_lnk--> vacuum by generalizing the work of <!--del_lnk--> Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote powerfully in defense of the <!--del_lnk--> scientific method.<p>He was a mathematician of the first order. Pascal helped create two major new areas of research. He wrote a significant treatise on the subject of <!--del_lnk--> projective geometry at the age of sixteen and corresponded with <!--del_lnk--> Pierre de Fermat from 1654 and later on <a href="../../wp/p/Probability_theory.htm" title="Probability theory">probability theory</a>, strongly influencing the development of modern <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economics</a> and <!--del_lnk--> social science.<p>Following a <a href="../../wp/m/Mysticism.htm" title="Mysticism">mystical</a> experience in late 1654, he abandoned his scientific work and devoted himself to philosophy and <!--del_lnk--> theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the <i><!--del_lnk--> Lettres provinciales</i> and the <i><!--del_lnk--> Pensées</i>. However, he had suffered from ill-health throughout his life and his new interests were ended by his early death two months after his 39th birthday.<p>
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</script><a id="Early_life_and_education" name="Early_life_and_education"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Early life and education</span></h2>
<p>Born in <!--del_lnk--> Clermont-Ferrand, in the <!--del_lnk--> Auvergne region of <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, Blaise Pascal lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, <!--del_lnk--> Étienne Pascal (1588–1651), was a local judge and member of the <i>petite noblesse</i>, who also had an interest in science and mathematics. Blaise Pascal was brother to <!--del_lnk--> Jacqueline Pascal and two other sisters, only one of whom, Gilberte, survived past childhood.<p>In 1631, Étienne moved with his children to <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>. Étienne decided that he would educate his son who showed extraordinary intellectual ability. Young Pascal showed immediate aptitude for mathematics and science, perhaps inspired by his father's regular conversations with Paris' leading geometricians, including <!--del_lnk--> Roberval, <!--del_lnk--> Mersenne, <!--del_lnk--> Desargues, <!--del_lnk--> Mydorge, <!--del_lnk--> Gassendi, and <!--del_lnk--> Descartes. At the age of eleven, he composed a short treatise on the sounds of vibrating bodies and Étienne responded by forbidding his son to further pursue mathematics until the age of fifteen so as not to harm his study of <a href="../../wp/l/Latin.htm" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <!--del_lnk--> Greek. One day, however, Étienne found Blaise (now twelve) writing an independent proof that the sum of the <!--del_lnk--> angles of a <!--del_lnk--> triangle is equal to two <!--del_lnk--> right angles with a piece of coal on a wall. From then on, the boy was allowed to study <a href="../../wp/e/Euclid.htm" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>.<p>Particularly of interest to Pascal was the work of Desargues. Following Desargues's thinking, at age sixteen Pascal produced a treatise on <!--del_lnk--> conic sections, <i>Essai pour les coniques</i> ("Essay on Conics"). Most of it has been lost, but an important original result has lasted, now known as <!--del_lnk--> Pascal's theorem. Pascal's work was so precocious that Descartes, when shown the manuscript, refused to believe that the composition was not by his father.<p>In 1638, Étienne's opposition to the fiscal policies of <!--del_lnk--> Cardinal Richelieu eventually forced the family to flee Paris. It was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play with Richelieu in attendance that Étienne was pardoned. By 1639, the family had moved to <!--del_lnk--> Rouen where Étienne became a tax collector.<p>At age eighteen, Pascal constructed a mechanical calculator capable of addition and subtraction, called <!--del_lnk--> Pascal's calculator or the Pascaline, to help his father with this work. The <!--del_lnk--> Zwinger <!--del_lnk--> museum, in <a href="../../wp/d/Dresden.htm" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>, <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">Germany</a>, exhibits one of his original mechanical calculators. Though these machines are early forerunners to <!--del_lnk--> computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. Pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade and built fifty machines in total.<p><a id="Contributions_to_mathematics" name="Contributions_to_mathematics"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Contributions to mathematics</span></h2>
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<p>In addition to the childhood marvels previously mentioned, Pascal continued to influence mathematics throughout his life. In 1653, Pascal wrote his <i>Traité du triangle arithmétique</i> ("Treatment of the Arithmetical Triangle") in which he described a convenient tabular presentation for <!--del_lnk--> binomial coefficients, now called <!--del_lnk--> Pascal's triangle. (<!--del_lnk--> Yang Hui, a <!--del_lnk--> Chinese mathematician of the Qin dynasty, had independently worked out a concept similar to Pascal's triangle four centuries earlier.)<p>In 1654, prompted by a friend interested in gambling problems, he corresponded with <!--del_lnk--> Fermat on the subject, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of <!--del_lnk--> probabilities. The friend was the <!--del_lnk--> Chevalier de Méré, and the specific problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point. From this discussion, the notion of <!--del_lnk--> expected value was introduced. Pascal later (in the <i>Pensées</i>) used a probabilistic argument, <!--del_lnk--> Pascal's Wager, to justify belief in <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a> and a virtuous life. The work done by Fermat and Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for <a href="../../wp/g/Gottfried_Leibniz.htm" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a>'s formulation of the <!--del_lnk--> infinitesimal calculus. <!--del_lnk--> <p>After a religious experience in 1654, Pascal mostly gave up work in mathematics. However, after a sleepless night in 1658, he anonymously offered a prize for the <!--del_lnk--> quadrature of a <!--del_lnk--> cycloid. Solutions were offered by <!--del_lnk--> Wallis, <!--del_lnk--> Huygens, <a href="../../wp/c/Christopher_Wren.htm" title="Christopher Wren">Wren</a>, and others; Pascal, under a pseudonym, published his own solution. Controversy and heated argument followed after Pascal announced himself the winner.<p><a id="Philosophy_of_mathematics" name="Philosophy_of_mathematics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Philosophy of mathematics</span></h3>
<p>Pascal's major contribution to the <!--del_lnk--> philosophy of mathematics came with his <i>De l'Esprit géométrique</i> ("On the Geometrical Spirit"), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous "Little Schools of <!--del_lnk--> Port-Royal" (<i>Les Petites-Ecoles de Port-Royal</i>). The work was unpublished until over a century after his death. Here, Pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal such method would be to found all propositions on already established truths. At the same time, however, he claimed this was impossible because such established truths would require other truths to back them up—first principles, therefore, cannot be reached. Based on this, Pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them. Nevertheless, there was no way to know the assumed principles to be true.<p>Pascal also used <i>De l'Esprit géométrique</i> to develop a theory of <!--del_lnk--> definition. He distinguished between definitions which are conventional labels defined by the writer and definitions which are within the language and understood by everyone because they naturally designate their referent. The second type would be characteristic of the philosophy of <!--del_lnk--> essentialism. Pascal claimed that only definitions of the first type were important to science and mathematics, arguing that those fields should adopt the philosophy of <!--del_lnk--> formalism as formulated by <!--del_lnk--> Descartes.<p>In <i>De l'Art de persuader</i> ("On the Art of Persuasion"), Pascal looked deeper into geometry's <!--del_lnk--> axiomatic method, specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the <!--del_lnk--> axioms upon which later conclusions are based. Pascal agreed with <!--del_lnk--> Montaigne that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible. He asserted that these principles can only be grasped through intuition, and that this fact underscored the necessity for submission to <a href="../../wp/g/God.htm" title="God">God</a> in searching out truths.<p><a id="Contributions_to_the_physical_sciences" name="Contributions_to_the_physical_sciences"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Contributions to the physical sciences</span></h2>
<p>Pascal's work in the fields of the study of fluids (<!--del_lnk--> hydrodynamics and <!--del_lnk--> hydrostatics) centered on the principles of <!--del_lnk--> hydraulic fluids. His inventions include the hydraulic press (using hydraulic pressure to multiply force) and the <!--del_lnk--> syringe. By 1646, Pascal had learned of <!--del_lnk--> Evangelista Torricelli's experimentation with <!--del_lnk--> barometers. Having replicated an experiment which involved placing a tube filled with mercury upside down in a bowl of mercury, Pascal questioned what force kept some mercury in the tube and what filled the space above the mercury in the tube. At the time, most scientists contended that, rather than a <!--del_lnk--> vacuum, some invisible matter was present.<p>Following more experimentation in this vein, in 1647 Pascal produced <i>Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide</i> ("New Experiments with the Vacuum"), which detailed basic rules describing to what degree various liquids could be supported by <!--del_lnk--> air pressure. It also provided reasons why it was indeed a vacuum above the column of liquid in a barometer tube.<p>In 1648, Pascal continued his experiments by having his brother-in-law carry a barometer to a higher elevation, confirming that the level of <!--del_lnk--> mercury would change, a result which Pascal replicated by carrying a barometer up and down a church tower in <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a>. The experiment was hailed throughout Europe as finally establishing the principle and value of the barometer.<p>In the face of criticism that some invisible matter must exist in Pascal's empty space, Pascal, in his reply to <!--del_lnk--> Estienne Noel, gave one of the seventeenth century's major statements on the <!--del_lnk--> scientific method: "In order to show that a hypothesis is evident, it does not suffice that all the phenomena follow from it; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity." His insistence on the existence of the vacuum also led to conflict with a number of other prominent scientists, including <!--del_lnk--> Descartes.<p><a id="Adult_life.2C_religion.2C_philosophy.2C_and_literature" name="Adult_life.2C_religion.2C_philosophy.2C_and_literature"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Adult life, religion, philosophy, and literature</span></h2>
<blockquote>
<p><i>For after all what is man in nature? A nothing in relation to infinity, all in relation to nothing, a central point between nothing and all and infinitely far from understanding either. The ends of things and their beginnings are impregnably concealed from him in an impenetrable secret. He is equally incapable of seeing the nothingness out of which he was drawn and the infinite in which he is engulfed.</i> -Blaise Pascal</blockquote>
<p><a id="Religious_conversion" name="Religious_conversion"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Religious conversion</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23806.jpg.htm" title="Pascal studying the cycloid, by Augustin Pajou, 1785, Louvre"><img alt="Pascal studying the cycloid, by Augustin Pajou, 1785, Louvre" height="376" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Pascal_Pajou_Louvre_RF2981.jpg" src="../../images/238/23806.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
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<p>Biographically, we can say that two basic influences led him to his conversion: sickness and <!--del_lnk--> Jansenism. From as early as his eighteenth year, Pascal suffered from a nervous ailment that left him hardly a day without pain. In 1647, a paralytic attack so disabled him that he could not move without crutches. His head ached, his bowels burned, his legs and feet were continually cold, and required wearisome aids to circulation of the blood; he wore stockings steeped in brandy to warm his feet. Partly to get better medical treatment, he moved to Paris with his sister Jacqueline. His health improved, but his nervous system had been permanently damaged. Henceforth, he was subject to deepening <!--del_lnk--> hypochondria, which affected his character and his philosophy. He became irritable, subject to fits of proud and imperious anger, and seldom smiled. <p>In 1645, Pascal's father was wounded in the thigh and was consequently looked after by a <!--del_lnk--> Jansenist physician. Blaise spoke with the doctor frequently, and upon his successful treatment of Étienne, borrowed works by Jansenist authors through him. In this period, Pascal experienced a sort of "first conversion" and began in the course of the following year to write on theological subjects.<p>Pascal fell away from this initial religious engagement and experienced a few years of what he called a "worldly period" (1648–54). His father died in 1651, and Pascal gained control over both his inheritance as well as his sister Jacqueline's. In that same year, Jacqueline moved to become a nun at <!--del_lnk--> Port-Royal despite her brother's opposition. When the time came for her to make her ultimate vows, he refused to return to her enough of her inheritance to pay her dowry as a bride of Christ. Without the money, she would attain a less desirable position in the convent hierarchy. Eventually, however, Pascal relented on this point. <p>With his sister's affairs settled, Pascal found himself both rich and free. He took a sumptuously furnished home, staffed it with many servants, and drove about Paris in a coach behind four or six horses. His leisure was spent in the company of wits, women, and gamblers (as evidenced by his work on probability). For an exciting while, he pursued in Auvergne a lady of beauty and learning, whom he referred to as the "<!--del_lnk--> Sappho of the countryside." Around this time, Pascal wrote <i>Discours sur les passions de l'amour</i> ("Conversation about the Passions of Love"), and apparently he contemplated marriage—which he was later to describe as "the lowest of the conditions of life permitted to a Christian." <p>Jacqueline reproached him for his frivolity and prayed for his reform. During visits to his sister at Port-Royal in 1654, he displayed contempt for affairs of the world but was not drawn to God. <p><a id="Brush_with_death" name="Brush_with_death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Brush with death</span></h3>
<p>On <!--del_lnk--> November 23, <!--del_lnk--> 1654, he was involved in an accident at the <!--del_lnk--> Neuilly bridge where the horses plunged over the parapet and the carriage nearly followed them. Fortunately, the reins broke and the coach hung halfway over the edge. Pascal and his friends emerged unscathed, but the sensitive philosopher, terrified by the nearness of death, fainted away and remained unconscious for some time. Upon recovering fifteen days later, between ten thirty and twelve thirty at night, Pascal had an intense religious vision and immediately recorded the experience in a brief note to himself which began: "Fire. God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and the scholars…" and concluded by quoting Psalm 119:16: "I will not forget thy word. Amen." He seems to have carefully sewn this document into his coat and always transferred it when he changed clothes; a servant discovered it only by chance after his death. During his lifetime, Pascal was often mistakenly thought to be a <!--del_lnk--> libertine, and was later dismissed as an individual who had only made a deathbed conversion.<p>His belief and religious commitment revitalized, Pascal visited the older of two convents at Port-Royal for a two-week retreat in January 1655. For the next four years, he regularly traveled between Port-Royal and Paris. It was at this point immediately after his conversion when he began writing his first major literary work on religion, the <i>Provincial Letters</i>.<p><a id="The_Provincial_Letters" name="The_Provincial_Letters"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">The <i>Provincial Letters</i></span></h3>
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<p>Beginning in 1656, Pascal published his memorable attack on <!--del_lnk--> casuistry, a popular <a href="../../wp/e/Ethics.htm" title="Ethics">ethical</a> method used by <!--del_lnk--> Catholic thinkers in the early modern period (especially the <!--del_lnk--> Jesuits). Pascal denounced casuistry as the mere use of complex reasoning to justify moral laxity. His method of framing his arguments was clever: the <i>Provincial Letters</i> pretended to be the report of a Parisian to a friend in the provinces on the moral and theological issues then exciting the intellectual and religious circles in the capital. Pascal, combining the fervor of a convert with the wit and polish of a man of the world, reached a new level of style in French prose. The 18-letter series was published between 1656 and 1657 under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte and incensed <a href="../../wp/l/Louis_XIV_of_France.htm" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>. The king ordered that the book be shredded and burnt in 1660. In 1661, the Jansenist school at Port-Royal was condemned and closed down; those involved with the school had to sign a 1656 <!--del_lnk--> papal bull condemning the teachings of Jansen as heretical. The final letter from Pascal, in 1657, had defied the Pope himself, provoking <!--del_lnk--> Alexander VII to condemn the letters. But that didn't stop all of educated France from reading them. Even Pope Alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by Pascal's arguments. He condemned "laxism" in the church and ordered a revision of casuistical texts just a few years later (1665–66).<p>Aside from their religious influence, the <i>Provincial Letters</i> were popular as a literary work. Pascal's use of humor, mockery, and vicious <!--del_lnk--> satire in his arguments made the letters ripe for public consumption, and influenced the prose of later French writers like <a href="../../wp/v/Voltaire.htm" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="../../wp/j/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau.htm" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>. The first few letters promote major principles of <!--del_lnk--> Jansenist teaching, such as the dogmas of "proximate power" (Letter I) and "sufficient grace" (Letter II), and explain why they are not heretical. The later letters find Pascal more on the defensive—pressure on the Port Royal Jansenists to renounce their teachings was constantly growing through this time—and contain the assault on casuistry. Letter XVI contains the unique apology, "I would have written a shorter letter, but I did not have the time."<p>Wide praise has been given to the <i>Provincial Letters</i>. <a href="../../wp/v/Voltaire.htm" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> called the <i>Letters</i> "the best-written book that has yet appeared in France." And when <!--del_lnk--> Bossuet was asked what book he would rather have written had he not written his own, he answered, the <i>Provincial Letters</i> of Pascal.<p><a id="Miracle" name="Miracle"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Miracle</span></h3>
<p>When Pascal was back in Paris just after overseeing the publication of the last <i>Letter</i>, his religion was reinforced by the close association to an apparent miracle in the chapel of the Port-Royal nunnery. His 10-year-old niece, Marguerite Périer, was suffering from a painful <!--del_lnk--> fistula lacrymalis that exuded noisome pus through her eyes and nose—an affliction the doctors pronounced hopeless. Then, on <!--del_lnk--> March 24, <!--del_lnk--> 1657, a believer presented to Port-Royal what he and others claimed to be a thorn from the crown that had tortured Christ. The nuns, in solemn ceremony and singing psalms, placed the thorn on their altar. Each in turn kissed the relic, and one of them, seeing Marguerite among the worshipers, took the thorn and with it touched the girl's sore. That evening, we are told, Marguerite expressed surprise that her eye no longer pained her; her mother was astonished to find no sign of the fistula; a physician, summoned, reported that the discharge and swelling had disappeared. He, not the nuns, spread word of what he termed a miraculous cure. Seven other physicians who had had previous knowledge of Marguerite's fistula signed a statement that in their judgment a miracle had taken place. The diocesan officials investigated, came to the same conclusion, and authorized a Te Deum Mass in Port-Royal. Crowds of believers came to see and kiss the thorn; all of Catholic Paris acclaimed a miracle. Later, both Jansenists and Catholics used this well-documented miracle to their defense. In 1728, <!--del_lnk--> Pope Benedict XIII referred to the case as proving that the age of miracles had not passed.<p>Pascal made himself an armorial emblem of an eye surrounded by a crown of thorns, with the inscription <i>Scio cui credidi</i>—"I know whom I have believed." His beliefs renewed, he set his mind to write his final, and, alas, unfinished testament, the <i>Pensées</i>.<p>===gfe j}}gjfgf<p><a id="Last_works_and_death" name="Last_works_and_death"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Last works and death</span></h3>
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<div style="width:222px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23807.jpg.htm" title="Pascal's epitaph in Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, where he was buried"><img alt="Pascal's epitaph in Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, where he was buried" height="313" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Epitaph_Blaise_Pascal_Saint-Etienne.jpg" src="../../images/238/23807.jpg" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23807.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Pascal's epitaph in <!--del_lnk--> Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, where he was buried</div>
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<p><a href="../../wp/t/T._S._Eliot.htm" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> described him during this phase of his life as "a man of the world among ascetics, and an ascetic among men of the world." Pascal's ascetic lifestyle derived from a belief that it was natural and necessary for man to suffer. In 1659, Pascal, whose health had never been good, fell seriously ill. During his last years, he frequently tried to reject the ministrations of his doctors, saying, "Sickness is the natural state of Christians." <p>Louis XIV suppressed the Jansenist movement at Port-Royal in 1661. In response, Pascal wrote one of his final works, <i>Écrit sur la signature du formulaire</i> ("Writ on the Signing of the Form"), exhorting the Jansenists not to give in. Later that year, his sister Jacqueline died, which convinced Pascal to cease his polemics on Jansenism. Pascal's last major achievement, returning to his mechanical genius, was inaugurating perhaps the first <!--del_lnk--> bus line, moving passengers within Paris in a carriage with many seats.<p>In 1662, Pascal's illness became more violent. Aware that his health was fading quickly, he sought a move to the hospital for incurable diseases, but his doctors declared that he was too unstable to be carried. In <a href="../../wp/p/Paris.htm" title="Paris">Paris</a> on <!--del_lnk--> August 18, <!--del_lnk--> 1662, Pascal went into convulsions and received <!--del_lnk--> extreme unction. He died the next morning, his last words being "May God never abandon me," and was buried in the cemetery of <!--del_lnk--> Saint-Étienne-du-Mont.<p>An <!--del_lnk--> autopsy performed after his death revealed grave problems with his stomach and other organs of his abdomen, along with damage to his <a href="../../wp/b/Brain.htm" title="Brain">brain</a>. Despite the autopsy, the cause of his continual poor health was never precisely determined, though speculation focuses on <a href="../../wp/t/Tuberculosis.htm" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, stomach <a href="../../wp/c/Cancer.htm" title="Cancer">cancer</a>, or a combination of the two. The headaches which afflicted Pascal are generally attributed to his brain lesion.<p><a id="Legacy" name="Legacy"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Legacy</span></h2>
<p>In honour of his scientific contributions, the name <b>Pascal</b> has been given to the <!--del_lnk--> SI unit of pressure, to a <!--del_lnk--> programming language, and <!--del_lnk--> Pascal's law (an important principle of hydrostatics), and as mentioned above, Pascal's triangle and Pascal's wager still bear his name.<p>Pascal's development of probability theory was his most influential contribution to mathematics. Originally applied to <!--del_lnk--> gambling, today it is extremely important in <a href="../../wp/e/Economics.htm" title="Economics">economics</a>, especially in <!--del_lnk--> actuarial science. John Ross writes, "Probability theory and the discoveries following it changed the way we regard uncertainty, risk, decision-making, and an individual's and society's ability to influence the course of future events." <!--del_lnk--> However, it should be noted that Pascal and Fermat, though doing important early work in probability theory, did not develop the field very far. <!--del_lnk--> Christiaan Huygens, learning of the subject from the correspondence of Pascal and Fermat, wrote the first book on the subject. Later figures who continued the development of the theory include <!--del_lnk--> Abraham de Moivre and <!--del_lnk--> Pierre-Simon Laplace.<p>In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French Classical Period and is read today as one of the greatest masters of French prose. His use of satire and wit influenced later <!--del_lnk--> polemicists. The content of his literary work is best remembered for its strong opposition to the <!--del_lnk--> rationalism of <a href="../../wp/r/Ren%25C3%25A9_Descartes.htm" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> and simultaneous assertion that the main countervailing philosophy, <a href="../../wp/e/Empiricism.htm" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, was also insufficient for determining major truths.<p><a id="Other" name="Other"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Other</span></h2>
<p>In Canada, there is an annual math contest named in his honour. The Pascal Contest is open to any student in Canada who is 14 years or under and is in grade 9 or lower.<p>A discussion of Pascal figures prominently in the movie <i><!--del_lnk--> My Night At Maud's</i> by the French director <!--del_lnk--> Éric Rohmer.<p><!--del_lnk--> Roberto Rossellini directed a filmed biopic (entitled <i>Blaise Pascal</i>) which originally aired on Italian television in 1971. <!--del_lnk--> Pierre Arditi starred as Pascal.<p>
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<p><a id="Works" name="Works"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Works</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><i>Essai pour les coniques</i> (1639)<li><i>Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide</i> (1647)<li><i>Traité du triangle arithmétique</i> (1653)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Lettres provinciales</i> (1656–57)<li><i>De l'Esprit géométrique</i> (1657 or 1658)<li><i>Écrit sur la signature du formulaire</i> (1661)<li><i><!--del_lnk--> Pensées</i> (incomplete at death)</ul>
<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal"</div>
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<p><span class="unicode audiolink"><!--del_lnk--> <i><b>Blitzkrieg</b></i></span> (<a href="../../wp/g/German_language.htm" title="German language">German</a>, literally <b>lightning war</b> or <b>flash war</b>) is a popular name for an offensive <!--del_lnk--> operational-level <!--del_lnk--> military doctrine which involves an initial bombardment followed by employment of mobile forces attacking with speed and surprise to prevent an enemy from implementing a coherent <!--del_lnk--> defense. The founding principles of these types of operations were developed in the 19th Century by various nations, and adapted in the years after <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_I.htm" title="World War I">World War I</a>, largely by the <a href="../../wp/g/Germany.htm" title="Germany">German</a> <!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht, to incorporate modern weapons and vehicles as a method to help prevent <a href="../../wp/t/Trench_warfare.htm" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a> and <!--del_lnk--> linear warfare in future conflicts. The first practical implementations of these concepts coupled with modern technology were instituted by the Wehrmacht in the opening battles of <a href="../../wp/w/World_War_II.htm" title="World War II">World War II</a>. While operations in <a href="../../wp/p/Poland.htm" title="Poland">Poland</a> were rather conventional, subsequent battles — particularly the invasions of <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_France.htm" title="Battle of France">France</a>, <!--del_lnk--> The Netherlands and initial operations in the <!--del_lnk--> Soviet Union — were effective owing to surprise penetrations, general enemy unpreparedness and an inability to react swiftly enough to German offensive operations. That the German Army quickly defeated numerically and technically superior enemies in France led many analysts to believe that a new system of warfare had been invented.<p>The generally accepted definition of blitzkrieg operations include the use of <!--del_lnk--> maneuver rather than <!--del_lnk--> attrition to defeat an opponent, and describe operations using combined arms concentration of mobile assets at a focal point, armour closely supported by mobile infantry, artillery and close air support assets. These tactics required the development of specialized support vehicles, new methods of communication, new <!--del_lnk--> tactics, and an effective decentralized <!--del_lnk--> command structure. Broadly speaking, blitzkrieg operations required the development of <!--del_lnk--> mechanized infantry, <!--del_lnk--> self-propelled artillery and engineering assets that could maintain the rate of advance of the tanks. German forces avoided direct combat in favour of interrupting an enemy's <a href="../../wp/c/Communication.htm" title="Communication">communications</a>, <!--del_lnk--> decision-making, <a href="../../wp/l/Logistics.htm" title="Logistics">logistics</a> and of reducing <!--del_lnk--> morale. In combat, blitzkrieg left little choice for the slower defending forces but to clump into defensive pockets that were <!--del_lnk--> encircled and then destroyed by following German <!--del_lnk--> infantry.<p>Tactically speaking, once the weakest area of defence is identified, tactical bombers would strike at logistical, communication, and supply targets while field and self-propelled artillery units struck at defence installations. These bombardments were then pre-ceded by probing attacks and smoke screens to conceal the main armoured spearhead, and once the main armoured force broke through the designated strike area, motorized infantry would then fan out behind the armoured spearhead to capture or destroy any enemy forces encircled by panzer and mechanized infantry units or tactically important objectives like bridges, airfields, supply depots, rail yards, naval ports, anti-aircraft batteries, and radar installations.<p>
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</script><a id="Etymology_and_modern_meaning" name="Etymology_and_modern_meaning"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Etymology and modern meaning</span></h2>
<p>"Blitzkrieg" is a German compound meaning "lightning war". The word did not enter official terminology of the Wehrmacht either before or during the war, even though it was already used in the military Journal "Deutsche Wehr" in 1935, in the context of an article on how states with insufficient food and raw materials supply can win a war. Another appearance is in 1938 in the "Militär-Wochenblatt", where Blitzkrieg is defined as a "strategic attack", carried out by operational use of tanks, air force, and airborne troops. Karl-Heinz Frieser in his book 'Blitzkrieg Legende', who researched the origin of the term and found the above examples, points out that the pre-war use of the term is rare, and that it practically never entered official terminology throughout the war.<p>It was first popularised in the English-speaking world by the American <!--del_lnk--> newsmagazine <!--del_lnk--> <i>TIME</i> describing the 1939 <!--del_lnk--> German invasion of Poland. Published on <!--del_lnk--> September 25 1939, well into the campaign, the account reads:<dl>
<dd><i>The battlefront got lost, and with it the illusion that there had ever been a battlefront. For this was no war of occupation, but a war of quick penetration and obliteration—Blitzkrieg, lightning war. Swift columns of tanks and armored trucks had plunged through Poland while bombs raining from the sky heralded their coming. They had sawed off communications, destroyed animal, scattered civilians, spread terror. Working sometimes 30 miles (50 km) ahead of infantry and artillery, they had broken down the Polish defenses before they had time to organize. Then, while the infantry mopped up, they had moved on, to strike again far behind what had been called the front.</i></dl>
<p><!--del_lnk--> Military historians have defined blitzkrieg as the employment of the concepts of maneuver and combined arms warfare developed in Germany during both the <!--del_lnk--> interwar period and the Second World War. Strategically, the ideal was to swiftly effect an adversary's collapse through a short campaign fought by a small, professional army. Operationally, its goal was to use indirect means, such as, mobility and shock, to render an adversary's plans irrelevant or impractical. To do this, self-propelled formations of <a href="../../wp/t/Tank.htm" title="Tanks">tanks</a>; motorized infantry, engineers, artillery; and <!--del_lnk--> ground-attack aircraft operated as a <!--del_lnk--> combined-arms team. Historians have termed it a period form of the longstanding German principle of <i>Bewegungskrieg</i>, or <!--del_lnk--> movement war.<p>"Blitzkrieg" has since expanded into multiple meanings in more popular usage. From its original military definition, "blitzkrieg" may be applied to any <!--del_lnk--> military operation emphasizing the surprise, speed, or concentration stressed in accounts of the <!--del_lnk--> Invasion of Poland. During the war, the <a href="../../wp/l/Luftwaffe.htm" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a> <!--del_lnk--> terror bombings of <a href="../../wp/l/London.htm" title="London">London</a> came to be known as <a href="../../wp/t/The_Blitz.htm" title="The Blitz">The Blitz</a>. Similarly, <i>blitz</i> has come to describe the "<!--del_lnk--> blitz" (rush) tactic of <a href="../../wp/a/American_football.htm" title="American football">American football</a>, and the <!--del_lnk--> blitz form of chess in which players are allotted very little time. Blitz or blitzkrieg is used in many other non-military contexts.<p><a id="Interwar_period" name="Interwar_period"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Interwar period</span></h2>
<p><a id="Reichswehr" name="Reichswehr"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reichswehr</span></h3>
<p>Blitzkrieg's immediate development began with Germany's defeat in the First World War. Shortly after the war, the new <!--del_lnk--> Reichswehr created committees of veteran <!--del_lnk--> officers to evaluate 57 issues of the war. The reports of these committees formed doctrinal and training publications which were the standards in the Second World War. The Reichswehr was influenced by its analysis of pre-war German military thought, in particular its <!--del_lnk--> infiltration tactics of the war, and the maneuver warfare which dominated the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Front.<p>German military history had been influenced heavily by <!--del_lnk--> Carl von Clausewitz, <!--del_lnk--> Alfred von Schlieffen and <!--del_lnk--> von Moltke the Elder, who were proponents of maneuver, mass, and envelopment. Their concepts were employed in the successful <!--del_lnk--> Franco-Prussian War and attempted "knock-out blow" of the <!--del_lnk--> Schlieffen Plan. Following the war, these concepts were modified by the Reichswehr. Its Chief of Staff, <!--del_lnk--> Hans von Seeckt, moved doctrine away from what he argued was an excessive focus on <!--del_lnk--> encirclement towards one based on speed. Speed gives surprise, surprise allows exploitation if decisions can be reached quickly and mobility gives flexibility and speed. Von Seeckt advocated effecting breakthroughs against the enemy's centre when it was more profitable than encirclement or where encirclement was not practical. Under his command a modern update of the doctrinal system called "Bewegungskrieg" and its associated tactical system called "<!--del_lnk--> Auftragstaktik" was developed which resulted in the popularly known blitzkrieg effect. He additionally rejected the notion of mass which von Schlieffen and von Moltke had advocated. While reserves had comprised up to four-tenths of German forces in pre-war campaigns, von Seeckt sought the creation of a small, professional (volunteer) military backed by a defense-oriented <!--del_lnk--> militia. In modern warfare, he argued, such a force was more capable of offensive action, faster to ready, and less expensive to equip with more modern weapons. The Reichswehr was forced to adopt a small and professional army quite aside from any German plans, for the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> limited it to 100,000 men.<p>Bewegungskrieg required a new command hierarchy that allowed military decisions to be made closer to the unit level. This allowed units to react and make effective decisions faster, which is a critical advantage and a major reason for the success of Blitzkrieg.<p>German leadership had also been criticized for failing to understand the technical advances of the First World War, having given <!--del_lnk--> tank production the lowest priority and having conducted no studies of the <!--del_lnk--> machine gun prior to that war. In response, German officers attended <!--del_lnk--> technical schools during this period of rebuilding after the war.<p><!--del_lnk--> Infiltration tactics invented by the German Army during the First World War became the basis for later tactics. German infantry had advanced in small, decentralised groups which bypassed resistance in favour of advancing at weak points and attacking rear-area communications. This was aided by co-ordinated artillery and air bombardments, and followed by larger infantry forces with heavy guns, which destroyed centres of resistance. These concepts formed the basis of the <!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht's tactics during the Second World War.<p>On the war's Eastern Front, combat did not bog down into <a href="../../wp/t/Trench_warfare.htm" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a>. German and Russian armies fought a war of maneuver over thousands of miles, giving the German leadership unique experience which the trench-bound Western Allies did not have. Studies of operations in the East led to the conclusion that small and coordinated forces possessed more combat worth than large, uncoordinated forces.<p><a id="Foreign_influence" name="Foreign_influence"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Foreign influence</span></h3>
<p>During this period, all the war's major combatants developed mechanized force theories. Theories of the Western Allies differed substantially from the Reichswehr's. British, French, and American doctrines broadly favored a more set-piece battle, less combined arms focus, and less focus on concentration. Early Reichswehr periodicals contained many translated works, though they were often not adopted. Technical advances in foreign countries were, however, observed and used in-part by the Weapons Office. Foreign doctrines are widely considered to have had little serious influence.<p>Col. <!--del_lnk--> Charles de Gaulle, in <a href="../../wp/f/France.htm" title="France">France</a>, was a known advocate of concentration of armor and airplanes — views that little endeared him to the French high command, but are claimed by some to have influenced <!--del_lnk--> Heinz Guderian. <!--del_lnk--> <p>British theorists <!--del_lnk--> J.F.C. Fuller and Captain <!--del_lnk--> B. H. Liddell Hart have often been associated with blitzkrieg's development, though this is a matter of controversy. The British War Office did permit an <!--del_lnk--> Experimental Mechanised Force, formed on <!--del_lnk--> 1 May 1927, that was wholly motorized including <!--del_lnk--> self propelled artillery and motorised engineers. It is argued that <!--del_lnk--> Guderian, a critical figure in blitzkrieg's conception, drew some of his inspiration from Liddell Hart. This was based on a paragraph in the English edition of Guderian's autobiography in which he credits Liddell Hart. In opposition, it is argued that Liddell Hart, as editor of the autobiography's English edition, wrote that paragraph himself or, more broadly, that his influence on Guderian was not as significant as held. Fuller's influence is less clear. During the war, he developed plans for massive, independent tank operations and was subsequently studied by the German leadership. It is variously argued that Fuller's wartime plans and post-war writings were an inspiration, or that his readership was low and German experiences during the war received more attention.<p>What is clear is the practical implementation of this doctrine in a wide and successful range of scenarios by Guderian and other Germans during the war. From early combined-arms river crossings and penetration exploitations during the advance in France in 1940 to massive sweeping advances in Russia in 1941, Guderian showed a mastery and innovation that inspired many others. This leadership was supported and fostered by the Reichswehr General Staff system, which worked the Army to greater and greater levels of capability through massive and systematic Movement Warfare war games in the 1930s.<p>The Reichswehr and <!--del_lnk--> Red Army collaborated in <!--del_lnk--> wargames and tests in <!--del_lnk--> Kazan and <!--del_lnk--> Lipetsk beginning in 1926. During this period, the Red Army was developing the theory of <!--del_lnk--> Deep operations, which would guide Red Army doctrine throughout World War II. Set within the Soviet Union, these two centers were used to field test aircraft and armored vehicles up to the battalion level, as well as housing aerial and armored warfare schools through which officers were rotated. This was done in the Soviet Union, in secret, to evade the Treaty of Versailles's occupational agent, the <!--del_lnk--> Inter-Allied Commission.<p>It should be noted that early forms of <i>Blitzkrieg</i> were used in the First World War - most notably by General <!--del_lnk--> Alexei Brusilov in Russia's <!--del_lnk--> Brusilov Offensive of 1916 and Britain's <!--del_lnk--> General Allenby in the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Megiddo in September 1918, making heavy use of armored vehicles, quick-strike cavalry attacks, and aerial bombardment to facilitate a swift and decisive victory. The Germans themselves used a variation of such tactics in their 1918 <!--del_lnk--> Spring Offensive.<p><a id="Guderian_into_the_Wehrmacht" name="Guderian_into_the_Wehrmacht"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Guderian into the Wehrmacht</span></h3>
<p>Following Germany's military reforms of the 1920s, <!--del_lnk--> Heinz Guderian emerged as a strong proponent of mechanized forces. Within the Inspectorate of Transport Troops, Guderian and colleagues performed theoretical and field exercise work. There was opposition from many officers who gave primacy to the infantry or simply doubted the usefulness of the tank. Among them was Chief of the General Staff <!--del_lnk--> Ludwig Beck (1935–38), who skeptical that armored forces could be decisive. Nonetheless, the panzer divisions were established during his tenure.<p>Guderian argued that the tank was the decisive weapon of war. "If the tanks succeed, then victory follows", he wrote. In an article addressed to critics of tank warfare, he wrote "until our critics can produce some new and better method of making a successful land attack other than self-massacre, we shall continue to maintain our beliefs that tanks—properly employed, needless to say—are today the best means available for land attack." Addressing the faster rate at which defenders could reinforce an area than attackers could penetrate it during the First World War, Guderian wrote that "since reserve forces will now be motorized, the building up of new defensive fronts is easier than it used to be; the chances of an offensive based on the timetable of artillery and infantry co-operation are, as a result, even slighter today than they were in the last war." He continued, "We believe that by attacking with tanks we can achieve a higher rate of movement than has been hitherto obtainable, and—what is perhaps even more important—that we can keep moving once a breakthrough has been made." Guderian additionally required that tactical <a href="../../wp/r/Radio.htm" title="Radio">radios</a> be widely used to facilitate co-ordination and command.<p><a id="Panzertruppe_and_Luftwaffe" name="Panzertruppe_and_Luftwaffe"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Panzertruppe and Luftwaffe</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23809.png.htm" title="Organisation of a 1941 German panzer division."><img alt="Organisation of a 1941 German panzer division." height="116" longdesc="/wiki/Image:EarlyPzDivTOE.png" src="../../images/238/23809.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23809.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Organisation of a 1941 German <!--del_lnk--> panzer division.</div>
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<p>Blitzkrieg would not have been possible without modifying Germany's standing interwar military, which under the <a href="../../wp/t/Treaty_of_Versailles.htm" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> was limited to 100,000 men, its air force disbanded, and tank development forbidden. After becoming head of state in 1933, <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> ignored these provisions. A command for armored troops was created within the German <!--del_lnk--> Wehrmacht—the <i><!--del_lnk--> Panzertruppe</i>, as it came to be known later. The <a href="../../wp/l/Luftwaffe.htm" title="Luftwaffe">Luftwaffe</a>, or air force, was re-established, and development begun on ground-attack aircraft and doctrines. Hitler was a strong supporter of this new strategy. He read Guderian's book <i>Achtung! Panzer!</i> and upon observing armored field exercises at <!--del_lnk--> Kummersdorf he remarked "That is what I want—and that is what I will have." <p><a id="Spanish_Civil_War" name="Spanish_Civil_War"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Spanish Civil War</span></h3>
<p>German volunteers first used armor in live field conditions during the <!--del_lnk--> Spanish Civil War of 1936. Armor commitments consisted of Panzer Battalion 88, a force built around three companies of <!--del_lnk--> PzKpfw I tanks that functioned as a training cadre for Nationalists. The Luftwaffe deployed squadrons of <!--del_lnk--> fighters, <!--del_lnk--> dive-bombers, and <!--del_lnk--> transports as the <!--del_lnk--> Condor Legion. Guderian called the tank deployment "on too small a scale to allow accurate assessments to be made." The true test of his "armored idea" would have to wait for the Second World War. However, the German Air Force also provided volunteers to Spain to test both tactics and aircraft in combat, including the first combat use of the <!--del_lnk--> Stuka.<p><a id="Methods_of_operations" name="Methods_of_operations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Methods of operations</span></h2>
<p><a id="Schwerpunkt" name="Schwerpunkt"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Schwerpunkt</span></h3>
<p>Blitzkrieg sought decisive actions at all times. To this end, the theory of a <i>schwerpunkt</i> (focal point) developed; it was the point of maximum effort. Panzer and Luftwaffe forces were used only at this point of maximum effort whenever possible. By local success at the <i>schwerpunkt</i>, a small force achieved a breakthrough and gained advantages by fighting in the enemy's rear. It is summarized by Guderian as "Nicht kleckern, klotzen!" ("Don't tickle, smash!")<p>To achieve a breakout, armored forces themselves would attack the enemy's defensive line directly, supported by their own infantry (Panzergrenadiers), artillery fire and aerial bombardment in order to create a breach in the enemy's line. Through this breach the tanks could break through without the traditional encumbrance of the slow logistics of a pure infantry regiment. The breaching force never lost time by 'stabilising its flanks' or by regrouping; rather it continued the assault in a towards the interior of the enemies lines, sometimes diagonally across them. This point of breakout has been labeled a "hinge", but only because a change in direction of the defender's lines is naturally weak and therefore a natural target for blitzkrieg assault.<p>In this, the opening phase of an operation, air forces sought to gain superiority over enemy air forces by attacking aircraft on the ground, bombing their airfields, and seeking to destroy them in air to air combat.(<a href="#Air_superiority" title="">See below</a>).<p>A final element was the use of <!--del_lnk--> airborne forces beyond the enemy lines in order to disrupt enemy activities and take important positions (such as <!--del_lnk--> Eben Emael).<p><a id="Paralysis" name="Paralysis"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Paralysis</span></h3>
<p>Having achieved a breakthrough into the enemy's rear areas, German forces attempted to paralyze the enemy's decision making and implementation process. Moving faster than enemy forces, mobile forces exploited weaknesses and acted before opposing forces could formulate a response. Guderian wrote that "Success must be exploited without respite and with every ounce of strength, even by night. The defeated enemy must be given no peace."<p>Central to this is the <!--del_lnk--> decision cycle. Every decision made by German or opposing forces required time to gather information, make a decision, disseminate orders to subordinates, and then implement this decision through action. Through superior mobility and faster decision-making cycles, mobile forces could take action on a situation sooner than the forces opposing them.<p><!--del_lnk--> Directive control was a fast and flexible method of command. Rather than receiving an explicit order, a commander would be told of his superior's intent and the role which his unit was to fill in this concept. The exact method of execution was then a matter for the low-level commander to determine as best fit the situation. Staff burden was reduced at the top and spread among commands more knowledgeable about their own situation. In addition, the encouragement of initiative at all levels aided implementation. As a result, significant decisions could be effected quickly and either verbally or with written orders a few pages in length.<p><a id="Kesselschlacht" name="Kesselschlacht"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Kesselschlacht</span></h3>
<p>An operation's final phase, the <i>Kesselschlacht</i> (cauldron battle), was a concentric attack on an encircled force. It was here that most losses were inflicted upon the enemy, primarily through the capture of prisoners and weapons.<p><a id="Effect_on_civilians" name="Effect_on_civilians"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Effect on civilians</span></h2>
<p>Blitzkrieg tactics often affected civilians in a way perceived by some to be negative — sometimes intentionally, and sometimes not. Whereas more traditional conflict resulted in a well-defined, slow moving front line, giving civilians time to be evacuated to safety, the new approach did not provide for this luxury. As a result, civilian casualties, as a percentage of the total, increased substantially. Furthermore, in the <!--del_lnk--> total war doctrine, civilians were explicitly targeted (as in the Allied bombing of <a href="../../wp/d/Dresden.htm" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>), in an effort to break the <!--del_lnk--> morale of the citizenry of a country in order to frustrate attempts at production, and ultimately support for the cause over which the war was fought.<p><a id="Operations_in_History" name="Operations_in_History"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Operations in History</span></h2>
<p><a id="Poland_1939" name="Poland_1939"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Poland 1939</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23811.jpg.htm" title="In Poland, fast moving armies encircled Polish forces (blue circles), but the "blitzkrieg" idea never really took hold - artillery and infantry forces acted in time-honoured fashion to crush these pockets."><img alt="In Poland, fast moving armies encircled Polish forces (blue circles), but the "blitzkrieg" idea never really took hold - artillery and infantry forces acted in time-honoured fashion to crush these pockets." height="190" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Poland2.jpg" src="../../images/238/23811.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23811.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> In Poland, fast moving armies encircled Polish forces (blue circles), but the "blitzkrieg" idea never really took hold - artillery and infantry forces acted in time-honoured fashion to crush these pockets.</div>
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<p>Despite the term <i>blitzkrieg</i> being coined during the <!--del_lnk--> Invasion of Poland of 1939, historians generally hold that German operations during it were more consistent with more traditional methods. The Wehrmacht's strategy was more inline with <!--del_lnk--> Vernichtungsgedanken, or a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation. Panzer forces were deployed among the three German concentrations without strong emphasis on independent use, being used to create or destroy close pockets of <!--del_lnk--> Polish forces and seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely un-motorized infantry which followed. The Luftwaffe gained air superiority by a combination of superior technology and numbers. Common claims that the Polish Air Force was destroyed early in the campaign while it was on the ground are not true. Polish aircraft were moved to hidden airstrips approximately 48 hours before the outbreak of the hostilities.<p>The understanding of operations in Poland has shifted considerably since the Second World War. Many early postwar histories incorrectly attribute German victory to "enormous development in military technique which occurred between 1918 and 1940", incorrectly citing that "Germany, who translated (British inter-war) theories into action...called the result Blitzkrieg." More recent histories identify German operations in Poland as relatively cautious and traditional. Matthew Cooper wrote that<dl>
<dd><i>"...(t)hroughout (<!--del_lnk--> the Polish Campaign), the employment of the mechanized units revealed the idea that they were intended solely to ease the advance and to support the activities of the infantry....Thus, any strategic exploitation of the armored idea was still-born. The paralysis of command and the breakdown of morale were not made the ultimate aim of the ... German ground and air forces, and were only incidental by-products of the traditional maneuvers of rapid encirclement and of the supporting activities of the flying artillery of the Luftwaffe, both of which had has their purpose the physical destruction of the enemy troops. Such was the <!--del_lnk--> Vernichtungsgedanke of the Polish campaign."</i></dl>
<p>He went on to say that the use of tanks "left much to be desired...Fear of enemy action against the flanks of the advance, fear which was to prove so disastrous to German prospects in the west in 1940 and in the Soviet Union in 1941, was present from the beginning of the war." <!--del_lnk--> John Ellis further asserted that "...there is considerable justice in Matthew Cooper's assertion that the panzer divisions were not given the kind of <i>strategic</i> mission that was to characterize authentic armored <i>blitzkrieg</i>, and were almost always closely subordinated to the various mass infantry armies."<p>In fact, "Whilst Western accounts of the September campaign have stressed the shock value of the panzers and Stuka attacks, they have tended to underestimate the punishing effect of German artillery on Polish units. Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht.",<p><a id="France_1940" name="France_1940"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">France 1940</span></h3>
<p>The <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_France.htm" title="Battle of France">invasion of France</a> consisted of two phases, Operation Yellow (<i>Fall Gelb</i>) and Operation Red. Yellow opened with a feint conducted against the Netherlands and Belgium by two armoured corps and <!--del_lnk--> paratroopers. Three days later, the main effort of Panzer Group von Kleist attacked through the <!--del_lnk--> Ardennes and achieved a breakthrough with air support. The group raced to the coast of the <a href="../../wp/e/English_Channel.htm" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, dislodging the <!--del_lnk--> British Expeditionary Force, <!--del_lnk--> Belgian Army, and some divisions of the <!--del_lnk--> French Army. The motorized units initially advanced far beyond the following divisions. When the German motorized forces were met with a counterattack at the Battle of Arras (1940), British tanks with heavy armour (Matilda I & IIs) created a brief panic in the German High Command. The motorized forces were halted outside the port city of Dunkirk which was being used to evacuate the Allied forces. Hermann Göring had promised his <i>Luftwaffe</i> would complete the job but aerial operations did not prevent the evacuation of the majority of Allied troops (which the British named <!--del_lnk--> Operation Dynamo); some 330,000 French and British. Operation Red then began with XV Panzer Corps attacking towards <!--del_lnk--> Brest and XIV Panzer Corps attacking south, east of Paris, towards <a href="../../wp/l/Lyon.htm" title="Lyon">Lyon</a>, and XIX Panzer Corps completing the encirclement of the <!--del_lnk--> Maginot Line. The defending forces were hard pressed to organize any sort of counter-attack. The French forces were continually ordered to form new lines along rivers, often arriving to find the German forces had already passed them.<p><a id="Soviet_Union:_the_Eastern_Front:_1941.E2.80.9342" name="Soviet_Union:_the_Eastern_Front:_1941.E2.80.9342"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Soviet Union: the Eastern Front: 1941–42</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23812.png.htm" title="After 1941–42, armoured formations were increasingly used as a mobile reserve against Allied breakthroughs."><img alt="After 1941–42, armoured formations were increasingly used as a mobile reserve against Allied breakthroughs." height="337" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DefensivePincersVolkhov.png" src="../../images/238/23812.png" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23812.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> After 1941–42, armoured formations were increasingly used as a mobile reserve against Allied breakthroughs.</div>
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<p>Use of armored forces was crucial for both sides on the Eastern Front. <!--del_lnk--> Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the <a href="../../wp/s/Soviet_Union.htm" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in 1941, involved a number of breakthroughs and encirclements by motorized forces. Its stated goal was "to destroy the Russian forces deployed in the West and to prevent their escape into the wide-open spaces of Russia." This was generally achieved by four panzer armies which encircled surprised and disorganized Soviet forces, followed by marching infantry which completed the encirclement and defeated the trapped forces. The first year of the <!--del_lnk--> Eastern Front offensive can generally be considered to have had the last successful major blitzkrieg operations.<p>After Germany's failure to destroy the Soviets before the winter of 1941, the limits of German tactical superiority became apparent. Although the German invasion successfully conquered large areas of Soviet territory, the overall strategic effects were more limited. The <!--del_lnk--> Red Army was able to regroup far to the rear of the main battle line, and eventually defeat the German forces for the first time in the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Moscow.htm" title="Battle of Moscow">Battle of Moscow</a>.<p>In the summer of 1942, when Germany launched another offensive in the southern <!--del_lnk--> USSR against <!--del_lnk--> Stalingrad and the <!--del_lnk--> Caucasus, the Soviets again lost tremendous amounts of territory, only to counter-attack once more during winter. German gains were ultimately limited by <a href="../../wp/a/Adolf_Hitler.htm" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> diverting forces from the attack on Stalingrad itself and seeking to pursue a drive to the Caucasus oilfields simultaneously as opposed to subsequently as the original plan had envisaged.<p><a id="Western_Front.2C_1944.E2.80.9345" name="Western_Front.2C_1944.E2.80.9345"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Western Front, 1944–45</span></h3>
<p>As the war progressed, Allied armies began using combined arms formations and deep penetration strategies that Germany had attempted to use in the opening years of the war. Many Allied operations in the Western Desert and on the Eastern Front relied on massive concentrations of firepower to establish breakthroughs by fast-moving armoured units. These artillery-based tactics were also decisive in Western Front operations after <!--del_lnk--> Operation Overlord and both the British Commonwealth and American armies developed flexible and powerful systems for utilizing artillery support. What the Soviets lacked in flexibility, they made up for in number of multiple rocket launchers, cannon and mortar tubes. The Germans never achieved the kind of response times or fire concentrations their enemies were capable of by 1944.<p>After the Allied landings at <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_Normandy.htm" title="Battle of Normandy">Normandy</a>, Germany made attempts to overwhelm the landing force with armored attacks, but these failed for lack of co-ordination and Allied air superiority. The most notable attempt to use deep penetration operations in Normandy was at <!--del_lnk--> Mortain, which exacerbated the German position in the already-forming <!--del_lnk--> Falaise Pocket and assisted in the ultimate destruction of German forces in Normandy. The Mortain counter-attack was effectively destroyed by U.S. 12th Army Group with little effect on its own offensive operations.<p>The Allied offensive in central France, spearheaded by armored units from <!--del_lnk--> George S. Patton's Third Army, used breakthrough and penetration techniques that were essentially identical to Guderian's prewar "armoured idea." Patton acknowledged that he had read both Guderian and <a href="../../wp/e/Erwin_Rommel.htm" title="Erwin Rommel">Rommel</a> before the war, and his tactics shared the traditional cavalry emphasis on speed and attack. A phrase commonly used in his units was "haul ass and bypass."<p>Germany's last offensive on its Western front, <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_the_Bulge.htm" title="Battle of the Bulge">Operation Wacht am Rhein</a>, was an offensive launched towards the vital port of <a href="../../wp/a/Antwerp.htm" title="Antwerp">Antwerp</a> in December 1944. Launched in poor weather against a thinly-held Allied sector, it achieved surprise and initial success as Allied air power was stymied by cloud cover. However, stubborn pockets of defence in key locations throughout the <!--del_lnk--> Ardennes, the lack of serviceable roads, and poor German logisitics planning caused delays. Allied forces deployed to the flanks of the German penetration, and Allied aircraft were again able to attack motorized columns. However, the stubborn defense of US units and German weakness led to a defeat for the Germans.<p><a id="Countermeasures_and_limitations" name="Countermeasures_and_limitations"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Countermeasures and limitations</span></h2>
<p><a id="Environment" name="Environment"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Environment</span></h3>
<p>The concepts associated with the term "Blitzkrieg" - deep penetrations by armour, large encirclements, and combined arms attacks - were largely dependent upon terrain and weather conditions. Where the ability for rapid movement across "tank country" was not possible, armoured penetrations were often avoided or resulted in failure. Terrain would ideally be flat, firm, unobstructed by natural barriers or fortifications, and interspersed with roads and railways. If it was instead hilly, wooded, marshy, or urban, armour would be vulnerable to infantry in close-quarters combat and unable to break out at full speed. Additionally, units could be halted by mud (<!--del_lnk--> thawing along the Eastern Front regularly slowed both sides) or extreme snow. Artillery observation and aerial support was also naturally dependent on weather.<p><a id="Air_superiority" name="Air_superiority"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Air superiority</span></h3>
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<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23814.jpg.htm" title="Ilyushin Il-2, formidable Soviet ground attack aircraft that specialized in destroying German armor"><img alt="Ilyushin Il-2, formidable Soviet ground attack aircraft that specialized in destroying German armor" height="144" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Il2_sturmovik.jpg" src="../../images/238/23814.jpg" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23814.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><!--del_lnk--> Ilyushin Il-2, formidable Soviet <!--del_lnk--> ground attack aircraft that specialized in destroying German armor</div>
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<p>Allied <!--del_lnk--> air superiority became a significant hindrance to German operations during the later years of the war. Early German successes enjoyed air superiority with unencumbered movement of ground forces, close air support, and aerial reconnaissance. However, the Western Allies' air-to-ground aircraft were so greatly feared out of proportion to their actual tactical success, that following the lead up to <!--del_lnk--> Operation Overlord German vehicle crews showed reluctance to move en masse during daylight. Indeed, the final German blitzkrieg operation in the west, <!--del_lnk--> Operation Wacht am Rhein, was planned to take place during poor weather which grounded Allied aircraft. Under these conditions, it was difficult for German commanders to employ the "armoured idea" to its envisioned potential.<p><a id="Counter-tactics" name="Counter-tactics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Counter-tactics</span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:152px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23815.jpg.htm" title="General Stanisław Maczek, one of the early developers of anti-blitzkrieg tactics"><img alt="General Stanisław Maczek, one of the early developers of anti-blitzkrieg tactics" height="239" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Stanislaw_Maczek.jpg" src="../../images/238/23815.jpg" width="150" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/238/23815.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> General <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Maczek, one of the early developers of anti-blitzkrieg tactics</div>
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<p>Blitzkrieg was very effective against <!--del_lnk--> static defense doctrines that most countries developed in the aftermath of the First World War. Early attempts to defeat the blitzkrieg can be dated to the <!--del_lnk--> Invasion of Poland in 1939, where Polish general <!--del_lnk--> Stanisław Maczek, commander of 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, prepared a detailed report of blitzkrieg tactics, its usage, effectiveness and possible precautions for the French military from his experiences. However, the French staff disregarded this report (it was captured, unopened, by the German army). Later, Maczek would become one of the most successful Allied armoured forces commanders in the war.<p>During the <a href="../../wp/b/Battle_of_France.htm" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a> in 1940, <!--del_lnk--> De Gaulle's 4th Armour Division and elements of the British 1st Army Tank Brigade in the British Expeditionary Force both made probing attacks on the German flank, actually pushing into the rear of the advancing armored columns at times (See <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Arras (1940) ). This may have been a reason for Hitler to call a halt to the German advance. Those attacks combined with <!--del_lnk--> Maxime Weygand's <!--del_lnk--> Hedgehog tactic would become the major basis for responding to blitzkrieg attacks in the future: deployment in depth, permitting enemy forces to bypass defensive concentrations, reliance on anti-tank guns, strong force employment on the flanks of the enemy attack, followed by counter-attacks at the base to destroy the enemy advance in detail. Holding the flanks or 'shoulders' of a penetration was essential to channeling the enemy attack, and artillery, properly employed at the shoulders, could take a heavy toll of attackers. While Allied forces in 1940 lacked the experience to successfully develop these strategies, resulting in France's capitulation with heavy losses, they characterized later Allied operations. For example, at the <!--del_lnk--> Battle of Kursk the <!--del_lnk--> Red Army employed a combination of defense in great depth, extensive minefields, and tenacious defense of breakthrough shoulders. In this way they depleted German combat power even as German forces advanced. In August 1944 at Mortain, stout defense and counterattacks by the US and Canadian armies closed the Falaise Gap. In the Ardennes, a combination of hedgehog defense at Bastogne, St Vith and other locations, and a counterattack by the US 3rd Army were employed.<p>The US doctrine of massing high-speed <!--del_lnk--> tank destroyers was not generally employed in combat since few massed German armor attacks occurred by 1944.<p><a id="Logistics" name="Logistics"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Logistics</span></h3>
<p>Although effective in quick campaigns against Poland and France, blitzkrieg could not be sustained by Germany in later years. Blitzkrieg strategy has the inherent danger of the attacking force overextending its <!--del_lnk--> supply lines, and the strategy as a whole can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm, as the Soviets did on the Eastern Front. Tank and vehicle production was a constant problem for Germany; indeed, late in the war many panzer "divisions" had no more than a few dozen tanks. As the end of the war approached, Germany also experienced critical shortages in <!--del_lnk--> fuel and <!--del_lnk--> ammunition stocks as a result of Anglo-American <!--del_lnk--> strategic bombing. Although production of Luftwaffe fighter aircraft continued, they would be unable to fly for lack of fuel. What fuel there was went to panzer divisions, and even then they were not able to operate normally. Of those <!--del_lnk--> Tiger tanks lost against the United States Army, nearly half of them were abandoned for lack of fuel.<p><a id="Influence" name="Influence"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Influence</span></h2>
<p>Blitzkrieg's widest influence was within the <!--del_lnk--> Western Allied leadership of the war, some of whom drew inspiration from the Wehrmacht's approach. United States General <!--del_lnk--> George S. Patton emphasized fast pursuit, the use of an armored spearhead to effect a breakthrough, then cut off and disrupt enemy forces prior to their flight. In his comments of the time, he credited Guderian and Rommel's work, notably <i>Infantry Attacks</i>, for this insight. He also put into practice the idea attributed to cavalry leader <!--del_lnk--> Nathan Bedford Forrest, "Get there fastest with the mostest." (Get there fastest, with the most forces).<p>Blitzkrieg also has had some influence on subsequent militaries and doctrines. The <!--del_lnk--> Israel Defense Forces may have been influenced by blitzkrieg in creating a military of flexible armored spearheads and <!--del_lnk--> close air support. The 1990's United States theorists of "<!--del_lnk--> Shock and awe" claim blitzkrieg as a subset of strategies which they term "rapid dominance".<p>It must also be stated that Napoleon Bonaparte used some form of the "blitzkrieg" tactic when conquering Europe centuries prior to the invasion of Poland by Adolf Hitler.<p><a id="Changing_interpretations_of_Blitzkrieg" name="Changing_interpretations_of_Blitzkrieg"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Changing interpretations of Blitzkrieg</span></h2>
<p>Beginning in the 1970s, the interpretation of Blitzkrieg, particularly with respect to the Second World War, has undergone a shift in the historical community. <!--del_lnk--> John Ellis described the shift:<blockquote>
<p><i>Our perception of land operations in the Second World War has...been distorted by an excessive emphasis upon the hardware employed. The main focus of attention has been the tank and the formations that employed it, most notably the (German) panzer divisions. Despite the fact that only 40 of the 520 German divisions that saw combat were panzer divisions (there were also an extra 24 motorised/panzergrenadier divisions), the history of German operations has consistently almost exclusively been written largely in terms of</i> blitzkrieg <i>and has concentrated almost exclusively upon the exploits of the mechanized formations. Even more misleadingly, this presentation of ground combat as a largely armored confrontation has been extended to cover Allied operations, so that in the popular imagination the exploits of the British and Commonwealth Armies, with only 11 armored divisions out of 73 (that saw combat), and of the Americans in Europe, with only 16 out of 59, are typified by tanks sweeping around the Western Desert or trying to keep up with Patton in the race through Sicily and across northern France. Of course, these armored forces did play a somewhat more important role in operations than the simple proportions might indicate, but it still has to be stressed that they in no way dominated the battlefield or precipitated the evolution of completely new modes of warfare.</i></blockquote>
<p>Ellis, as well as Zaloga in his study of the Polish Campaign in 1939, points to the effective use of other arms such as artillery and aerial firepower as equally important to the success of German (and later, Allied) operations. Panzer operations in Russia failed to provide decisive results; Leningrad never fell despite an entire Panzer Group being assigned to take it, nor did Moscow. In 1942 panzer formations overstretched at Stalingrad and in the Caucasus, and what successes did take place - such as Manstein at Kharkov or Krivoi Rog - were of local significance only.<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitzkrieg"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blokus</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Everyday_life.Games.htm">Games</a></h3>
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<th colspan="2" style="background:#ddd;font-size:larger;text-align:center;">Blokus</th>
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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;"><!--del_lnk--> <img alt="" height="235" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blokus.jpg" src="../../images/1x1white.gif" title="This image is not present because of licensing restrictions" width="200" /></td>
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<th>Players</th>
<td>2–4</td>
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<th>Age range</th>
<td>5 +</td>
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<th>Setup time</th>
<td>< 1 minute</td>
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<th>Playing time</th>
<td>20 - 30 minutes</td>
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<th>Random chance</th>
<td>None</td>
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<th>Skills required</th>
<td><!--del_lnk--> Strategic thought</td>
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<th align="center" colspan="2" style="font-size: 75%; white-space: nowrap"><b><!--del_lnk--> BoardGameGeek entry</b></th>
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<p><i><b>Blokus</b></i> is an <!--del_lnk--> abstract strategy <a href="../../wp/b/Board_game.htm" title="Board game">board game</a> for two to four players, invented by Bernard Tavitian and published in 2000 by the <!--del_lnk--> Sekkoia company. It has won several awards, including the <!--del_lnk--> Mensa select award and the 2004 Teacher's Choice Award. Tavitian, an <!--del_lnk--> engineer and <!--del_lnk--> artist was inspired to create the game while trying to find an appropriate frame for a painting of an orchestra made up of geometric figures.<p>The correct pronunciation of the name <i>Blokus</i> has been the subject of some debate. The game's inventor is French, and implies that a French pronunciation may differ, but he referred the question to game's US distributor, who responded: <i>"We pronounce it with a "soft o" as in "block." But many customers seem to pronounce it with a "long o" as in "Blow-kus.".</i><!--del_lnk--> <script type="text/javascript">
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<p><a id="Gameplay" name="Gameplay"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Gameplay</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:252px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/226/22679.jpg.htm" title="Closeup of Blokus game in progress"><img alt="Closeup of Blokus game in progress" class="thumbimage" height="188" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlockusFinalBoardCloseUp.jpg" src="../../images/226/22679.jpg" width="250" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/226/22679.jpg.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Closeup of <i>Blokus</i> game in progress</div>
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<p>The goal is to get rid of all of the 21 pieces you initially start off with. The pieces are all of the <!--del_lnk--> free polyominoes using one to five squares (rotations and reflections don't count). On each player's turn, they can put one of their remaining pieces on the 20 square by 20 square board. Each piece must connect to another piece of the same colour by at least one touching corner, but no two pieces of the same colour can share an edge (so they cannot tessellate into each other).<p>The novice typically tries to seal off an area for themselves to reduce the area the opponents can access. But since pieces only are connected via their corners, another player can easily pass through. It is therefore difficult to cut off other people from accessing 'your' area. Instead, the successful tactic is to try to expand into as many areas on the board as possible. In other words, game strategy is dominated by offence rather than defence. Blocking is possible to an extent by cutting off an opponents access to the corners of their pieces using yours in strategic ways.<p>The smaller tiles are very useful during the later stages of the game: the smaller a piece is, the better it is at occupying the holes in the tiles of other colours, and thus opening up new areas of the board for expansion. It often happens that no player can finish off all their tiles. The score is calculated by deducting a point for each square left on a player's remaining pieces (leaving you with a negative score). Should you ever manage to play all your pieces, you get a bonus score of +15. Achieving this, and having played your single-square piece last gets you another five points for a final score of +20.cumulatively.<p>In a four player game, each player takes a different colour, and play rotates around in a clockwise direction. With two players, each player takes two colours, starting in opposite corners. This allows further strategy, as a player can sacrifice one of their colours in order to strengthen the position of their other colour in order to try and play all the pieces of that colour and win the bonus score.<p>In the three-player game, the players take turns playing for the fourth colour (blue). Because the players must play out of corners of the board, one player will always be playing out of the corner opposite to blue. It is widely believed that this is an advantage. The reason for this is that blue is generally used as a tool to block the other player’s moves. For most of the early game, the player opposite blue is too far away to be successfully blocked, but can still use the colour itself to block others. Various methods have been suggested to solve this problem, but it is recommended that players come to an agreement among themselves that best suits their preferences.<p><a id="Variant_rules_and_boards" name="Variant_rules_and_boards"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Variant rules and boards</span></h2>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/226/22682.png.htm" title="The 21 Blokus tiles."><img alt="The 21 Blokus tiles." class="thumbimage" height="157" longdesc="/wiki/Image:BlokusTiles.svg" src="../../images/226/22682.png" width="300" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/226/22682.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> The 21 <i>Blokus</i> tiles.</div>
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<p>As <i>Blokus</i> is a very simple abstract <a href="../../wp/g/Game.htm" title="Game">game</a>, it lends itself to fans developing variant rules of play. Since there are only two rules to begin with, it is easy to add rules without breaking or unbalancing the game. Here are a few such variants:<p><a id="Draft_Blokus" name="Draft_Blokus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Draft Blokus</span></h3>
<p>This variant solves the problem of a three-player game by allowing all players to play pieces from all different colors. The strategy in Draft Blokus is quite a bit subtler than in standard blokus, and the <!--del_lnk--> draft that takes place before the game is almost a game unto itself.<p>The players take turns drafting the pieces that they will play with. Each color is drafted separately until each color has been drafted. The players alternate taking first pick of each colour. Once every piece has been drafted, play proceeds as normal.<p>Notes: each player has a mix of pieces of different colors, but the rules for placement are the same. Sometimes a situation will arise in which a player skips a turn for lack of a move, but then is able to play again later due to subsequent moves made by other players. Though this does not contradict the rules of Blokus, it would be impossible in a standard game of blokus.<p><a id="Reverse_Blokus" name="Reverse_Blokus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Reverse Blokus</span></h3>
<p>This variant is an unusual alternative, and is like playing a game of standard blokus as poorly as you can. This variant works well in games of two, three, or four players, though the three-player game suffers from the same imbalance as in standard blokus.<p>Once no players can make any more moves, the player with the fewest tile segments on the board wins.<p><a id="Variant_Two_Player" name="Variant_Two_Player"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Variant Two Player</span></h3>
<p>In this alternate way to play with two players, the board is divided down the middle, and both players play only on a single half of the board, each playing with only a single colour. Otherwise, the game is played identically.<p><a id="Obstacle_Blokus" name="Obstacle_Blokus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Obstacle Blokus</span></h3>
<p>The game is played with one, two, or three players. Each player chooses one colour, and the remaining colors become the obstacle colors. The players first take turns placing the obstacle colors. Once the obstacle colors have been exhausted, the players choose starting corners (these are not chosen at the beginning of the game) and play proceeds as normal.<p><a id="Cooperative_Blokus" name="Cooperative_Blokus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cooperative Blokus</span></h3>
<p>Four players work together with the goal of having all players place all their pieces on the board by the end of the game.<p><a id="Team_Blokus" name="Team_Blokus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Team Blokus</span></h3>
<p>A four player game, where they make teams consisting of two players. The members of a team play cooperatively with one another with the goal of having all their pieces places on the board by the end of the game. Game play proceeds as normal.<p><a id="Pirate_Blokus" name="Pirate_Blokus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Pirate Blokus</span></h3>
<p>Played as normal <i>Blokus</i>, except that the 1 piece (gold coin, or eye patch) must be played first. Originally suggested by amaretto and phillylama, 2 of the World's best players from the online Blokus.com game site. Players are encouraged to talk like pirates.<p><a id="Expansions_and_spinoffs" name="Expansions_and_spinoffs"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Expansions and spinoffs</span></h2>
<p><a id="Blokus_Duo.2FTravel_Blokus" name="Blokus_Duo.2FTravel_Blokus"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Blokus Duo</i>/<i>Travel Blokus</i></span></h3>
<p><i>Blokus Duo</i> uses a smaller (14×14) board, two of which are marked as the starting squares, and supports only two players. Each player chooses one colour (purple, orange), and the order of play is determined by any mutually agreeable method. The first piece played by any player must cover the starting squares.<p>This game tends to be faster and more aggressive, since the players start in the middle of the board, as opposed to its edges.<p><a id="Blokus_Trigon" name="Blokus_Trigon"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Blokus Trigon</i></span></h3>
<p><i>Blokus Trigon</i> uses pieces made up of triangles rather than squares, and is played on a hexagonal board. The game can be played with three players without giving one player an undue advantage.<p><a id="Blokus_Giant" name="Blokus_Giant"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline"><i>Blokus Giant</i></span></h3>
<p><i>Blokus Giant</i> is essentially like regular <i>Blokus</i>, except bigger (with the game board being about 2' square).<p><a id="External_links" name="External_links"></a><div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blokus"</div>
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<div id="content"><a id="top" name="top"></a><h1 class="firstHeading">Blood type</h1>
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<h3 id="siteSub"><a href="../../index.htm">2007 Schools Wikipedia Selection</a>. Related subjects: <a href="../index/subject.Science.Biology.Health_and_medicine.htm">Health and medicine</a></h3>
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<div style="width:402px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1839.png.htm" title="Blood type is determined, in part, by the ABO blood group antigens present on red blood cells"><img alt="Blood type is determined, in part, by the ABO blood group antigens present on red blood cells" height="279" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ABO_blood_type.svg" src="../../images/18/1839.png" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1839.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>Blood type</b> is determined, in part, by the ABO blood group antigens present on red blood cells</div>
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<p>A total of 29 <!--del_lnk--> human blood group systems are recognized by the <!--del_lnk--> International Society of Blood Transfusion (ISBT). The most important of these are the <a href="../../wp/a/ABO_blood_group_system.htm" title="ABO blood group system">ABO blood group system</a> and the <!--del_lnk--> Rhesus blood group system.<p>Each <b>blood group</b> is represented by a substance on the surface of <!--del_lnk--> red blood cells (RBCs). These substances are important because they contain specific sequences of <!--del_lnk--> amino acid and <!--del_lnk--> carbohydrate which are <!--del_lnk--> antigenic. As well as being on the surface of RBCs, some of these antigens are also present on the cells of other tissues. A complete <b>blood type</b> describes the set of 29 substances on the surface of RBCs, and an individual's blood type is one of the many possible combinations of blood group antigens; usually only the <a href="../../wp/a/ABO_blood_group_system.htm" title="ABO blood group system">ABO</a> blood group system and the presence or absence of the <!--del_lnk--> Rhesus D antigen (also known as the Rhesus factor) are determined and used to describe the blood type. Over 600 different blood group antigens have been found, many of these being very rare. If an individual is exposed to a blood group antigen that is not recognised as self, the individual can become sensitized to that antigen; the <!--del_lnk--> immune system makes specific <!--del_lnk--> antibodies which binds specifically to a particular blood group antigen and an immunological memory against that particular antigen is formed. These antibodies can bind to antigens on the surface of transfused <!--del_lnk--> red blood cells (or other tissue cells) often leading to destruction of the cells by recruitment of other components of the immune system. Knowledge of an individual's blood type is important to identify appropriate <!--del_lnk--> blood for <!--del_lnk--> transfusion or tissue for <!--del_lnk--> organ transplantation.<p>Several different RBC surface antigens stemming from one <!--del_lnk--> allele (or very closely linked <!--del_lnk--> genes) are collectively labeled as a <i>blood group system</i> (or <i>blood group</i>). The two most important blood group systems were discovered during early experiments with blood transfusion, the <a href="../../wp/a/ABO_blood_group_system.htm" title="ABO blood group system">ABO group</a> in <!--del_lnk--> 1901 and the <!--del_lnk--> Rhesus group in <!--del_lnk--> 1937. These two blood groups are reflected in the common nomenclature <i>A positive</i>, <i>O negative</i>, etc. with letters referring to the ABO group and positive/negative to the presence/absence of the RhD antigen of the Rhesus group. Development of the <!--del_lnk--> Coombs test in <!--del_lnk--> 1945 and the advent of <!--del_lnk--> transfusion medicine led to discovery of more blood groups. The <!--del_lnk--> Coombs test is used routinely in the screening of blood for blood group antibodies in the preparation of blood for <!--del_lnk--> transfusion.<p>Blood types are <!--del_lnk--> inherited and represent contributions from both parents. Some blood types are rare, and are primarily found in certain ethnic groups. Some blood types are associated with inheritance of other diseases, for example the <!--del_lnk--> Kell antigen is associated with <!--del_lnk--> McLeod syndrome. Certain blood types may affect susceptibility to infections, an example being the resistance to specific malaria species seen in individuals lacking the <!--del_lnk--> Duffy antigen. Very rarely, a person's blood type changes through addition or suppression of an antigen in <!--del_lnk--> infection or <!--del_lnk--> malignancy.<!--del_lnk--> Transfusion reactions can occur if a person is transfused with blood of a different blood type. Mismatches involving minor antigens or weak antibodies may lead to minor problems; however, more serious incompatibilities can lead to a more vigorous <!--del_lnk--> immune response with massive <!--del_lnk--> RBC destruction, <!--del_lnk--> low blood pressure, and even <!--del_lnk--> death.<p>Often, <!--del_lnk--> pregnant women carry a <!--del_lnk--> fetus with a different blood type to their own, and sometimes the mother forms antibodies against the red blood cells of the fetus, which causes <!--del_lnk--> hemolysis of fetal RBCs and leads to <a href="../../wp/a/Anemia.htm" title="Anemia">low fetal blood counts</a>, a condition known as <!--del_lnk--> hemolytic disease of the newborn.<p>
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</script><a id="Introduction" name="Introduction"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Introduction</span></h2>
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<div style="width:312px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1840.png.htm" title="ABO blood group system - diagram showing the carbohydrate chains which determine the ABO blood group"><img alt="ABO blood group system - diagram showing the carbohydrate chains which determine the ABO blood group" height="234" longdesc="/wiki/Image:ABO_blood_group_diagram.svg" src="../../images/18/1840.png" width="310" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1840.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div><b>ABO blood group system</b> - diagram showing the carbohydrate chains which determine the ABO blood group</div>
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<p><a id="ABO_and_Rhesus:_the_two_main_blood_group_systems" name="ABO_and_Rhesus:_the_two_main_blood_group_systems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">ABO and Rhesus: the two main blood group systems</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <b>ABO system</b> is the most important blood group system in human blood transfusion. The associated anti-A <!--del_lnk--> antibodies and anti-B antibodies are usually <!--del_lnk--> IgM antibodies. ABO IgM antibodies are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances such as food, <a href="../../wp/b/Bacteria.htm" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="../../wp/v/Virus.htm" title="Virus">viruses</a>. The "O" in ABO is often replaced by 0 (zero/null) in other languages.<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <b>Rhesus system</b> is the second most important blood group system in human blood transfusion. The most important Rhesus antigen is the <b>RhD antigen</b> because it is the most immunogenic of the five main rhesus antigens; however, anti-RhD antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization against environmental substances. It is common for RhD negative individuals not to have any anti-RhD IgG or IgM antibodies; nevertheless, RhD negative individuals can produce <!--del_lnk--> IgG antibodies when they are transfused with RhD positive <!--del_lnk--> RBCs.<p>The agglutination of IgM is stronger due to the relatively large size of the IgM antibody, but the nature of the bodily reaction as a result of agglutination with IgG can be more dramatic<p><a id="Table_of_ABO_and_Rh_distribution_by_nation" name="Table_of_ABO_and_Rh_distribution_by_nation"></a><h4> <span class="mw-headline">Table of ABO and Rh distribution by nation</span></h4>
<table class="wikitable" style="width: 45em">
<caption><b>ABO and Rh blood type distribution by nation (averages for each population)</b></caption>
<tr>
<th style="width: 28%; text-align: left">Population</th>
<th style="width: 9%">O+</th>
<th style="width: 9%">A+</th>
<th style="width: 9%">B+</th>
<th style="width: 9%">AB+</th>
<th style="width: 9%">O−</th>
<th style="width: 9%">A−</th>
<th style="width: 9%">B−</th>
<th style="width: 9%">AB−</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">Australia</th>
<td style="text-align: center">40%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">31%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">8%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">9%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">Canada</th>
<td style="text-align: center">39.0%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">36.0%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7.6%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2.5%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7.0%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">6.0%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1.4%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">0.5%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">Denmark</th>
<td style="text-align: center">35%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">37%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">8%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">4%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">6%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">Finland</th>
<td style="text-align: center">27%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">38%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">15%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">4%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">6%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">France</th>
<td style="text-align: center">36%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">37%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">9%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">3%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">6%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">Korea, South</th>
<td style="text-align: center">27.4%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">34.4%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">26.8%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">11.2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">0.1%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">0.1%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">0.1%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">0.05%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">Sweden</th>
<td style="text-align: center">32%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">37%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">10%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">5%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">6%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">UK</th>
<td style="text-align: center">37%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">35%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">8%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">3%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th style="text-align: left">USA</th>
<td style="text-align: center">38%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">34%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">9%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">3%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">7%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">6%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">2%</td>
<td style="text-align: center">1%</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Other_human_blood_group_systems" name="Other_human_blood_group_systems"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Other human blood group systems</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>The <!--del_lnk--> International Society of Blood Transfusion currently recognizes 29 blood group systems (including the ABO and Rh systems). Thus, in addition to the ABO antigens and Rhesus antigens, many other antigens are expressed on the RBC surface membrane. For example, an individual can be AB RhD positive, and at the same time M and N positive (MNS system), K positive (Kell system), Le<sup>a</sup> or Le<sup>b</sup> positive (Lewis system), and so on for each blood group system. Many of the blood group systems were named after the patients in whom the corresponding antibodies were initially encountered.<p><a id="Importance_for_transfusions" name="Importance_for_transfusions"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Importance for transfusions</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p><b>Transfusion medicine</b> is a specialized branch of <!--del_lnk--> hematology that is concerned with the study of blood group antigens and blood group antibodies, along with the work of a <!--del_lnk--> blood bank to provide a <!--del_lnk--> transfusion service for blood and other blood products. Across the world blood products must be prescribed by a medical doctor (licensed <!--del_lnk--> physician or <!--del_lnk--> surgeon) in a similar way to medicines. In the USA blood products are tightly regulated by the <!--del_lnk--> Food and Drug Administration.<p><!--del_lnk--> Blood transfusions between <!--del_lnk--> donor and recipient of incompatible blood types can cause severe acute immunological reactions, <!--del_lnk--> hemolysis (RBC destruction), <!--del_lnk--> renal failure, <!--del_lnk--> shock, and sometimes death. Antibodies can be highly active and can attack RBCs and bind components of the <!--del_lnk--> complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the transfused blood.<p><a id="Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn" name="Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Hemolytic disease of the newborn</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>An <!--del_lnk--> antenatal woman can make <!--del_lnk--> IgG blood group antibodies if her fetus has a blood group antigen that she does not. This can happen if some of the fetus' blood cells pass into the mother's blood circulation (e.g. a small fetomaternal <!--del_lnk--> hemorrhage at the time of child birth) or sometimes after a therapeutic <!--del_lnk--> blood transfusion. This can lead to <!--del_lnk--> Rh disease or another forms of <!--del_lnk--> hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN) in her current baby or in subsequent pregnancies. Some blood groups can cause severe HDN, some can only cause mild HDN and others are not known to cause HDN.<p><a id="Compatibility" name="Compatibility"></a><h2> <span class="mw-headline">Compatibility</span></h2>
<p><a id="Blood_products" name="Blood_products"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Blood products</span></h3>
<p>In order to provide maximum benefit from each blood donation and to extend shelf-life, <!--del_lnk--> blood banks <!--del_lnk--> fractionate whole blood into several products. The most common of these products are packed RBCs, plasma, <!--del_lnk--> platelets, <!--del_lnk--> cryoprecipitate, and <!--del_lnk--> fresh frozen plasma (FFP). FFP is quick-frozen to retain labile <!--del_lnk--> clotting factors <!--del_lnk--> V and <!--del_lnk--> VIII and usually administered to patients who have a potentially fatal clotting problem caused by a condition such as advanced <!--del_lnk--> liver disease, overdose of <!--del_lnk--> anticoagulant, or <!--del_lnk--> disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC).<p><!--del_lnk--> Clotting factors synthesized by modern <!--del_lnk--> recombinant methods are now in routine clinical use for <!--del_lnk--> hemophilia, as the risks of infection transmission that occur with pooled blood products are avoided.<p><a id="Cross_matching_blood" name="Cross_matching_blood"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Cross matching blood</span></h3>
<dl>
<dd>
</dl>
<p>Patients should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific blood products to minimize the chance of a <!--del_lnk--> transfusion reaction. If time allows, the risk will further be reduced by <!--del_lnk--> cross-matching blood, in addition to blood typing both recipient and donor. Cross-matching involves mixing a sample of the recipient's blood with a sample of the donor's blood and checking to see if the mixture <i>agglutinates</i>, or forms clumps. Blood bank technicians usually check for <!--del_lnk--> agglutination with a <a href="../../wp/m/Microscope.htm" title="Microscope">microscope</a>, and if it occurs, that particular donor's blood cannot be transfused to that particular recipient. Blood transfusion is a potentially risky medical procedure and it is vital that all blood specimens are correctly identified, so in cross-matching labeling is standardized using a <!--del_lnk--> barcode system known as <!--del_lnk--> ISBT 128.<p><a id="RBC_compatibility" name="RBC_compatibility"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">RBC compatibility</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><b>Blood group AB</b> individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their <!--del_lnk--> blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, an individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can only donate blood to another group AB individual.<li><b>Blood group A</b> individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and <!--del_lnk--> blood serum containing <!--del_lnk--> IgM antibodies against the B antigen. Therefore, a group A individual can only receive blood from individuals of groups A or O (with A being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups A or AB.<li><b>Blood group B</b> individuals have the B antigen on their surface of their RBCs, and <!--del_lnk--> blood serum containing <!--del_lnk--> IgM antibodies against the A antigen. Therefore, a group B individual can only receive blood from individuals of groups B or O (with B being preferable), and can donate blood to individuals of groups B or AB.<li><b>Blood group O</b> (or blood group zero in some countries) individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, but their <!--del_lnk--> blood serum contains <!--del_lnk--> IgM antibodies against both A and B antigens. Therefore, a group O individual can only receive blood from a group O individual, but they can donate blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (ie A, B, O or AB). O- is therefore used when an emergency transfusion is necessary and there has not been enough time to verify the patient's blood type.</ul>
<div class="thumb tright">
<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1841.png.htm" title="Donors of blood type O can give to A, B & AB; donors of types A & B can give to AB."><img alt="Donors of blood type O can give to A, B & AB; donors of types A & B can give to AB." height="174" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blood_Compatibility.svg" src="../../images/18/1841.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1841.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Donors of blood type O can give to A, B & AB; donors of types A & B can give to AB.</div>
</div>
</div>
<table class="wikitable">
<caption><b>RBC compatibility table</b></caption>
<tr>
<th>Recipient blood type</th>
<th colspan="8">Donor must be</th>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">AB+</td>
<td colspan="4">Any blood type</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">AB-</td>
<td>O-</td>
<td>A-</td>
<td>B-</td>
<td>AB-</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">A+</td>
<td>O-</td>
<td>O+</td>
<td>A-</td>
<td>A+</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">A-</td>
<td>O-</td>
<td>A-</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">B+</td>
<td>O-</td>
<td>O+</td>
<td>B-</td>
<td>B+</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">B-</td>
<td>O-</td>
<td>B-</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">O+</td>
<td>O-</td>
<td>O+</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">O-</td>
<td>O-</td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>An RhD negative patient (who has not been sensitized to RhD positive RBCs and who does not have any anti-D antibodies) can receive RhD positive blood cells, but there is a high probability that this would sensitize the patient to the RhD antigen, and a female patient would risk <!--del_lnk--> HDN. Therefore RhD positive blood is never given to RhD negative women of childbearing age, and is only given to other RhD negative patients in extreme circumstances, such as a major bleed when RhD negative red cells are running short. If a RhD negative patient has developed anti-D antibodies, a second exposure to RhD positive blood would lead to a potentially dangerous transfusion reaction. Occasionally, for transfusion of males or women above child-bearing age, RhD positive blood is given to a RhD negative individual (who do not have atypical red cell antibodies) when it is necessary to conserve RhD negative blood stocks in the blood bank for use in people where sensitisation to RhD antigens could cause serious problems. The converse is not true: RhD positive patients do not react to RhD negative blood.<p><a id="Plasma_compatibility" name="Plasma_compatibility"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Plasma compatibility</span></h3>
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<div style="width:182px;"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1842.png.htm" title="Plasma from type AB can be given to A, B & O; plasma from types A & B can be given to O."><img alt="Plasma from type AB can be given to A, B & O; plasma from types A & B can be given to O." height="278" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Plasma-donation.png" src="../../images/18/1842.png" width="180" /></a><div class="thumbcaption">
<div class="magnify" style="float:right"><a class="internal" href="../../images/18/1842.png.htm" title="Enlarge"><img alt="Enlarge" height="11" src="../../images/0/1.png" width="15" /></a></div> Plasma from type AB can be given to A, B & O; plasma from types A & B can be given to O.</div>
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<p>Donor-recipient compatibility for <!--del_lnk--> blood plasma is the reverse from that of RBCs. Plasma extracted from type AB blood can be transfused to individuals of any blood group, but type O plasma can only be used by type O recipients.<p>Rhesus D antibodies are not usually naturally occurring, so generally both RhD negative and RhD positive blood do not contain anti-RhD antibodies. RhD negative or RhD positive donor blood plasma can therefore generally be transfused into both RhD negative and RhD positive recipients. Consequently RhD positive or RhD negative is irrelevant in the table below. If anti-RhD antibodies have developed in a donor these would be detected by antibody screening in the blood bank. Donor blood containing anti-RhD antibodies would not be suitable for transfusion into a RhD positive patient, but anyone with any strong atypical blood group antibodies would not be accepted as a blood donor.<table class="wikitable">
<caption><b>Plasma compatibility table</b></caption>
<tr>
<th>Recipient blood type</th>
<th>Donor must be</th>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">AB</td>
<td colspan="4">AB</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">A</td>
<td colspan="4">A or AB</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">B</td>
<td colspan="4">B or AB</td>
</tr>
<tr align="center">
<td style="background:#EFEFEF">O</td>
<td colspan="4">Any blood type</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><a id="Universal_donors_and_universal_recipients" name="Universal_donors_and_universal_recipients"></a><h3> <span class="mw-headline">Universal donors and universal recipients</span></h3>
<p>Individuals with blood type O negative are often called <b>universal donors</b> and individuals with type AB positive blood are called <b>universal recipients</b>, but the terms <i>universal donor</i> and <i>universal recipient</i> are not very useful, because they only consider the reaction of the patient's antibodies to received red blood cells, and not the antibodies present in the transfused blood. These terms may be generally true for transfusions of packed red cells, where as much of the plasma as possible has been removed. Thus, although a transfusion of O negative blood to a patient of blood group A or B is unlikely to produce an immune reaction due to the recipient's antibodies, the transfused blood may itself contain antibodies to the patient's A and B antigens; this can cause an adverse reaction, although the risk is far less than that of an O negative patient receiving types A or B. For this reason an exact ABO-type match is preferable where circumstances allow. Additionally, the other red blood cell surface antigens that belong to blood groups other than the ABO blood group system might cause an adverse reaction if they can bind the corresponding antibodies.<p>With respect to transfusions of <!--del_lnk--> plasma this situation is reversed. Type O plasma can only be given to O recipients, while AB plasma (which does not contain anti-A or anti-B antibodies) can be given to patients of any ABO blood group.<p>Transfusions are further complicated because <!--del_lnk--> platelets and <!--del_lnk--> white blood cells (WBCs) have their own systems of surface antigens. Sensitization to platelet or WBC antigens can occur as a result of transfusion.<div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<!--del_lnk--> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type"</div>
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